Training Manual 2019

Haramaya University
College of Social Sciences

School of Geography and Environmental Studies
GIS program
Basic GIS and Remote Sensing

Training Manual
By: - Mohammed Yusuf (Msc)

- Samson Gizaw (MSc)
January 2019
Basic GIS and Remote Sensing Training Easter Hararge Urban Land Adm.
Table of contents
1 Introduction to GIS for Urban Land Administration ..................................................................... 1
1.1 Fundamental Concept of GIS ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 GIS subsystems ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Data input .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Data storage and retrieval ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis ........................................................................................... 2
1.2.4 Data output ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Components of GIS...................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Geographic phenomena................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 GIS data types ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Spatial Data Models .............................................................................................................. 5
1.5.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector Data ................................................................ 7
1.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster Data ................................................................ 8
1.6 Attribute Data Models................................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Geo referencing ........................................................................................................................... 11
1.8 Map Projection & Coordinate reference systems........................................................................ 12
1.8.1 The three families of map projections................................................................................. 13
1.8.2 Coordinate Reference System (CRS) in detail .................................................................... 13
1.8.3 Geographic Coordinate Systems ......................................................................................... 13
1.8.4 Projected coordinate reference systems .............................................................................. 14
1.8.5 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) CRS in detail: ....................................................... 15
1.9 GIS Application for Urban Management .................................................................................... 15
1.9.1 Urban Management and GIS............................................................................................... 16
2 Basic GIS Practicals .......................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 Introducing in to Basic functionalities of Arc Catalog and ArcMap .......................................... 19
2.1.1 Exploring Arc Catalog ........................................................................................................ 19
2.1.2 Exploring ArcMAP ............................................................................................................. 20
2.1.3 Building Personal Geodatabase and creating shape file...................................................... 22
2.1.4 Analysis Tools .................................................................................................................... 24
2.1.4.1 Extract Tools Clip, Select, Split and Table Clip one layer based on another ................ 24
2.1.4.2 Overlay Analysis ............................................................................................................. 25
2.1.4.2.1 Erase Tool ................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.4.2.2 Intersect Tool ............................................................................................................ 25
2.1.4.3 Proximity Analysis.......................................................................................................... 26
2.1.4.3.1 Buffer Analysis ......................................................................................................... 26
Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page ii

2.1.5 Georeferencing scanned Toposheet .................................................................................... 26

2.1.6 On Screen digitizing............................................................................................................ 30
2.1.7 Map layout preparation and printing or Exporting ............................................................. 34
2.1.8 GPS data collection and Import to Arcmap ........................................................................ 39
2.2 Identification of physically deteriorated or spontaneously generated settlements by using visual
satellite image interpretation ................................................................................................................... 41
2.2.1 Delineation of spontaneously created settlements .............................................................. 44
2.2.2 Prioritizing the sites by their areal coverage in hectares ..................................................... 50
3 Introduction To topology.................................................................................................................. 54
3.1 Topology basics for data editors ................................................................................................. 55
3.2 Feature layers maintained by a topology .................................................................................... 56
3.3 Topology rules ............................................................................................................................ 57
3.3.1 Polygon rules ...................................................................................................................... 58
3.3.2 Line rules ............................................................................................................................ 61
3.3.3 Point rules ........................................................................................................................... 65
3.4 Creating Topology and Geodatabase .......................................................................................... 66
3.4.1 Create Geodatabase ............................................................................................................. 66
3.4.2 Create topology ................................................................................................................... 71
4 Remote Sensing ................................................................................................................................. 79
4.1 Introduction To Remote Sensing ................................................................................................ 79
4.1.1 Definitions........................................................................................................................... 79
4.1.2 The process of Remote Sensing .......................................................................................... 79
4.1.3 Application of remote sensing ............................................................................................ 80
4.1.4 Platforms ............................................................................................................................. 80
4.2 Introduction to ERDAS IMAGINE software.............................................................................. 81
4.2.1 Starting ERDAS IMAGINE................................................................................................ 81
4.2.2 Display an Image ................................................................................................................ 86
4.3 ImageClassification In ERDAS IMAGINE ................................................................................ 89
4.3.1 Supervised Classification .................................................................................................... 89
4.3.2 Unsupervised classification................................................................................................. 90
4.4 Perform Supervised Classification .............................................................................................. 90
4.5 Perform Unsupervised Classification.......................................................................................... 97
Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page iii

1 Introduction to GIS for Urban Land Administration

1.1 Fundamental Concept of GIS
A geographic information system is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
geographic phenomenon that exist, and events that occur, on Earth. GIS technology integrates
common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization
and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for
explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.
Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks faster and with
more sophistication than do traditional manual methods. We commonly think of a GIS as a
single, well-defined, integrated computer system. However, this is not always the case. A GIS
can be made up of a variety of software and hardware tools. The important factor is the level of
integration of these tools to provide a smoothly operating, fully functional geographic data
processing environment. Overall, GIS should be viewed as a technology, not simply as a
computer system.
In general, a GIS provides facilities for data capture, data management, data manipulation and
analysis and presentation of results in both graphic and report form, with a particular emphasis
upon preserving and utilizing inherent characteristics of spatial data. The ability to incorporate
spatial data, manage it, analyze it and answer spatial questions is the distinctive characteristic of
geographic information system. A geographic information system commonly referred to as a GIS
is an integrated set of hardware and software tools used for the manipulation and management of
digital spatial (geographic) and related data.
Precisely, GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, computer software,

geographical data and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate,
analyze and display all forms of geographically referenced data.
1.2 GIS subsystems

It has four main functional subsystems. These are:
A. Data Input Subsystem;
Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 1

B. Data Storage and Retrieval Subsystem;

C. Data Manipulation and Analysis Subsystems and
D. Data Output and Display Subsystem
1.2.1 Data input

This system allows the user to capture, collect and transform spatial and thematic data in to
digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey documents.
1.2.2 Data storage and retrieval

This subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form which permits it to be quickly
retrieved by the user for analysis and permits rapid and accurate updates to be made to the
database. This component usually involves use of a database management system (DBMS) for
maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in proprietary file
format.
1.2.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis
This subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and non-spatial procedures to
generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and
usually distinguishes it from other database information systems and computer-aided drafting
(CAD) systems.

Fig.1-1. Organization of GIS data in thematic layers. Each layer, containing specific
monothematic information, can be combined with others to produce new layers by query
(Darling & Fairbairn, 1997)
1.2.4 Data output
This subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps and tabular reports
representing derived information products. The critical function for a GIS is, by design, the
analysis of spatial data.
It is important to understand that GIS is not a new invention. In fact, geographic information
processing has a rich history in a variety of disciplines. In particular, natural resource specialists
and environmental scientists have been actively processing geographic data and promoting their
techniques since the 1960.
1.3 Components of GIS

An operational GIS also has a series of components that combine to make the system work.
These components are critical to successful GIS. Hence, there are five major GIS components
which are briefly described in the subsequent section.
A. Hardware
This is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range
of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone
or networked configurations
B. Software
This provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze and display geographic
information. A review of the key GIS software subsystems is provides above.
C. Data
Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular
data can be collected in house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements or
occasionally purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with
other existing data resources, often stored in a corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data
and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.

D. People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS users are range from technical specialists who design
and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
identification of GIS specialists versus end users is often critical to the proper implementation of
GIS technology.
E. Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and business rules
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
As in all organizations dealing with sophisticated technology, new tools can only be used
effectively if they are properly integrated in to the entire business strategy and operation. To do
this properly requires not only the necessary investments in hardware and software, but also in
the retraining and/or hiring of professionals to utilize the new technology in the proper
organizational context.
Failure to implement your GIS without regard for a proper organizational commitment will result
in an unsuccessful system.
1.4 Geographic phenomena

In GIS use, our interest is to study or understand Geographical Phenomena. GIS supports such
studies because of its capability to store digitally such phenomena in the computer. Geographic
phenomena exist in the real world and in GIS we represent a model of it. By way of definition a
Geographic phenomenon is something of interest that:
 Can be named or described
 Can be georeferenced and
 Can be assigned a time (interval) at which it is/was present.
It is described as triplets: (What is it? Where is it? When was it?).What the relevant phenomena
are for one„s current GIS use depends on the task at hand. Geographic phenomena can be
grouped in to field and object. The world phenomena can be natural for instance forest, lake or
man made for example building, road. Geographical phenomena sometimes referred to as spatial
phenomena refer to all phenomena that have:

 A spatial (geographic) extent

 A temporal extent
 Thematic characteristics (attributes or properties)
1.5 GIS data types

The basic data types in a GIS reflect traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS
technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are
 Spatial data: Describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features
 Attribute data: It describes the characteristics of the spatial features. These

characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attributes data is often
referred to as tabular data
1.5.1 Spatial Data Models

Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three basic types
of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred to
as:
 Vector
 Raster
 Image
a. Vector data formats
All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of geographic features in a
database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to represent a geographic
feature. Vector data is characterized by the use sequential points or vertices to define a linear
segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y coordinate.
Vector lines are often referred to as arcs and consist of a string of vertices terminated by anode.
A node is defined as a vertex that starts or ends an arc segment. Point features are defined by one
coordinate pair, a vertex. Polygonal features are defined by a set of closed coordinate pairs. In
vector representation, the storage of vertices for each feature is important, as well as the
connectivity between features. E.g. sharing common vertices where features are connected each
others.

