PART – A TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Write the expression for the refractive index in graded index fibers. [APR/MAY 2004]
α 1/2
n[r]= n1[1-2∆(r/a) ] for 0 ≤ r ≤a
n1[1-2∆ ]1/2 ≈ n1[1-∆] =n2 for r ≥ a
r - radial distance from fiber axis , a - core radius ,n1 - refractive index at the core axis , n2 -
refractive index at the cladding, α - shape of the index profile, ∆ - index difference.

2. Define Numerical aperture of a step index fiber. [APR/MAY 2005]

Numerical aperture [N.A] of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is the
measure of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber. It is equal to the sine of
acceptance.
N.A=sinφmax =[n12-n22]1/2

where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

3. Define Mode-field diameter? [APR/MAY 2004], [Apr/May 05]

The fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber is the mode-field diameter. This can be
determined from the mode field distribution of the fundamental LPo1 mode.

4. Give the expression for linearly polarized waves.

The electric or magnetic field of a train of plane polarized waves travelling in a direction k
can be represented in the general form
A[x,t] = ei Aoexp[j[wt-k.x]] with x=xex+yey+zez representing a general position vector and
k=kxex+kyey+kzez representing the wave propagation vector.

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the ray optics theory? [NOV/DEC 2008]
Advantages:
i. It gives more direct physical interpretation of light propagation characteristics in an optical fiber.
ii. Good approximation methods to the light acceptance and guiding in fiber in small Wavelength
unit.
Disadvantages:
i. Ray optics does not predict every mode of cure fiber.
ii. It does not solve the interference problem.
iii. Inaccurate for non- zero wavelength unit when number of guided mode is large.

6. What is Snell’s law?

The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s law and is given by
n1sinφ1=n2 sinφ2

7. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?

i). To provide proper light guidance inside the core
ii). To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
iii). To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
iv). To protect the core from scratches and other mechanical damages

8. What are the uses of optical fibers?

i). To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the telephone
communication, computer data, etc.
ii). To transmit the optical images [Example: Endoscopy]
iii).To act as a light source at the inaccessible places.
iv).To act as sensors to do mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements.
9. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?
The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the optical fiber. To
get total internal reflection, the ray should travel from denser to rarer i.e. from core to cladding
region of the fiber and the angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the
critical angle of that medium.

10. What are step index and graded index fibers?

In the case of graded index fiber, the refractive index of a core is a constant and is larger
than the refractive index of the cladding. The light propagation is mainly by meridonial rays. In the
case of graded index fiber [GRIN fiber] the refractive index of the core varies parabolically from the
centre of the core having maximum refractive index to the core-cladding interface having constant
minimum refractive index. Here the light propagation is by skew rays.

11. Define acceptance angle and critical angle of the fiber. [MAY/JUNE 2009]
Acceptance angle : The acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the fiber axis at which light
may enter the fiber axis in order to be propagated. Θin[max] = Sin-1 n12-n22]

Critical angle : The critical angle is the angle of incidence that causes the refracted light to travel
along the interface between two different mediums. Θc = Sin-1[n2/n1]

12. Why do we prefer step index single mode fiber for long distance communication?
Step index single mode fiber has i] low attenuation due to smaller core diameter ii] higher
bandwidth and iii] very low dispersion.

13. Define relative refractive index difference.

∆ = n12-n22 = n1-n2
2n12 n1
Thus relative refractive index difference is the ratio between the refractive index difference [of core
and cladding] and refractive index of core.

14. What are meridional rays?

Meridional rays are the rays following Zig Zag path when they travel through fiber and for
every reflection it will cross the fiber axis.
15. What are skew rays? [Nov/Dec 2009]
Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when they travel
through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time. It is very difficult to track the
skew rays as they do not lie in a single plane.

16. What is V number of fiber or normalized frequency of fiber?

V number of fiber or normalized frequency of fiber is used to find the number of
propagating modes through the fiber. V= 2 Π a [N.A]
λ

In step index fiber number of modes propagating through the fiber=V2/2. Taking the two
possible polarizations, total number of possible modes propagating through the fiber= V2 * 2 =V2
2
17. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
i] Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium. ii] The angle of incidence
should be greater than the critical angle of the denser medium.

18. Give the relation between numerical aperture of skew rays and meridional rays.
(N.A) skew = cos γ(N.A) meridional when the fiber is placed in air. Here γ is the half of the
angular change in every reflection.
19. State Goos-Haenchen effect.
Goos-Haenchen effect states that there is a lateral shift of the reflected ray at the point of
incidence at the core-cladding interface. This lateral shift is called the Goos-Haenchen shift.

20. When do you have phase shift during total internal reflection of light.
When the light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium, if the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle of core medium, there is a phase shift for both TE and TM waves.

