Lipid Screening and Cardiovascular Health in Childhood

Stephen R. Daniels, Frank R. Greer and and the Committee on Nutrition

Pediatrics 2008;122;198-208
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2008-1349

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is
located on the World Wide Web at:
http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/198

PEDIATRICS is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly

publication, it has been published continuously since 1948. PEDIATRICS is owned, published,
and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk
Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright © 2008 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All
rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0031-4005. Online ISSN: 1098-4275.

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010

 CLINICAL REPORT

Lipid Screening and Cardiovascular Guidance for the Clinician in Rendering

Pediatric Care

Health in Childhood
Stephen R. Daniels, MD, PhD, Frank R. Greer, MD, and the Committee on Nutrition

ABSTRACT
This clinical report replaces the 1998 policy statement from the American Acad-
emy of Pediatrics on cholesterol in childhood, which has been retired. This report www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/
peds.2008-1349
has taken on new urgency given the current epidemic of childhood obesity with
doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1349
the subsequent increasing risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and
All clinical reports from the American
cardiovascular disease in older children and adults. The approach to screening
Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire
children and adolescents with a fasting lipid profile remains a targeted approach. 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed,
Overweight children belong to a special risk category of children and are in need revised, or retired at or before that time.
of cholesterol screening regardless of family history or other risk factors. This The guidance in this report does not
report reemphasizes the need for prevention of cardiovascular disease by following indicate an exclusive course of treatment
or serve as a standard of medical care.
Dietary Guidelines for Americans and increasing physical activity and also includes
Variations, taking into account individual
a review of the pharmacologic agents and indications for treating dyslipidemia in circumstances, may be appropriate.
children. Pediatrics 2008;122:198–208 Key Words
lipid screening, children, cardiovascular
disease, cholesterol, lipid profile,
dyslipidemia, obesity, familial
INTRODUCTION hypercholesterolemia, statins
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death and morbidity in the Abbreviations
United States.1 Most of the clinical burden of CVD occurs in adulthood. However, CVD— cardiovascular disease
AAP—American Academy of Pediatrics
research over the last 40 years has increasingly indicated that the process of LDL—low-density lipoprotein
atherosclerotic CVD begins early in life and is progressive throughout the life HDL— high-density lipoprotein
span.2 It has also become clear that there is an important genetic component to the PDAY—Pathobiological Determinants of
disease process that produces susceptibility but that environmental factors, such as Atherosclerosis in Youth
IMT—intimal medial thickness
diet and physical activity, are equally important in determining the course of the NHANES—National Health and Nutrition
disease process. Examination Survey
This statement replaces the outdated 1998 American Academy of Pediatrics NCEP—National Cholesterol Education
Program
(AAP) policy statement “Cholesterol in Childhood,” which has been retired. New 3
VLDL—very low-density lipoprotein
data emphasize the negative effects of excess dietary intake of saturated and trans PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005;
fats and cholesterol as well as the effect of carbohydrate intake, the obesity Online, 1098-4275). Copyright © 2008 by the
epidemic, the metabolic/insulin-resistance syndrome, and the decreased level of American Academy of Pediatrics

physical activity and fitness on the risk of adult-onset CVD. In addition, more data
are now available on the safety and efficiency of pharmacologic agents used to
treat dyslipidemia. Most of these data were not available at the time of the
previous statement.
A number of studies have identified potential risk factors for adult CVD.4 The strongest risk factors include a high
concentration of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), a low concentration of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), elevated
blood pressure, type 1 or 2 diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, and obesity. Research in children and adolescents has
demonstrated that some of these risk factors may be present at a young age,5 and pediatricians must initiate the
lifelong approach to prevention of CVD in their patients. The focus of this report is on improving lipid and lipoprotein
concentrations during childhood and adolescence to lower the lifelong risk of CVD. The current obesity epidemic
among children has increased the need for pediatric health care professionals to be knowledgeable of the risk factors
for CVD and to implement the changes recommended in this report in practice.

DEVELOPMENT OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS IN CHILDREN

Autopsy studies, such as the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study and the
Bogalusa Heart Study, have demonstrated that the atherosclerotic process begins in childhood.2,6–8 The earliest
pathologic finding in atherosclerosis is thought to be the fatty streak. This is characterized by an accumulation of
lipid-filled macrophages within the intima of an artery.9 The progression of atherosclerosis is characterized by
continued accumulation of lipid-filled macrophages and a proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. These