Several different vector data models exist, however only two are commonly used in GIS data
storage. The topologic data structure is often referred to as an intelligent data structure because
spatial relationships between geographic features are easily derived when using them. Primarily
for this reason the topologic model is the dominant vector data structure currently used in GIS
technology. Many of the complex data analysis functions cannot effectively be undertaken
without a topologic vector data structure.
The secondary vector data structure that is common among GIS software is the computer-aided
drafting (CAD) data structure. This structure consist of listing elements, not features, defined by
strings of vertices to define geographic features, e.g. points, lines or areas. There is considerable
redundancy with this data model since the boundary segments between two polygons can be
stored twice, once for each feature.
The CAD structure emerged from the development of computer graphics systems without
specific considerations of processing geographic features.
Accordingly, since features, e.g. polygons are self contained and independent, questions about
the adjacency of features can be difficult to answer. The CAD vector model lacks the definition
of spatial relationships between that is defined by the topologic data model.
b. Raster Data Formats
Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data structure where the geographic area is
divided in to cells identified by row and column. This data structure is commonly called raster.
While the term raster implies a regularly spaced grid other tessellated data structures do exist in
grid based GIS systems. In particular, the quad tree data structure has found some acceptance as
an alternative data model.
The size of cells in a tessellated data structure is selected on the basis of the data accuracy and
the resolution needed by the user. There is no explicit coding of geographic coordinates required
since that is implicit in the layout of the cells. A raster data structure is in fact a matrix where any
coordinate can quickly calculate if the origin point is known, and the size of the grid cells is
known. Since grid cells can be handled as two-dimensional arrays in computer encoding many
analytical operations are easy to program. This make tessellated data structures a popular choice

for many GIS software. Topology is not a relevant concept with tessellated structures since
adjacency and connectivity are implicit in the location of a particular cell in the data matrix.
c. Image data
Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image inherently
reflects a graphic representation and in the GIS world, differs significantly from raster data. Most
often, image data is used as store remotely sensed imagery, e.g. satellite scenes or orthophotos,
or ancillary graphics such as photographs, scanned plan documents, etc.
Image data is typically used in GIS systems as background display data (if the image has been
rectified and (georeferenced); or as a graphic attribute. Remote sensing software makes use of
image data for image classification and processing. Typically, this data must be converted in to a
raster format (and perhaps vector) to be used analytically with the GIS.
Image data is typically stored in a variety of de facto industry standard proprietary formats.
These often reflect the most popular image processing systems. Other graphic image formats.
such as TIFF, GIF, PCX, etc., are used to store ancillary image data. Most GIS software will read
such formats and allow you to display this data.
1.5.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector Data

Vector data Advantage
 Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization
 Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic

representation);
 Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required;
 Accurate geographic location of data is maintained;
 Allows for efficient encoding of topology and as a result efficient operation that require
topological information, e.g. Proximity, network analysis.
Vector data Disadvantage

 The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly;

 For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure. This is
often processing intensive and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology
is static and any updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the
topology;
 Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing
intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large
number of features;
 Continuous data, such as elevation data is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers;
 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.
1.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster Data
Raster data Advantages
 The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic
coordinates are stored;
 Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program
and quick to perform;
 The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for
mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis;
 Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data, e.g.
elevation data and facilitates the integrating of the two data layers;
 Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g. electro static
plotters, graphic terminals.
Raster Data Disadvantages

 The cell size determines the resolution at which the data is represented;

 It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell

resolution. Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to establish;
 Processing of associated attribute data may be cumbersome if large amounts of data exist.
Raster maps inherently reflect only one attribute or characteristic for an area;
 Since most input data is in vector form, data must undergo vector to raster conversion.
Besides increased processing requirements this may introduce data integrity concerns due
to generalization and choice of in appropriate cell size;
 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to high-quality cartographic
needs.
1.6 Attribute Data Models

A separate data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS software. These data
models may exist internally within the GIS software, or may be reflected in external commercial
Database Management Software (DBMS). A variety of different data models exist for the storage
and management of attribute data. The most common are:
 Tabular Model
 Hierarchal Model
 Network ModelA
 Relational Model
 Object-oriented Model
a. Tabular Model
The tabular model is the manner in which earliest GIS software packages stored their attribute
data. The next three models are those most commonly implemented in database management
system. The object oriented is newer but rapidly gaining in popularity for some applications.
The simple tabular model stores attribute data as sequential data files with fixed formats, for the
location of attribute values in a predefined record structure. This type of data model is outdated
in the GIS arena. It lacks any method of checking data integrity, as well as being inefficient with
respect to data storage, e.g. limited indexing capability for attributes or records etc.
b. Hierarchal Model
It organizes data in a tree structure. Data is structured downward in a hierarchy of tables. Any
level in the hierarchy can have unlimited children, but any child can have only one parent.
Hierarchal DBMS have not gained any noticeable acceptance for use within GIS. They are

oriented for data sets that are very stable, where primary relationships among the data change
infrequently or never at all. Also, the limitation on number of parents that an element may have
is not always conducive to actual geographic phenomenon.
c. Network Model
It organizes data in a network or plex data structure. Any column in a plex structure can be
linked to any other. Like a tree structure, a plex structure can be described in terms of parents
and children. This model allows for children to have more than one parent.
Network DBMS have not found much more acceptance in GIS than the hierarchal DBMS. They
have the same flexibility limitations as hierarchal databases: however, the more powerful
structure for representing data relationships allows a more realistic modeling of geographic
phenomenon. However, network databases tend to become overly complex too easily. In this
regard it is easy to lose control and understanding of the relationships between elements.
d. Relational model
It organizes data in tables. Each table is identified by a unique table name and is organized by
rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a unique name. Columns store the values
for a specific attribute, e.g. cover group, tree height. Rows represent one record in the table. In a
GIS each row is usually to a separate spatial feature, e.g. a forestry stands. Accordingly, each
row would be comprised of several columns, each column containing a specific value for that
geographic feature.
Data is often stored in several tables. Tables can be joined or referenced to each other by
common columns (relational fields). Usually the common column is an identification number for
a selected geographic feature, e.g. a forestry stands polygon number. This identification acts as
the primary key for the table. The ability to join tables through use of a common column is the
essence of the relational model. Such relational joins are usually ad hoc in nature and form the
basis of for querying in a relational GIS product. Unlike the other previously discussed database
types, relationships are implicit in the character of the data as opposed to explicit characteristics
of the database set up.

It is the most widely accepted for the managing the attributes of geographic data. And it has
emerged as the dominant commercial data management tool in GIS implementation and
application. Most of the time, the relational DBMS is attractive because of it’s:
 Simplicity in organization and data modeling;
 Flexibility- data can be manipulated in an ad hoc manner by joining tables
 Efficiency of storage- by the proper design of data tables redundant data can be
minimized and
 The non-procedural nature- queries on a relational database do not need to take into
account the internal organization of the data.
e. Object-Oriented Model
The object-oriented database model manages data through objects. An object is a collection of
data elements and operations that together are considered a single entity. The object-oriented
database is a relatively new model. This approach has the attraction that querying is very natural,
as features can be bundled together with attributes at the database administrator „s discretion. To
date, only a few GIS packages are promoting the use of this attribute data model. However,
initial impressions indicate that this approach may hold many operational benefits with respect to
geographic data processing. Fulfillment of this promise with a commercial GIS product remains
to be seen.
1.7 Geo referencing

Georeferencing is the process of defining exactly where on the earth's surface an image or raster
dataset was created. This positional information is stored with the digital version of the aerial
photo. When the GIS application opens the photo, it uses the positional information to ensure
that the photo appears in the correct place on the map. Normally this positional information
consists of a coordinate for the top left pixel in the image, the size of each pixel in the X
direction, the size of each pixel in the Y direction, and the amount (if any) by which the image is
rotated. With these few pieces of information, the GIS application can ensure that raster data are
displayed in the correct place. The georeferencing information for a raster is often provided in a
small text file accompanying the raster.