21. What are hybrid modes? Give two examples.

Hybrid modes are the mixture of TE and TM modes that can be traveled through the optical
fiber. Examples:
1. HE1m modes in which |Ez|>|Hz|
2. EH1m modes in which |Hz|>|Ez|

22. Define cutoff wavelength of the fiber.

The cutoff wavelength is defined as the minimum value of wavelength that can be
transmitted through the fiber. The wavelengths greater than the cutoff wavelength can be
transmitted.
λcutoff = 2 Π a [N.A]
V
23. Mention the rule distinguishing ‘mode’ and ‘order’.
The rule states that the smaller the modes propagating angle, the lower the order of the
mode. Hus the mode traveling precisely along the fiber’s central axis is zero mode.

24. What is fiber birefringence and fiber beat length? [MAY/JUNE 2009]
Fiber birefringence: The modes propagate with different phase velocities, and the difference
between their effective indices is called the fiber birefringence.
Imperfections in the fiber are common as such as asymmetrical lateral stress, non circular
imperfect variations of the refractive index profile. These imperfections break the circular symmetry
of ideal fiber and mode propagate with different phase velocity and the difference between their
refractive index is called fiber birefringence.
By = Ko (ny -nx )

Fiber beat length: If light is injected into the fiber so that both modes are excited, one mode is
delayed in phase relative to the order as they propagate. When the phase difference between two
modes is an integral multiple of 2π, the modes will beat at this point and the input polarization will
be reproduced. The length over which the beating occurs is known as fiber beat length.
Lp = 2π
β
25. Give the expression for numerical aperture in graded index fibers.
N.A(r)=N.A.(0) [1-(r/a) α]1/2 for r ≤ a
where
N.A(0) = axial numerical aperture = [n12-n22]1/2
a- is core radius and α is the refractive index profile.

26.Give the relationship between rays and modes. [NOV/DEC 2007]

Ray gives the direction of travel of a plane wave. A guided mode travelling in the z
direction along an optical fiber can be decomposed into a family of plane waves. Since with each
plane wave, a light ray can be associated, the family of plane waves corresponding to a mode
forms a set of rays called ray congruence.
27. A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5 and a cladding refractive index of
1.47.Determine the acceptance angle in air for the fiber. [NOV/DEC 2007]
Given: n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.47
NA = [n12-n22]1/2 = 0.3
Acceptance angle = sin-1[NA] = 1.74˚

28.A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical designed for long distance
transmission is 1%. Estimate the numerical aperture for the fiber when the core index is 1.47.
[NOV/DEC 2008]
Numerical aperture of fiber is given by
NA = n1 ∆ = 1.47 = 0.2

29. A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index difference of
1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate the
normalized frequency for the fiber and the number of guided modes.

i. Normalized frequency

[V] = 2πa n1 ∆ =[2 X 3.14 X 40 / 0.85] X 1.48 x =75.8

λ
ii. Number of guides modes
[M] = ½ V2 = ½ [75.8]2 = 2873

30. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. Find the acceptance angle for meridional rays?
[NOV/DEC 07]

Acceptance angle θa = n0 sin-1 NA ,

n0 = 1 for air,
θa = n0 sin-1 NA = sin-1 0.4 = 23.6˚

31. A single mode fiber has a beat length of 9 cm at 1300nm. Find the birefringence of the fiber.

Birefringence of the fiber β = 2π = 2π = 69.7cm-1

Lp 0.09 m

32. What is tunnel effect in optical fiber? [Nov/ Dec 2009]

The leaky modes are continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate
along the fiber. This power radiation out of the waveguide in quantum mechanical phenomenon is
referred to as tunnel effect.
 PART – A TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Define fiber loss. [MAY/JUNE 07], [NOV/DEC 2010]

Signal attenuation is also called as fiber loss. It is one which determines the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver. The basic attenuation in fiber are
absorption, scattering and radioactive losses.

2. List the basic attenuation mechanism in an optical fiber. [NOV/DEC 06]

a.Absorption
b.Scattering
c.Radiative losses.

3. What are the causes of absorption? [APR/MAY 05]

i). Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
ii). Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
iii). Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

4. Define microscopic bending?

Fiber losses occur due to small bending arise while the fiber is inserted into a cable.

5. Define macroscopic bending? Mention the way to reduce macro bending losses?
If any bending present in the fiber while cabling, the optical power get radiated.
1. Designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference and
2. Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.

6. Give the expression of the effective number of modes that are guided by a curved multimode
fiber of radius ‘α’. [NOV/DEC 04]

* α - Graded index profile , Δ - core – cladding index difference,n2– refractive index of cladding,
k = 2π/λ propagation constant, N∞ = α ( n1k a)2
α+2

7. What is the need for mode coupling in optical fiber? [MAY/JUNE 08]
Pulse distortion will not increase because of mode coupling. Coupling of energy from one
mode to another arises because of structural imperfections, fiber diameter, and refractive index
variations and micro bends. Mode coupling tends to average out the propagation delays and thereby
reduces intermodal dispersion.

