SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MOMENTUM TRANSFER
UNIT-2
FLUID DYNAMICS

1
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLUID DYNAMICS
 It is the most widely used branch of Fluid Mechanics
 Flow of fluid is analyzed along with the forces responsible for
the fluid flow
 It provides the solution completely for all flow related problems
encountered in daily life and engineering
 It is more complex than fluid statics and kinematics
 It helps in designing of piping network in small and big
building, towns and flow of fluids in chemical, petroleum,
pharmaceutical and other process industries
 It helps in designing of pumps, turbines and compressors
 It helps in the construction of dams across rivers, ships,
automobiles, space vehicles etc

2
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLOW - FORCES
The forces on a fluid particle
 Fg - Gravity force
 Fp - pressure force
 Fv - force due to viscosity
 Ft - force due to turbulence
 Fc - force due to compressibility
The net force on fluid particle
Fx = (Fg)x +(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x+(Fc)x … (5.1)

With increase of number of forces on fluid particle, the solution become complex

3
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLUID FORCE- SURFACE AND BODY FORCE

 Further forces acting on the fluid can be classified as
 Body Forces

 Surface Forces

 Body Forces: The forces which completely act on fluid volume.

 Ex: Gravity Force, Electromagnetic Force etc.

 In general fluid flow analysis - only body force acting on

fluid volume is gravity force
 Surface Force: The force which acts only on surface of a fluid
volume
 Ex: Shear Stress or Viscous and Pressure

4
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

Forces acting on the fluid particle are
– Pressure Force

– Gravity Force

The total force is sum of Gravity and Pressure force

 Fx = (Fg)x +(Fp)x … (5.2)
This equation represents most simplest form of fluid
flow
This equation is useful when fluid is ideal i.e., effect
of viscosity is negligible

5
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

NAVIER-STOKE’S EQUATION
It is also called as equation of motion for fluid flow.
The Forces influencing fluid motion in Navier-Stoke’s equation
are
Gravity force
Pressure Force
Viscous Force
The inertia force is sum of gravity, pressure and viscous force
Fx = (Fg)x +(Fp)x+(Fv)x … (5.3)

Applicable only when flow is laminar and fluid is Newtonian

6
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MATHEMATICAL FORM OF NAVIER –STOKE’S

EQUATION

… (5.4)

7
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

REYNOLD’S EQUATION
The forces acting on the fluid particle include
• Pressure force
• Gravity force
• Viscous force
• Turbulence
 Total force= Fx = (Fg)x +(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x … (5.5)

Applicable only for incompressible flows.

Equation cannot accommodate compressible flows..

8
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLUID MOTION LAWS

A fluid motion generally represents three dimensional
flow.
The laws applicable changes with influencing forces.
All fluid flows should obey the following equations or laws
1. Equation of continuity – Based on Law of conservation
of mass
2. Equation of Linear Momentum - Based on Newton’s
second law of motion
3. Equation of Energy – Based on First Law of
Thermodynamics

9
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

CONTINUITY EQUATION
Continuity equation allows us to check whether fluid flow is
obeying law of conservation of the mass
It changes for steady and unsteady flow
For one dimensional steady state Flow:
UA = Constant … (5.6)
For three dimensional Flow:
/t +u/x +v/y+w/z =0 … (5.7)

10
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EQUATION OF MOTION
It is also called as momentum equation
It is based on Newton’s second law of motion.
 Newton’s Second Law Defines : F = m a … (5.8)
Where ,
F – Force in Newtons; m – Mass in kg a – accleration in m/s2
Law of Momentum states that “Rate of change of momentum
attained by the fluid is equal to product of mass of the fluid
and its velocity”.
 The change in the momentum will be equal to sum of the
forces acting on the fluid.
 The most simplest equation the fluid motion is the Euler’s
equation of motion 11
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EULER’S EQUATION
The equation is developed by Euler
Forces considered on fluid particle by Euler
• Pressure force and
• gravitational force
The assumptions made by Euler are
The fluid is Ideal ( Viscosity is zero)
The flow is steady.
The flow is incompressible.
The flow is irrotational
Euler’s equation : ∂p/ρ + gdz + vdv = 0 … (5.9)
12
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
Statement:

It states that for a steady, ideal and incompressible fluid flow the total energy at any point of the
fluid is constant.
The total energy consist of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy or datum energy.
Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by the integration of Euler’s equation.

