TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY (MEIKTILA)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF INVERTER

USING SOLAR POWER

BY
MA WAH WAH LWIN

GRADUATION THESIS

OCTOBER, 2018
MEIKTILA
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY (MEIKTILA)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF INVERTER USING SOLAR

POWER

BY
MA WAH WAH LWIN

A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(ELECTRONICS)

OCTOBER, 2018
MEIKTILA
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY (MEIKTILA)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

We certify that we have examined, and recommend to the University Steering

Committee for acceptance of the graduation thesis entitled: “DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION OF INVERTER USING SOLAR POWER” submitted by Ma
Wah Wah Lwin, Roll No. VI.EC-7 (December, 2017) to the Department of
Electronic Engineering in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Electronics).

Board of Examiners:

1. Dr. Khine Myint Mon

B.E.(EC), MTU; M.E.(EC), YTU;
Ph.D.(EC), MTU
Professor and Head
Department of Electronic Engineering ……………………………………
Technological University (Meiktila) (Chairman)

2. Daw Thin Thin Oo

B.E.(EC), TU (Mandalay)
Lecturer
Department of Electronic Engineering ……………………………………
Technological University (Meiktila) (Supervisor)

3. Dr. May San Hlaing

B.E.(EC), M.E.(EC),TU (Mandalay);
Ph.D.(EC), MTU
Assistant Lecturer
Department of Electronic Engineering ……………………………………
Technological University (Meiktila) (Co-Supervisor)
 i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, the author would like to express her deepest gratitude to
his Excellency Union Minister, Dr. Myo Thein Gyi, Minsitry of Education, for
opening the special courses leading to the Bachelor Degree at Technological
University (Meiktila).
Then, the author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Aung Myo Thu, Pro-Rector,
Technological University (Meiktila), for giving him the opportunity to carry out this
thesis.
The author is also very grateful to Dr. Khine Myint Mon, Professor and Head,
Department of Electronic Engineering, Technological University (Meiktila), for her
helpful and valuable guidance throughout the preparation of this thesis, kindly
permission and suggestion.
Special appreciation is extended to her supervisor, Daw Thin Thin Oo,
Lecturer, Department of Electronic Engineering, Technological University (Meiktila),
for her continuous supervision and guidance throughout the thesis.
The author is also deeply grateful to her co-supervisor, Dr. May San Hlaing,
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Electronic Engineering, Technological University
(Meiktila), for her helpful and valuable guidance throughout the preparation of this
thesis, kindly permission and suggestion.
Finally, the author is thankful to all of teachers who taught her everything
from childhood till now and to each and every one who assisted in completing this
thesis.
 ii

ABSTRACT

Inverters are used in a large number of power applications. The function of an

inverter is to convert DC power to AC and these are referred to as Voltage Source
Inverter (VSI). VSI are divided into three categories of square wave inverter,
modified square wave inverter and pure sine wave inverter. This thesis talks about
modified square wave inverter and its works. Power inverter, regardless of size, is
typically constructed of a DC to AC inverter. A modified square wave output is
obtained through the use of MOSFETs. The device is used to convert the DC
generated by dry cell battery to AC for optimum utilization and was designed with
following specifications, waveform of modified square wave, rated output power of
50W, frequency of 50Hz, input voltage of 12V and output voltage of 220V. The
output modified square wave of the inverter has low power consumption, maximum
utilization of available power, is economical.
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

CHAPTER TITLE
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Introduction to Solar Power System 1
1.2. Block Diagram Solar Power System 1
1.3. Aim and Objectives of Inverter 2
1.4. Scope of Thesis 3
1.5. Implementation Programs 3
1.6. Outline of the Thesis 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW OF INVERTER SYSTEM 5
2.1. Introduction to Inverter 5
2.1.1. Current Source Inverter 7
2.1.2. Resonant Inverter 8
2.2. Theory of Inverter 8
3 HARDWARE COMPOMENTS OF THE SYSTEM 13
3.1. Voltage Source Inverter 13
3.1.1. Square Wave Inverter 14
3.1.2. Modified Square Wave Inverter 15
3.1.3. True Sine Wave Inverter 16
3.2. Solar Panels and Solar Energy 18
3.2.1. Solar Panels 20
3.2.1.1. Stand alone system 22
3.2.1.2. Grid connected PV systems 22
3.2.1.3. Hybrid PV system 23
3.3. Lead Acid Battery 24
 iv

3.3.1. Components of Battery 26

3.3.1.1. Anode (Negative Electrolyte) 26
3.3.1.2. Cathode (Positive Electrolyte) 26
3.3.1.3. Electrolyte 26
3.3.2. Series and Parallel Connected Batteries 27
3.4. Center Tapped Transformer 28
3.5. 2N2222 Transistor 29
3.6. P75NF758 MOSFET Transistor 30
3.7. Fuses 31
3.8. Toggle Switch 32
3.9. AC Socket 33
4 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF INVERTER USING
SOLAR POWER 34
4.1. Principle Behind the Circuit 34
4.2. 12V to 220V AC Inverter Circuit Using Astable
Multivibrator 34
4.3. 12V DC to 220V AC Inverter Operation 34
4.4. Output Load Design 36
4.5. Calculation for Current 36
4.6. Calculation for Transformer 37
4.7. Calculation for Frequency 38
4.8. Calculation for Time 38
5 TEST AND RESULTS OF INVERTER USING SOLAR POWER 40
5.1. Test and Results 40
5.1.1. Inverter System with Solar Panel and Battery 40
6 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION 44
6.1. Discussions 44
6.2. Conclusion 44
6.3. Further Extension 45
REFERENCES 46
APPENDIX 47
 v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1.1. Block Diagram of Solar Power System 2
2.1. DC Input to AC Output Inverter 5
2.2. The Destroyed Factories were Rebuilt, Chopper and Inverter Production was
Expanded 8
2.3. The First Thyristor Inverter by KAKO, the World’s Largest Manufacture of
Electromechanical Choppers 9
2.4. PV Solutions from Single Family Homes Right up to Megawatt Parks 9
2.5. Inverter Output Waveforms (a) Square Waveform, (b) Modified Square
Waveform, (c) True Sine Waveform 10
2.6. Application of Inverter in Solar System 11
3.1. Voltage Source Inverter Types 14
3.2. Square Wave Inverter Output 15
3.3. Modified Square Wave Inverter Output 16
3.4. True Sine Wave Inverter Output 17
3.5. Solar Panels 20
3.6. Solar Panel Mounted on a Roof 21
3.7. Schematic Representation of (a) A Simple DC PV System to Power a Water
Pump with no Energy Storage (b) A Complex PV System Including
Batteries, Power Conditioners and Both DC and AC Loads 22
3.8. Schematic Representation of a Grid Connected PV System 23
3.9. Schematic Representation of a Hybrid PV System that has a Diesel
Generator as Alternative Electricity Source 23
3.10. Typical Battery 25
3.11. Connecting in Parallel 27
3.12. Connecting in Series 28
3.13. Center Tapped Transformer 28
3.14. Symbol of Transistor 30
32
33
34
35
 vi