8. What causes mode coupling? [MAY/JUNE 06]

Mode coupling is the coupling of energy from one mode to another arises because of
structural imperfections fiber diameter and refractive index variations and cabling induced micro
bends.

9. What is group delay? [NOV/DEC 08]

In an optical fiber there are various modes present. Then the optical input, which is
propagated along the fiber, will travel in various modes. Because of these modes the velocity of the
signal will vary also there may be a delay in the optical signal of these various modes. This is called
as the ‘Group Delay’.
10. What do you mean by polarization mode dispersion? [NOV/DEC 06],[NOV/DEC 2020],
[NOV/DEC 2011]
Signal energy at a given wavelength occupies two orthogonal polarization modes. Due to
varying birefringence along a fiber, each polarization mode travel at a slightly different velocity.
This difference in propagation times, results in pulse spreading. This is polarization mode dispersion.

11. Distinguish dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fibers. [NOV/DEC 07],[NOV/DEC 2011]
Dispersion shifted fiber : By creating a fiber with large negative waveguide dispersion & assuming
the same values for material dispersion as in a standard single mode fiber the addition of waveguide
& material dispersion can then shifted to zero dispersion point to long wavelength. The resulting
optical fiber is known as dispersion shifted fiber.

Dispersion flattened fiber: The reduction of fiber dispersion by spreading the dispersion minimum
out over a widen range .This approach is known dispersion flattering.

12. A multi mode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1 μs over a distance of 15
km. Estimate the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming RZ coding without inter
symbol interference. [NOV/DEC 08 & 09]

 Refer Book

13. A 100 km fiber is used in a communication system. The fiber has 3.0 dB/km loss. What will be
the output power, when the input power fed at the input of fiber is 500 μW.

 Refer Book

14. Mention the two causes of intra modal dispersion. [MAY/JUNE 07]
There is two main causes of intra modal dispersion. They are:
i. Material dispersion –Which arises from the variation of the refractive index to the
core material as a function of wavelength.
ii. Wave guide dispersion – Which occurs because a single mode fiber confines only
about 80 percent of the optical power to the core.
.
15. What is intermodal dispersion? What it cause? [APR/MAY 08],[NOV/DEC 2010]
The intermodal distortion arises due to the variation in the group delay for each individual
mode at a single frequency. When the group velocity of different mode varies, the group delay will
be formed.

16. Distinguish intrinsic and extrinsic absorption. [APR/MAY 08]

Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state with no
density variation, impurities and material in homogeneities. Thus intrinsic absorption set the
fundamental lower limit on absorption for any particular material.

Extrinsic absorption: Absorption due to impurities in the fiber material i.e., transition metal
impurities and OH ions. The transition metal ions produce losses from 1 to 10 dB/km.

17. What is Intra Modal Dispersion? [APR/MAY 2010]

Intra Modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is also called as
group velocity dispersion.
18. What is material dispersion?
Material dispersion arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core material as
a function of wavelength. Material dispersion is also referred to as chromatic dispersion. This causes
a wavelength dependence of group velocity of given mode. So it occurs because the index of
refraction varies as a function of optical wavelength. Material dispersion is an intra modal
dispersion effect and is for particular importance for single ode wave-guide.

19. What is waveguide dispersion?

Wave guide dispersion which occurs because of a single mode fiber confines only about 80%
of optical power to the core. Dispersion this arises since 20% of light propagates in cladding travels
faster than the light confined to the core. Amount of wave-guide dispersion depends on fiber design.
Other factor for pulse spreading is inter modal delay.

20. What is group velocity?

If L is the distance traveled by the pulse, b is the propagation constant along axis then the
group velocity in the velocity at which energy is a pulse travels along the fiber.
Vg = C. (db/ k)

21. What is polarization?

It is a fundamental property of an optical signal .It refers to the electric field orientation of
a light signal which can vary significantly along the length of a fiber.

22. What is pulse broadening?

Dispersion induced signal distortion is that a light pulse will broaden as it travels along the
fiber. This pulse broadening causes a pulse to overlap with neighboring pulses. After a time‘t’, the
adjacent pulses can no longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and error will occur.

23. What is Profile Dispersion?

A fiber with a given index profile (alpha) will exhibit different pulse spreading according to
the source wavelength used. This is called as Profile Dispersion.

24. What is M-C fiber?

Fibers that have a uniform refractive index throughout the cladding is called as M-C fiber or
Matched-cladding fiber.

25. What is D-C fiber?

In depressed cladding fiber the cladding portion next to the core has a lower index than the
outer cladding region.

26. What is effective cut-off wavelength? [NOV/DEC 2004]

It is defined as the largest wavelength at which the higher order LP11 mode power relative
to the fundamental LP01 mode power is reduced to 0.1db.

27. Write a note on scattering losses.

Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variation in the material density from
compositional fluctuation and from structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during fiber
manufacture.