Mathematical form of Bernoulli’s equation

p/ ρg + v2/2g+ z = constant. … (5.11)
OR
p/ + v2/2 + zg = constant … (5.12)
where,
p/ρg - pressure head ( m) ; p/ - pressure energy per unit
mass (W/kg)
v2/2g - kinetic or Velocity head (m); v2/2 – kinetic energy per unit mass (W/kg)
z - Potential head (m) zg - Potential energy per unit mass
(W/kg)

13
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Fig. 5.1 – Flow in a pipe of varying cross-section

Bernoulli’s equation can be applied for flow of fluid in a pipe
It is used for analysis of energy content of fluid at different
locations in pipe flow
Let,
P1, P2 – Pressure energy at section 1 and 2
V1, V2 – Velocity of fluid at section 1 and 2
Z1, Z2 - Height of centre of pipe from datum at section 1 and 2
14
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The above Bernoulli’s equation can be written for flow across

two location along a pipe can be represented by
p1/ ρg + v12/2g+ z1= p2/ ρg + v22/2g+ z2 … (5.13)
The unit of each term in the eqn.(1) is meter (m).
It can also be written as
p1/ ρ + v12/2+ z1g= p2/ ρ + v22/2+ z2g … (5.14)
The unit of each term in the eqn.(2) is Watt/kg

15
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

SIGNIFICANCE OF BERNOULLI’S
 It is also called as mechanical energy equation, as it consists of
terms where one form of energy can be converted to another.
 It is used in comparing the energy content of the fluid at two
different locations when fluid is flowing
 It is used to determine direction of flow.
 It is used in deriving flow rate expression for flow measuring
devices viz.,
 Pitot tube

 Orificemeter

 Venturimeter

 It is modified to predict loss of energy for real fluids

16
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

SIGNIFICANCE OF BERNOULLI’S
 It is used to estimate the loss of head between two sections
during flow of real fluids and pump work needed in
transportation of fluids.

17
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Problems -5.1: Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm
diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and with
mean velocity of 2.0m/s. Find the total head or total energy
per unit weight of the water at a cross-section, which is 1.5
above the datum line.
Problem -5.2: A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having a
diameters, 20cm and 10cm at the cross-sections 1 and 2
respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is given 4.0m/s.
Find the velocity head at sections 1 and 2 and also rate of
discharge

Fig. 5.2 Flow in a pipe of varying cross-section

18
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Problem -5.3: The water is flowing through a pipe having
diameters 20cm and 10cm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The
rate of flow through pipe is 35litres/s. The section 1 is 6 m above
datum and section 2 is 4m above the datum. If the pressure at
section 1 is 39.24N/cm2. Find the intensity of pressure at
section 2.

Fig. 5.3 – Flow in a inclined pipe

19
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Problem-5.4: The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length
100m having diameters 600mm at the upper end and 300mm
at the lower end , at the rate of 50liters per second. The pipe
has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end if the
pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N/cm2. (z1 = 1/30x 100
and z2= 0)

20
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

It is also called as Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids:
The Bernoulli’s equation was derived on the assumptions that
fluid is ideal i.e., viscosity =0
An ideal fluid offers no resistance to flow and hence no loss in
energy during its flow.
But, all real fluids posses viscosity and offers resistance to
flow leading to loss of energy during its flow
The above loss of energy occurs as head loss, kinetic energy
loss and momentum loss.
Hence, Bernoulli’s equation is modified to accommodate the
above losses and also pump work to make it suitable for
application in flow of real fluids.

21
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

i. Head lost due to friction:
For flow of real fluid between two sections,
E1 = E2 + hf - (3)
Where,
E1 - Energy of fluid at section 1
E2 - Energy of fluid at section 2
hf - Head loss due to friction
Rewriting equation (3) in terms of Bernoulli’s equation
Modified Bernoulli’s equation can be represented as
p1/ ρg + v12/2g+ z1= p2/ ρg + v22/2g+ z2 +hf
Where
hf - energy lost between location 1 and 2 or head
loss due to friction 22
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

ii. kinetic energy loss

Kinetic energy loss occurs due to variation in velocity of fluid along the
radial direction. This loss is introduced into Bernoulli’s equation as Kinetic
energy correction factor ()
 Kinetic energy Correction Factor
It is defined as the ratio of K.E/sec based on actual velocity to the K.E./sec
based on average velocity
p1/ ρg + 1v12/2g+ z1= p2/ ρg + 2v22/2g+ z2 +hf
The value of =1 for turbulent flow and =2 for laminar flow.
iii. Momentum loss

