FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Programme : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Mechanical

Course : Applied Mechanics Lab
Code : MEC 424
Lecturer : WAN SULAIMAN BIN WAN MOHAMAD
Group : EMD4M5B

MEC 424 - LABORATORY REPORT

TITLE: Pure Bending In Beam

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ABSTRACT
This experiment was carried out in order to acquire the value of elastic modulus (E) of
three different beam specimens (Mild steel, Aluminum and Brass) by using a method of deflection
When a beam is supported at two different point and loads are applied anywhere on the beam, we
can mathematically determine the deflection that occurs on the beam. With the deflection know,
we can also determine the Young’s Modulus (modulus of elasticity) of the material used in the
experiment. The following procedures will explains how the experimental values of the deflection
of beam and the modulus of elasticity of the beam are determined.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Number Contents Pages

1.0 Abstract 1

2.0 Table of content 2

3.0 List of tables 3

4.0 List of figures 4

5.0 Introduction 5

6.0 Theory 7

7.0 Experimental procedures 12

8.0 Result 13

9.0 Discussion 20

10.0 Conclusion 16

11.0 References 17

12.0 Appendices and raw data 18

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Measurement of material………………………………………………………………

Table 2: deflection of beam (experimental)…………………………………………………….
Table 3: mass moment of inertia………………………………………………………………..
Table 4: modulus of elasticity…………………………………………………………………..
Table 5: comparison calculated and theoretical…………………………………………………
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Kinematics of pure bending………………………………………………………….
Figure 2: Types of bending stress in a beam section …………………………………………..

Figure 3: Pure Bending stresses are those that results because of beam self-load only……….
Figure 4: Simple Bending Stress ……………………………………………………………..
Figure 5: Moment of inertia for rectangular beam.……………………………………………
Figure 6: Radius of curvature of a bent beam……………………………..............................
INTRODUCTION

Beams are one of the commonest components encountered in structures. In most cases, they
are transversely loaded and thus undergo bending. Bending induces stresses in a beam and cause
it to deflect. In the design and analysis of beam-type structures, the stresses and deflection
generated must be examined to ascertain that they are within acceptable limits. Simple beam theory
provides expressions for the calculation of these quantities. This experiment provides the means
to investigate how beam theory can be applied in practice.

A beam is a long, straight horizontal structural member to resist the lateral loads applied to
the beam's axis. Loads that act on the longitudinal axis of beams produce shear forces and bending
moment. There are several classification of beams according to the support conditions such as
simply supported beams, continuous beams, fixed beams, cantilever beams and overhanging
beams. Lateral loads that acted on beams are the main cause of bending and cause deflection. In
order to ensure the safety of the beams to prevent deflection, stresses and deflections calculated
must be within acceptable limits.

There are a number of properties of a beam that an engineer should be aware of as they dictate
beam behaviour when subject to a load and ultimately represent possible areas or mechanisms for
failure. The main ones being; Second moment of area, Bending moment, Beam deflection and
Shear diagrams
 Bending characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to external
load applied perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the element.Pure bending occurs only
under a constant bending moment (M) since the shear force (V), which is equal to zero.
Kinematics of pure bending, when a bar is subjected to a pure bending moment as shown in figure
1.

Figure 1: Kinematics of pure bending, when a bar is subjected to a pure bending moment

The figure observed that axial lines bend to form circumferential and transverse lines remain
straight and become radial lines. In this experiment, the beam is subjected to pure bending at the
central section, the bending moment is constant and shear force is zero. The maximum deflections
at the mid span of the beam will be measured. The elastic modulus of the beam material will be
determined from the flexure formula E=MR/I. Hence, the value of elastic modulus was important
in determining the strength of beams towards bending and deflections. The wise choice in choosing
the material of the beams were based on elastic modulus (E) and Modulus of rigidity (G) of m.
THEORY

When a beam is subjected to a loading system or by a force couple acting on a plane passing
through the axis, then the beam deforms. In simple terms, this axial deformation is called
as bending of a beam. Due to the shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes
deformation. These normal stress due to bending are called flexure stresses.

Figure 2: Types of bending stress in a beam section

Assumptions to calculate bending stress

These stresses formed in the material due to bending can be calculated using certian assumption,
they are

1. Beam is initially straight, and has a constant cross-section.

2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a longitudinal plane of
symmetry.

3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.

4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the primary cause
of failure.

5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded and ‘E’ is same in tension and compression.

6. Plane cross – sections remains plane before and after bending.

Types of Bending Stress

1. Pure Bending Stress

Bending will be called as pure bending when it occurs solely because of coupling on its end. In
that case there is no chance of shear stress in the beam. But, the stress that will propagate in the
beam as a result will be known as normal stress. Normal stress because it not causing any damages
to beam. As shown below in the picture.