1.8 Map Projection & Coordinate reference systems
Map projections try to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth on a flat piece of
paper or computer screen. A coordinate reference system (CRS) then defines, with the help of
coordinates, how the two dimensional, projected maps in your GIS is related to real places on the
earth.
The decision as to which map projection and coordinate reference system to use, depends on the
regional extent of the area you want to work in, on the analysis you want to do and often on the
availability of data.
A traditional method of representing the earth's shape is the use of globes. There is, however, a
problem with this approach. Although globes preserve the majority of the earth's shape and
illustrate the spatial configuration of continent-sized features, they are very difficult to carry in
one's pocket. They are also only convenient to use at extremely small scales (e.g. 1: 100 million).
Most of the thematic map data commonly used in GIS applications are of considerably larger
scale. Typical GIS datasets have scales of 1:250 000 or greater, depending on the level of detail.
A globe of this size would be difficult and expensive to produce and even more difficult to carry
around. As a result, cartographers have developed a set of techniques called map projections
designed to show, with reasonable accuracy, the spherical earth in two dimensions.
When viewed at close range the earth appears to be relatively flat. However, when viewed from
space, we can see that the earth is relatively spherical. Maps, as we will see in the upcoming map
production topic, are representations of reality. They are designed to not only represent features,
but also their shape and spatial arrangement.
Each map projection has advantages and disadvantages. The best projection for a map depends
on the scale of the map, and on the purposes for which it will be used. For example, a projection
may have unacceptable distortions if used to map the entire African continent, but may be an
excellent choice for a large-scale (detailed) map of your country. The properties of a map
projection may also influence some of the design features of the map. Some projections are good
for small areas, some are good for mapping areas with a large East-West extent, and some are
better for mapping areas with a large North-South extent.

1.8.1 The three families of map projections
The process of creating map projections can be visualized by positioning a light source inside a
transparent globe on which opaque earth features are placed. Then project the feature outlines
onto a two-dimensional flat piece of paper. Different ways of projecting can be produced by
surrounding the globe in a cylindrical fashion, as a cone, or even as a flat surface. Each of these
methods produces what is called a map projection family. Therefore, there is a family of planar
projections, a family of cylindrical projections, and another called conical.
1.8.2 Coordinate Reference System (CRS) in detail
With the help of coordinate reference systems (CRS) every place on the earth can be specified by
a set of three numbers, called coordinates. In general CRS can be divided into projected
coordinate reference systems (also called Cartesian or rectangular coordinate reference systems)
and geographic coordinate reference systems.
1.8.3 Geographic Coordinate Systems

The use of Geographic Coordinate Reference Systems is very common. They use degrees of
latitude and longitude and sometimes also a height value to describe a location on the earth„s
surface. The most popular is called WGS 84.
Lines of latitude run parallel to the equator and divide the earth into 180 equally spaced sections
from North to South (or South to North). The reference line for latitude is the equator and each
hemisphere is divided into ninety sections, each representing one degree of latitude. In the
northern hemisphere, degrees of latitude are measured from zero at the equator to ninety at the
North Pole. In the southern hemisphere, degrees of latitude are measured from zero at the
equator to ninety degrees at the South Pole. To simplify the digitization of maps, degrees of
latitude in the southern hemisphere are often assigned negative values (0 to -90°).
Wherever you are on the earth „s surface, the distance between the lines of latitude is the same.
Lines of longitude, on the other hand, do not stand up so well to the standard of uniformity.
Lines of longitude run perpendicular to the equator and converge at the poles. The reference line
for longitude (the prime meridian) runs from the North Pole to the South Pole through
Greenwich, England. Subsequent lines of longitude are measured from zero to 180 degrees East

or West of the prime meridian. Note that values west of the prime meridian are assigned negative
values for use in digital mapping applications.
At the equator, and only at the equator, the distance represented by one line of longitude is equal
to the distance represented by one degree of latitude. As you move towards the poles, the
distance between lines of longitude becomes progressively less, until, at the exact location of the
pole, all 360° of longitude are represented by a single point that you could put your finger on
(you probably would want to wear gloves though).
Using the geographic coordinate system, we have a grid of lines dividing the earth into squares
that cover approximately 12363.365 square kilometers at the equator…a good start, but not very
useful for determining the location of anything within that square. To be truly useful, a map grid
must be divided into small enough sections so that they can be used to describe (with an
acceptable level of accuracy) the location of a point on the map. To accomplish this, degrees are
divided into minutes (') and seconds ("). There are sixty minutes in a degree, and sixty seconds in
a minute (3600 seconds in a degree). So, at the equator, one second of latitude or longitude =
30.87624 meters.
1.8.4 Projected coordinate reference systems
A two-dimensional coordinate reference system is commonly defined by two axes. At right

angles to each other, they form a so called XY-plane. The horizontal axis is normally labeled X,
and the vertical axis is normally labelled Y. In a three-dimensional coordinate reference system,
another axis, normally labelled Z, is added. It is also at right angles to the X and Y axes. The Z
axis provides the third dimension of space. Every point that is expressed in spherical coordinates
can be expressed as an X Y Z coordinate.
A projected coordinate reference system in the southern hemisphere (south of the equator)
normally has its origin on the equator at a specific Longitude. This means that the Y-values
increase southwards and the X-values increase to the West. In the northern hemisphere (north of
the equator) the origin is also the equator at a specific Longitude. However, now the Y-values
increase northwards and the X-values increase to the East. In the following section, we describe

a projected coordinate reference system, called Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) often used
for South Africa.
1.8.5 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) CRS in detail:
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate reference system has its origin on the
equator at a specific Longitude. Now the Y-values increase Southwards and the X-values
increase to the West. The UTM CRS is a global map projection. This means, it is generally used
all over the world. But as already described in the section accuracy of map projections‖ above,
the larger the area (for example South Africa) the more distortion of angular conformity, distance
and area occur.
To avoid too much distortion, the world is divided into 60 equal zones that are all 6 degrees wide
in longitude from East to West. The UTM zones are numbered 1 to 60, starting at the
International Date Line (zone 1 at 180 degrees West longitude) and progressing East back to the
International Date Line (zone 60 at 180 degrees East longitude).
1.9 GIS Application for Urban Management
The advanced technology has assisted in planning and management activities and sustainable
management of land and natural resources. As human, land and natural resources supported by
land always have an intrinsic and dynamic relationship. Most of technological development has
been concentrated for the betterment of mankind, natural resources and environment
management. Land is a fixed resource upon where human intervention enormously occurs to
meet their needs and deeds. An imprudent decision to management and planning of land in the
past has led to become this resource more scare.
It is realized that land information is crucial for planning and development activities to ensure its
sustainability. It has been seen conspicuously in many of the cities of the world where rapid
development, high population growth and high migration for employment and services occur.
These activities have been borne the difficulty in the planning and management of the city and
service delivery for its denizen. The current, accurate, relevant land and its associated
information integration are required to meet the present problems of land or city management

and to enhance efficient and effective service delivery functions. This action eventually assists
for achieving sustainable development and sustainable city management.
Accurate, authentic and current-spatial information is lacking and not having this information for
planning and management decision by improving efficiency and effectiveness of daily functions
is difficult. Land information and land based information is an integral part of government, non-
profit, and private sector activities. In this milieu, the commercial access of remote sensing data
and its increasing sensor resolution depict the earth features from a centimeter to a kilometer
level repetitively and is the source of current information of land and land cover. This
information would be valuable data to renew spatial information in GIS environment and can
advance the broader social purposes by facilitating to make more effective public decisions after
establishing link in user interface environment.
1.9.1 Urban Management and GIS

Many of public administration aspects (health, infrastructures, planning, development, disasters
management, security, environment protection, education, culture, entertainment) or private
(resources and facilities control: transport, telecommunications, electricity, distribution, trade)
involve geo-spatial data for which information systems provide updated means of management.
Geo-spatial information gives decision a wider perspective, facilitating coordination on
community level or administrative unit (region, county, country, company, institution). GIS
represent a modern approach for an on-going improvement of services and decisions. The ability
to manage, correlate, foresee and disseminate geographical information turns GIS into an
instrument for analysis. Urban management involves a decisional and operational activity that
calls for an activity that:
 Is based on structure (human, technical and financial) informational of an organization
 Coordinates urban relevant agents
 Allows development decisions formulation and implementation, on the level of strategies
 Uses instruments on hand
 Urban management activities can answer the following questions:
 Who performs management?
 What is management?
 How is it done?