28. What is Rayleigh scattering?

The index variation causes a Rayleigh type of scattering of light. Rayleigh scattering in glass
in the same phenomenon that scatters light from sun in the atmosphere, giving rise to blue sky. The
expression for Rayleigh scattering loss is given by
αscat =(8π3/3λ2)(n2-1)2kBTfβT

n = refractive index kB= boltzman constant βT= isothermal compressibility

Tf =fictive temperature λ =operative wavelength
29. What is intramodal delay and inter modal delay?
 The other factor giving rise to pulse spreading is intramodal delay which is a result of each
mode having a different value of Group velocity at a single frequency.

 Intermodal dispersion is a pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. It is called Group velocity
dispersion or Inter modal dispersion.

30. What is the measure of information capacity in optical wave guide?

It is usually specified by bandwidth distance product in MHz for a step index fiber the various
distortion effects tend to limit the bandwidth distance product to 20MHz.

31. Mention the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.

1. Absorption losses,
2. Scattering losses
3. Bending losses

32. The optical power launched into the fiber is 200μw. The transmission distance is 20 km. The
optical power at the output of the fiber is 50 μw. Calculate the signal attenuation Per unit length
and overall signal attenuation.
 Refer Book
33. What are the types of non – linear scattering losses?
i. Brillouin scattering
ii. Raman scattering

34. What are atomic defects?

Atomic defects are imperfection of the atomic structure of the fiber material such as missing
molecules, high – density clusters of atom groups, or oxygen defects in the glass structure.

36. What is linear scattering?

Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagation mode to different
mode. This will occurs in the leaky mode or radiation mode. All linear processes there are no
change of frequency on scattering.

37. What do you mean by nonlinear scattering?

Nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either
the forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency. It
depends critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes
significant above threshold power levels.
39. What is need of GVD?
Group Velocity Dispersion parameter determines how much a light pulse broadens as it
travels along an optical fiber.
40. What is matched cladding?
Matched cladding 1300nm optimized fiber has a uniform refractive index throughout the
cladding.
41. What are micro bends? How they are formed? [NOV/DEC 09]
Micro bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.
They are formed either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform
lateral pressures created during cabling of fibers.
 PART – A TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Define radiance. [Nov/Dec 04]

It is measure of optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting
surface. The unit of radiance or power is Watts. High radiances are required to couple sufficiently
high optical power levels into a fiber.

2. What is meant by population inversion? [Nov/Dec 04], [No/Dec 2010]

Stimulated emission will exceed absorption only if the population of the excited states is
greater than that of the ground state. This condition is called as population inversion.

3. What is meant by indirect band gap semi conductor material? [Apr/May 05], [Nov/Dec 2011]
For indirect band gap materials, the conduction – band minimum and valance –band maximum
energy levels occurs at different values of momentum. In indirect band gap materials direct
transition is not possible from valence band to conduction. To perform band to band recombination,
it must involve third particle phonons to conserve momentum. e.g., Si, Ge

4. What is meant by hetero junction? Mention its advantages. [Apr/May 05]

A hetero junction consists of two adjoining semiconductor materials with different band gap
energies. They have adequate output power and efficiency, out power can be directly modulated
and they are dimensionally compatible with the optical fiber.

5. Draw the three key transition processes involved in laser action. [Nov/Dec 05],[Apr/may 2010]
i. photon absorption
ii. Spontaneous emission
iii. Stimulated emission

6. Give the example for direct and indirect semiconductor materials. [May/June 06], [APR/MAY 05]
In direct band gap materials direct transition is possible from valence band to conduction band.
e.g.GaAs, InP, InGaAs. In indirect band gap materials direct transition is not possible from valence band
to conduction. e.g. silicon, germanium.

7. Define internal quantum efficiency of an LED. [Nov/Dec 06]

The internal quantum efficiency in the active region is the fraction of the electron – hole
pairs that recombine radiatively. The internal quantum efficiency is defined as the ration of radiative
recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
ηint = Rr / Rr + Rnr
Rr – Radiative recombination rate, Rnr – non radiative recombination rate

8. List the different types of mechanical misalignments that can occur between two jointed fibers.
[Nov/Dec 07]
i.Lateral (axial) misalignment
ii.Longitudinal misalignment
iii.Angular misalignment
9. Distinguish direct and indirect band gap materials. [Nov/Dec 08]

S.No. Direct Band Gap Indirect Band Gap

Direct recombination is possible To perform recombination it must involve a
1.
third particle.
Electron and hole have the same
2.
momentum value Different values of momentum
3.
Life time of charge carriers is less Life time of charge carriers is more
4.
Used in fabricate LED & LASER Used in fabricate transistor and diode

10. An LED has radiative and non radiative recombination times of 30 and 100ns respectively.
Determine the internal quantum efficiency. [Nov/Dec 2008]

Given: τr = 30 ns τnr = 100ns

internal quantum efficiency ηint = τ
τr

Bulk recombination life time τ = τr τnr = 30 X 100 = 23.1 ns

τr + τnr 30 + 100

ηint = 23.1/ 30 = 0.77

11. When a LED has 2 V applied to its terminals, it draws 100 mA and produces 2 mW of optical
power. Determine the LED conversion efficiency from electrical to optical power.
[May/June 09]

Electric power = 2 X 100 nA = 200 mW

Conversion efficiency = optical power / electrical power
(2mW / 200 mW)X 100 = 1 %

12. What is the principle of operation of LASER? [May/June 09]

When a photon having energy equal to the energy difference between the two states (E2 –
E1) interacts with the atom in the upper energy state causing it to return to the lower state with the
creation of a second photon, light emission occurs by this stimulated emission.