198 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
smooth muscle cells migrate into the arterial intima and CHOLESTEROL CONCENTRATIONS IN CHILDHOOD AND
form a lesion called a fibrous plaque.9 This lesion is ADOLESCENCE
responsible for adverse clinical outcomes, such as myo- Data from the Lipid Research Clinics prevalence studies
cardial infarction and ischemic stroke, by either ob- have shown that the concentration of serum lipids
structing the arterial lumen or rupture of the plaque and lipoproteins increases during early childhood and
with release of thrombogenic substances. reaches concentrations similar to those seen in young
The PDAY study included people 15 to 34 years of age adults by approximately 2 years of age.12 This knowledge
who died of accidental causes.7,8 The PDAY investigators is important when making recommendations regarding
examined indicators of cardiovascular risk status, mea- screening, because concentrations before 2 years of age
sured at the time of autopsy. These indicators included may not reflect values in subsequent years of childhood
concentrations of cholesterol and vascular pathologic or adult values. Population-based studies, including the
features indicative of hypertension. They evaluated the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
extent of fatty streaks and fibrous plaques in the aorta (NHANESs), have provided useful data on the distribu-
tion and trends in lipids and lipoproteins during child-
and coronary arteries and found that the presence of
hood and adolescence. Data from the 1988 –1994
increased coverage of the arterial intimal surface, with
NHANES for ages 4 to 19 years showed that the mean
fatty streaks and fibrous plaques, was associated with
total cholesterol concentration was 165 mg/dL.13 Age-
increased traditional risk factors, such as elevation of
specific values for mean total cholesterol concentration
cholesterol levels and blood pressure.7,8 actually peaked at 171 mg/dL at 9 to 11 years of age.13
The Bogalusa Heart Study investigators followed a The values subsequently decreased during pubertal de-
cohort of children who had their risk-factor status velopment and then increased thereafter. This has im-
measured during examinations at school.2,6 As this portant implications for the timing of cholesterol screen-
population became older, some people died of acci- ing and the cut points used, because lipid concentrations
dental causes. The investigators were able to obtain are age and maturation dependent.14
autopsies on these people and evaluate the presence There are also differences in cholesterol concentra-
and extent of atherosclerotic lesions.6 They reported tions related to gender. In the 1988 –1994 NHANES,
that the extent of the arterial intimal surface covered females had higher total cholesterol and LDL concentra-
with fatty streaks and fibrous plaques increased with tions than did males. Females also tended to have higher
age. The prevalence was almost 70% in young adult- HDL concentrations than did males after pubertal devel-
hood. They also found that the extent to which the opment had occurred. Investigators for the Project
intimal surface was covered with atherosclerotic le- HeartBeat! study reported that lipid and lipoprotein con-
sions was significantly associated with elevation of centrations changed in different ways for males and
concentrations of total cholesterol, LDL, and triglyc- females during development.15 These developmental
erides, as well as a lower concentration of HDL. An- patterns of puberty are complicated by ethnicity, with
other important finding was that increased coverage black girls having the earliest onset of puberty.
of atherosclerotic lesions was positively correlated There are also differences in cholesterol and triglyc-
with the number of risk factors for CVD present, such eride concentrations according to ethnic group. In the
as dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, and obesity.6 1988 –1994 NHANES, black children had higher HDL
More recently, noninvasive methods of imaging have and lower triglyceride concentrations than did children
allowed for the study of atherosclerosis development. of non-Hispanic white and Hispanic descent.13 In the
The Muscatine Study used ultrasonography of the ca- Cardiovascular Health in Children Study of 8- to 10-
rotid arteries to evaluate intimal medial thickness (IMT), year-olds in North Carolina, black children had the high-
which has been shown to be an indicator of the athero- est prevalence of having a total serum cholesterol con-
centration of ⬎200 mg/dL: 18.7%, compared with 11%
sclerotic process in adults.10 Carotid ultrasonography in
in white children.16 The overall prevalence in all ethnic
adults aged 33 to 42 years showed that increased carotid
groups of having a total cholesterol level of ⬎200 mg/dL
IMT was associated with increased total cholesterol con-
was 12.6%.
centration and other CVD risk factors, such as high blood
As observed in adults,17 there have been changes over
pressure, in childhood.10 A second study, the Cardiovas- time in lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in children
cular Risk in Young Finns Study, also showed a positive and adolescents. Ford et al18 compared values from the
relationship between adolescent risk factors and subclin- 1988 –1994 and 1999 –2000 NHANESs. They found that,
ical measures of atherosclerosis in adulthood.11 In this over this 12-year time period, triglyceride concentra-
study of ⬎2000 young adults, CVD risk status in adoles- tions decreased approximately 8.8 mg/dL in adolescents
cence was predictive of increased carotid IMT in adult- aged 12 to 17 years, and total cholesterol, LDL, and HDL
hood, independent of the risk factors for CVD present in concentrations remained relatively stable. Hickman et
adulthood. al13 compared data from the 1966 –1970 NHANES with
From these studies, it is increasingly clear that cho- those from the 1988 –1994 NHANES in children and
lesterol concentrations can be elevated during childhood adolescents aged 4 to 19 years and reported a decrease in
and adolescence and that increased concentrations in mean total cholesterol concentration of approximately 7
childhood are associated with increased risk of athero- mg/dL during this time. The reasons for these changes
sclerosis and CVD in adulthood. are not completely understood, but they may be related

PEDIATRICS Volume 122, Number 1, July 2008 199

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
to the increased efforts to alter diet and prevent CVD is that, currently, no noninvasive clinically applicable
that have been in effect since the 1950s. tools are available to adequately assess the progression of
A substantial proportion of children and adolescents atherosclerosis in children without familial hypercholes-
have elevated concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins. terolemia. This means that investigators and clinicians
In the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular have often relied on cholesterol concentrations as a sur-
Health, 13.3% of children in the 4th grade had total rogate marker for this risk. In adults, this approach is
cholesterol concentrations of ⬎200 mg/dL. The preva- well accepted and has led to the NCEP adopting the
lence of total cholesterol concentrations of ⬎200 mg/dL Framingham risk score to evaluate which patients are at
was 15.6% in girls and 11.1% in boys.5 In the 1988 – highest 10-year risk of CVD and would benefit from
1994 NHANES, approximately 10% of adolescents had more aggressive treatment.24 Unfortunately, no similar
total cholesterol concentrations of ⬎200 mg/dL, which is risk score is available for children. Also, data supporting
a level of concern in adults.13 a particular level of childhood cholesterol that predicts
An important epidemiologic aspect of cardiovascular risk of adult CVD do not exist, which makes the prospect
risk in children is the tracking of lipid and lipoprotein of a firm evidence-based recommendation for choles-
concentrations over time. Tracking indicates the likeli- terol screening for children elusive.
hood that children will maintain their percentile ranking There are problems with the targeted approach to
over time. Such tracking has been demonstrated in a screening on the basis of a family history of CVD or of
number of studies, most notably the Muscatine Study cholesterol level elevation.25 The assumption for this
and Bogalusa Heart Study.19–21 In the Muscatine Study, recommendation is that the family history will provide
75% of school-aged children who had total cholesterol additional information regarding the genetic predisposi-
concentrations greater than the 90th percentile at base- tion and shared environmental factors that may increase
line had total cholesterol concentrations of ⬎200 mg/dL risk. Unfortunately, family history may not be known,
in their early 20s. In the Bogalusa Heart Study, approx- and if it is known, it may be incomplete or inaccurate. It
imately 70% of the children with elevated cholesterol also presumes that adult family members have had their
levels continued to have cholesterol elevations in young cholesterol level measured, will know their results, and
adulthood. The Muscatine investigators also evaluated understand the significance of those results. Unfortu-
other factors beyond childhood cholesterol concentra- nately, this is often not the case.
tions that predicted cholesterol level elevation in adult- Since the NCEP recommended targeted screening,
hood.19 They found that onset of obesity in adolescence investigators have attempted to evaluate its effective-
and young adulthood, cigarette smoking, and use of oral ness. Generally, studies of the targeted approach have
contraceptives by women may have deleterious effects found that 35% to 46% of children and adolescents have
on adult concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins. had their cholesterol levels measured on the basis of a
positive family history of CVD or elevated cholesterol
CLINICAL EVALUATION concentration.25–29 The reasons for this variability may be
A recommendation regarding a targeted approach to that populations may differ in adult prevalence of CVD
cholesterol screening for children from the National or in the implementation of the default screening strat-
Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) of the National egies for children and adolescents when family history is
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute was published in 1992 unknown or when other risk factors, including obesity
and subsequently adopted by the AAP.22 This approach and blood pressure elevation, are present. With the
recommends screening children with a family history of prevalence of obesity increasing30 and the possibility that
premature CVD or high blood concentrations of choles- the prevalence of high blood pressure is also increasing,31
terol. They also recommend screening pediatric patients this would lead to an increase in the percentage of
for whom family history is not known or those who had children and adolescents who would qualify for having
other risk factors for CVD such as obesity, hypertension, their cholesterol concentration determined. The studies
and diabetes mellitus. Since publication of that guide- of screening have also shown that although it is useful
line, research has focused on optimizing the approach to for identifying children with a cholesterol level eleva-
screening children and adolescents for cholesterol eleva- tion, 30% to 60% of children and adolescents with high
tion and the subsequent treatment of cholesterol abnor- cholesterol levels will be missed by the targeted strat-
malities. However, the results of this research have not egy.26,32,33 An important but unanswered question is
led to consensus on pediatric screening, and many con- whether the lack of identification and treatment of those
tinue to advocate for screening on the basis of a positive children leads to increased risk of CVD development.
family history. Some have maintained that the evidence
is insufficient to recommend for or against routine screen- ABNORMAL CHOLESTEROL CONCENTRATIONS
ing for lipid disorders in childhood.23 Others have sug- The NCEP pediatric report recommended the cut points
gested that a universal screening strategy similar to that presented in Table 1 be used to identify children and
recommended for adults be used for children and ado- adolescents with abnormal lipid and lipoprotein concen-
lescents, although no pediatric organizations have rec- trations.22 It is worth noting that the same values are
ommended universal screening.23 used for all children, from 2 to 18 years of age. After 18
The optimal screening program would identify chil- years of age, the concentrations presented in the NCEP
dren and adolescents with progressive atherosclerosis report for adults would be used. As discussed previously,
who are most at risk of CVD in adulthood. One problem cholesterol concentrations change with age in children