Activities Involved in Urban Management

GIS is an operational instrument irreplaceable in urban management that assures authenticity,
actuality and the objectivity of assessments in founding, expressing and implementing decisions
and urban control.
GIS is a technology based on computer for cartography and entities analysis on land surface. The
system is a graphic representation, a sort of map, which provides different information about
building. GIS organizes thematic data to the ―strata‖ that combine different types of
information. For example, we can find about a certain building such information as its owner, its
networks (water, gas, electricity, telephone, television), the material the building is made of, the
number of rooms, surface, the building year, taxes, the roads that can lead to such a building, the
shortest road, public transport means stations
The data used within the Geographical Information System, is a sum of information gathered
from software applications area, from all fields of activity, such as geographical, land measuring
and informatics. GIS using in urban management has become more and more known.
Generally, Urban GIS (UGIS) applications have in view two distinct purposes:
o Administrating and monitoring regions and
o Planning urban development.
Usually, in order to achieve the two purposed aims a data base is needed, that can exploited
using different functions. For example, in order to achieve objectives that have in view a region
administration and monitoring one can use the data base interrogation functions (type, stage,
material), a permanent data actualization being necessary here. On the other hand, in applications

meant for planning one can use analysis and modeling functions (best road, intervention time,
affected region, etc.).
The data necessary in urban GIS applications and diverse and numerous and they involve
important costs for their gathering and updating. We should also mention the fact that, when
administrating a region, there are more institutions that use the same categories of data, beside
those adequate activities (for instance, the data concerning buildings and owners are necessary to
survey operators, authorities concerned with taxes, urbanism services, public utilities suppliers,
etc, data concerning roads are necessary for people and goods transport companies, mail, firemen
units, police units, etc).

2 Basic GIS Practicals

2.1 Introducing in to Basic functionalities of Arc Catalog and ArcMap
In this session you shall introduce to the basic functionalities of ArcMap and Arc Catalog. You
will learn the fundamental tools which are the fundamental procedures which used in any GIS
processing works.
Each participant expected to perform the following basic activities on the basis of prepared
training material manuals.
1. Exploring Arc Catalog
2. Exploring Arc MAP
3. Building Personal Geo database
4. On Screen digitizing
5. Geo referencing scanned Topo sheet
6. Querying Maps
7. Map layout preparation and printing
2.1.1 Exploring Arc Catalog

The ArcCatalog application helps you to organize and manage all of your GIS data. It includes
tools for browsing and finding geographic information, recording and viewing metadata quickly
viewing any dataset and defining the schema structure for your geographic data layers.
Before you begin on the exercises that follow copy and paste Basic GIS/Row _data folder to d
drive or c depending on your working directory
1. Start – Programs- Arc GIS- Arc Catalog
2. In Arc Catalog, data is accessed through folder connections. When you look in a folder
connection, you can quickly see the folders and data sources it contains.

3. If your d or c drive is not displayed in the table of contents, click the Connect to Folder button
4. In the connect to folder-computer-click d (depending on your working drive may be c)-ok
5. In the catalog tree navigate to d drive and click the plus sign next to it to expand the contents
6. Click the plus sign next to the folder Basic GIS/Row data to view the contents of the folder
and then click Kombolcha District
7. Click preview tab. Now the feature you selected is displayed under the preview dropdown,
there is options geography-to display the figure on display window table-to see the attributes
table of the data.
8. Click the preview dropdown arrow and click table
Now you can see the feature attribute table for the Kombolcha District
9. To view the metadata (i.e. data about data) Click metadata tab then click description
For example, purpose of the data Click spatial and view for example, the coordinate system used
Click Attributes and view attributes such fid, shape and etc
2.1.2 Exploring ArcMAP

ArcMap is the primary ArcGIS application for displaying, querying, editing, creating and
analyzing data.
A. Displaying and viewing spatial datasets in ArcMap
1. start- programs- ArcGIS- ArcMap
2. The ArcMap startup dialog appears, click on „anew empty map‟, and click ok
3. Click „add data‟ button on the ArcMap toolbar to add data
4. In the add data dialog navigate to d/BasicGIS/Row_data folder
5. Click Kombolcha District‟s Kebele- click add data
6. Right click on Kombolcha District‟s Kebele - layer properties-source, explore the different
valuable information under extent and data source, especially the projection information – ok
7. Click identify –click on any polygon Kombolcha District‟s Kebele feature class

8. Click on zoom in /zoom out tools and then on the kombolcha District kebele feature class to
enlarge /reduce
9. Click on measurement tool and take measurement on the kombolcha District kebele feature
feature classes

2.1.3 Building Personal Geodatabase and creating shape file

A. creating Geodatabase and feature dataset
1. Start-programs-ArcGIS-ArcCatalog- browse to d/BasicGIS
2. Right click on BasicGIS-new-folder-and name the folder as “Exercise”
3. Right click Exercise folder-new-personal geodatabase and name it as “kombolcha wereda ”
4. Right click Kombolcha wereda geodatabase-new-feature dataset-name = Hydrology-next-

click on projected coordinate system-UTM-Other GCS- Click on Adindan UTM 38 N-next-
next-finish
5. Using the steps 3 and 4 above, create feature datasets for “Infrastructure” and “Administrative
boundary”. Now your geodatabase should look like the following
B. Importing feature classes to your feature dataset
You will use the Saved row data for the following section

1. Right click on the Administrative Boundary feature dataset-import-feature classes (single) -

Feature Class to Feature Class dialogue box is opened-on input features browse to the Basic
GIS/Row data folder and add Block_ Wereda 19- Output Feature Class = Block_Wereda 19-ok
2. Similarly like the step 1 above import Building Wereda19, Parcel_Woreda19 feature
classes to Administrative Boundary feature dataset
3. Right click on the Hydrology feature dataset-import-feature classes (single) - Feature

Class to Feature Class dialogue box is opened-on input features browse to the
BasicGIS/Row_data folder and add Streams_Wereda 19- Output Feature Class = Streams
_Wereda 19-ok
4. Similarly using step 3 above import ExistingRoad_Woreda19 feature class to

Infrastructure feature dataset
5. Now your geodatabase looks like the following

2.1.4 Analysis Tools
2.1.4.1 Extract Tools Clip, Select, Split and Table

Clip one layer based on another
1. Click on the ArcToolbox Analysis Tools  ExtractClip
2. For input Features, navigate to D:\ Training 2011 and select „Ethio_River‟
3. For Clip Features, navigate to D:\Training 2011 and select „Eastern Hararge Zone‟
4. In the Output Featureclass box, ensure the path to the Training 2011 folder and type
“Eastern Hararge_River” as the layer name. then click OK.
5. When the clipping process is completed, close the clip window.

2.1.4.2 Overlay Analysis
2.1.4.2.1 Erase Tool

1. Click on the ArcToolbox
2. Release Overlay
3. Double click on Erase
4. Specify the input feature, Erase Features and
Output Feature Class
2.1.4.2.2 Intersect Tool

2. Release Overlay
3. Double click on Intersect
4. Specify the input feature, Erase Features and
Output Feature Class

2.1.4.3 Proximity Analysis
2.1.4.3.1 Buffer Analysis
Creates buffer polygons around input features to a specified distance.

An optional dissolve can be performed to combine overlapping buffers.
2. Release Proximity
3. Double click on Buffer
4. Specify the input features
5. Specify the Output Feature Class
6. Specify The distance for the buffer zone
7. Specify the Output Dissolve Type
8. Click Ok.
2.1.5 Georeferencing scanned Toposheet

Why we georeferenced data?
Assigning map coordinates to row raster data (most often image data) is called
Georeferencing. Row satellite imagery data or scanned Toposheet do not have true
geometric integrity. They have only image coordinate system but do not projected in to
ground coordinate system. Therefore, by Georeferencing we assign to such raster data
true ground coordinate data enabling projection and working with other data
(measurement, overlay, query etc).

In this exercise we are going to Georeference scanned Toposheet. Since the toposheet
was scanned from hardcopy map which has true projection, we collect the GCP (Ground
Control Points) from the Toposheet itself.
1. Open a new empty ArcMap document
2. Right click layers > properties > on data frame properties click on coordinate system >
predefined > geographic > spheroid based > Clark 1880 > Apply > Ok
3. Add az-ne200.jpg toposheet from BasicGIS/Row_data folder
4. Right click on empty space > click Georeferencing to add the toolbar > see figure
below
5. The Georeferencing toolbar is added with the Toposheet is selected as alayer > click
the Georeferencing toolbar > check auto adjust if it is unchecked.
6. Now zoom in and zoom out and see the features on the Toposheet.