13. Compare LED and LASER. [May/June 07],[Nov/Dec 2010]

S.No. LED LASER

1. The output obtained is incoherent The output obtained is coherent

2. LEDs are coupled into multimode fiber Single mode or multimode fiber.
only.
3. Less expensive and less complex More expensive and more complex

4. Long lifetime. Less life time.

14. Compare LED source and ILD source. [Apr/May 08]

15. What are the advantages of LED?

1. LEDs are less complex circuits than Laser diodes
2. Fabrication is easier
3. They have long life.

16. What are the two types of confinement used in LEDs?

i. Optical confinement.
ii. Carrier confinement.

17. What are the two types of LED configurations?

i. homo junction
ii. Single and double hetero junction.

18. What are the three requirements of Laser action?

i. Absorption
ii. Spontaneous emission
iii. stimulated emission.

19. What are the three types of Laser diode structures?

i. Gain indexed guide
ii. Positive indexed guide
iii. Negative indexed guide

20. What are the fundamental structures of Index guided lasers?

i. Buried hetero structure.
ii. Selectively diffused construction
iii. Varying thickness structure
iv. Bent layer configuration.

21. What are the three basic methods of current confinement?

i. Preferential dopant diffusion.
ii. Proton implantation
iii. Inner strip confinement
iv. Re growth of back biased PN junction.

22. Define modulation.

The process of imposing information on a light stream is called modulation. This can be achieved
by varying the laser drive current.

23. Define external quantum efficiency.

The external quantum efficiency is defined as the number of photons emitted per radiative
electron-hole pair recombination above threshold.

24. Define threshold current.

The threshold current is conventionally defined by extrapolation of the lasing region of the
power-versus-current curve. At high power outputs, the slope of the curve decreases because of
junction heating.

25. Define longitudinal modes.

Longitudinal modes are associated with the length of the cavity and determine the typical
spectrum of the emitted radiation.
26. Define lateral modes.
These modes lie in the plane of the pn junction. They depend on the sidewall preparation and
the width of the cavity. It determines the shape of the lateral profile of the laser beam.

27. Define transverse modes.

Transverse modes are associated with the electromagnetic field and beam profile in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of the pn junction. They determine the laser characteristics as
the radiation pattern and the threshold current density.

28. What are the techniques used for end – preparation?

Saving, grinding and polishing, and controlled – fracture techniques are used for end-
preparation.

29. Mention any four factors which affect the power launched into the fiber.
i. Core radius of the fiber
ii. Radiation pattern of the source
iii. Alignment between source and fiber
iv. Numerical aperture of the fiber.

30. What is axial, longitudinal and angular misalignment?

Axial misalignment: Lateral or axial misalignment occurs when the axes of two fibers are separated
by distance d.

Longitudinal misalignment: Longitudinal misalignment occurs when the fibers have the same axis
but have a gap ‘s’ between their end faces.

Angular misalignment: Angular misalignment occurs when two fiber axes from an angle ‘θ’
between fiber end faces.

31. What are the factors of splicing?

The factors to be considered in splicing are
i. Geometrical difference between two fibers ii. Fiber misalignments at the joint and
iii. Mechanical strength of the splice

32. What are the techniques used in splicing?

Three splicing techniques are used i. Fusion splice ii. V – Groove mechanical splice
iii. Elastic tube splice

33. Distinguish between splice and connector?

Splice is a permanent joint and the bonding formed is permanent. Connector is a temporary
joint or demountable joint. Splice loss is very small when it is compared with connector loss.

34. What are splices? What are the requirements of splices?

The splices are generally permanent fiber joints, whereas connectors are temporary fiber
joints. Splicing is a sort of soldering. The requirements of splices are:
i. Should cause low attenuation
ii. Should be strong & light in weight
iii. Should have minimum power loss
iv. Should be easy to install
35. What are connectors? What are the types of connectors?
The connectors are used to join the optical sources as well as detectors to the optical fiber
temporarily. They are also used to join two optical fibers. The two major types of connectors are:
i. Lensed type expanded beam connector
ii. Ferrule type connector.

36. What are the requirements of a good connector?

The requirements of a good connector are as follows:
i. Low loss ii. Repeatability
iii. Predictability
iv. Ease of assembly and use
v. Low cost & reliability
vi. Compatibility

37. Define the three modes of the cavity of laser. [Nov/Dec 09]

Longitudinal modes: Longitudinal modes are related to the length L of the cavity.