200 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
 TABLE 1 Cut Points for Total Cholesterol and LDL Concentrations in TABLE 2 Lipid and Lipoprotein Distributions in Subjects Aged 5 to
Children and Adolescents 19 Years
Category Percentile Total LDL, mg/dL Males Females
Cholesterol,
5–9 y 10–14 y 15–19 y 5–9 y 10–14 y 15–19 y
mg/dL
Total cholesterol, mg/dL
Acceptable ⬍75th ⬍170 ⬍110
50th percentile 153 161 152 164 159 157
Borderline 75th–95th 170–199 110–129
75th percentile 168 173 168 177 171 176
Elevated ⬎95th ⬎200 ⬎130
90th percentile 183 191 183 189 191 198
Adapted from NCEP guidelines for children and adolescents.22 95th percentile 186 201 191 197 205 208
Triglyceride, mg/dL
50th percentile 48 58 68 57 68 64
75th percentile 58 74 88 74 85 85
and adolescents and are particularly variable during pu- 90th percentile 70 94 125 103 104 112
berty. The sensitivity and specificity of these cut-point 95th percentile 85 111 143 120 120 126
concentrations for predicting adult lipid status may vary LDL, mg/dL
widely according to age and sexual maturation of the 50th percentile 90 94 93 98 94 93
pediatric patient. Friedman et al14 showed that the low- 75th percentile 103 109 109 115 110 110
90th percentile 117 123 123 125 126 129
est sensitivity occurred at 14 to 16 years of age, when
95th percentile 129 133 130 140 136 137
cholesterol values are generally lower, whereas the HDL, mg/dL
highest sensitivity occurred at 5 to 10 and 17 to 19 years 5th percentile 38 37 30 36 37 35
of age. Of interest is that the results were similar regard- 10th percentile 43 40 34 38 40 38
less of whether the population was restricted to children 25th percentile 49 46 39 48 45 43
with a positive parental history of CVD. It is also worth 50th percentile 55 55 46 52 52 51
noting that the NCEP did not provide pediatric cut points Adapted from the Lipid Research Clinic Pediatric Prevalence Study.12
for concentrations of triglycerides or HDL. Measurement
of these variables has become more important, because
they are part of the clustering of risk factors associated several definitions have been proposed using the same
with obesity and often called the metabolic syndrome. factors but using percentile values for the cut points.35–37
The American Heart Association has recommended that Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in any group
triglyceride concentrations of ⬎150 mg/dL and HDL depends on the variables and cut points chosen. Never-
concentrations of ⬍35 mg/dL be considered abnormal theless, it does seem that the metabolic syndrome, re-
for children and adolescents.34 Again, a single cut point gardless of the cutoffs used for various risk factors, is
for all pediatric age groups may be limited by the known more prevalent in overweight children and adolescents.
age, sexual, and ethnic differences in the concentrations It also seems that the prevalence of the metabolic syn-
of triglycerides and HDL. drome has increased in children and adolescents, reflect-
Given the concerns for using the same cut points for ing the increased prevalence of obesity, prediabetes, and
all children, percentile values for concentrations of total type 2 diabetes mellitus.38,39 In addition, pathology stud-
cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, and HDL according to age ies such as the Bogalusa Heart Study have clearly shown
and gender are presented in Table 2. These values are that the presence of an increasing number of risk factors
from the 1981 prevalence study of the Lipid Research (as seen in the metabolic syndrome) is associated with
Clinics and were measured before the increase in prev- increased risk of fatty streaks and fibrous plaques in the
alence of obesity.12 These percentile values could be used aorta and coronary arteries.6 Generally, the approach to
in a similar fashion to those for blood pressure and BMI. treatment of the metabolic syndrome is focused on de-
In this case, LDL concentrations greater than the 95th creasing the BMI percentile of obese children, which is
percentile (or less than the 5th percentile for HDL con- usually accomplished via lifestyle changes in diet and
centration) would be considered abnormal, particularly physical activity. Kirk et al40 demonstrated that the com-
if the abnormality was persistent over several office vis- ponents of the metabolic syndrome can be improved by
its. LDL concentrations between the 90th and 95th per- effective weight management. A relatively small de-
centiles (5th–10th for HDL concentration) would be
considered borderline. Use of these tables and percen-
tiles would reduce the clinical effects of natural changes TABLE 3 Definition of Metabolic Syndrome for Adults25
in lipid and lipoprotein concentrations with age. Clinical Measure Any 3 of the Following
5 Features
Waist circumference, cm ⱖ102 (men) or ⱖ88 (women)
METABOLIC SYNDROME Lipid levels
The metabolic syndrome is a clustering of risk factors for Triglycerides, mg/dL ⱖ150
CVD and diabetes mellitus that seems to be related to HDL, mg/dL ⬍40 (men) or ⬍50 (women)
obesity and insulin resistance. The NCEP definition of Blood pressure, mm Hg ⱖ130/85
the metabolic syndrome for adults is presented in Table 3. Fasting glucose level (includes diabetes), ⬎100
Currently, there is no accepted definition of the meta- mg/dL
bolic syndrome for children and adolescents. However, Note that there is no currently accepted definition of metabolic syndrome in children.