7. Now we use the four coordinates (longitude and latitude) at corners to use as ground
control points (GCP).
8. Zoom in to top left corner > click add control points > click on the corner vertex >
right click > click input DMS of Lon and Lat > on enter coordinates DMS enter
longitudes and latitudes as shown on the figures below > ok

9. using similar step as in 8 above enter the coordinate at the top right corner
10. Using similar step as in 8 above enter the coordinate at the bottom left
11. using similar step as in 8 above enter the coordinate at the bottom right
12. Click on View Link Table and see the coordinates you enter. Minimum RMS error is
required for good output.
13. Here you delete some points and add again in case of higher residual and RMS error.
14. to finalize, Georefencing > Rectify
15. on the save as dialogue box; select BasicGIS/Exercise folder for output location, add
Name as “az-ne200georef”, accept the remaining default values > save, close the
processing dialogue after it finished
16. Add your georeferenced output and check the difference with the original one

2.1.6 On Screen digitizing

Different feature classes (point, line and polygon) can be extracted from satellite imagery
on screen digitizing. In this section the steps in each process are presented using ArcMap
and ArcCatalog.
Creating feature classes in ArcCatalog
1. Open ArcCatalog. ArcCatalog lists the connected drives (C, D etc) and database
connections in its table of content.
2. Right click on BasicGIS/Exercise > new > Shape file > create new shape file > enter,
name = Road and feature type = Polyline
3. Click on edit > select > Projected Coordinate System > UTM > Other GCS > Adindan
UTM zone 37 N > apply, ok > ok
4. Using similar steps that we use in step 2 and 3 above create new shape file with feature
name = building, and feature type = polygon
Now you create empty feature classes, in the step following you will create and add the
features in ArcMap
B. On screen digitizing line (Road) and polygon (building) in ArcMap
Adding the layers
1. Open an empty ArcMap > Click the add data (+) > browse to BasicGIS/Exercise >
press the Control key (Ctrl) on your keyboard and select Road, Building > add; browse to
BasicGIS/Row_data-add yeka.tiff
2. Now you can check the empty shape files right click on Road > open attribute table >
only column names are created.
3. Before you proceed, save your .mxd: File > save as > browse to BasicGIS/Exercise on
your working drive add the name as “Exercise”
Projecting the image

The image you added does not have any defined projection system and hence you can
add but cannot project on your map display so as to align with other layers. Therefore,
must be projected.
4. Click on Show/Hide ArcToolbox Window > Data Management Tools > Projections
and Transformations > under raster click on Define Projection
5. On Input Dataset or Feature class, click on yeka.tiff > select > Projected Coordinate
System > UTM > Other GCS > Adindan UTM zone 37 N > apply, ok > ok
6. Now your data can align with the rest, Right click on yeka image > zoom to layer
Adding the Editor Toolbar
7. If the Editor Tool bar is not added already, Right click on empty place (alongside main
menu bar but not on map window) > click on Editor.
8. Editor > start editing > on the opened dialogue box click on start editor
Road digitization (line)
9. Select, Task: create new feature, Target: Road
10. Editor > Snapping > check on Vertex, Edge and End for Road and buildings
11. Click on zoom in tool and zoom in to your image (yeka), use the pan tool to
move the image

12. Click on the Sketch Tool, and start to digitize following the center line of your
Asphalt road. Click once and then add vertices following straight line, when you finish
double click (Right click and select Finish Sketch)
11. Click on zoom in tool and zoom in to your image (yeka), use the pan tool to move the
image
12. Click on the Sketch Tool , and start to digitize following the center line of your
Asphalt road. Click once and then add vertices following straight line, when you finish
double click (Right click and select Finish Sketch)

13. When you finish the Digitizing and need to save, editor > save edits > stop editing
Building digitization (polygon)
14. Here you use the steps above in 5, 6, 7 and 8 but target = buildings, zoom in to the
buildings on the image
15. Click on Sketch Tool and add vertices on each corner of the building and form
polygon.
16. Right click > Finish Sketch
17. Editor > stop editing

Editing of non-spatial data
18. To enter new column and edit:
Often it is necessary to edit an attribute table to incorporate non spatial data component to
the layer.
19. Right click on Road feature class > open attribute table

20. Option > add field > name = Road_Type, Type=text
21. Editor > start editing > on the opened dialogue box, click on start editing > under
Road Type column add Asphalt > close the box > editor > save edits
2.1.7 Map layout preparation and printing or Exporting

A map is a graphic representation of the spatial relationships of entities within an area. In
ArcMap, a map contains one or more layers of geographic data, contained in data frames,

and various supporting map elements, such as a scale bar. Simple maps usually have only
a single data frame.
A. Display data in ArcMap and save
1. Open ArcMap
2. Navigate d/BasicGIS/Row_data > LandUse_Wereda 19 > add
3. Now you displayed your data on ArcMap: file > save as > select d/BasicGIS/Exercise
folder to save > add name as Maplayout > save
4. Before you prepare the map layout, you may need to classify, symbolize and label the
displayed data which are covered in different sections.
B. Switching to Layout View
1. View menu > Layout View
While viewing the layout, a Layout toolbar appears. These tools can be used to navigate
around the map layout.
C. Setting the page size and printer properties

1. File > page and print setup > under printer set up category select the printer you want
to use for the name option.
2. Click the Printer Paper Size dropdown arrow and select the paper size you want to use
4. Under map page size category > Check the Use Printer Paper Settings.
5. Click the orientation type that you require under Printer Setup Paper

6. Check both printer margins on layout and scale map elements proportionally to
changes in page size.
7. Click OK.
D. Inserting a North arrow
1. Click the Insert menu and click North Arrow.
2. The North Arrow Selector dialog box appears.
3. Click one of the North arrows and click OK.
4. Click the North arrow and drag it to the empty space > resize if necessary
E. Adding a scale bar

1. Click the Insert menu and click Scale bar.
2. The Scale bar Selector dialog box appears.
3. Click one of the Scale bar and click OK.
4. Click the Scale bar and drag it to the empty space > resize if necessary

F. Adding a legend
1. Click the Insert menu and click Legend. The Legend Wizard appears
2. In the displayed window, you can select items to be included in your legend. Select an
item from the left and click > to add it to your legend. Select an item from the right and
click > to remove it from your legend.
3. Click Next several times to step through the wizard, accepting the Default or change
the legend parameters that you want.
4. Click Finish when done.
5. The legend appears on your map.
6. Click the legend and drag it to the appropriate place.
7. Resize to appropriate size
8. Double-click on the legend to edit it and you can change the elements as your
requirement
G. Adding a title
1. Click the Insert menu and click Title.
2. Click the title and type the name for instance
3. Resize as necessary

H. Inserting Grids and Graticules

1. Click the View menu and click Data Frame Properties.
2. Click the Grids tab.
3. Click the New Grid button
4. In the Grid/Graticule wizard, click the Measured Grid option.

5. Type a name for the resulting grid. This name will appear in the list of grids in the
Data Frame Properties dialog box.
6. Follow the steps in the wizard and click Next as you complete each panel.
7. Click Finish.

J. Saving a map as a map template

1. Click the File menu and click Save As.
2. Navigate to your working directory and a file name
3. Click the Save as type dropdown arrow and click ArcMap Template.
4. Click Save.
K. Printing a map
1. Click File and click Print. The Print dialog box appears. You can change the default
printer by clicking Setup.
2. Click OK.
2.1.8 GPS data collection and Import to Arcmap

A. Using Microsoft Exel

Add point (Location) data to Arc Map

1. Write X,Y & Z data on Microsoft Exel
2. Open Arc Map 10  click Add data  Brows the Data  Select the data  click Add 
select Sheet1  click Add
3. On table of content Right click on sheet 1 and select Display xy data
4. The window is displayed. On this window click drawdown arrow of XField- impute X- ,
YField – impute Y- and ZField – Impute Z.
5.Ok
To change the data into shape file
1. Right click on the sheet1 Events - Data  Export data  Brows output location  give
File name
2. Save
3. Ok
To create polygon from point data

1. Create shape file AS before, Arc Catalog  Your file location  right click on open space 
New  Click Shapefile  dialog box is opened on this type file name  on feature type select
polygon
2. To fix the coordinate for the newly created file  Edit import  select the point shapefile
from which you are going to create polygon and click add
3. Ok  ok
4. Go to Arc Map 10  click Add data  brows the created shapefile  Click Add
5. Go to Edit tools and Start editing  Create Features box come  click on the shapefile and
join the points on the screen
6. Finally double click  Edit save editing  Edit  Edit  Stop editing.