Figure 3: Pure Bending stresses are those that results because of beam self-load only.

2. Simple Bending Stress

Bending will be called as simple bending when it occurs because of beam self-load and external
load. This type of bending is also known as ordinary bending and in this type of bending results
both shear stress and normal stress in the beam. As shown below in the figure.

Figure 4: Simple Bending Stress

Formula for Flexural Stress

Where,

M= bending moment

I = moment of inertia of the section about the bending axis.

=fibre stress at a distance ‘y’ from the centroidal/neutral axis.

E = Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam.

R = radius of curvature of the bent beam.

If y is replaced by c, the distance to remotest element, then

Where, Z= section modulus and is given by, Z = I/c

Area Moment of Inertia
Area moment of inertia also known as the second moment of inertia is a property of 2-
Dimensional plane shapes which characterizes its deflection under loading.

Figure 5: Moment of inertia for rectangular beam.

Radius of curvature

Radius of curvature, R is the reciprocal of the curvature. At a curve, it equals the radius of
circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point. While at a surfaces, radius of
curvature is radius of circle.

Due to pure bending, the beam deflects into the shape of an arc of a circle of radius R;

2
𝐿2 2
𝑅 = (𝑅 − 𝑦) + ( )
2

Simplifying and ignoring the small terms;

𝐿²
R=
8𝑦

The radius of curvature of the beam given as;

𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
R= =
𝑀 𝑊𝑑
Where E is the beam’s elastic modulus and I is the moment of inertia about neutral axis. In terms
of measured quantities; therefore;

𝑊 𝑑𝐿2
E=( )( )
𝑦 8𝐼

Another approach by using differential equations of the deflection curve:

Bending moment at a cut section x to the right of support O is −M, a constant where M=Wd.
The differential equations;
𝑑²𝑦
EI = −𝑀
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
EI = −𝑀𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥
𝑀
EIy = - x² + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
2

The boundary conditions at both supports,

BC1: x = 0, y = 0 hence C2 = 0
Figure 6: Radius of curvature of a bent beam

BC2: x = L, y = 0 hence C1 = ML/2

The deflection curve then is

𝑀 𝑀𝐿
EIy = - x² + 𝑥
2 2

Maximum deflection measured using the dial gauge at x = L/2 therefore:

𝑀𝐿² 𝑊𝐷𝐿²
EIy = - =
8 8

Hence the final equation in identifying elastic modulus are either from radius curvature equation
or using differential equations of the beam;

𝑊 𝑑𝐿2
E=( ) 𝐸=( )
𝑦 8𝐼
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS

Materials Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm)

Aluminium 998 19.30 6.52
Brass 1005 20.00 6.00
Mild Steel 999 20.36 4.00

Table 1: measurement of material

Load Beam max, deflection (mm)

(w) Mild steel Aluminum Brass
0 0 0 0
2 0.15 0.12 0.19
4 0.32 0.24 0.42
6 0.48 0.35 0.63
8 0.64 0.47 0.84
10 0.8 0.59 1.05
12 1.06 0.7 1.26
14 1.12 0.82 1.47
16 1.28 0.94 1.68

Table 2: deflection of beam (experimental)

 1. Compare the value of E obtained from this method with their theoretical value.

By using the equation below the mass moment of inertia for the materials (aluminium ,
brass, mils steel) can be derived :

Equation (1);
𝑏ℎ3
I= 12

where; b is for base or width,

h is for height or thickness.

Based on the information that has been obtained, we can simply calculate the moment of
inertia for all the three materials. For example below is the calculation for aluminium:

𝑏ℎ3
I = 12
(0.01931)(0.00652)3
I = 12

I = 4.457 × 10−10

Therefore, the value of mass moment of inertia for all the materials can be obtained as
below:

Materials Mass moment of inertia (𝑚4 )

Aluminium 4.457 × 10−10
Brass 3.6 × 10−10
Mild Steel 1.086 × 10−10

Table 3: mass moment of inertia

By using the equation below the value of Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) for the
materials (aluminium, brass, mild steel) can be calculated :

Equation (2);

𝑊 𝑑𝐿2
E= ( 𝑌 ) ( 8𝐼 )

where; W is for weight,

Y is for beam deflection,
d is for distance between the weight and support,
L is for length between the center and the weight,
I is for mass moment of inertia for the material.

From the information that has been obtain from the experiment and calculation, we can
calculate the value of Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) by put in all the information that
related into the equation (2). For example we can simply calculate E of the aluminium. The
value for the distance between the weight and support (d) is obtained from the experiment,
which is 0.1 m. Same goes to the length between the center and the weight, which is 0.4 m
(L). As for the mass moment of inertia, I just need to substitute those value based on the
result of calculation from Equation (1).