PEDIATRICS Volume 122, Number 1, July 2008 201

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
crease in BMI percentile can be effective. In adults, a TABLE 4 Daily Estimated Calories and Recommended Servings for
weight loss of only 5% to 7% was shown to be successful Grains, Fruits, Vegetables, and Milk/Dairy According to
in prevention of diabetes mellitus in the Diabetes Pre- Age and Gender
vention Program.41 These results indicate that for some
1y 2–3 y 4–8 y 9–13 y 14–18 y
overweight children, maintenance of weight during
Energy, kcal a 900 1000 — — —
growth in height can be beneficial.
Female — — 1200 1600 1800
Male — — 1400 1800 2200
CLINICAL APPROACH FOR TREATMENT OF ABNORMALITIES Fat, % kcal 30–40 30–35 25–35 25–35 25–35
IN LIPID AND LIPOPROTEIN CONCENTRATIONS Milk/dairy, cupsb 2c 2 2 3 3
1
The 1992 guidelines for children and adolescents pub- Lean meat/beans, oz 1 ⁄2 2 — 5 —
lished by the NCEP recommended 2 broad approaches to Female — — 3 — 5
Male — — 4 — 6
lowering or minimizing cholesterol levels in young peo- 1 1
Fruits, cupsd 1 1 1 ⁄2 1 ⁄2 —
ple. One is a population-based approach that focuses on Female — — — —
1
1 ⁄2
lifestyle issues for all children. The second is an individ- Male — — — — 2
ual approach focusing on children and adolescents at Vegetables, cupsd
3 ⁄4
1 — — —
1
high risk.22 This comprehensive, 2-pronged approach Female — — 1 2 2 ⁄2
1 1
was adopted previously by the AAP.3 Male — — 1 ⁄2 2 ⁄2 3
Grains, oze 2 3 — — —
Female — — 4 5 6
Population Approach Male — — 5 6 7
The population approach addresses the diet and levels of Calorie estimates are based on sedentary lifestyle. Increased physical activity will require addi-
physical activity that are appropriate for all children and tional calories (0 –200 kcal/day if moderately physically active and 200 – 400 kcal/day if very
adolescents. The AAP has also addressed these issues in physically active 关1 kcal ⫽ 4.2 kJ兴). — indicates data not applicable.
a For youth 2 years and older; adapted from Table 2, Table 3, and Appendix A-2 of the 2005
its policy statement on active healthy living for chil-
Dietary Guidelines for Americans. (www.healthierus.gov/dietaryguidelines). Nutrient and energy
dren.42 The emphasis on a healthy lifestyle is key in the
contributions from each group are calculated according to the nutrient-dense forms of food in
prevention of the development of abnormal lipid and each group (eg, lean meats and fat-free milk).
lipoprotein concentrations. Although changes in indi- b Milk listed is fat free (except for children younger than 2 years). If 1%, 2%, or whole-fat milk is

viduals are modest, implementation of this approach can substituted, this will use, for each cup, respectively, 19, 39, or 63 kcal of discretionary calories and
result in substantially fewer people in the higher-risk add 2.6, 5.1, or 9.0 g of total fat, of which 1.3, 2.6, or 4.6 g are saturated fat.
c For 1-year-old children, 2% fat milk is included. If 2 cups of whole milk are substituted, 48 kcal
range for CVD.43 of discretionary calories will be used.
Dietary changes using the population approach are 1 1
d Serving sizes are⬎ ⁄4⬎ cup for 1 year of age,⬎ ⁄3⬎ cup for 2 to 3 years of age, and⬎ ⁄2⬎ cup
1

not recommended for children younger than 2 years, for ⱖ4 years of age. A variety of vegetables should be selected from each subgroup over the
because younger children are thought to require a rela- week.
e Half of all grains should be whole grains.
tively high intake of total fat to support rapid growth and
Adapted with permission from American Heart Association. Table: dietary recommendations
development.22 However, some studies have examined for children. Available at: www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier⫽3033999.
dietary intervention at a younger age. The ongoing Spe-
cial Turku Risk Intervention Program was a randomized
dietary intervention study beginning at approximately 7
months of age with weaning. Children in the interven- This includes use of reduced-fat milk in children after 12
tion group were maintained on a diet with total fat of months of age.
⬍30% of calories, saturated fat of ⬍10% of calories, and The American Heart Association recently provided
cholesterol intake of ⬍200 mg/day, using 1.5% cow updated dietary recommendations based on the new US
milk after 12 months of age.44 Outcomes in this study Department of Agriculture dietary guidelines for chil-
included both growth and neurologic function. No ad- dren (older than 2 years) and adolescents (Table 4),
verse effects of the intervention diet were observed on which have been endorsed by the AAP.47,48 These guide-
growth or neurologic outcomes. Other significant obser- lines include recommendations that children and ado-
vations included lowering the LDL concentrations of lescents have a balanced caloric intake with sufficient
boys and decreasing the prevalence of obesity in girls in physical activity to achieve an appropriate weight and
the intervention groups, compared with controls.45 consume more fruits, vegetables, fish, whole grains, and
Most studies of dietary intervention have been per- low-fat dairy products. It is also recommended that the
formed on older children aged 8 to 11 years.46 In the intake of fruit juice, sugar-sweetened beverages and
Dietary Intervention Study in Children, the lower satu- foods, and salt be reduced.
rated fat intervention diet was safe and resulted in sig- At the time of the earlier NCEP recommendations,
nificantly lower LDL concentrations in the dietary inter- there was less concern about trans fatty acids in pro-
vention group. It is encouraging that in both the Special cessed and preprepared foods. Trans fatty acids in the
Turku Risk Intervention Program and the Dietary Inter- diet tend to increase LDL concentration and do not raise
vention Study in Children, children who received the HDL concentration.49 Therefore, the new guidelines rec-
dietary intervention were more likely to select healthier ommend that intake of trans fatty acids be limited to
foods.44,46 The results of these studies indicate that there ⬍1% of total calories.47,48 This is easier for families to
is no harm associated with prudent diet changes, even implement, because the fat content, including total
when they are instituted in children soon after weaning. grams of trans fatty acids, is now required on all food