3.15. Types of 2N2222 Transistors 30

3.16. Symbol of P75NF758 31
3.17. Type of P75NF758 MOSFET Transistor 31
3.18. Types of Fuses 32
3.19. Type of Toggle Switch 32
3.20. AC Socket 33
4.1. Circuit Diagram of Inverter System 36
4.2. Center Tapped Transformer 37
5.1. Inverter System with Solar Power 40
5.2. Battery Charging Condition 41
5.3. LED Glow when the Inverter is Connected to the Battery 41
5.4. Flowing Current into the Circuit when Switch is On 42
5.5. Using Load at the Socket 42
5.6. Using Load at the Socket 43
 vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
4.1. Calculation of Time 38
4.2. List of Components Used in Inverter System 39
 viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations Description
AC Alternating Current
ADS Automatic Disconnection of Supply
CSI Current Source Inverter
DC Direct Current
IGFET Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor
JFET Junction Field Effect Transistor
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PFC Power Factor Correction
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PV Photovoitaic
RVs Road Vehicles
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
V Volt
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
W Watt
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction to Solar Power System

The world demand for electric energy is constantly increasing and
conventional energy resources are diminishing and are even threatened to be
depleted. Moreover, the prices are rising. For these reasons, the need for alternative
energy sources has become indispensable and solar energyy in particular has proved
to be very promising alternative because of availability and pollution free nature. Due
to the increasing efficiencies and decreasing cost of photovoltaic cells, the solar
power system was interested in developing.
A photovoitaic (PV) system converts light to electricity through a process
known as the photoelectric effect. When sunlight hits a PV cell, the solar energy
excites electrons inside the cell. This triggers a chain reaction in which the
supercharged electron escapes into a conductive contact to become part of an
electrical circuit. The new electricity flows across the array’s wiring through an
inverter and then into the home main electrical system for use.
Solar panels produce Direct Current (DC) and to connect the panels to the
electricity grid or use in othe industrial applications, consumers have an AC output at
a centain required voltage level and frequency. The conversion from DC to AC is
essentially accomplished by means of a DC to AC inverter which is the component in
the system. The output of the solar panels is not continuously costant and is related to
the instantaneous sunlight intensity and ambient temperature.

1.2. Block Diagram of the Solar Power System

A solar panel generate DC power that use to charge a battery. Solar charge
controller is placed between a solar panel and a battery. A solar charge controller
regulates the voltage and current coming from solar panels. The solar charge
controller is used to maintain the charging voltage on the batteries. The inverter
circuit including three parts of oscillator, amplifier and transformer, takes the DC
 2

power stored in the battery and converts into 220V, 50Hz AC supply which use to
power any common electronic equipments. Figure 1.1 shows block diagram of solar
power system.

Charge 12V Battery

12V Solar
Controller
Panel

Inverter

Inverter

Inverter
Oscillator Amplifier Transformer

Loads

Figure 1.1. Block Diagram of Solar Power System

1.3. Aim and Objectives of Inverter

The main aim and objectives of this thesis is to study, design, build and
modified the user friendly, low cost and efficient, 12V DC to 220V AC power
inverter. The inverter that built in this thesis is the simple 12V DC to square wave
220V AC, 50Hz inverter.
 To learn and study in detail the every part
 To design and construct the simple square wave 220V, 50Hz and
power up to 50W inverter
 To assemble and solder the circuit
 3

 To test the circuit whether it success or not

 To show the product of quality electricity from renewable source
 To supply AC loads at the socket

1.4. Scope of Thesis

The scope of the thesis is to design an inexpensive, efficient and portable
square wave power inverter. The scope of thesis start from design the power inverter
circuit by using relatively inexpensive component and the circuit is assemble by
soldering the component base on design. The next process the circuit is troubleshoots:
the output of the circuit is the square wave form.
Technological improvements have made solar electric modules more cost
effective. Today that price has dropped but the cheaper rate is still more expensive
than the average national piece of electricity. Other recent advances include thin film
photovoltaic technology and a high tech coating that converts any surface covered
with the film into a solar electric power source. Boats and Road Vehicles (RVs) that
use the film are now on the market.

1.5. Implementation Programs

The panels were connected to the charging circuit that was wired to the
battery. Investigation into the battery is that it straight to the power supply to charge it
up quickly.
 Searching and studying of the background theory and knowledge of
inverter
 Designing and studying about the electronic components
 Testing all parts of the devices in the electronic equipments
 Making to understand or finding about the technique and operation for
every part of circuits which contain in the system

1.6. Outline of Thesis

In chapter one, introduction to solar power system, block diagram of the solar
power system, aim and objectives of the thesis, scope of thesis, implementation
programs and outline of thesis are mentioned. Literature review of inverter system is
described in chapter two. Chapter three includes hardware components of the system.
 4

Hardware implementation of inverter using solar power is mentioned in chapter four.

In chapter five, test and results of the system is well described. And in chapter six,
discussion, conclusion and further extension are mentioned.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW OF INVERTER SYSTEM

2.1. Introduction to Inverter

From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century,
DC to AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary inverters. In the early
twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in
inverter circuits. There are four conversion circuits that are used in the majority of
today’s power electronics circuits which includes AC to AC, AC to DC, DC to AC
and DC to DC. In order to fulfill the demand on the electrical power to the consumers,
people are deals with a cost which means the power that will be used for domestic
appliances must be free from disturbances.
An inverter is basically a device that converts electrical energy of DC form
into that of AC. The purpose of DC to AC inverter is to take DC power from a battery
source and converts to AC. For example the household inverter receives DC supply
from 12V battery and then inverter converts to 220V AC with a desirable frequency
of 50Hz. The DC to AC inverters have been widely used for industrial applications
such as Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). Recently, the inverters are also playing
an important role in various renewable energy applications. Figure 2.1 shows DC
input to AC output inverter [96Owe].

IDC IAC

+ +

VDC VAC
_ _

Figure 2.1. DC Input to AC Output Inverter

 6

The early rotary type of inverter had internal moving parts. The DC electrical
source powered a DC motor connected to an AC alternator which produced AC
electricity for the load. Rotary inverters are still manufactured, largely for use in
marine aircraft electrical systems where a clean AC signal is desired and efficiency is
not critical. In reference nowadays most of the inverters available in the market utilize
the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technology. The inverters based on PWM
technology are superior in many factors compared to other inverters designed using
conventional technologies. The PWM based inverters generally use MOSFET in the
output switching stage which made to be termed as PWM MOSFET inverters.
PWM is used to keep the output voltage of the inverter at the rated voltage
(110V AC / 220V AC) (depending on the country) irrespective of the output load. In
a conventional inverter the output voltage changes according to the changes in the
load. To nullify effect caused by the changing loads, the PWM inverter correct the
output voltage according to the value of the load connected at the output. This is
accomplished by changing the width of the switching frequency generated by the
oscillator section. The AC voltage at the output depends on the width of the switching
pulse.
Important output specifications consider when searching for DC to AC
inverters include maximum voltage, maximum steady state current, maximum power
and frequency range. Output waveform choices include pure sine wave, square wave,
stepped wave and triangular wave. A square wave is a flattened out version of a sine
wave. Instead of the voltage smoothly increasing from the negative maximum to the
positive maximum and back again, the wave shifts suddenly from negative maximum
to the positive.
At now, inverter is designed that convert DC to AC. More precisely, inverter
transfer power from a DC source to an AC load. An inverter is an electrical device
that widely used to convert the DC supply to AC supply and an inverter are used in
applications such as adjustable speed AC motor drives, UPS and most domestic
appliances instrument and devices. Today a fast growing availability of renewable
energy harvesters is seeing. While the energy conversion process of these devices
produces little to no pollution, the power that is generated is often intermittent and
unreliable. This is best exemplified by the wind generator and PV solar cells, both
work well while the wind is blowing and the sun is shining but fail to produce when
 7

they are not. A system where the energy produced from both of these sources is stored
into a sealed lead acid battery. An inverter is connected in series with this battery
producing 220VAC at 50Hz to emulate wall power. Today with the development of
power electronic technology, the inverter has been widely used in many fields around
the world. Inverter change DC current to AC current, namely they use DC power
supply and creates an AC power supply, usually at a voltage similar to normal mains
supply. In other words, it enables to run household appliances from a low voltage DC
such as a solar power system. An inverter use different kinds of transistors to
continually switch the direction of the voltage to produce a square wave. Inverter is
mainly designed base on three methods or type [96Owe].
 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
 Current Source Inverter (CSI)
 Resonant Inverter (high frequency sine wave inverter)