𝑊 𝑑𝐿2
E = ( 𝑌 ) ( 8𝐼 )

2𝑁 (0.1 𝑚)(0.4 𝑚)2

E = ((1.5×10−4 𝑚)) ((8)(1.086×10−10 𝑚4 ))

E = 249.92GPa
 Therefore, the value of Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) for all the materials can be
obtained theoretically based on the table below:

Load Modulus of Elasticity (E)

(w) Mild steel Aluminum Brass
2 249.92GPa 73.15GPa 58.48GPa
4 234.30GPa 74.79GPa 52.91GPa
6 234.30GPa 76.93GPa 52.91GPa
8 234.30GPa 76.38GPa 52.91GPa
10 234.30GPa 76.06GPa 52.91GPa
12 234.30GPa 76.93GPa 52.91GPa
14 234.30GPa 76.93GPa 52.91GPa
16 234.30GPa 76.61GPa 52.91GPa
Average 236.25GPa 75.97GPa 53.61GPa

Table 4: modulus of elasticity

Comparison between calculated value and theoretical value for the Modulus of Elasticity
(E) for the three materials as below:

Materials Calculated value of E Theoretical value of E

Aluminium 75.97 GPa 70 GPa
Brass 53.61 GPa 97 GPa
Mild Steel 236.25 GPa 200 GPa

Table 5: comparison calculated and theoretical

2. Calculate errors between the experimental data and theoretical value

To obtain errors between the experimental data and theoretical value, we will use the
formula below ;

(𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Aluminium:
(75.97 GPa − 70 GPa)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = 8.53 %
70 𝐺𝑃𝑎
 Mild steel:
(236.35 GPa − 200 GPa)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = 18.18 %
200 GPa
 Brass:
(53.51 GPa − 97 GPa)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = 44.84 %
97 GPa

3. Comment on the result.

We can conclude that the Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) of brass that has been
calculated which are 53.61 GPa has two times lower the value obtain from the theoretical
which are 97 GPa. On the other hands, the Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) aluminum
which are 79.97 GPa is slightly more than the theoretical value that we can find in other
resources which are 70 GPa. Lastly, for mild steel the Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E)
value is about 236.25 GPa which more than the theoretical value which are 200 GPa. All
the experimental errors slightly occur during the experiment run.

A personal error includes observation and calculation with wrong method or lack
of experience in experimentation. Apparatus error and human error are two sources of error
that can be found in this experiment. Apparatus not balance on horizontal surface,
inaccurate dial gauge or beam is already deformed included in instrument error. Some
precautious measure need to done before and after the experiment to minimize the
experimental errors.
4. What are other methods available to determine E of the materials.

By performing other methods such as torsional testing, we can simply determine

the Young’s Modulus (E) of any materials. As the result of the twisting of the specimen,
the material or test specimen will undergo the shearing stresses. So, we can determine the
Young’s Modulus (E) by determining the slope of the axial stress versus axial curve. We
will apply a certain weight of loading by using the Axial-Torsion Machine.. After all the
torque and angle of twist being collected , we need to convert the data into shear stress (τ)
vs shear strain (γ). We can simply obtain the torque and angle of twist (°) as the loading
increase perfectly

The torsional shear stress is given by

16𝑇
(τ) =πd3

Where T is applied torque

D is the diameter of the specimen

And the shear strain is given by,

𝑟
(γ)= 𝐿 ∅

L is the length of specimen

The angle of twist is measured in radians

Lastly, we can obtain the Young’s Modulus based on this equation:

𝜏
E= 𝛾

Where τ is shear stress

γ is shear strain
REFERENCES

1.0 Ferdinand P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston Jr. , John T. DeWolf. "Mechanics of Materials". 2002. McGraw-
Hill. New York.

2.0 Russell C. Hibbeler. “Mechanics of Materials”. 2007. Prentice Hall.

3.0 https://www.green-mechanic.com/2017/01/bending-moment-in-beam-lab-report-pdf.html
APPENDICES AND RAW DATA

249.92
234.3 234.3 234.3 234.3 234.3 234.3 234.3 236.25

73.15 74.79 76.93 76.38 76.06 76.93 76.93 76.61 75.97

58.48 52.91 52.91 52.91 52.91 52.91 52.91 52.91 53.61

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mild steel Aluminum Brass

Graph 1 : Modulus of Elasticity (E)

deflection of beam (mm)

1.68
1.47
1.26 1.28
1.06 1.12
1.05
0.94
0.84 0.8 0.82
0.64 0.7
0.63 0.59
0.42 0.48 0.47
0.32 0.35
0.19 0.24
0.15
0.12
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mild steel Aluminum Brass

Graph 2 : deflection of the beam (mm)