202 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
labels. The largest source of trans fatty acids is the par- are more attractive, because they may provide more
tially hydrogenated fat used in preparation of both fried convenience and efficiency. These venues include
and baked products both inside and outside the home. school, the homes of friends, and restaurants. Fast-food
restaurants also provide carryout foods to be eaten in the
home environment. Making healthful choices in these
Individual Approach
settings is more difficult because of the myriad external
This approach focuses on people at high risk, such as
cues for eating, including advertising and the choices of
children and adolescents with a family history of CVD or
peers.
high cholesterol level or who themselves have high total
cholesterol and LDL concentrations or other significant
CVD risk factors. Some of these children have a strong Other Nonpharmacologic Approaches
genetic basis for their dyslipidemia, including the het- Some adjuncts to dietary therapy have also been recom-
erozygous form of familial hypercholesterolemia. These mended. Increasing the intake of soluble fiber can be
children and adolescents require a higher level of inter- helpful in reducing plasma LDL concentration. Some
vention. Initially, this intervention is focused on chang- studies have shown a modest reduction of LDL concen-
ing the diet. However, if this approach does not lower tration by approximately 7%, but others have been
LDL to an acceptable concentration, these children may equivocal.51 Fiber is thought to bind with cholesterol in
be candidates for pharmacologic intervention (see bile acids and remove it from the enterohepatic circula-
“Pharmacologic Intervention”). tion. This often requires supplements of fiber. An appro-
priate dose of supplemental fiber is calculated as the
child’s age plus 5 g/day, up to a dose of 20 g/day at 15
Diet
years of age.34
The recommended diet for the high-risk group is similar
Plant stanols and sterols are added to a number of
to that recommended for the population but restricts
products, including spreads and margarine, orange juice,
saturated fat to 7% of total calories and dietary choles-
yogurt drinks, cereal bars, and dietary supplements.
terol to 200 mg/day. Again, data from randomized clin-
These compounds lower the absorption of dietary cho-
ical trials in children as young as 7 months of age have
lesterol and, in adults, have been shown to reduce cho-
demonstrated that these dietary recommendations are
lesterol concentration by approximately 5% to 10%
safe and do not interfere with normal growth, develop-
with minimal adverse effects.52 One of the few random-
ment, and sexual maturation.44,46,48
ized clinical trials with children showed that a margarine
The success of this diet depends on a number of
product resulting in 20 g/day intake of plant sterol re-
factors, including the saturated-fat intake before changes
duced LDL concentration by 8%.53 The most important
are implemented. Because dyslipidemia is often a famil-
safety concern with these products is that they also
ial problem, some children will already be on a diet
result in decreased absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
relatively low in saturated fat. For these children with a
and ␤ carotene.
genetic cause of dyslipidemia and LDL concentration of
Increased physical activity may also be useful for im-
ⱖ190 mg/dL, it is unlikely that diet alone will achieve
proving dyslipidemia in children and adolescents. Phys-
appropriate concentrations of LDL. Nevertheless, it is
ical activity primarily affects HDL and triglyceride con-
important to implement dietary changes that are associ-
centrations, but improvement of LDL concentration has
ated with reduction of LDL concentrations, which may
also been documented.54,55 Although there have been
allow for use of lower doses of pharmacologic agents
few randomized clinical trials to document the effects of
when they are started. Dietary changes are still an im-
physical activity as a specific intervention for children
portant part of any long-term intervention.
and adolescents, supportive data are available from ep-
Implementation of this more aggressive diet is likely
idemiologic studies.55
to require involvement of a dietitian to help families
make the appropriate changes without compromising
good nutrition. There have been anecdotal reports of PHARMACOLOGIC INTERVENTION
parents implementing a very low-fat diet without super- The concentrations of LDL at which pharmacologic in-
vision, leading to nutritional insufficiency and failure to tervention is recommended for children 8 years and
thrive.50 The home environment is very important to older and adolescents are presented in Table 5. It is
help children and adolescents make the best choices and recommended that pharmacologic intervention in chil-
maintain a healthful diet. Parents must be empowered to dren younger than 8 years only be implemented if they
choose the time and available food and drink for meals have the dramatic elevation of LDL concentration (⬎500
and snacks. It is most helpful if everyone in the family is mg/dL) as seen with the homozygous form of familial
consuming a healthful diet and parents act as a role hypercholesterolemia. For children and adolescents with
model for their children. diabetes, renal disease, congenital heart disease, or col-
Dietitians can also help children and their families lagen vascular diseases and those who are cancer survi-
navigate the food environment outside the house, which vors, more aggressive treatment of high LDL concentra-
has become increasingly important because more chil- tion is indicated.56
dren do more eating outside the home environment. It is difficult to develop an evidence-based approach
Because the schedules of children and their parents are for the specific age at which pharmacologic treatment
increasingly complex, these alternative venues for eating should be implemented. At the time of the NCEP report,

PEDIATRICS Volume 122, Number 1, July 2008 203

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
 TABLE 5 Recommended LDL Concentrations for Pharmacologic Treatment of Children and Adolescents 10 Years and Older22,56
Patient Characteristics Recommended Cut Points
No other risk factors for CVD LDL concentration is persistently ⬎190 mg/dL despite diet therapy
Other risk factors present, including obesity, hypertension, or cigarette LDL concentration is persistently ⬎160 mg/dL despite diet therapy
smoking or positive family history of premature CVD
Children with diabetes mellitus Pharmacologic treatment should be considered when LDL concentration
is ⱖ130 mg/dL

there were few studies of pharmacologic intervention in Niacin

children, and the degree to which such therapy would Niacin or nicotinic acid can be effective in lowering LDL
produce important adverse effects was not known.22 and triglyceride concentrations while increasing HDL
More recent studies of children and adolescents have concentration. The mechanism of action is by decreasing
established the effectiveness and safety of the available hepatic production of very low-density lipoprotein
agents, including their use in prepubertal children and (VLDL). Niacin may also lower lipoprotein(a). Because
children between 8 and 10 years of age. It is not known of these effects, niacin is a potentially attractive medica-
whether there is an age at which development of the tion for treatment of dyslipidemia. Unfortunately, the
atherosclerotic process is accelerated. Pathology studies adverse effects associated with niacin make it very diffi-
have shown that the frequency of fibrous plaques in- cult to use it in pediatric clinical practice. Adverse effects
creases with age.6–8 Although these studies were per- include flushing, which is quite common, as well as
formed before the recent epidemic of childhood obesity, hepatic failure, myopathy, glucose intolerance, and hy-
increased BMI was an important risk factor for both fatty peruricemia. In 1 pediatric study, adverse effects such as
streaks and fibrous plaques. It is possible that if these flushing occurred in 76% of the children, and elevation
studies were repeated, they would show an overall more of hepatic transaminase concentrations occurred in
aggressive atherosclerotic process in children today. 26%.58 Because of those adverse effects, niacin should
not be recommended for routine use in the treatment of
MEDICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR THE TREATMENT pediatric dyslipidemia.
OF DYSLIPIDEMIA
Several classes of medication are available for treatment
3-Hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase
of dyslipidemia in children and adolescents (see Table 6).
Inhibitors (Statins)
Statins inhibit the rate-limiting enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-
Bile Acid–Binding Resins methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase for endogenous
Bile acid– binding resins work by binding the cholesterol synthesis of cholesterol, which lowers the intracellular
in bile acids in the intestinal lumen, which prevents their cholesterol level and upregulates the LDL receptors, re-
reuptake as part of the enterohepatic circulation. The sulting in increased clearance of LDL from the circula-
advantage of these medications is that they do not have tion. In general, the statins are well tolerated and result
systemic effects. Average lowering of cholesterol is 10% in cholesterol lowering of 20% to 50% below baseline,
to 20% below baseline. Although adverse effects of bile depending on the baseline value and the dose used.59 In
acid– binding resins are limited to gastrointestinal dis- adults, a 1% reduction in LDL concentration results in a
comfort, these adverse effects and the fact that the med- reduction of coronary events by approximately 1%. Ad-
ication is difficult to take limits their use for young verse effects of statins are related to increased hepatic
patients. They are available as either a granular powder transaminase levels and also elevations of creatine ki-
that must be mixed with liquid or as a tablet that is large nase, which may be associated with rare but clinically
and cannot be broken. McCrindle et al57 compared the 2 important episodes of rhabdomyolysis. There is also a
formulations in children with heterozygous familial hy- concern about the potential of statin medications to be
percholesterolemia. They found that the tablet form was teratogenic, so they are not recommended for women
more acceptable, but gastrointestinal complaints were who are pregnant, seeking to become pregnant, or
common for both groups, and compliance was generally breastfeeding. Patients should be monitored with peri-
poor. odic measurement of liver transaminase and creatine
kinase levels. Patients should also be instructed to report
symptoms of muscle aches or cramping.
TABLE 6 Classes of Medication for Treatment of Dyslipidemia in There have been a number of clinical trials of
Children and Adolescents statins in children and adolescents.60–67 Although these
Class Potential Adverse Effects studies have generally been short-term, they have
Bile acid sequestrant Gastrointestinal symptoms, constipation, shown statins to be safe and effective in lowering
cramping, bloating cholesterol concentrations. More recent studies have
Cholesterol-absorption blocker Gastrointestinal symptoms included measures of vascular structure and function.
3-Hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl Myopathy, rhabdomyolysis, increased For example, de Jongh et al68 evaluated the response
coenzyme A reductase hepatic transaminase levels, of the brachial artery to ischemia and subsequent
inhibitors teratogenicity hyperemia. This evaluation used ultrasonography and