2.1.1. Current Source Inverter

The type of inverter, the independently controlled AC output is a current
waveform. The output current waveform is mostly remaining unaffected by the load.
These are widely used in medium voltage industrial applications where high quality
waveform is required. This type of inverter is fed by current DC source with high
internal impedance (using current limiting chokes or inductors in series with a DC
source).
Therefore, supply current does not change quickly. The load current is varied
by controlling the input DC voltage to the current source inverter. Current Source
Inverter (CSI) is used in very high power AC drives. The input to the inverter is a
current source which is usually obtained by using a large inductor in series with the
voltage source at the input. The voltage source at the input in some cases (for
example, in AC motor drive) is obtained by employing a phase controlled converter
for AC input or DC input. This allows the voltage to be controlled and in turn and a
controlled current source. The output of CSI is shorted but cannot be open the circuit.
The peak current rating of the switches is equal to the DC current source and is lower
compare to the VSI. The disadvantages of CSI are [96Owe].
 Slower dynamic response
 Filters are required at the output to suppress the output voltage spike
 8

 Less popular compare to VSI

2.1.2. Resonant Inverter

Resonant inverter mostly used in high frequency in electrical power
conversion. Resonant inverters are electrical inverters based on resonant current
oscillation. In series resonant inverters, the resonating components and switching
device are placed in series with the load to form an underdamped circuit. The current
through the switching devices fall to zero due to the natural characteristics of the
circuit. If the switching element is a thyristor and it is said to be self commuted. The
study of resonant inverters fits into the larger framework of the analysis of providing
of an AC supply to an electrical load from a DC current or voltage source. The
conversion of the electrical energy is achieved by a non modulated single phase DC
to AC converter whose structure depends on the nature of the DC source. The
converter is either a voltage source inverter or a current source inverter that delivers
voltage or current square waves [96Owe].

2.2. Theory of Inverter

The most widely used be of tube was the thyratron. In 1948, chopper and
inverter production was expanded as shown in Figure 2.2. The war damaged factories
were rebuilt and extensive improvements to the main plant in Heilbronn were taken.
In 1953, the first thyristor inverter was manufactured by KACO as shown in Figure
2.3. In 2017, bidirectional battery inverter for utility scale storage applications is
meant to support grid management as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.2. The Destroyed Factories were Rebuilt, Chopper and Inverter
Production was Expanded [96Owe]
 9

Figure 2.3. The First Thyristor Inverter by KACO, the World’s Largest
Manufacture of Electromechanical Choppers

Figure 2.4. PV Solutions from Single Family Homes Right up to Megawatt

Parks [96Owe]

In Nigeria, there is inconsistence supply of electricity by the power supplying

company to the consumers. Hence there was the use of additional electric power
generators and most recently the use of semiconductor power devices such as the
bipolar transistor, thyristors and particularly MOSFET to generate electric power in
conjunction with a DC battery in few kilowatts. As inverter offers a better additional
power source, generators as well as UPS considering its long duration are cost
effectiveness and maintainability [96Owe].
Today with the development of power electronic technology, the inverter has
been widely used in many fields around the world. Inverter change DC current to AC
current, namely they use DC power supply and creates an AC power supply, usually
at a voltage similar to normal mains supply. In other words, enables to run household
appliances from a low voltage DC such as a solar power system. An inverter use
different kinds of transistors to continually switch the direction of the voltage to
 10

produce a square wave. This switching or oscillation happens 50 times a second

according the required frequency.
The DC to AC inverters usually operates on PWM technique. The PWM is a
very advance and useful technique. PWM inverter is used to keep the output voltage
of the inverter at the rated voltage (depending on the user’s choice) irrespective of the
output load. In a conventional inverter the output voltage changes according to the
changes in the load. To nullify this effect of the charging loads, the PWM inverter
correct the output voltage by changing the width of the pulses and the output AC
depends on the switching frequency and the pulse width which is adjusted according
to the value of the load connected at the output so as to provide constant rated output.
The inverters usually operate in a PWM way and switch between different circuit
topologies which mean that the inverter is a nonlinear, specifically piecewise smooth
system. In addition to this, the control strategies used in the inverters are also similar
to those in DC to DC converters. Both current mode control and voltage mode control
are employed in practical applications. In the decade, studies of complex behavior in
switching power converters have gained increasingly more attention from both
academic community and industry. Previous work has mainly focused on DC power
supply systems including DC to DC converters and AC to DC Power Factor
Correction (PFC) converters [14Ano].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.5. Inverter Output Waveforms (a) Square Waveform, (b) Modified
Square Waveform, (c) True Sine Waveform [14Ano]

The PWM is a technique which is characterized by the generation of constant

amplitude pulse by modulating the pulse duration by modulating the duty cycle.
 11

Analog PWM control requires the generation of both reference and carrier signals that
are feed into the comparator and based on some logical output, the final output is
generated. The reference signal is the desired signal output may be sinusoidal or
square wave while the carrier signal is either a saw tooth or triangular wave at a
frequency significantly greater than the reference. There are several types of PWM
techniques and so consumers get different output and the choice of the inverter
depends on cost, noise and efficiency. Figure 2.5 shows inverter output waveforms
[14Ano].
The past decade has witness the growing interest in alternative source of
energy. The so called renewable energy such as the sun, geothermal, biomass and
wind can never be exhausted. They cause less emission and therefore stand out as a
potentially viable source of clean and limitless energy. However these renewable
sources energy in particular the solar energy requires rather sophisticated conversion
techniques to make them usable to the end user. For example, the output of the
photovoltaic or solar panel is essentially DC to be commercially viable and needs to
be converted to AC. There is a necessary because the power utilization is mostly in
AC form. The technology to accomplish the conversion known as inverter is
inevitably an integral part of the photovoltaic system [96Owe].

Figure 2.6. Application of Inverter in Solar System [96Owe]

 12

Engineers are making the use of advanced technological design that results in
an inverter that is more excellent, smarter and easier to use than any other inverter
with similar power ratings. In the modern society, electricity has great control over
the most daily activities for instance in domestic and industrial utilization of
electronic power for operations. Electricity can be generated from public supply to
consumers in different ways including the use of water, wind or steam energy to drive
the turbine as well as more recently the use of gas. Generator, solar energy and
nuclear energy are also source of electricity. Figure 2.6 shows application of inverter
in the solar system [96Owe].
 CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM

3.1. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

The goal of power electronic circuits is to convert electrical energy from one
form to another from source to load with highest efficiency, high availability and high
reliability with lowest cost, smallest size and weight. Most of the energy renewable
supply are in form DC as a solutions the inverter as a converter that convert the
energy to AC form, besides that an inverter was the solutions for the electrical energy
problem that occur at remote area and most of remote area around the earth used the
renewable energy to solve the energy problem. A solar energy system was the most
alternative energy are used at remote area, most of the renewable energy in form of
DC, in order to convert the direct current from the batteries and solar panels to
standard mains AC, an inverter is needed.
Today a fast growing availability of renewable energy harvesters is seeing.
While the energy conversion process of these devices produces little to no pollution,
the power that is generated is often intermittent and unreliable. This is best
exemplified by the wind generator and PV or solar cells, both work well while the
wind is blowing and the sun is shining but fail to produce when they are not. A system
where the energy produced from both of these sources is stored into a sealed lead acid
battery. An inverter is connected in series with this battery producing 220VAC at
50Hz to emulate wall power.
The voltage source inverter is fed by DC source of small internal impedance.
VSI are used for grid integration of renewable sources. The inverter needs a large
input capacitance to decouple the DC power from the pulsating AC output power.
Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in VSI because of offering high capacitance at
reasonable cost. Reliability of the electrolytic capacitors is a major concern because of
reducing the lifetime of the unit. With the growing emphasis on reliability and
lifetime, many authors are encouraging the use of film capacitors in place of
electrolytic capacitors. The capacitance requirement of the inverter need to be reduced
 14

to employ film capacitors as the cost per unit volume is very high. Looking from an
AC side, the terminal voltage remains almost constant irrespective of the load current
drawn. Voltage source inverter is classified into two types. There are single phase
inverter and three phase inverter. Figure 3.1 shows voltage source inverter types.

Voltage Source Inverter

Types

Square Wave Pure Sine Wave

Inverter Inverter

Modified Square Wave

Inverter

Figure 3.1. Voltage Source Inverter Types [96Owe]

Voltage source type of inverter is divided to several types by depending on the

output wave form of inverter. There are three types of inverter, first type of inverter
was square wave inverter which produces inefficient and is hard on many types of
equipment. The second type of inverter was modified square wave inverter which is
actual wave form and a marketing term by many low cost manufactures. The third
type of inverter was pure sine wave inverter which is suitable to use in most domestic
applications. Power inverters are widely used for industrial and domestic applications
such as renewable energy sources [96Owe].

3.1.1. Square Wave Inverter

The square wave inverter is one of the simple inverter types and a type of
electrical inverter that produces a square wave output which convert straight DC
signal to phase shifting AC signal.
The square wave invert is simpler in design and more efficient than a sine
wave inverter. However, the square wave does not be appropriate for some loads
because the large harmonic content can cause interference. Some electromechanical
 15

devices do not work well with square wave power. If the load is reactive, there is loss
of efficiency due to reactive power loss, so the efficiency advantage of the inverter is
nullified. Resistive loads also suffer from radiated interference due to the harmonic
content.
The square wave inverter is the basic type of inverter. Output is an alternating
square wave. The harmonic content in the wave is very large. The square wave is not
efficient and can give serious damage to some of the electronic equipment. But due to
low cost, the square wave inverter has some limited number of applications in
household appliances. The simplest AC output waveform to generate is a square wave
in which the voltage alternates from positive 220V to negative 220V keeping back
and forth. The waveform results in poor operation of almost any loads.
The square wave inverter consists of DC source, switches and the load. The
switches are power semiconductors that can carry a large current and withstand a high
voltage. The square wave inverter is the simplest and the least expensive type of
inverter but produces the lowest quality of power. But the output of the inverter is not
pure AC. The square wave inverter output is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Square Wave Inverter Output [13Tay]

Some (particularly the older style) solid state inverter produce square wave,
modified square wave or stepped wave electricity. Square wave is the term used when
the electricity has a constant force such as has with DC but switches direction more or
less instantly at the same king of frequency as the normal grid supply at 50 times per
seconds [13Tay].

3.1.2. Modified Square Wave Inverter

Modified square wave is a marketing term by many low cost inverter
manufactures. Inverters convert DC to AC. Old obsolete inverter technology created
 16

square wave output. Modified square wave has a step or dead space between the
square waves. The space reduces the distortion or harmonics that causes problems
with electrical devices. Modified square wave inverters work fine for pure resistive
loads like lamps or heaters and work well with pure inductive loads like universal
motors in mixers and blenders.
A modified sine wave inverter has a waveform more like a square wave but
with an extra step or so. Because the modified sine wave is noisier and rougher than a
pure sine wave, clocks and timers may run faster or not work at all. A modified sine
wave inverter works fine with most equipment although the efficiency or power is
reduced with some. But with most of the household appliances it works well.
Modified square wave or stepped wave is where the force of the electricity is varied
by having an intermediate step in between changing direction. The wave form
approximates more closely to a sine wave than does the square wave. Figure 3.3
shows modified square wave inverter output [10Jam].

Figure 3.3. Modified Square Wave Inverter Output [10Jam]

3.1.3. True Sine Wave Inverter

A true sine wave power inverter produces the closest to a pure sine wave of all
power inverters and in many cases produces cleaner power than the utility company
and runs practically any type of AC equipment and is also the most expensive.
Most of domestic appliances are suitable to use this type of inverter and suited
for sensitive electrical devices. Many true sine wave power inverters are computer
controlled and automatically turn ON/OFF. Most of domestic appliances are suitable
to use this type of inverter and suited for sensitive electrical devices.
The power drawn from the battery bank is DC. The power created by many
inverters is 220V AC but does not be exactly the same as the electricity available via
 17

an electricity authority. AC electricity as supplied in Australia reverses in direction

fifty times per second and so with a constantly varying force, surging forwards,
slowing to stop, surging in reverse, slowing to a stop and surging forwards again. The
steady increase and decrease in force as the current changes from forward to reverse
and to forward again is referred to as sine wave. Figure 3.4 shows true sine wave
inverter output [14Ano].

Figure 3.4. True Sine Wave Inverter Output [14Ano]

The true sine wave inverter provides output voltage waveform which is very
similar to the voltage waveform that is received from the grid. The sine wave has very
little harmonic distortion resulting in a very clean supply and makes for running
electronic systems such as computers and other sensitive equipment without causing
problems or noise. Things like mains battery charges also run better on pure sine
wave converters.
Unlike the square wave and modified square wave inverter, pure sine wave
inverters maintain the best quality due to the least number of harmonic distortions.
Usually, sine wave inverters are more expensive but reduce the humming noise of
inductive loads.
Normally the simple and less cost inverter (square wave inverter) consist of
highly harmonic, modified square wave inverter was the intermediate type of inverter
and the output or wave form is considered acceptable for most electrical appliances
because of harmonic is less. Pure sine wave inverter was the highly efficient inverter
expensive inverter among three type of inverter where the harmonic is most not
absent.
Among the inverter, a modified square wave inverter was chosen because of
low cost. The modified inverters produce a square wave and these are not used to
 18

power delicate electronic equipments. Here, a simple voltage driven inverter circuit
using power transistors as switching devices is build which converts 12V DC signal to
single phase 220V AC. The basic idea behind every inverter circuit is to produce
oscillations using the given DC and apply these oscillations across the primary of the
transformer by amplifying the current. The primary voltage is then stepped up to a
higher voltage depending upon the number of tunes in primary and secondary coils.
The modified square wave inverter is used to power lamps up to 50W but can be
made to drive more powerful loads by adding more MOSFETs. The inverter
implemented in this circuit is a square wave inverter and works with devices that do
not require pure sine wave AC [14Ano].