2.2 Identification of physically deteriorated or spontaneously generated

settlements by using visual satellite image interpretation
1. Open ArcMap blank document

2. Click „Add Data‟ and browse for the „Yeka1.tif‟ image file
3. Click „Add‟ to display the satellite image in the ArcMap Data View window
4. Use the buttons situated in the „Tools Bar‟ to explore the different parts of the study
area

5. Apply the „visual image interpretation techniques‟ such as shape, color, texture,
association, tone, shadow effects etc to identify those areas that require urban
revitalization
Example 1: Settlements with uniform blocks Example 2: The well-planned „Ayat‟ settlement
formed by grid road system

Example 3: Relatively new settlement Example 4: Squatter settlement at the

peripheries of the study area with no
with organic road network system
road access
Activity 1
Identify the settlements that need “Urban Revitalization” measures in the study area
using the physical criteria such as
 Degree of deterioration of the settlements (hint: study the roof conditions of the
houses)
 The nature of the road network system (hint: if it is well planned or spontaneously
generated network)
 The Existing building height (hint: compare relative height of buildings to each other
and /or interpret the shadow of the buildings to estimate the height)
Note: When you are done with “Activity 1” save the map document as “Revitalization
Sites” using the following procedure:
1. Open „File‟ menu and select „Save As‟
2. Open „Look In‟ list box and browse for the „Yeka‟ folder
3. Type the document name in the „File Name‟ box as „Revitalization Sites‟
4. Click „Save‟ button to finish

2.2.1 Delineation of spontaneously created settlements

In this procedure we will use ArcCatalog to create a new polygon feature class in the
existing GeodataBase and then by using ArcMap window we will delineate those
identified areas that require physical regularization
1. Open „ArcCatalog‟
2. From „Catalog Tree‟ browse for your working folder (i.e. Yeka)
3. Right-click on „Yeka.mdb‟ GeodataBase and select „New‟ then select „Feature Class‟

4. In the „Name‟ box type „Regularization‟ as the feature class name

5. In the „Type‟ drop down list box select „Polygon Feature Class‟ and then click the
„Next‟ button
6. In the coordinate system box, browse and select for the „Adindan UTM Zone 37N‟ as
the coordinate system and projection parameter

7. Click „Next‟
8. Take the default XY Tolerance (i.e. 0.001m) as it is and click „Next‟
9. In the attribute design table, fill the „Field Name‟, „Data Type‟, „Alias‟ and „Length‟
fields as follows:
---------->Site_Name
----------->Text
-----------------> Site Name
th ---------------> 30

10. Repeat step 9 on the same attribute design table and design another attribute using the
following values and field properties
 Field Name ---------->Site Description
 Data Type ----------->Text
 Alias -----------------> Site Description
 Length ---------------> 50
11. Click „Finish‟

12. In ArcMap window open the previously saved map document (i.e. Revitalization
Sites)
Note
on
13. Browse for the „Revitalization Site‟ data layer (i.e. C:Yeka\
Yeka.mdb\Regularization)
14. Click „Add‟ button
Selector‟ box then adjusting the „Outline Width‟ as 3 and finally by selection „Fill
Color‟ as „Mars Red‟

15. Change the symbology of the „Revitalization Site‟ layer by clicking the layer
representation box and then selecting „Hollow‟ form „Symbol
16. Click „Ok‟

17. Using the „Zoom In‟ button zoom in to a particular part of the study area that shows
spontaneous development
18. From the „Editor Tool Bar‟ Click „Editor‟ menu and select „Start Editing‟ then Click
the „Sketch Tool‟ then from „Task‟ Box select „Create New Feature‟ and from the
„Target‟ box select „Regularization‟ layer
19. Digitize the boundaries of the identified site and then „Double-click‟ to finish

Note: When you are delineating adjacent sites you can use the „Auto-Complete
Polygon‟ tool from the „Task‟ menu
20. Type the attribute values for the „Site Name‟ and „Site Description‟ fields by
selecting the site and using the „Attributes‟ button
21. Press „Enter Key‟

22. Open „Editor‟ menu and select „Save Edit‟
23. When you are done with delineation of the sites and filling of the corresponding
attribute values, you can finish by selecting the „Save Edit‟ button from the „Editor‟
menu

Activity 2
Delineate all the sites that require physical regularization and describe each
site whether it has;
2.2.2 Prioritizing the sites by their areal coverage in hectares

In this procedure first we will create a new field in the attribute table then calculate the
area coverage on each site in hectares and then prioritize them in descending order of
their respective area.
1. In ArcMap window, open the „Regularization‟ map document file
2. From the „Table of Contents‟ window „Right-click‟ on the „Regularization_Sites‟
layer
3. Select „Open Attribute Table‟
4. Click „Options‟ button and select „Add Field‟
5. In the „Name‟ box of the „Add Field‟ dialog box type „Area_Ha‟ then in the „Type‟
drop down list box select „Float‟ and in the „Alias‟ box type „Area (Ha)‟

6. Click „Ok‟
7. Right-click on the „Area (Ha) field and then select „Field Calculator‟
8. Click „Yes‟ to confirm to perform the calculation outside the edit session
9. From „Filed Calculator‟ dialog box, double click „shape_area‟ so that it will be
transferred into the formula expression box then click the „Division Sign‟ button, then
manually type „10000‟

10. Click „Ok‟ to finish

11. Right-click the „Area (Ha) field
12. Select „Sort Descending‟
13. To find the summary statistics of the sites, right-click on „Area (Ha)‟ field and select
„Statistics‟ button

Note: The „Statistics‟ box presents the Count, Minimum, Maximum, Sum, Mean and
Standard Deviation of the identified sites.
Activity 3:
1. Insert a new field as „Category‟ in the attribute table of the Regularization
Sites feature class and classify the irregularities identified according to the
following information;
2. Prepare a summary of the areas in hectares for those irregularities that are
categorized 1 and 2;
Hint: Use the process as „R.cl
3. Prepare a „Bar Graph‟ that shows the areal summaries of the irregularities
identified in the study area.
Hint

3 Introduction To topology
Topologies are useful for maintaining high-quality spatial data by ensuring that your features
conform to simple rules. When you set up a geodatabase with a topology, you specify which
feature classes participate in the topology and define rules that control when and how features
can share geometry. For example, in a geodatabase of states and coastlines, you might have a
rule that states polygons cannot overlap each other and another rule that the coastline must
coincide with the boundaries of the states. These rules would help you ensure, when updating the
state boundaries to match the coastline, that you don‟t inadvertently create places where the
states overlap or where a state‟s coastal edge doesn‟t match the shape of the coastline.
ArcMap allows you to simultaneously edit multiple features from layers that share geometry.
Only those features that participate in the topology will be affected by these edits. For instance,
you can update lot lines that define a parcel, and update the corresponding parcel polygon feature
in your geodatabase. Similarly, you could move a road centerline and, at the same time, update
all of the bus routes that follow that road.
What is topology?
Topology is a collection of rules and relationships that, coupled with a set of editing tools and
techniques, enables the geodatabase to more accurately model geometric relationships found in
the world.
It also allows topological relationships to exist between more discrete types of features
within a feature dataset.
Why use topology?

Topology is used most fundamentally to ensure data quality and to allow your geodatabase to
more realistically represent geographic features. A geodatabase provides a framework within
which features can have behavior, such as subtypes, default values, attribute domains, validation
rules, and structured relationships to tables or other features. This behavior enables you to more
accurately model the world and maintain referential integrity between objects in the geodatabase.
How do you work with topology?
Different people work with topology in different ways, depending upon their role in an
organization and its GIS design and management work flow. Initially, creating a topology
requires a geodatabase designer. A topology organizes the spatial relationships between features
in a set of feature classes. The designer analyzes an organization‟s data modeling needs,
identifies the key topological relationships required in the geodatabase, and defines the rules that
will constrain different features‟ topological relationships.

Once the participating feature classes have been added to the topology and the rules defined, the
topology is validated. Data quality managers use the topology tools to analyze, visualize,
report, and, where necessary, repair the spatial integrity of the database after it is initially created
as well as after editing.
3.1 Topology basics for data editors

Topologies store three sets of parameter rules, ranks, and a cluster tolerance. When editing a
geodatabase, you will not typically need to modify these parameters, but you will need to be
aware of them, especially the rules. Topologies also maintain a feature layer that stores dirty
areas, errors, and exceptions. You use these to maintain the quality of data in your topology.
Rules
Rules define the permissible spatial relationships between features. The rules you define for a
topology control the relationships of features allowed within a feature class, between features
in different feature classes, or between subtypes of features.
Example of a “Must Not Overlap” rule applied to polygons and lines. The red polygon and line
mark the places where the rule is violated.
Cluster tolerance
The cluster tolerance defines how close vertices must be to each other in order to be considered
coincident and limits the distance features can move during validation. The cluster tolerance is
the minimum distance between vertices of features that are not coincident. Vertices that fall
within the cluster tolerance are defined as coincident and are snapped together. The cluster
tolerance is typically a small actual distance to minimize the movement of correctly placed
features.