204 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
has been found to be a measure of the function of the SUMMARY
vascular endothelium. In adults, endothelial dysfunc-
tion has been shown to be an early marker of athero- 1. The population approach to a healthful diet should
sclerosis. De Jongh et al68 demonstrated improvement be recommended to all children older than 2 years
in endothelial function in children with high choles- according to Dietary Guidelines for Americans. This
terol levels who were treated with a statin, compared approach includes the use of low-fat dairy prod-
with those who were treated with placebo. Wiegman ucts. For children between 12 months and 2 years
et al69 showed that children with hypercholesterol- of age for whom overweight or obesity is a concern
emia treated with placebo had an increase in carotid or who have a family history of obesity, dyslipide-
IMT over 2 years, whereas children treated with a mia, or CVD, the use of reduced-fat milk would be
statin medication had regression of carotid IMT. The appropriate.
results of these studies are encouraging in that these 2. The individual approach for children and adolescents
noninvasive vascular measurements are thought to at higher risk for CVD and with a high concentration
provide an assessment of the extent of the atheroscle- of LDL includes recommended changes in diet with
rotic process, which has an effect on both the structure nutritional counseling and other lifestyle interven-
and function of arteries. Furthermore, this study in- tions such as increased physical activity.
cluded prepubertal children as young as 8 years of age,
and on the basis of these results and reassuring safety 3. The most current recommendation is to screen chil-
data, the US Food and Drug Administration has ap- dren and adolescents with a positive family history
proved the use of pravastatin for children with familial of dyslipidemia or premature (ⱕ55 years of age for
hypercholesterolemia who are 8 years and older, re- men and ⱕ65 years of age for women) CVD or
gardless of pubertal status. dyslipidemia. It is also recommended that pediatric
patients for whom family history is not known or
those with other CVD risk factors, such as over-
weight (BMI ⱖ 85th percentile, ⬍95th percentile),
Cholesterol-Absorption Inhibitors obesity (BMI ⱖ 95th percentile), hypertension
The dietary cholesterol-absorption inhibitors repre- (blood pressure ⱖ 95th percentile), cigarette smok-
sent the newest class of cholesterol-lowering agents. ing, or diabetes mellitus, be screened with a fasting
Although they are thought to act mainly on intestinal lipid profile.
absorption, unlike resins, these drugs are absorbed,
4. For these children, the first screening should take
enter the enterohepatic circulation, and may have
place after 2 years of age but no later than 10 years of
systemic effects. Ezetimibe has been shown to reduce
age. Screening before 2 years of age is not recom-
LDL concentrations by 20%, but in adults they are
mended.
used primarily in combination with statins. These
medications have not been extensively studied in chil- 5. A fasting lipid profile is the recommended approach
dren, particularly in combination with other medica- to screening, because there is no currently available
tions such as statins. Because the adverse effects are noninvasive method to assess atherosclerotic CVD
limited to gastrointestinal discomfort and they come in children. This screening should occur in the
in a palatable, small tablet form, they represent a context of well-child and health maintenance vis-
potentially important first-line treatment for children. its. If values are within the reference range on
Additional study will be needed to evaluate their long- initial screening, the patient should be retested in 3
term effectiveness in young patients. to 5 years.
6. For pediatric patients who are overweight or obese
and have a high triglyceride concentration or low
Fibrates HDL concentration, weight management is the pri-
Pharmacologic therapy for elevated triglyceride con- mary treatment, which includes improvement of diet
centrations, such as the fibrates, has not been exten- with nutritional counseling and increased physical
sively studied in children. Fibric acid derivatives in- activity to produce improved energy balance.
hibit the synthesis and increase the clearance of the 7. For patients 8 years and older with an LDL concen-
VLDL apoprotein B, which then leads to a decrease in tration of ⱖ190 mg/dL (or ⱖ160 mg/dL with a
VLDL production. These medicines also inhibit periph- family history of early heart disease or ⱖ2 addi-
eral lipolysis and decrease hepatic extraction of free tional risk factors present or ⱖ130 mg/dL if diabe-
fatty acids, which reduces hepatic triglyceride produc- tes mellitus is present), pharmacologic intervention
tion. These medications should be used cautiously and should be considered. The initial goal is to lower
under the supervision of a pediatric lipid specialist. LDL concentration to ⬍160 mg/dL. However, tar-
The adverse effects of fibrates are similar to those of gets as low as 130 mg/dL or even 110 mg/dL may be
statins. The risk of myopathy and rhabdomyolysis is warranted when there is a strong family history of
markedly increased when fibrates (especially gemfi- CVD, especially with other risk factors including
brozil) are used in combination with statins or in obesity, diabetes mellitus, the metabolic syndrome,
patients with renal insufficiency. and other higher-risk situations.