3.2. Solar Panels and Solar Energy

Electricity is the one of the vital requirement for sustainment of comforts of
life and can be used very judiciously for proper utilization. But in the country, have a
lot of locations where people have supply for the electricity while many areas do not
even have access to electricity. The policies of distribution are also partially
responsible for because of no still correctly estimation exact requirements and still
power theft is prevailing.
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect which is a physical and
chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell defined as a device whose
electrical characteristics such as current, voltage or resistance vary when exposed to
light. Individual solar cell devices are combined to form modules, otherwise known as
solar panels. In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open circuit voltage of approximately 0.5V to 0.6V. Solar cells are
described as being photovoltaic and irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or
an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors),
detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range or measuring
light intensity.
On the other hand consumers are also not satisfied with the services of power
companies. Most of the times, the consumers have complaints regarding statistical
errors in monthly bills. Thus people are trying to present an idea towards the
minimization of technical errors and to reduce human dependency at the same time.
People are aiming to receive the monthly energy consumption from a remote location
 19

directly to a centralized office. In this way people can reduce consumer efforts needed
to record the meter readings which are till now recorded by visiting every home
individually.
The results in considerable loss of consumer hours and also provide
considerable details regarding the average consumption of a locality so that power
supply is made according to the idea and help the officials in deciding the
specifications of transformers and other instruments required in power transmission.
The idea is economically efficient as well because of getting the meter reading at a
very low cost.
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using range of
technologies such as solar heating, solar thermal energy, solar architecture and
photosynthesis. Solar energy is the important source of renewable energy and
technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on way capture and distribute solar energy.
Active solar techniques include use of photovoltaic systems and concentrated
solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques
include orienting building to sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Solar technology is broadly characterized
as either passive or active depending on way capture, convert and distribute sunlight
and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world mostly
depending on distance from equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to use of
solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies other than geothermal and
tidal, derive their energy from the sun in direct or indirect way.
The potential solar energy that could be used by consumers differs from
amount of solar energy present near surface of the planet because factors such as
geography, cloud cover and land. Solar concentrating technologies like as parabolic
dish trough and scheffler reflectors provide process heat for commercial and industrial
applications. Evaporation pond is shallow pool that concentrate dissolved solid
through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds obtains salt from sea water one of
the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern use of include concentrating brine
solution used in the leach mining and removing dissolved solid from waste stream.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity or directly using
photo voltaic, indirectly using concentrated solar power. PV converts the light into
electric current using the photoelectric effect. The solar chemical process use solar
 20

energy to drive chemical reaction. Hydrogen production technology has been a

significant area of the solar chemical research. Another vision involves all the human
structures covering the earth surface doing photosynthesis much efficiently than
plants. Solar energy is a truly renewable energy source. Solar energy can be harnessed
in all area of the world and is available every day. Unlike some of the other source of
energy solar energy cannot be run out. Solar energy is accessible as long as has the
sun, therefore sunlight will be available to people for at least 5 billion years when
according to scientists the sun is going to die [13Tay].

3.2.1. Solar Panels

Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun rays as a source of
energy for generating electricity or heating. A PV module is a packaged, connected
assembly of typically 6x10 solar cells. Figure 3.5 shows solar panels.

Figure 3.5. Solar Panels [13Tay]

Solar photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a photovoltaic system

that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each module is rated by DC output voltage power under standard test
conditions and typically ranges from 100 to 365W. The efficiency of a module
determines the area of a module given the same rated output.
There are a few solar panels available that are exceeding 19% efficiency. A
single solar module produce only a limited amount of power, most installation contain
multiple modules. A PV system typically includes a panel or an array of solar
modules, a solar inverter and sometimes a battery and solar tracker and
 21

interconnection wiring. Solar modules use the light energy (photons) from sum to
generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use
wafer based crystalline silicon cells or thin film cells based on cadmium telluride or
silicon. The structural member of a module is the top layer or the back layer. Cells
must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules
are rigid but semi flexible ones are available based on thin film cells. The early solar
modules were first used in space in 1958.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or
in parallel to produce a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the
current off the modules contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive
transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the
rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use
connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Figure 3.6. Solar Panel Mounted on a Roof [13Tay]

A PV system contains many different components besides the PV modules.

For successfully planning a PV system it is crucial to understand the function of the
different components and to know their major specifications. Further, it is important
to know the effect on the location of the (excepted) performance of a PV system. PV
systems are very simple consisting of just a PV module and load as in the direct
powering of a water pump motor which only needs to operate when the sun shines.
However, when for example a whole house should be powered, the system must be
operational day and night and also have to feed both AC and DC loads, have reserve
power and may even include a backup generator. Depending on the system
configuration, consumer can distinguish three main types of PV systems of stand
alone, grid connected and hybrid. The basic PV system principles and elements
 22

remain the same. Systems are adapted to meet particular requirements by varying the
type and quantity of the basic elements. A modular system design allows easy
expansion when power demands change. Figure 3.6 shows solar panel mounted on a
roof [13Tay].

3.2.1.1. Stand alone systems

Stand alone systems rely on solar power only. The systems consist of the PV
modules and a load only or batteries for energy storage. When using batteries charge
regulators are included which switch OFF the PV modules when batteries are fully
charged and may switch OFF the load to prevent the batteries from being discharged
below a certain limit. The batteries must have enough capacity to store the energy
produced during the day to be used at night and during periods of poor weather.
Figure 3.7 shows about using stand alone system [13Tay].

(a) (b)

Figure 3.7. Schematic Representation of (a) A Simple DC PV System to Power a

Water Pump with no Energy Storage (b) A Complex PV System Including Batteries,
Power Conditioners, and Both DC and AC Loads [13Tay]

3.2.1.2. Grid connected PV systems

Grid connected PV systems have become increasingly popular for building
integrated applications. As illustrated in Figure 3.8, the PV modules are connected to
the grid via inverters which convert the DC power into AC electricity [17Ruo].
 23

Figure 3.8. Schematic Representation of a Grid Connected PV System

[17Ruo]

3.2.1.3. Hybrid PV system

Figure 3.9. Schematic Representation of a Hybrid PV System that has a Diesel

Generator as Alternative Electricity Source [13Tay]

A PV system converts lights to electricity through a process known as the

photoelectric effect. When sunlight hits a PV cell, the solar energy excites electrons
 24

inside the cell. This triggers a chain reaction in which the supercharged electron
escapes into a conductive contact to become part of an electrical circuit. That new
electricity flows across the array’s wiring through a charge controller, battery, inverter
and then into electrical system for use. Solar arrays with battery banks follow a very
similar process. The only difference is that the raw electricity coming out of panels
runs through a charge controller and into the battery bank for storage before traveling
to the inverter. Figure 3.9 shows schematic representation of a Hybrid PV system that
has a diesel generator as alternative electricity source [13Tay].

3.3. Lead Acid Battery

Lead acid battery is well known and common one among the available
rechargeable batteries which is based on the chemistry of lead. In this battery, lead
serves as the anode and lead dioxide serves as the cathode which is dip into an
electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid. Consider the limited mass utilization and the
necessity of inactive compounds such as grids, separators, cell containers, etc. To
enhance the ionic conductivity in the charged and discharged states, an excess acid is
necessary. Because of the limitations such as short life, high maintenance and
inadequate energy density, manufacturers of rechargeable batteries are exploring other
technologies.
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells
with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights,
smartphones and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive
terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit flow and
deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is connected to an external
circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within and allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term battery
specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells however the usage has
evolved additionally to include devices composed of a single cell. Batteries come in
many shapes and sizes from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries used
in cars and trucks and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that
 25

provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers. Figure 3.10 shows typical battery [18Ano].
Batteries consist of two or more voltaic cells that are connected in series to
provide a steady dc voltage at the battery output terminals. The voltage is produced by
a chemical reaction inside the cell. Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte which
forces the electric charge to separate in the form of ions and free electrons. A voltaic
cell consists of two different metal electrodes that are immersed in an electrolyte (an
acid or a base). The chemical reaction resulting from the immersion produces a
separation of charges. The current capacity increases with large electrode sizes. The
negative terminal is considered the anode of the cell because it forms positive ions in
the electrolyte. The opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode. Cells and batteries are
available in a wide variety of types.