When you validate a topology, features within the cluster tolerance are snapped together.
Ranks
Ranks control which features may be moved to other features when snapping the topology
together during validation.
When you validate a topology, the ranks of the feature classes in the topology control how
features are snapped together. Lower-ranking features snap to higher-ranking features. Equally
ranked features snap to the geometric average of their position.
3.2 Feature layers maintained by a topology

The topology stores some feature layers that let it efficiently track the places where the topology
may have been violated during editing dirty areas and features that were found to violate
topology rules after validation error features. Certain errors may be acceptable, in which case the
error features are marked and stored as exceptions.
Dirty areas
Dirty areas are areas that have been edited, updated, or affected by the addition or deletion of
features. Dirty areas allow the topology to limit the area that must be checked for topology
errors during topology validation. Dirty areas track the places where topology rules may have
been violated during editing.

When you edit features in a topology, the topology creates a dirty area to mark the area that
Dirty areas are stored in the topology as a single feature, with each new dirty area joined with
the existing dirty area, and each area that has been validated removed from the dirty area.
Errors and exceptions
Errors and exceptions are stored as features in the topology layer and allow you to render and
manage the cases in which features do not obey the rules of the topology. Error features record
where topological errors were discovered during validation. Certain errors may be acceptable, in
which case the error features can be marked as exceptions.
When you validate a topology, features that violate the rules are marked as error features. You
can edit the features to fix the errors, or you can mark the errors as exceptions. In this example,
the street line features cannot have dangles, which are endpoints that do not connect to other
street features. Because cul-de-sac/ dead end streets are a legitimate exception to this rule, they
may be marked as exceptions in the topology. The remaining errors should be fixed by editing
the street features.
3.3 Topology rules

Many topology rules can be imposed on features in a geodatabase. A well-designed geodatabase
will have only those topology rules that define key spatial relationships needed by an
organization.

3.3.1 Polygon rules
Must Not Overlap
This rule requires that the interior of polygons in the feature class not overlap. It is useful for
modeling administrative boundaries, such as ZIP Codes or voting districts, and mutually
exclusive area classifications, such as land cover or landform type.
 Subtract: The Subtract fix removes the overlapping portion of geometry from each
feature that is causing the error and leaves a gap or void in its place. This fix can be
applied to one or more selected Must Not Overlap errors.
.
 Merge: The Merge fix adds the portion of overlap from one feature and subtracts it from
the others that are violating the rule. You need to pick the feature that receives the portion
of overlap using the Merge dialog box. This fix can be applied to one Must Not Overlap
error only.
 Create Feature: The Create Feature fix creates a new polygon feature out of the error
shape and removes the portion of overlap from each of the features causing the error to
create a planar representation of the feature geometry. This fix can be applied to one or
more selected Must Not Overlap errors.
Must Not Have Gaps
This rule requires that there are no voids within a single polygon or between adjacent polygons.
You can either ignore this error or mark it as an exception. For example, soil polygons cannot
include gaps nor form voids they must cover an entire area.

 Create Feature: The Create Feature fix creates a new polygon feature in a void that is
completely surrounded by polygons in error (a closed ring of line errors). This fix can be
applied to one or more selected Must Not Have Gaps errors.
Must Not Overlap With
This rule requires that the interior of polygons in one feature class must not overlap with the
interior of polygons in another feature class. Polygons of the two feature classes can share edges
or vertices or be completely disjointed. This rule is used when an area cannot belong to two
separate feature classes.
 Subtract: This fix can be applied to one or more selected Must Not Overlap With errors.
 Merge: This fix can be applied to one Must Not Overlap With error only.
Must Be Covered By Feature Class Of
This rule requires that a polygon in one feature class must share all of its area with polygons in
another feature class. This rule is used when an area of one type, such as a state, should be
completely covered by areas of another type, such as counties.
 Subtract:
 Create Feature:
Must Cover Each Other
This rule requires that the polygons of one feature class must share all of their area with the
polygons of another feature class.
 Subtract:

 Create Feature:
Must Be Covered By
This rule requires that polygons of one feature class must be contained within polygons of
another feature class.
This rule is useful when modeling areas that are subsets of a larger surrounding area, such as
management units within forests or blocks within block groups.
 Create Feature:
Boundary Must Be Covered By
This rule requires that boundaries of polygon features must be covered by lines in another feature
class. This rule is used when area features need to have line features that mark the boundaries of
the areas. For example, parcels might be stored in the geodatabase along with their boundaries.
 Create Feature:
Area Boundary Must Be Covered By Boundary Of
This rule requires that boundaries of polygon features in one feature class be covered by
boundaries of polygon features in another feature class. There are no topology fix commands for
this rule.

Contains Point
This rule requires that a polygon in one feature class contain at least one point from another
feature class. Points must be within the polygon, not on the boundary. This is useful when every
polygon should have at least one associated point, such as when parcels must have an address
point.
 Create Feature:
3.3.2 Line rules

Must Not Overlap
This rule requires that lines not overlap with lines in the same feature class.
 Subtract: The Subtract fix removes the overlapping line segments from the feature
causing the error.
Must Not Intersect
This rule requires that line features from the same feature class not cross or overlap each other.
Lines can share endpoints. This rule is used for contour lines that should never cross each other
or in cases where the intersection of lines should only occur at endpoints, such as street segments
and intersections
 Subtract:
 Split:

Must Not Have Dangles
This rule requires that a line feature must touch lines from the same feature class at both
endpoints. An endpoint that is not connected to another line is called a dangle.
Because the fixes use tolerance values to determine whether the fix occurs, make sure you have
specified your map‟s distance units. Click View, Data Frame Properties, then the General tab.
 Snap: The Snap fix will snap dangling line features to the nearest line feature within a
given distance. If no line feature is found within the distance specified, the line will not
be snapped.
 Extend: The Extend fix will extend the dangling end of line features if they snap to other
line features within a given distance. If no feature is found within the distance specified,
the feature will not extend to the distance specified.
 Trim: The Trim/ Fit fix will trim dangling line features if a point of intersection is found
within a given distance. If no feature is found within the distance specified, the feature
will not be trimmed, nor will it be deleted if the distance is greater than the length of the
feature in error.
Must Not Have Pseudonodes
This rule requires that a line connect to at least two other lines at each endpoint. Lines that
connect to one other line, or to themselves, are said to have pseudonodes.
 Merge To Largest: The Merge To Largest fix will merge the geometry of the shorter
line into the geometry of the longest line. The attributes of the longest line feature will be
retained.

 Merge: The Merge fix adds the geometry of one line feature into the other line feature
causing the error.
Must Not Intersect Or Touch Interior
This rule requires that a line in one feature class must only touch other lines of the same feature
class at endpoints. Any line segment in which features overlap, or any intersection not at an
endpoint, is an error.
 Subtract:
 Split:
Must Not Overlap With
This rule requires that a line from one feature class not overlap with line features in another
feature class.
 Subtract:
Must Be Covered By Feature Class Of
This rule requires that lines from one feature class must be covered by the lines in another
feature class.. A bus route feature class must not depart from the streets defined in the street
feature class.
There are no fixes for this rule.
Must Be Covered By Boundary Of
This rule requires that lines be covered by the boundaries of area features.
 Subtract:

Endpoint Must Be Covered By
This rule requires that the endpoints of line features must be covered by point features in another
feature class.
 Create Feature:
Must Not Self Overlap
This rule requires that line features not overlap themselves. They can cross or touch themselves,
but must not have coincident segments. This rule is useful for features such as streets, where
segments might touch, in a loop, but where the same street should not follow the same course
twice.
Must Not Self Intersect
This rule requires that line features not cross or overlap themselves. This rule is useful for lines,
such as contour lines, that cannot cross themselves.
 Simplify: The Simplify fix removes self overlapping line segments from the feature in
error. Note that applying the Simplify fix can result in multipart features. You can detect
multipart features using the Must Be Single Part rule.

Must Be Single Part
This rule requires that lines must have only one part. This rule is useful where line features, such
as highways, may not have multiple parts.
 Explode: The Explode fix creates single part line features from each part of the multipart
line feature that is in error.
3.3.3 Point rules

Must Be Covered By Boundary Of
This rule requires that points fall on the boundaries of area features. This is useful when the point
features help support the boundary system, such as boundary markers, which must be found on
the edges of certain areas.
Must Be Properly Inside Polygons
This rule requires that points fall within area features.
 Delete: The Delete fix removes point features that are not properly within polygon
features.
Must Be Covered By Endpoint Of
This rule requires that points in one feature class must be covered by the endpoints of lines in
another feature class. Boundary corner markers might be constrained to be covered by the
endpoints of boundary lines.