PEDIATRICS Volume 122, Number 1, July 2008 205

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
COMMITTEE ON NUTRITION, 2007–2008 factors in childhood and carotid intima-media thickness in
Frank R. Greer, MD, Chairperson adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study.
Jatinder J. S. Bhatia, MD JAMA. 2003;290(17):2277–2283
12. Tamir I, Heiss G, Glueck CJ, Christensen B, Kwiterovich P,
Stephen R. Daniels, MD, PhD
Rifkind B. Lipid and lipoprotein distributions in white children
Marcie Beth Schneider, MD
ages 6 –19 yrs: the Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence
Janet Silverstein, MD Study. J Chronic Dis. 1981;34(1):27–39
Nicolas Stettler, MD 13. Hickman TB, Briefel RR, Carroll MD, et al. Distributions and
Dan W. Thomas, MD trends of serum lipid levels among United States children and
adolescents ages 4 –19 years: data from the Third National
LIAISONS Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Prev Med. 1998;
Donna Blum-Kemelor, MS, RD 27(6):879 – 890
US Department of Agriculture 14. Friedman LA, Morrison JA, Daniels SR, McCarthy WF, Spre-
Valerie Marchand, MD cher DL. Sensitivity and specificity of pediatric lipid determi-
Canadian Paediatric Society nations for adult lipid status: findings from the Princeton Lipid
Research Clinics Prevalence Program Follow-up Study. Pediat-
Laurence Grummer-Strawn, PhD
rics. 2006;118(1):165–172
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
15. Labarthe DR, Dai S, Fulton J. Cholesterol screening in children:
RADM Van S. Hubbard, MD insights from Project HeartBeat! and NHANES III. Prog Pediatr
National Institutes of Health Cardiol. 2003;17(2):169 –178
Benson M. Silverman, MD 16. Bradley CB, Harrell JS, McMurray RG, Bangdiwala SI, Frau-
US Food and Drug Administration man AC, Webb JP. Prevalence of high cholesterol, high blood
pressure, and smoking among elementary school children in
STAFF North Carolina. N C Med J. 1997;58(5):362–367
Debra Burrowes, MHA 17. Goff DC Jr, Labarthe DR, Howard G, Russell GB. Primary
prevention of high blood cholesterol concentrations in the
United States. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(8):913–919
REFERENCES 18. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Ajani UA. Trends in risk factors for
1. American Heart Association. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: cardiovascular disease among children and adolescents in the
2006 Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association; 2006 United States. Pediatrics. 2004;114(6):1534 –1544
2. Newman WP III, Freedman DS, Voors AW, et al. Relation of
19. Lauer RM, Lee J, Clarke WR. Factors affecting the relationship
serum lipoprotein levels and systolic blood pressure to early
between childhood and adult cholesterol levels: the Muscatine
atherosclerosis: the Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1986;
Study. Pediatrics. 1988;82(3):309 –318
314(3):138 –144
20. Lauer RM, Clarke WR. Use of cholesterol measurements in
3. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition.
childhood for the prediction of adult hypercholesterolemia: the
Cholesterol in childhood. Pediatrics. 1998;101(1 pt 1):141–147
Muscatine Study. JAMA. 1990;264(23):3034 –3038
4. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: an update. N Engl
21. Webber LS, Srinivasan SR, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS.
J Med. 1986;314(8):488 –500
Tracking of serum and lipids and lipoproteins from childhood
5. Webber LS, Osganian V, Luepker RV, et al. Cardiovascular risk
to adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;
factors among third grade children in four regions of the United
133(9):884 – 899
States. The CATCH Study: Child and Adolescent Trial for Car-
22. American Academy of Pediatrics. National Cholesterol Educa-
diovascular Health. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141(5):428 – 439
tion Program: report of the expert panel on blood cholesterol
6. Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman WP III, Tracy
RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovas- levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 1992;89(3 pt 2):
cular risk factors and the early development of atherosclerosis. 525–584
Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(23):1650 –1656 23. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for lipid disorders
7. McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Tracy RE, in children: US Preventive Task Force recommendation state-
Strong JP. Effect of nonlipid risk factors on atherosclerosis in ment. Pediatrics. 2007;120(1). Available at: www.pediatrics.
youth with favorable lipoprotein profile. Pathobiological De- org/cgi/content/full/120/1/e215
terminants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research 24. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High
Group. Circulation. 2001;103(11):1546 –1550 Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third
8. McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Malcolm GT, Oalmann MC, report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP)
Strong JP. Effects of serum lipoproteins and smoking on ath- Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High
erosclerosis in young men and women. The PDAY Research Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA.
Group. Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in 2001;285(19):2486 –2497
Youth. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17(1):95–106 25. Dennison BA, Jenkins PL, Pearson TA. Challenges to imple-
9. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, et al. A definition of menting the current pediatric cholesterol screening guidelines
advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and histological clas- into practice. Pediatrics. 1994;94(3):296 –302
sification of atherosclerosis: a report from the Committee on 26. Rifai N, Neufeld E, Ahlstrom P, Rimm E, D’Angelo L, Hicks JM.
Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Failure of current guidelines for cholesterol screening in urban
Heart Association. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995;15(9): African-American adolescents. Pediatrics. 1996;98(3 pt 1):
1512–1531 383–388
10. Davis PH, Dawson JD, Riley WA, Lauer RM. Carotid intimal- 27. Råstam L, Hannan PJ, Luepker RV, Mittelmark MB, Murray
medial thickness is related to cardiovascular risk factors mea- DM, Slater JS. Seasonal variation in plasma cholesterol
sured from childhood through middle age: the Muscatine distributions: implications for screening and referral. Am J Prev
Study. Circulation. 2001;104(23):2815–2819 Med. 1992;8(6):360 –366
11. Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kähönen M, et al. Cardiovascular risk 28. Williams RR, Hunt SC, Barlow GK, et al. Prevention of familial