Lateral modes: Lateral modes lie in the plane of the PN junction. These modes depend upon the side
wall preparation and width of the cavity.

Transverse modes: Transverse modes are associated with the Electromagnetic field and beam
profile in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the PN junction. These modes determine the
radiation pattern of the laser.

38. What is a DFB laser? What is its main difference from the other lasers? [Nov/Dec 09]

In DFB laser the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index, which are
incorporated into multilayer structure along the length of the diode. DFB laser does not require
optical feedback unlike the other lasers.

PART – A TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Define responsively. [Nov/Dec 04, 05,08],[APR/MAY 05],[MAY/JUN 09],[APR/MAY 10]

The responsivity is a useful parameter as it gives the transfer characteristic of the detector. It
is defined as the ratio of output photocurrent to the incident optical power.
R = Ip / P0 (AW-1)

2. Define long wavelength cut off related to photo diode.

[Nov/Dec 04],[MAY/JUN 06],[APR/MAY 10]

Long wavelength cut off is determined by band gap energy Eg of material.

λc(μm = hC = 1.24

Eg Eg(eV)
Typical value of λc for silicon is 1.06 μm and for germanium it is 1.6 μm.

3. A given APD has a quantum efficiency of 75% at a wavelength of 800 nm. If 0.5 μW of optical
power produces a multiplied photocurrent of 12μA, find the multiplication M.
[NOV/DEC 06],[NOV/DEC 10]
 Refer book
4. Define quantum efficiency of a photo detector. [NOV/DEC 05]. [MAY/JUNE 09]

It is defined as the number of the electron – hole pairs generated per incident photon of
energy hυ and is given by

η = No.of electron-hole pairs generated = (Ip/q)

No. of incident photons P0/ hυ

5. What is meant by quantum limit? [May/June 06]

It is possible to find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error rate
performance in a digital system. This minimum received power level is known as quantum limit.

6. List the important requirements of an optical receiver. [NOV/DEC 2006]

 High sensitivity at the operating wavelengths.

 High fidelity
 Small size
 Short response time to obtain a suitable bandwidth.
 A minimum noise introduced by the detector.

7. Compare the performance of APD and PIN diode. [Nov / Dec 08]

PIN APD
i. No internal gain i. Internal gain
ii. Less sensitive ii. More sensitive
iii. Low reverse biasing iii. High reverse biasing
iv. Simple circuit iv. Complex circuit
v. Low cost v. More expensive

8. What is meant by impact ionization in APD?

In order for carrier multiplication to take place, the photo generated carriers must traverse a
region where a very high electric field is present. In this high field region, a photo generated
electron or hole can gain energy so that it ionizes bound electrons in the valence band upon
colliding with them. This carrier multiplication mechanism is known as impact ionization.

9. Define avalanche effect. [NOV/DEC 2011]

The newly created carriers are accelerated by the high electric field, thus gaining enough
energy to cause further impact ionization. This phenomenon is called avalanche effect.

10. Define ionization rate.

The avg. no. of electron hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance traveled is called
ionization rate.

11. What are the advantages of photodiodes? [NOV/DEC 2011]

o Small size
o Suitable material
o High sensitivity
o Fast response time
12. Define photocurrent.
The high electric field present in the depletion region causes the carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse-biased junction. This gives to a current flow in the external circuit, with
one electron flowing for every carrier pair generated. This current flow is known as photocurrent.
13. What are the conditions to be met for a high signal- to- noise ratio in a photo detector?
i. The photo detector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a large signal
power ii. The p and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.

14. Define minimum detectable optical power.

It is defined as the optical power necessary to produce a photocurrent of the same
magnitude as the root mean square of the total current.

15. Define quantum noise.

It is not possible to predict exactly how many electron-hole pairs are generated by a known
optical power incident on the detector is the origin of the type of short noise called quantum noise.

16. What is meant by bit error rate?

To divide the number Ne of errors occurring over a certain time interval t by the number Nt
of pulses transmitted during this interval. This is called bit error rate or error rate.
Bit error rate BER = Ne = Ne Where B = 1
Nt Bt Tb

17. Give the classifications of preamplifiers.

i. Low impedance (LZ) preamplifier ii. High impedance (HZ) preamplifier iii. Trans impedance
preamplifier

18. What is meant by inter symbol interference (ISI)?

ISI results from pulse spreading in the optical fiber. The presence of this energy in adjacent
time slots results in an interfering signal. Hence it is called ISI.

19. Give the advantages of Pin photodiodes.

i. Very low reverse bias is necessary ii. High quantum efficiency iii. Large bandwidth
iv. Low noise level

20. What do you mean by thermal noise?

Thermal noise is due to the random motion of electrons in a conductor. Thermal noise
arising from the detector load resistor and from the amplifier electronics tend to dominate in
applications with low signal to noise ratio.