23
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

iv. Pump work

In process industry for transportation of fluids through
pipelines to keep the flow continuous and at required
pressure, pumps are used to add the energy lost by the
fluid during flow.
 A term called “Pump work” is added to Bernoulli’s
equation to estimate the power required to transport fluid
at a given flow rate and to overcome the energy lost by
the fluid in reaching point 2. It is denoted by Wp
 p1/ ρg + 1v12/2g+ z1+Wp= p2/ ρg + 2v22/2g+ z2 +hf
 Where,
  = Pump Efficiency
 Wp = Pump Work

24
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S

Problems -5.5: A pipe diameter 400mm carries water at a
velocity of 25 m/s. The pressures at the points A and B are
given as 29.43 N/cm2 and 22.563 N/cm2 respectively
while the datum head at A and B are 28 m. and 30m. Find
the loss of head between A and B.
Problem -5.6: A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity
0.87 changes in diameter from 200 mm diameter at a
position A to 500 mm diameter at position B which is 4
meters at a higher level. If the pressure at A and B are
9.81 N/cm2 and 5.886 N/cm2 respectively and the
discharge is 200 liters/s determine the loss of head and
direction of flow.

25
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S

 Problem-5.7: Water at 250C is pumped at a constant rate of 24
x 10-4 m3/sec from a large reservoir resting on the floor to the
top of an experimental absorption tower. The point of
discharge is 5 m above the floor and the frictional loss in the
0.05 m pipe from the reservoir to the tower amounts to 2.4
J/kg. At what height in the reservoir the water level be kept if
the pump can develop only 100 watts.
 Problem-5.8: Oil of specific gravity 0.75 is pumped from a tank
over a hill through a 60cm pipe with the pressure at the top of
the hill maintained at 1.75 x 103 N/m2. The summit of the hill
is 80 m above the surface of the oil in the tank and oil is
pumped at the rate of 0.6 m3/s. If the lost head from the tank
to summit is 5m what HP must the pump supply to the liquid.

26
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S

 Problem-5.9: A pump feeds 1000 kg/hr of nitrobenzene at a
temperature of 200C from a tank to a reactor which is 15 m
above the level of nitrogen in the tank. Find the power
consumed by the pump assuming an efficiency of 0.6. The
diameter of pipe is 8cm and density of nitrobenzene is 1200
kg/m3; viscosity is 0.00021 Pa.s. Length of the pipe is 200 m.
For the given system under the given arrangement the
relationship between velocity and friction factor is given by
f=0.005 V-0.25, where f is the friction factor and v is the velocity
in m/s. Given hf= 4fLV2/2D

27
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES - VENTURIMETER

 A Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of
flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
 It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation
 The flow is measured by changing in velocity the flow
undergoes due to change in cross-sectional area of the flow
 The change in velocity is measured using in terms of
pressure and used in calculations of velocity and volumetric
flow rate
 It has high discharge coefficient of 0.95-0.98
 The pressure loss across the flow meter is minimum when
compared to orifice meter

28
SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

29
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 5.4 – Flow through Venturimeter

 Parts
 1. Short Converging part

 2. Throat

 3. Long Diverging Part

 4. Differential U-tube manometer

It is very accurate and can be used where available pressure is low

Its design is complex and needs to accurately machined

30
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EXPRESSION FOR VENTURIMETER

Let,
D- Diameter of Pipe
d – Diameter of throat
Sm – Specific gravity of manometric fluid
Sf - Specific gravity of flowing fluid
X – Difference in height of fluid in the manometer
a1 – Cross –sectional area of pipe (m2)
a2 – Cross sectional area of throat (m2)
h – Height of fluid (m)
= X {(Sm /Sf)-1.0} … (5.16)

31
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EXPRESSION FOR VENTURIMETER