206 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
 cardiovascular disease by screening for family history and lipids Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of fat and cho-
in youths. Clin Chem. 1992;38(8B pt 2):1555–1560 lesterol in children with elevated low-density lipoprotein-
29. Bachman RP, Schoen EJ, Stembridge A, Jurecki ER, Imagire cholesterol: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC).
RS. Compliance with childhood cholesterol screening among JAMA. 1995;273(18):1429 –1435
members of a prepaid health plan. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147(4): 47. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, et al. Diet and lifestyle
382–385 recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from
30. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee [pub-
Flegal KM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United lished corrections appear in Circulation. 2006;114(23):e629 and
States, 1999 –2004. JAMA. 2006;295(13):1549 –1555 Circulation. 2006;114(1):e27]. Circulation. 2006;114(1):82–96
31. Muntner P, He J, Cutler JA, Wildman RP, Whelton PK. Trends 48. Gidding SS, Dennison BA, Birch LL, et al. Dietary recommen-
in blood pressure among children and adolescents. JAMA. dations for children and adolescents: a guide for practitioners:
2004;291(17):2107–2113 consensus statement from the American Heart Association.
32. Diller PM, Huster GA, Leach AD, Laskarzewski PM, Sprecher Circulation. 2005;112(13):2061–2075
DL. Definition and application of the discretionary screening 49. Ascherio A, Katan MB, Zock PL, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC.
indicators according to the National Cholesterol Education Pro- Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med.
gram for Children and Adolescents. J Pediatr. 1995;126(3): 1999;340(25):1994 –1998
345–352 50. Lifshitz F, Tarim O. Considerations about dietary fat restrictions
33. Griffin TC, Christoffel KK, Binns HJ, McGuire PA. Family for children. J Nutr. 1996;126(4 suppl):1031S–1041S
history evaluation as a predictive screen for childhood hyper- 51. McCrindle BW, Urbina EM, Dennison BA, et al. Drug therapy
cholesterolemia. Pediatric Practice Research Group. Pediatrics. of high-risk lipid abnormalities in children and adolescents: a
1989;84(2):365–373 scientific statement from the American Heart Association Ath-
34. Kavey RE, Daniels SR, Lauer RM, et al. American Heart Asso- erosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth Committee,
ciation guidelines for primary prevention of atherosclerotic Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Council on
cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Circulation. Cardiovascular Nursing. Circulation. 2007;115(14):1948 –1967
2003;107(11):1562–1566; copublished in J Pediatr. 2003; 52. Lichtenstein AH, Deckelbaum RJ; American Heart Association
142(4):368 –372 Science Advisory. Stanol/sterol ester-containing foods and
35. Cook S, Weitzman A, Auinger P, Nguyen M, Dietz WH. Prev- blood cholesterol levels: a statement for healthcare profession-
alence of a metabolic syndrome phenotype in adolescents: als from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition,
findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Exam- Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart As-
ination Survey, 1988 –1994. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003; sociation. Circulation. 2001;103(8):1177–1179
157(8):821– 827 53. Tammi A, Rönnemaa T, Miettinen TA, et al. Effects of gender,
36. Weiss R, Dziura J, Burgert TS, et al. Obesity and the metabolic apolipoprotein E phenotype and cholesterol-lowering by plant
syndrome in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2004; stanol esters in children: the STRIP study. Special Turku Cor-
350(23):2362–2374 onary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Acta Paediatr. 2002;
37. Cruz ML, Goran MI. The metabolic syndrome in children and 91(11):1155–1162
adolescents. Curr Diab Rep. 2004;4(1):53– 62 54. Maron BJ, Chaitman BR, Ackerman MJ, et al. Recommenda-
38. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. The global spread of type 2 diabetes tions for physical activity and recreational sports participation
mellitus in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2005;146(5): for young patients with genetic cardiovascular diseases. Circu-
693–700 lation. 2004;109(22):2807–2816
39. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, Standiford D, Khoury 55. Strong WB, Malina RM, Blimkie CJ, et al. Evidence-based
PR, Zeitler P. Increased incidence of non-insulin dependent physical activity for school-age youth. J Pediatr. 2005;146(6):
diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr. 1996;128(5 pt 732–737
1):608 – 615 56. Kavey RE, Allada V, Daniels SR, et al. Cardiovascular risk
40. Kirk S, Zeller M, Claytor R, Santangelo M, Khoury PR, Daniels reduction in high-risk pediatric patients: a scientific statement
SR. The relationship of health outcomes to improvement in from the American Heart Association Expert Panel on Popula-
BMI in children and adolescents. Obes Res. 2005;13(5): tion and Prevention Science; Councils on Cardiovascular Dis-
876 – 882 ease in the Young, Epidemiology and Prevention, Nutrition,
41. Hamman RF, Wing RR, Edelstein SL, et al. Effect of weight loss Physical Activity and Metabolism, High Blood Pressure Re-
with lifestyle intervention on risk of diabetes. Diabetes Care. search, Cardiovascular Nursing, and the Kidney in Heart
2006;29(9):2102–2107 Disease; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Quality of
42. American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Sports Medicine Care and Outcomes Research— endorsed by the American
and Fitness, Council on School Health. Active healthy living: Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2006;114(24):2710 –2738
prevention of childhood obesity through increased physical 57. McCrindle BW, O’Neill MB, Cullen-Dean G, Helden E. Accept-
activity. Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):1834 –1842 ability and compliance with two forms of cholestyramine in the
43. Rose G. Sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol. treatment of hypercholesterolemia in children: a randomized,
1985;14(1):32–38 crossover trial. J Pediatr. 1997;130(2):266 –273
44. Salo P, Viikari J, Hämäläinen M, et al. Serum cholesterol ester 58. Colletti RB, Neufeld EJ, Roff NK, McAuliffe TL, Baker AL,
fatty acids in 7- and 13-month-old children in a prospective Newburger JW. Niacin treatment in hypercholesterolemia in
randomized trial of a low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol diet: children. Pediatrics. 1993;92(1):78 – 82
the STRIP baby project. Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor 59. Waters DD. What the statin trials have taught us. Am J Cardiol.
Intervention Project for Children. Acta Paediatr. 1999;88(5): 2006;98(1):129 –134
505–512 60. Ducobu J, Brasseur D, Chaudron JM, et al. Simvastatin use in
45. Hakanen M, Lagström H, Kaitosaari T, et al. Development of children. Lancet. 1992;339(8807):1488
overweight in an atherosclerosis prevention trial starting in 61. de Jongh S, Ose L, Szamosi T, et al. Efficacy and safety of statin
early childhood: the STRIP study. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30(4): therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a ran-
618 – 626 domized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with simvasta-
46. Writing Group for the DISC Collaborative Research Group. tin. Circulation. 2002;106(17):2231–2237

PEDIATRICS Volume 122, Number 1, July 2008 207

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
62. Firth JC, Marais AD, Byrnes P, Fusco RA, Bonnici F. Fluva- safety of lovastatin in adolescent males with heterozygous
statin in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Cardiol familial hypercholesterolemia: a randomized controlled trial.
Young. 2000;10(suppl 2):35 JAMA. 1999;281(2):137–144
63. McCrindle BW, Heldon E, Cullen-Dean G, Conner WT. A 67. McCrindle BW, Ose L, Marais AD. Efficacy and safety of
randomized crossover trial of combination pharmacologic ther- atorvastatin in children and adolescents with familial hyper-
apy in children with familial hyperlipidemia. Pediatr Res. 2002; cholesterolemia or severe hyperlipidemia: a multicenter,
51(6):715–721 randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2003;143(1):
64. Knipscheer HC, Boelen CC, Kastelein JJ, et al. Short-term 74 – 80
efficacy and safety of pravastatin in 72 children with familial 68. de Jongh S, Lilien MR, op’t Roodt J, Stroes ES, Bakker HD,
hypercholesterolemia. Pediatr Res. 1996;39(5):867– 871 Kastelein JJ. Early statin therapy restores endothelial function
65. Lambert M, Lupien PJ, Gagné C, et al. Treatment of familial in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Car-
hypercholesterolemia in children and adults: effect of lova- diol. 2002;40(12):2117–2121
statin. Canadian Lovastatin in Children Study Group. Pediatrics. 69. Wiegman A, Hutten BA, de Groot E, et al. Efficacy and safety of
1996;97(5):619 – 628 statin therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a
66. Stein EA, Illingworth DR, Kwiterovich PO Jr, et al. Efficacy and randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(3):331–337

208 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010
 Lipid Screening and Cardiovascular Health in Childhood
Stephen R. Daniels, Frank R. Greer and and the Committee on Nutrition
Pediatrics 2008;122;198-208
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2008-1349
Updated Information including high-resolution figures, can be found at:
& Services http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/198
References This article cites 67 articles, 40 of which you can access for free
at:
http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/198#BIBL
Citations This article has been cited by 55 HighWire-hosted articles:
http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/198#otherarticle
s
Post-Publication 4 P3Rs have been posted to this article:
Peer Reviews (P3Rs) http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/eletters/122/1/198
Subspecialty Collections This article, along with others on similar topics, appears in the
following collection(s):
Heart & Blood Vessels
http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/collection/heart_and_blood_vessel
s
Permissions & Licensing Information about reproducing this article in parts (figures,
tables) or in its entirety can be found online at:
http://www.pediatrics.org/misc/Permissions.shtml
Reprints Information about ordering reprints can be found online:
http://www.pediatrics.org/misc/reprints.shtml

Downloaded from www.pediatrics.org by on November 5, 2010