21. Give the equation for mean square shot noise.

The mean square shot noise is given by <in2>=2qIB IB - average output current B - bandwidth
of the amplifier

22. Define avalanche multiplication M.

The multiplication M for all carriers generated in the photodiode is defined byM = Im/Ip
IM - average value of the total multiplied output current, IP -primary un multiplied photocurrent

24. What is current mode of operation of photodiode?

In photo conducting mode, the photocurrent is slightly dependent on the reverse bias. For
a constant reverse bias, the current is linear. This is called current mode of operation of the
photodiode.

25. What are the system requirements?

The following are the key system requirements. i. The desired or possible transmission
distance
ii. The data rate or channel bandwidth iii. Bit error rate (BER)
26. What are the factors on which response time depends? [NOV/DEC 2010]
o The transit time of the photo detector carries in the depletion region.
o The diffusion time of the photo carriers generated outside the depletion region.
o The RC time constant of the photodiode and its associated circuit.

27. Define photodiode dark current?

It is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit of the device when no light is
incident on the photodiode. This is a combination of bulk and surface currents.

28. What is P+ ΠP n+ reach- through structure?

The reach –through avalanche photodiode (RAPD) is composed of a high resistivity p- type
material deposited as an epitaxial layer on a p+ substrate. A P type diffusion is then made in the
high resistivity material, followed by the construction of an n+ layer. The configuration is called P+ ΠP
n+ reach- through structure.

29. Mention the drawbacks of high impedance amplifier.

 For broadband application, equalization is required

 It has lime dynamic range
 Drawbacks of high impedance amplifier

30. Define rise time and fall time.

Rise time : The rise time is measured from 10 to 90 percent of the leading edge of the output pulse.

Fall time : The fall time is measured from 90 to 10 percent of the falling edge of the output pulse.

31. A photodiode is constructed of GaAs, Which has a band energy of 1.43 eV at 300 K. Find long
wavelength cutoff. [May/June 07]

 Refer Book

32. What are the benefits of a Trans impedance amplifier? [May/June 07], [NOV/DEC 10]
i. It has a wide dynamic range compared with the high impedance amplifier. ii. The output
resistance is small so that amplifier is less susceptible to pickup noise, cross talk, electromagnetic
interference etc.

33.List out the values of operating wavelength and responsivities of Si, Ge and InGaAs photodiodes.
[Nov/Dec 09]

Si : Operating wavelength = 400-1100nm & Responsivity = 0.4-0.6

Ge : Operating wavelength = 800-1650nm & Responsivity = 0.4-0.5
InGaAs : Operating wavelength = 1100-1700nm & Responsivity = 0.75-0.95

34. What is meant by (1/f) noise corner frequency? [Nov/Dec 09]

The (1/f) noise corner frequency fc is defined as the frequency at which 1/f noise, which
dominates the FET noise at low frequencies and has 1/f power spectrum becomes equal to the high
frequency channel noise given by Γ.
 PART – A TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What are the factors to be considered in Link power budget? [Nov/Dec 04]
The factors to be considered in link power budget are:
1. transmission speed
2. optical sources & detectors
3. Optical fiber.

2. What is meant by soliton? [Apr/May 05],[Nov/Dec 2005]

Soliton are pulses that travel along the fiber without change in shape or amplitude or
velocity.T here are two types of soliton: 1. Fundamental soliton : The family of pulses that do not
change in shape are called fundamental soliton. 2. Higher order soliton : The family of pulses that
undergo periodic shape changes are called higher order soliton.

3. What is meant by modal noise? [Apr/May 05], [May/June 2009]

It arises when the light from a coherent laser is coupled in to a multimode fiber operating
at 400Mbps and higher. It mainly occurs due to mechanical vibrations and fluctuations in the
frequency of the optical source.

4. List the system requirements needed in analyzing a point-to-point link.

[Nov/Dec 05],[Nov/Dec 2011],[Nov/Dec 2010]
1. The desired transmission distance
2. The data rate or channel bandwidth
3. The Bit Error Rate (BER)

5. Write the concept of link power budget. [Nov/Dec 05], [May/June 06]
In link power budget analysis, first determines the power margin between the optical
transmitter output and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specific BER Within
this margin the connector, splice and fiber losses are allocated. It also requires additional margins
for possible component degradations, transmission – line impairments or temperature effect.

6. What are advantages of WDM? [Nov/Dec 07], [Nov/Dec 2011]

Capacity upgrade, transparency, wavelength routing and switching are the key advantages
of WDM.

7. What is the significance of rise time budget? [Nov/Dec 08]

The rise time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining the dispersion
limitation of an optical fiber link.
t sys =√( t2tx + t2mod + t2mat +t2rx)

8. Define mode partition noise. [May/June 09], [Apr/May 2010]

The mode partition noise is associated with intensity fluctuations in the longitudinal modes
of a laser diode. It becomes more pronounced for the higher bit rates.