The equation for estimation of flow rate through venturimeter is
Q = Cd (a1a2/{(a12-a22)}0.5)*(2gh)0.5 … (5.17)
Where,
Q – Volumetric flow rate liquid (m3/s)
Cd – Discharge coefficient
Definition: It is the ratio of Actual discharge to Theoretical
discharge through the venturimeter
The value varies between 0.95-0.98 and depends on design

32
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS - VENTURIMETER
Problem -5.7: A horizontal Venturimeter with inlet and throat
diameters 30cm and 15cm respectively is used to measure the
flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected
to the inlet and the throat is 20cm of mercury. Determine the
rate of flow. Take cd= 0.98.
Problem – 5.8: An oil of sp. Gravity 0.8 is flowing through a
venturimeter having inlet diameter 20cm and throat diameter
10cm. the oil-mercury differential manometer shows a reading
of 25cm. calculate the discharge of oil through the horizontal
Venturimeter.
Problem -5.9:A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20cm
and throat diameter 10cm is used to measure the flow of oil of
specific gravity 0.8. the discharge of oil through venturimeter is
60 liters/s. Find the reading of the oil mercury differential
manometer. Take cd = 0.98.
33
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLOW MEASURING DEIVCE – ORIFICE METER

Characteristics
 It is a device used for
measuring flow rate of a fluid
through a pipe.
 It works on the principle of
Bernoulli’s equation.
 It is simple in construction
 It has upstream section,
downstream section
Fig. 5.5 – Flow through an orificemeter  It consist of a flat circular plate
which has a circular sharp
edged hole called orifice
34
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

ORIFICEMETER
 It is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept
generally 0.5times the diameter of the pipe
 A differential manometer is connected across the upstream
point and vena contracts zone to measure the exact pressure
difference
 The area of minimum cross-section and maximum velocity is
called Venacontracta
 The pressure loss across the orificemeter is high when
compared to venturimeter
 It is widely used because it is easy to fabricate and replace.

35
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EXPRESSION FOR ORIFICEMETER

Let,
D- Diameter of Pipe
d – Diameter of orifice
Sm – Specific gravity of manometric fluid
Sf - Specific gravity of flowing fluid
X – Difference in height of fluid in the manometer
a1 – Cross –sectional area of pipe (m2)
a2 – Cross sectional area of orifice (m2)
h – Height of fluid (m)
= X {(Sm /Sf)-1.0} … (5.16)

36
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

EXPRESSION FOR ORIFICEMETER

Expression for flow rate across orificemeter is given by
Q = Cd (a1a2/{(a12-a22)}0.5)*(2gh)0.5 --(5.18)

Where,
Q – Volumetric flow rate liquid (m3/s)
Cd – Discharge coefficient
It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical
discharge through a orificemeter
Its value normally around – 0.61
It also depends on accuracy of design

37
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS - ORIFICEMETER
Problem – 5.10: An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is
inserted in a pipe of 20cm diameter. The pressure gauges
fitted at upstream and downstream of the Orifice meter gives
readings of 19.62N/cm2 and 9.81n/cm2 respectively,
coefficient of discharge for the meter is given as 0.6. find the
discharge of water through the pipe.
Problem -5.11: An orificemeter with orifice diameter 15cm is
inserted in a pipe of 30cm diameter. The pressure difference
measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two
sides of the orifice meter gives a reading of 50cm of mercury.
Find the rate of flow of oil of sp.gr. 0.9 when the co-efficient of
discharge of the meter= 0.64.

38
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES :PITOT-TUBE

 It is used for measuring
velocity of flow at any point
in a pipe.
 The pitot tube is a glass
tube, bent at right angles as
shown in Figure/ It is based
on the Bernoulli’s equation
 Velocity of fluid at point 1 is
V1. At point 2 Velocity of
fluid becomes zero as fluid
hits pitot tube.
Fig. 5.6 – Velocity measurement
using Pitot tube

39
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PITOT TUBE
 Hence, as velocity becomes zero, the static pressure there is
increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into
pressure energy.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at Section 1 and Section 2 and
simplifying
 Mathematical expression for velocity at any point in a pipe
v= cv (2gh)0.5

… (5.19)

 Where,
 CV = coefficient of discharge
 h - Height of liquid above the surface of conduit.

