Chapter 9 MEMORY: Memory Is The Existence of Learning Over Time Via The Storage and Retrieval of Information

Andrew Gregg
Chapter 9 MEMORY
Memory is the existence of learning over time via the storage and
retrieval of information
Flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Memory-it is required that we get information into our brain ( encoding), retain that
information called (storage) and later retrieve or recall that information called (retrieval)
Long and Short-term Memory

We store vast amounts of information in long-term memory. A limitless storehouse of
the memory system.
Short-term memory. - activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seen
digits of a phone number while dialing. It’s like on screen memory on the computer
daily.
Processing
Automatic processing Without thinking you encodes an enormous amount of
information about space, time and frequency. Automatic processing happens with little
or no effort. We learn how to get from class to class or we remember what we ate
without even thinking about it.
Effortful Processing We encode information that takes effort that requires attention and
conscious effort.
Effortful processing memory can be boosted by
1. Rehearsal--the conscious repetition of information. Ebbinghaus showed that

as rehearsal increases the better our memory or recall. Additional rehearsal
increases retention. Next in line effect. When you play the name game you
remember the last name said least.
2. Spacing effect--spaced learning over a period of time increases long-term

retention. .
3. Serial Position effect - our ability to remember better the last and first items
on a list.
4. We process information by associating it with what we already know.

We process information in 3 ways 1. encoding 2 visualize it 3. mentally organize it.
Encoding Meaning- we encode things on the mental model we construct. We relate it to
what we already know.
A. Semantic meaning –meaning of words
B Acoustic--the encoding of sound
C. Visual the encoding of picture images
Remembering
We remember things when they have meaning to us or we can relate them to something
that has meaning.
Methods for storing information:
1.Relate material to previously restored material Self-reference effect
2.Visual imagery when you can make a mental picture or visualize the object you
can remember it better
3. Mnemonic devices- memory aids especially those techniques that use wild
imagery and organizational devices.
4. Chunking- organizing into familiar units. Ex. 1-7-7-6- 1776. Grouping into
acronyms such as ROYGBIV.
5. Hierarchy-- organizing into charts or breaking down into different parts like a chapter
in a book. .
Sensory memory storage- the initial recording of sensory information in the memory.
Ionic and Echoic Memory

1. Iconic memory- momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasts no more than a
few tenths of a second.
2. Echoic memory- a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, sounds and words
can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
We consciously process only limited information in our short-term memory. Not only the
time we keep short-term memory but the amount of information is limited in short-term
memory.
Forgetting occurs as new information comes in and as the memory trace decays.
Memory and the Brain

Scientists have been searching to connect a part of the brain to memory. Some say
memory does not lie in certain spots.
Studies have shown that the neurotransmitter seratonin seems to release when learning is
taking place. Increased synaptic efficiency makes for more efficient neural circuits.
In experiments rapidly stimulating certain memory-circuit connections has increased their
sensitivity for hours or even weeks to come. This prolonged strengthening of potential
neural firing is called long-term potentiation. It provides a neural basis for learning and
remembering associations. Mice that lack LTP seem to have trouble learning while drugs
that enhance LTP increase learning. A blow to the head or even drinking can disrupt
short-term memory from being transferred to long-term memory and therefore it is
forgotten.
Stress hormones can help us to remember emotional events. Emotion triggered hormonal
changes help explain why we remember certain emotional events.
Amnesia- loss of memory
2 Types of Memories
1. Implicit- nondeclarative memory. Retention of events without recollection. People’s
golf game gets better after they played but they can’t remember that they have played.
2. Explicit memory-declarative-- Having read a story once they will read it faster a
second time. But can’t explicitly declare what they have read.
Getting Information Out-Retrieval
Recall the ability to retrieve information learned earlier.
We recognize more than we recall. We can’t remember names of old friends but when
shown pictures we recognize the.
Relearning- a measure that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning previously
learned information. We remember more than we recall but we have to retrieve it.
Retrieval cues
1. Priming- activation of particular associations in the memory.
2. Mnemonic devices help retrieve memory--word associations
3-context clues- recall increased when it is in the same area or context you originally
learned it.
Deja vu is similar in that if we have previously been in a similar situation the current
situation may be loaded with cues.
4. Mood congruent- tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current
mood. So if you are in a bad mood everything seems to be bad and perceived as negative.
We interpret behavior with mood

When we forget we can’t find the retrieval cue we need to remember. Ex. It’s on the tip
of your tongue.
Forgetting is a retrieval failure
Causes of forgetting
Proactive interference interferes or disrupts the recall of new information. Learning a
new number is difficult when the old number interferes with it. Retroactive
interference. The learning of new information interferes with recall of old. Ex. After I
learn all my new students names I have a harder time remembering old ones.
motivated forgetting- we remember less when it’s to our disadvantage to remember or
we insist that we remember to do something more than we really do when we know we
should. Ex. Cookies experiment and study skills course.
Repression- in psychoanalytic theory we put things into our unconscious that are too
uncomfortable to remember.
Source amnesia- attributing to the wrong source an event that we experience, heard
about, read about or imagined.
Eyewitness testimony is often false.
Researchers often suspicious of UFO, sexual abuse, and other traumatic cases.

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Andrew Gregg

Long and Short-term Memory

1. Rehearsal--the conscious repetition of information. Ebbinghaus showed that

2. Spacing effect--spaced learning over a period of time increases long-term

4. We process information by associating it with what we already know.

Ionic and Echoic Memory

Memory and the Brain

We interpret behavior with mood

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