9. Compare doped fiber amplifiers and conventional repeaters. [Nov/Dec 08]

S.NO. REPEATERS FIBER AMPLIFIERS
Amplification done conversion of optical Its directly amplify the optical signal
1. to electrical and amplify this signal and without any conversion.
reconvert of electrical to optical
2. Used in short distance. Used in long distance
3. Complexity in this device less complexity
4. Bandwidth utilization is less. Bandwidth utilized effectively.
 10. What are the advantages of using soliton signals through fiber? [May/June 2009], [Nov/Dec
2010]
Solitons are very narrow, high intensity optical pulses that retain their shape through the
interaction of balancing pulse dispersion with the non linear property of an optical fiber. The pulse
broadening effects of GVD is overcome by soliton pulse transmission.

11. Give the two analyses that are used to ensure system performance?
Two analyses that are used to ensure system performance are:
1. link power budget analysis
2. Rise time budget analysis

12. Give the range of system margin in link power budget?

The system margin is usually (6-8) dB. A positive system margin ensures proper operation
of the circuit. A negative value indicates that insufficient power will reach the detector to achieve
the required bit error rate, BER.

13. The specifications of the light sources are converted to equivalent rise time in rise time budget.
Why?
A rise time budget is a convenient method to determine the dispersion limitation of an
optical link. This is particularly useful for digital systems. For this purpose, the specifications of the
light sources (both the fiber & the photo detector) are converted to equivalent rise time. The
overall system rise time is given in terms of the light source rise time, fiber dispersion time and the
photo detector rise time.

14. What are the system components of system rise time?

The 4 basic system components that contribute to the system rise time are: i. transmitter
(source) rise time ii. Receiver rise time iii. Material dispersion time of the fiber iv. Modal
dispersion time of the fiber link .All these four basic elements may significantly limit system speed.

15. What are the noise effects on system performance?

The main penalties are modal noise, wavelength chirp, spectral broadening and mode-
partition noise.

16. What are the measures to avoid modal noise? [Nov/Dec 2010]
The measures are
1. Use LEDs
2. Use LASER having more longitudinal modes
3. Use a fiber with large numerical aperture
4. Use a single mode fiber

17. What is meant by chirping? [Nov/Dec 09]

It means that the dynamic line broadening (line broadening is a frequency chirp) in the laser which
oscillates in the single longitudinal mode under CW operation when the injection current is intensity
modulated.

18. What is the best way to minimize the chirping?

It is to choose the laser emission wavelength close to the zero-dispersion of the wavelength
of the fiber.

19. What is reflection noise?

It is the optical power that gets reflected at the refractive index discontinuities such as in
splices, couplers and filters, or connectors. The reflected signals can degrade both the transmitter
and receiver performance.
20. What are the effects of reflection noise in high speed systems?
They cause optical feedback which leads to optical instabilities that may lead to intersymbol
interference and intensity noise.

21. What are the basic performances of the WDM?

1. Insertion loss
2. Channel width
3. Cross talk
22. What is WDM? Define.
WDM is wavelength division multiplexing. The optical beam consists of different
wavelengths and several channel information is transmitted over a single channel.

23. What is meant as bidirectional WDM?

A single WDM which operates as both multiplexing and de multiplexing Devices is said as
the bidirectional WDM.
24. What is the use of power budget in fiber optic system?
The power budget is used to determine the power margin between the optical transmitter
output and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specified BER.
25. What is the use of rise budget in fiber optic system?
The rise time budget is used to verify that the overall system performance requirements like
maximum bit rate and maximum transmission distance.
26. What is SONET?
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standard developed by ANSI for fiber optic
networks. SONET defines a frame structure for transmitting TDM signals in the optical fiber networks.
It encodes bit streams into optical signals that are propagated over optical fiber.
27. What is relation between STS and OC levels?
SONET has defined a hierarchy of signals called Synchronous Transport Signals (STS). Optical
(OC) levels are the implementation of STSs or the physical links defined to carry each level of STS are
called Optical Carriers (OCs).
28. What is DWDM?
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical technology used to increase
bandwidth over existing fiber – optic backbones. DWDM works by combining and transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fibers.
29. What is Meta stable state?
The meta stable means that the lifetimes for the transitions from this state to the ground
state are very long compared with the lifetimes to the states that led to this level.

30. What is stark splitting?

The Meta stable, the pump, and the ground state levels are actually bands of closely spaced
energy levels that form manifold due to the effect known as stark splitting.
31. What are the techniques used for minimizing reflection noise? [Nov/Dec 09]
1. Prepare fiber end surfaces with a curved surface or an single relative to the laser emitting
facet. This directs reflected light away from the fiber axis
2. Use index matching oil or gel at air glass interface.
3. Use connectors in which end faces make physical contact.
4. Use optical isolators within the laser transmitter module.
32. Distinguish fundamental and higher order solutions? [Nov/Dec 07]
The family of pulses that do not change in shape are called fundamental solitons and those
that undergo periodic shape changes are called higher solitons.