Figure 3.10. Typical Battery

The battery is an essential component of almost all aircraft electrical systems.

Batteries are used to start engines and auxiliary power units to provide emergency
backup power for essential avionics equipment and to assure no break power for
navigation units and fly by wire computes and to provide ground power capability for
maintenance etc. Other important requirements include environmental ruggedness, a
wide operating temperature range, ease of maintenance, rapid recharge capability and
tolerance to abuse.
Batteries operate by converting chemical energy into electrical energy through
electrochemical discharge reactions. A battery’s voltage output and current rating are
determined by
 The elements used for the electrodes.
 The size of the electrodes
 The type of the electrolyte used [18Ano]
 26

3.3.1. Components of Batteries

A battery or cell consists of three major components of anode, cathode and
electrolyte.

3.3.1.1. Anode (Negative Electrode)

The anode is an electrode where the oxidation reaction occurs which releases
electrons to the external circuit and reduced during the electrochemical reaction. In
practical, anode is selected based on the efficiency as a reducing agent, high
coulombic output good conductivity, etc. The following materials can be used for the
negative electrode in batteries.
 Metals: Li, Na, Zn, Cd, Pb, etc.
 Metal alloys (for example, lithium alloys) and metal hydrides.
 Carbons (for example graphite carbons, non- graphite carbons)
 Redox polymers with negative redox potentials [18Ano]

3.3.1.2. Cathode (Positive Electrode)

The cathode is an electrode where the reduction reaction occurs which accepts
electrons from external circuit and oxidized during the electrochemical reaction. The
following are the commonly used cathode materials in batteries.
 Metal oxides (such as MnO2, PbO, etc.) and metal sulfides (such as
TiS2, NbS3, MoS2, etc.).
 Insertion or host materials like metal oxides (for example; LiMO2).
 Metal oxyhydroxides (NiOOH, PbOOH and MnOOH).
 Redox polymers with positive redox potentials [18Ano]

3.3.1.3. Electrolyte
The electrolyte is an ionic conductor with negligibly small electronic
conduction which provides the medium for transfer of ions from one electrode to
another electrode and also prevent short circuit. Important properties of the electrolyte
are non reactivity with electrode materials and small property changes with respective
to temperature variation, safety in handling, etc. In majority of conventional batteries,
the electrolytes are aqueous solutions such as ZnCl2, KOH, etc., but come advanced
 27

batteries are fabricated with non aqueous solutions and ion conducting solids or
polymers as electrolytes.
The electrolyte plays an important role in the determination of electrochemical
performance of lithium ion cell. Preparation of electrolyte system is usually dissolving
the lithium salts in an organic solvent. The lithium salts also have to fulfill certain
criteria such as low price, high performance and non toxic nature. Further,
requirements for lithium salts are sufficiently high solubility in dipolar solvents and
compatibility with cell compounds. Some important criteria that the electrolytes have
to fulfill are given below.
 Thermodynamically stable.
 Higher ionic conductivity which minimize the internal resistance.
 Good compatibility with the other components of the cell.
 Low cost, reliable, safety and minimum environmental impact.

The most recent development in the lithium ion battery technology is directly
to the replacement of liquid electrolyte with polymer membrane capable of operating
both as the separator as well as electrolyte [18Ano].

3.3.2. Series and Parallel Connected Batteries

Charging batteries in parallel and all batteries in the string receive the same
amount of voltage but the charge current each battery receives is vary equalization is
reached. Figure 3.11 shows the parallel connection of the batteries.
Never mix batteries of different capacities, make or age in a series string.
Different in capacity cause some batteries to overcharge while others remain
undercharged. Figure 3.12 shows the series connection of the batteries [18Ano].

Figure 3.11. Connecting in Parallel [18Ano]

 28

Figure 3.12. Connecting in Series [18Ano]

3.4. Center Tapped Transformer

A Center Tapped transformer works in more or less the same way as a usual
transformer. The difference lies in just the fact that its secondary winding is divided
into two parts so two individual voltages can beacquired across the two line ends.
The internal process is the same which is when an alternating current is
supplied to the primary winding of the transformer it creates a magnetic flux in the
core and when the secondary winding is brought near, an alternating magnetic flux is
also induced in the secondary winding as the flux flows through the ferromagnetic
iron core and changes it’s the direction with each and every cycle of the alternating
current. In this way an alternating current also flows through the two halves of the
secondary winding of the transformer and flows to the external circuit.

Line 1

VA

Neutral VTOTAL
VP

VB

Line 2

Figure 3.13. Center Tapped Transformer [18Ano]

When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle point of the
secondary winding of a transformer, it is called a center tapped transformer. The wire
is adjusted such that it falls in the exact middle point of the secondary winding and is
thus at zero volts, forming the neutral point for the winding and is called the center
 29

tapped and this thing allows the transformer to provide two separate output voltages
which are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to each other.
As the center tap transformer is seen from the Figure 3.13 that this type of
configurations gives us two phases through the two parts of the secondary coil and a
total of three wires in which the middle one and the center tapped wire is the neutral
one. So this center tapped configuration is also known as a two phase three wire
transformer system.
The two voltages between line 1 and neutral and between neutral and line 2
can be named as VA and VB respectively. Then the mathematical relation of these two
voltages shows that they are dependent upon the primary voltage as well as the turn
ratio of the transformer.
NA
VA = ( ) x VP Equation (3.1)
NP

NB
VB = ( ) x VP Equation (3.2)
NP
One thing that is noted here is that both the outputs VA and VB
respectively are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction which means that they
are 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
The primary difference that is evident here is that a normal transformer
provides only one voltage, for example, say 240V. But a center tapped transformer
will provide two voltages each of 240/2 i.e. 120V so that consumer can drive two
independent circuits [18Ano].

3.5. 2N2222 Transistor

The 2N2222 is a common NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) used for
general purpose low power amplifying or switching applications. It is designed for
low to medium current, low power, medium voltage and can operate at moderately
high speeds. The 2N2222 is considered a very common transistor and is used as an
exemplar of an NPN transistor. It is frequently used as a small signal transistor and it
remains a small general purpose transistor of enduring popularity. Replacements for
2N2222 are commonly available now in the cheaper TO-92 packaging where it is
known as the PN2222 or P2N2222 which has similar specifications except for the
lower maximum collector current. The P2N2222 has a different order of pins than the
metal case 2N2222 with its emitter and collector connections switched, other plastic
 30

case transistors also have different pinouts. Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 show about
2N2222 transistors [03Bar].

Collector Collector

PNP NPN

Base
Base

Emitter Emitter

Figure 3.14. Symbol of Transistor

Figure 3.15. Types of 2N2222 Transistors

3.6. P75NF758 MOSFET Transistor

In contrast to the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET), the Insulated Gate
Field Effect Transistor (IGFET) has its gate input electrically insulated from the main
current carrying channel. The most common type of insulated gate FET which is used
in many different types of electronic circuits is called the Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET). The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled
field effect transistor that differs from a JFET in that it has a metal oxide gate
electrode which is electrically insulated from the main semiconductor N-channel or P-
channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon dioxide, commonly
known as glass. This ultra is thin insulated metal gate electrode, can be thought of as
one plate of a capacitor. MOSFET has an extremely high input gate resistance with
the current flowing through the channel between the source and drain being controlled
by the gate voltage.
The P75NF758 MOSFET transistor has specifically been designed to
minimize input capacitance and gate charge. It is therefore suitable as primary switch
in advanced high efficiency, high frequency isolated DC to DC converter for telecom
 31

and computer applications. It is also intended for any applications with low gate drive
requirements [03Bar].