40
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – PITOT TUBE

Problem – 5.12: A pitot tube placed in the centre of a 300 mm
pipeline has one orifice pointing upstream and other
perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the
central velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe if the
pressure difference between the two orifice is 60mm of water.
Take co-efficient of pitot tube as cv= 0.98.
Problem -5.13: A submarine moves horizontally in sea and has
its axis 15 m below the surface of water. A pitot tube properly
placed just in front of the submarine and along its axis is
connected to the two limbs of a u tube containing mercury. The
difference of mercury level is found to be 170 mm. find the
speed of the submarine knowing that the sp.gr. of mercury is
13.6 and that of sea water is 1.026 with respect of fresh water.
41
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – PITOT TUBE

Problem - 5.14:A pitot tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm
diameter. The static pressure in pipe is 100 mm of mercury
(Vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe,
recorded by the pitot tube is 0.981N/cm2. Calculate the rate of
flow of water through the pipe. If the mean velocity of flow is
0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98.

42
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

ESTIMATION OF PRESSURE LOSS DURING FLOW

 Modified Bernoulli’s equation indicates loss of energy by fluid
during flow as real fluids posses viscosity
 The decrease in energy from one location to another is termed
“head loss due to friction” or pressure loss or “pressure drop”
 In conveying fluid through pipelines at right pressure at the
point of use needs proper estimation of pressure drop.
 In practice, the pressure drop along a pipe in piping system are
classified as
Major loss: Pressure drop across straight pipe
Minor Loss: Pressure drop across pipe fittings and valves

43
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MAJOR LOSS ESTIMATION

The Major loss across a pipe in a piping system depends on
 Reynolds number

 Length of pipe

 Pipe material

 It is determined by using Chezy’s formula or Darcy-

Weisbach equation
 Normally Darcy-Weisbach is used as Chezy’s formula needs
to know Chezy’s constant

44
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

ESTIMATION OF MAJOR LOSS

Estimation of Major loss or Pressure drop across straight pipe is done
using Darcy’s equation
Mathematical form of Darcy-Weisbach equation is

 Hf = 4 f L V2/2gD … (5.20)
Where,
 hf – loss of head (m);

 f – friction factor;

 It is determined using analytical expression or Moody’s

plot
 L – Length of pipe (m);

 V - Velocity of the fluid (m/s)

 D - Diameter of pipe (D);

 g – acceleration due to gravity

45
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

MOODY’S PLOT

Fig. 5.7 – f Vs. Re plot Ref: Fluid Dynamics for chemical

engineers, 46
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FRICTION FACTOR
 Definition:
 It is ratio of wall shear stress to the product of density and
velocity head.
 It is a dimensionless number
 It can be estimated from Moody’s chart or equation
 For Laminar Flow: It depends only on Reynolds number
 It can be predicted by Moody’s diagram or f= 64/Re
 Friction factor is independent of type of pipe material

47
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

FRICTION FACTOR
 For Turbulent flow:
 It depends on Reynolds number and surface roughness
 It can be predicted by Moody’s diagram or equation
 The equations are:
 For smooth pipe
f= 0.079 (Re)-0.25 … (5.21)
It is also called Blasius Equation
 For a pipe with surface roughness (Swamee-Jain
correlation)
f= 0.25/ [log10 {(ks/3.7D)+ (5.74/Re0.9 )}]2 … (5.22)

for 4000 < Re < 108 and 10-5 < ks/D < 2 x 10-2
Where Ks /D= Relative roughness
48
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – MAJOR LOSS ESTIMATION

Problem – 5.15: Find the head loss due to friction in a pipe of
length 50 m and diameter 300 mm carrying water at a velocity
of 3 m/s using Darcy’s formula
Problem –5.16: A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 4 x 10-4 m2/s
is flowing through a 300 mm pipe diameter is flowing at a rate
of 300 liters per second. Find the head lost due to friction for a
length of 70 m of the pipe.

49
 SIT TUMAKURU 10/6/2018

PROBLEMS – MAJOR LOSS ESTIMATION

 Problem–5.17: Calculate the discharge through a pipe of
diameter 200 mm when the difference of pressure head
between the two ends of a pipe 500 m apart is 4m of water.
Take the value of f = 0.009 in the Darcy’s formula.
 Problem–5.18: An oil of specific gravity 0.9 and viscosity 0.07
poise is flowing through a pipe of diameter 200 mm at the rate
of 60 liters/s. Find the head lost due to friction for a 500 m
length of pipe

50