Figure 3.16. Symbol of P75NF758

Figure 3.17. Type of P75NF758 MOSFET Transistor

3.7. Fuses
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is an electrical safety device
that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential
component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through it,
thereby interrupting the current. It is a sacrificial device and once a fuse has operated
it is an open circuit and it must be replaced or rewired depending on type. Fuses have
been used as essential safety devices from the early days of electrical engineering.
Today there are thousands of different fuse designs which have specific current and
voltage ratings, breaking capacity and response times depending on the application.
The time and current operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate
protection without needless interruption. Wiring regulations usually define a
maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Short circuits, overloading,
mismatched loads or device failure are the prime reasons for fuse operation.
A fuse is an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system of often
abbreviated to Automatic Disconnection of Supply (ADS). Circuit breakers can be
used as an alternative design solution to fuse but have significantly different
characteristics. A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element of small cross-
 32

section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical

terminals and (usually) enclosed by a non combustible housing. Figure 3.18 shows the
types of fuses [00Ano].

Figure 3.18. Types of Fuses [00Ano]

3.8. Toggle Switch

Toggle switches are among the most basic and most common of all electronic
components. At the simplest level, they consist of a rocker device usually a lever,
though there are other designs that allow a circuit to be powered or depowered by
throwing the switch from the open to closed position or vice versa. This term is used
in a very board fashion. In practical usage, a toggle switch is most any type of switch
with a handle that allows a circuit to be energized and de energized. The devices
include everything from very large switches. The toggle switches most people are
familiar with are light switches. The switch moves contacts that either provide a path
for current to flow through or moves those contacts in such a way that the path is cut.
Figure 3.19 shows type of toggle switch [50Ape].

Figure 3.19. Type of Toggle Switch [50Ape]

3.9. AC Socket
AC power plugs and sockets allow electric equipment to be connected to the
primary AC power supply in buildings and at other sites. Electrical plugs and sockets
 33

differ from one another in voltage and current rating, shape, size and connector type.
Different systems of plugs and sockets have been standardized and different standards
are used in different parts of the world.

Figure 3.20. AC Socket [18Ano]

Plugs and sockets for portable appliances became available to replace

connections to lights sockets with lower and wall mounted outlets. A proliferation of
types developed for both convenience and protection from electric shock. Today there
are about 20 types in common use around the world and many obsolete socket types
are found in older buildings. Coordination of technical standards has allowed some
types of plug to be used across large regions to facilitate trade in electrical appliances
and for the convenience of travellers and consumers of imported electrical goods.
Some multi standard sockets allow use of several types of plug; improvised or
unapproved adaptors between incompatible sockets and plugs are not provided the
full safety and performance of an approved socket plug combination. Figure 3.20
shows AC socket [18Ano].
 CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF INVERTER USING SOLAR POWER

4.1. Principle Behind the Circuit

Inverters are often needed at places where it is not possible to get AC supply
from the mains. An inverter circuit is used to convert the DC power to AC power.
Inverters have three types of square wave, modified square wave and pure sine wave.
The basic idea behind every inverter circuit is to produce oscillations using the given
DC and apply these oscillations across the primary of the transformer by amplifying
the current. This primary voltage is then stepped up to a higher voltage depending
upon the number of turns in primary and secondary coils.

4.2. 12V to 220V AC Inverter Circuit Using Astable Multivibrator

Inverter circuits use thyristors as switching devices or transistors. Normally
for low and medium power applications, power transistors are used. The reason for
using power transistor is they have very low output impedance allowing maximum
current to flow at the output.
One of the important applications of a transistor is in switching. For this
application, the transistor is biased in saturation and cut off region. When the
transistor is biased in saturation region, both the collector to emitter and collector to
base junctions are forward biased. Here the collector to emitter voltage is minimum
and collector current is maximum. Another important aspect of this circuit is the
oscillator. An astable multivibrator produces an output signal which switches between
the two states and hence can be used as an oscillator. The frequency of oscillation is
determined by the values of capacitors and resistors.

4.3. 12V DC to 220V AC Inverter Operation

A 12V DC to 220V AC inverter is designed using simple transistors. It is used
to power lamps up to 50W but can be made to drive more powerful loads by adding
 35

more MOSFETS. The inverter implemented in this circuit is a square wave inverter
and works with devices that do not require pure sine wave AC. The circuit is divided
into three parts of oscillator, amplifier and transformer. A 50Hz oscillator is required
as the frequency of AC supply is 50Hz. This can be achieved by constructing an
astable multivibrator which produces a square wave at 50Hz. In this circuit, R1, R2,
R3, R4, C1, C2, T2 and T3 form the oscillator.

Voltage
terminator

AC socket
AC

Step Up
LED Transformer

Fuse Switch

P75NF758
680 Ω
680 Ω
12k Ω 12k Ω
12V
Battery
2.2µF
2.2µF P75NF758

2N 2222 2N 2222

Figure 4.1. Circuit Diagram of Inverter System

 36

Each transistor produces inverting square waves. The values of R1, R2 and C1
(R3, R4 and C2 are identical) decide the frequency. The formula for the frequency of
square wave generated by the astable multivibrator is

F = 1.44 / (R2 + 2R1) x C1 Equation (4.1)

The inverting signals from the oscillator are amplified by power MOSFETS
T1 and T4. These amplified signals are given to the step up transformer with its center
tap connected to 12V DC. The turn ratio of the transformer must be 1:19 in order to
convert 12V DC to 220V AC. The transformer combines both the inverting signals to
generate a 220V alternating square wave output. In order to increase the capacity of
the inverter, the number of MOSFETS must be increased.

4.4. Output Load Design

Since the output from the switching circuit is a pulse width modulated output,
it might contain harmonic frequencies other than the fundamental AC frequency. For
this reason, an electrolyte capacitor needs to be used to allow only the fundamental
frequency to pass through it. Here, the circuit uses an electrolyte capacitor of 2.2µF of
enough to filter out the harmonics. Since it is required to get 220V AC output, it is
preferred to use a step up transformer. Here a 12V to 220V step up transformer is
used.

4.5. Calculation for Current

For maximum voltage situation,
If Secondary current (Is) = 0.35A,
Secondary voltage (Vs) = 200V
Primary voltage (Vp) = 12V
Primary current (Ip) = ?
If (Vp x Ip ) = (Vs x Is), Equation (4.2)

Ip = (Vs x Is) / Vp
Ip = (220 x 0.35) / 12
Ip = 5.833A
For minimum voltage situation,
 37

Secondary current (Is) = 0.35A

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 170V
Primary voltage (Vp) = 12V
Primary current (Ip) = ?
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is
Ip = (170 x 0.35) / 12
Ip = 4.95A
If the load is changed, the primary current also changes but the voltage does
not change.

4.6. Calculation for Transformer

Ip Is

Np 1
Vp
Ns
Coil 1 Vs

Np2 Coil 2

Figure 4.2. Center Tapped Transformer

V(in) = 12
V(out) = 220V
I(in) = 6.41A
I(out) = 0.35 A
To find N (number of turns),
N = (Input voltage x 108) / (B x A x F x 4.44) Equation (4.3)
Where, F = frequency
B = magnetic flux line in one unit (H)
A = cross sectional area of iron core
N = number of turns
Input power = (5.58 x A)2 Equation
(4.4)
A = 3 square inch
 38

F = 50Hz
B = 6000H
N = (12 x 108) / (6000 x 3 x 50 x 4.44)
= 3 turns
Voltage rating, Vp / Vs = Np / Ns Equation (4.5)
Np = 12 x 3 = 36 turns
Ns = 220 x 3 = 660 turns

4.7. Calculation for Frequency

The values of R1, R2, and C1 (R3, R4 and C2 are identical) decides the
frequency.

R1 = 680Ω

R2 = 12k Ω

C1 = 2.2µF,

The formula for the frequency of modified square inverter is as follow,

F = 1.44 / (R2 +2x R1 ) x C1 Equation (4.6)

= 1.44 / (12k + (2x 680)) x 2.2µ

= 49(50Hz)

4.8. Calculation for Time

Time = Capacity / Load Current

If the capacity = 10Ah,

Table 4.1. Calculation of Time

Capacity Load Current Time

10h 0.55A 18h

10h 0.5A 20h

10h 0.437A 22h

 39

10h 0.415A 24h

Table 4.2. List of Components Used in Inverter System

Components Value Number
Battery 12V 1
MOSFET P75NF75 _ 2
2N2222 _ 2
Capacitor 2.2µF 2
Resistor 680Ω 2
12kΩ 2
Transformer Center tapped 1
Fuse 5V 1
Voltage Terminator _ 1
LED Red 1
AC Socket _ 1
Switch _ 1
 CHAPTER 5
TEST AND RESULTS OF INVERTER USING SOLAR POWER

5.1. Test and Results

Test was carried out to confirm that the design performed as expected. The
two tests were carried out are; open circuit test of no load test and on load test.

5.1.1. Inverter System with Solar Panel and Battery

In this thesis, solar panel, battery and inverter are used to power electrical
devices. When sunlight hit the solar panel, electricity come to cause and then battery
store electricity. So inverter converts DC to AC voltage to use AC loads. Figure 5.1
shows inverter system using solar power.

Figure 5.1. Inverter System with Solar Power

 41

If consumers want to use electrical devices at the AC socket, electricity must

have in the battery. So, solar panel has to be connected to the battery when sunlight
appears. Figure 2.2 shows battery charging condition.

Figure 5.2. Battery Charging Condition

When solar panel is connected to the battery, electricity comes to have in the
battery. And then, battery is connected to the inverter. Figure 5.3 shows the LED glow
when the inverter is connected to the battery.

Figure 5.3. The LED Glow When the Inverter Is Connected to the Battery
 42

When the battery is connected to the inverter, electricity flows to the inverter.
Figure 5.4 shows flowing current into the circuit when switch is ON.

Figure 5.4. Flowing Current into the Circuit When Switch Is ON

If electricity flows into the inverter, inverter converts DC to AC to power

electronic devices. And then, electronic devices can be used at the output of the
inverter. Figure 5.5 and 5.6 show using the load at the socket.

Figure 5.5. Using the Load at the Socket

 43

Figure 5.6. Using Load at the Socket

 CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

6.1. Discussions
In this study, the square wave inverter circuit is the simplest and the least
expensive type of inverters but it produces the lowest quality of power. As from the
result, a modified square wave inverter is successfully converting 12V DC to 220V
AC. For many electronic devices that do not require sensitive power, modified square
invers are more cost effective option. Due to their many advantages, they are widely
used in most applications today. The sine wave inverter circuit has the best. It
provides clean and stable power like the utility grid and is able to drive all the
applications that are sensitive to AC voltage. The drawbacks are the high cost and
circuit complexity. According to the obtained results, square wave and modified
square wave inverters are more economical but true sine wave inverters with very
high efficiency are the best inverters for power industrial applications.

6.2. Conclusion
It was chosen because of less cost but there was a problem about MOSFET. At
first, IRF 630 MOSFET was used to amplify the inverting signal from the oscillator.
But it is not suitable for this circuit because of low current. And then, IRF 840
MOSFET was also used for this circuit but it is not suitable too. Finally, P75NF75
MOSFET was suitable. So this inverter is strong validation for solar power system
and home appliances. This valuable inverter has many benefits about using electrical
devices.

6.3. Further Extension

By using 24V battery, loads up to 100W can be powered but the design is
inefficient. In order to increase the capacity of the inverter, the number of MOSFET
must be increased.
 45

If not so, another circuit design can be used to power more loads. Inverter
circuits can either use thyristors as switching devices or transistors. Normally for low
and medium power applications, power transistors are used. The reason for using
power transistor is they have very low output impedance, allowing maximum to flow
at the output.
One of the important applications of a transistor is in switching. For this
application, the transistor is biased in saturation and cut-off region.
When the transistor is biased in saturation region, both the collector emitter
and collector base junctions are forward biased. Here the collector emitter voltage is
minimum and collector current is maximum. Another important aspect of this circuit
is the oscillator. An important use of 555 Timer IC is in its use as an astable
multivibrator.
An astable multivibrator produces an output signal which switches between
the two states and hence can be used as an oscillator. The frequency of oscillation is
determined by the values of capacitor resistors. An astable multivibrator can be used
as an oscillator. The duty cycle of the output signal is given by:

D = (R1 + R2) / (R1 + 2R2) Equation (6.1)

Since requirement is F = 50Hz and D = 50% and assuming C to be 0.1µF and

can calculate the values of R1 and R2 to be 10kΩ and 140kΩ respectively. Here, use
the 150k potentiometer to fine tune the output signal. Also a ceramic capacitor of
0.01µF is used between the control pin and ground.
The main aim is to develop an AC signal of 220V. This requires use of high
power transistors to allow the flow of maximum amount of current to the load. For
this reason, a power transistor is used with a maximum collector current of 6A where
the base current is given by the collector current divided by the DC current gain.
When this device is powered using the 12V battery, the 555 timer connected in
astable mode produces square wave signal of 50Hz frequency. When the output is at
logic high level, the diode will conduct. This allows the DC voltage to be produced
across the primary of the transformer at alternate intervals. The capacitor ensures that
frequency of the signal is at the required fundamental frequency. This 12V AC signal
across the primary of the transformer is then stepped up to 220V AC signal across the
transformer secondary.
 REFERENCES

[18Ano] Anonymous.: Available Rechargeable Batteries which is Based on the

Chemistry of Lead, (2018).
[18Ano] Anonymous.: Center Tapped Transformer is also known as Two Phase
Three Wire Transformer System, (2018).
[18Ano] Anonymous.: hppts://www.google.com/ac socket
[17Ruo] Ruoyang, D.,Robertson,P.: Cost Effective Grid Connected
Iverter for a Power System, (2017).
[14Ano] Anonymous.: Archived Coy from the original, www.google.com/
inverter pdf, (2014).
[13Tay] Taylor, M. and Jonathan.: https://www.google.com/power inverter,
(2013).
[13Tay] Taylor, M. and Jonathan.: https://www.google.com Photovoltaic
System, (2013).
[10Jam] James, H.: Modified Square Wave Inverter Enhanced PDF, Power
Electronics, (2010).
[03Bar] Barnes, M.: Power Electronic Devices, (2013)
[00Ano] Anonymous.: The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms,
htpps://www.google.com/fuses, (2000).
[50Ape] Apem.: https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>toggle switch, (1950).
[96Owe] Owen, E., L.: Origins of the Inverter, January to February,
(1996)
APPENDIX
 APPENDIX
DATASHEET FOR 2N2222 AND P75NF75
48
 49

P75NF75
50