 Delete: The Delete fix removes point features that are not coincident with the
endpoints of line features.
Must Be Covered By Line
This rule requires that points in one feature class must be covered by lines in another feature
class. This rule is useful for points that fall along a set of lines, such as highway signs along
highways.
3.4 Creating Topology and Geodatabase
3.4.1 Create Geodatabase

1. On ArcMap Go to ArcCatalog <D:Training_2011  Topology

2. Right click on Topology  New  click Personal Geodatabase  Rename to Topology.
3. Right click on Topology Geodatabase  New  Feature Dataset name <Topo> 

Click Next.

4. Define Reference system for Feature dataset (the reference system should be similar with
Feature class that you are going to export to this dataset) click Add Coordinate system
on new feature dataset and add roads.

5. Click next Click Finish
6. Right cklick on Roads  Export To Geodatabase (single)

7. Spacify output location (D:\Training _2011\Topoloy\Topology.mdb\Topo)  output

feature class (Roads)  click Ok.
8. Repeat step 6 and 7 to export Woreda and Zone shape file to (D:\Training
_2011\Topoloy\Topology.mdb\Topo)

3.4.2 Create topology

1. Right click on <Topo dataset>  select topology  Click Next
2. Type topology name Topo_Topology  Adjust cluster tolerance Click Next
3. Check the box to Select features participate in the topology  Click Next

4. Adjust the rank among feature class (the lower rank is given for the feature which is moved
to highest rank) Zone 1, Woreda 2 and Road 3.
5. Add topology rules for feature classes participating in topology.

6. Click Next  Finish  No
7. On ArcCatalog Click on topology and preview (Hash Blue line shows the dirty area and
indicated that areas in dataset have invalid.)

8. Right click on topology and validate then click Ok
9. Check error
 Right click on topology and property, click error and generate summery  OK

10. Add topology to Arcmap
 By drag and drop  Click Yes

11. Go to Custumize on ArcMap  Add topology toolbar, snapping and editor.
12. Click and Save workspace.

13. Click Editor and Start editing
 On Topology toolbar click Error inspector

 Select error type in show window
 Uncheck visible extent only  Click search now
14. To fix individual errors.
 Right click on one of it and zoom to; it is look like dark black line

 Click fix topology error tool
 Right click on the error; only mark as Exception is there. So go to Edit Tool and
delete vertex
 Click validate topology error in current extent

 Finally Click Editor  Save Edit and Stop Edit.

4 Remote Sensing
4.1 Introduction To Remote Sensing
4.1.1 Definitions
Three definitions of remote sensing are given below:
 Remote sensing is the science of acquiring, processing and interpreting images that
record the interaction between electromagnetic energy and matter.
 Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or
phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with
the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation.
 Remote sensing is the instrumentation, techniques and methods to observe the Earth's
surface at a distance and to interpret the images or numerical values obtained in order to
acquire meaningful information of particular objects on Earth.
4.1.2 The process of Remote Sensing
Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target
of interest.

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This
interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the
sensor.
Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record
the electromagnetic radiation.
Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has
to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or
electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we
apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order
to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.
These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end.
4.1.3 Application of remote sensing
A) Geologic Applications I - Stratigraphy & Structure

B) Vegetation Applications - Agriculture, Forestry, and Ecology
C) Urban and Land Use Applications
D) Geologic Applications II - Mineral & Petroleum Exploration
E) Meteorological, Oceanographic and Hydrologic Applications
4.1.4 Platforms
- Are vehicles such as satellite or air craft used for a particular purpose
- Sensors used in RS can be carried at heights ranging from just a few cm ( field
equipments) up to oribits in space as far away as 36,000km (geostationary orbits)
- Static platform ( example using a MSS mounted to a pole, the change in reflectance of a
specific crop during the day or season can be assessed

- Moving platforms (very often sensor is mounted on aircraft & satellite

A. Airborne RS
- Is carried out using different types of aircraft depending on the operational requirements
and budget available
- The selected altitude influences the scale & the resolution of the recorded images
B. Spaceborne RS
- Carried out using sensors that are mounted on satellites, space vehicles and space
stations
4.2 Introduction to ERDAS IMAGINE software
4.2.1 Starting ERDAS IMAGINE

1. Click start  All programme  Click ERDAS 2010  select ERDAS IMAGINE
Classic Interface. ERDAS IMAGINE begins running; the icon panel automatically
opens.
2. ERDAS IMAGINE Icon Panel: The ERDAS IMAGINE icon panel contains icons and
menus for accessing ERDAS IMAGINE functions. The icon panel that displays on your
screen looks similar to the following:
3. ERDAS IMAGINE Menu Bar

The menus on the ERDAS IMAGINE menu bar are: Session, Main, Tools, Utilities, and Help.
1. Session Menu

 Click the word Session in the upper left corner of the ERDAS IMAGINE menu
bar. The Session menu opens:
The following table contains the Session menu selections and their functionalities:
Table 1: Session Menu Options
Selection Functionality
Set individual or global default options for many ERDAS IMAGINE
Preferences functions
(Viewer, Map Composer, Spatial Modeler, etc.).
Configuration Configure peripheral devices for ERDAS IMAGINE.
View a real-time record of ERDAS IMAGINE messages and
Session Log
commands, and to issue commands.
View and cancel currently active processes running in ERDAS
Active Process List
IMAGINE.
Open a command shell, in which you can enter commands to activate
Commands
or cancel processes.
Enter Log Message Insert text into the Session Log.
Open the Batch Wizard. Collect commands as they are generated by
Start Recording Batch
clicking the Batch button that is available on many ERDAS
Commands
IMAGINE dialogs.
Open Batch Command File Open a Batch Command File (*.bcf) you have saved previously.
Open the Scheduled Batch Job list dialog, which gives information
View Offline Batch Queue about
pending batch jobs.
Flip Icons Specify horizontal or vertical icon panel display.
Tile Viewers Rearrange two or more Viewers on the screen so that they do not
overlap.
Close All Viewers Close all Viewers that are currently open.
Access a menu of tools that corresponds to the icons along the ERDAS
Main
IMAGINE icon bar.
Access a menu of tools that allow you to view and edit various text
Tools
and image files.
Access a menu of utility items that allow you to perform general tasks
Utilities
in ERDAS IMAGINE.
Help Access the ERDAS IMAGINE On-Line Help
Display the ERDAS IMAGINE Properties dialog where system,
Properties
environment and licensing information is available.
Generate System Information Provides a mechanism for printing essential IMAGINE operating
Report system parameters.
Exit IMAGINE Exit the ERDAS IMAGINE session (keyboard shortcut: Ctrl-Q).
2. Main Menu
 Click the word Main in the ERDAS IMAGINE menu bar. The Main menu opens
Table 2: Main Menu Options

Start IMAGINE Viewer Start an empty Viewer.
Import/Export Open the Import/Export dialog.
Data Preparation Open the Data Preparation menu.
Map Composer Open the Map Composer menu.
Image Interpreter Open the Image Interpreter menu.
Image Catalog Open the Image Catalog dialog.
Image Classification Open the Classification menu.

Spatial Modeler Open the Spatial Modeler menu.

Vector Open the Vector Utilities menu.
Radar Open the Radar menu.
VirtualGIS Open the VirtualGIS menu.
LPS Project Manager Open the LPS Project Manager Startup dialog.
Stereo Analyst Open the Stereo Analyst Workspace
3. Tools Menu
 Click the word Tools in the ERDAS IMAGINE menu bar. The Tools menu opens:
Table 3: Tools Menu Options

Edit Text Files Create and edit ASCII text files.
Edit Raster Attributes Edit raster attribute data.
View Binary Data View the contents of binary files in a number of different ways.
View IMAGINE HFA File
View the contents of the ERDAS IMAGINE hierarchical files.
Structure
View information for annotation files, including number of
Annotation Information
elements and projection information.
Obtain full image information for a selected ERDAS IMAGINE
Image Information
raster image.
Obtain full image information for a selected ERDAS IMAGINE
Vector Information
vector coverage.
Image Command Tool Open the Image Command dialog.
Coordinate Calculator Transform coordinates from one spheroid or datum to another.
Create/Display Movie
View a series of images in rapid succession.
Sequences
Create/Display Viewer View a series of images saved from the Viewer.
Sequences
Create a perspective view by draping imagery over a terrain
Image Drape
DEM.
Start the Digital Point Positioning DataBase Workstation (if
DPPDB Workstation
installed).
Open the EML View dialog, which enables you to view, edit, and
View EML ScriptFilesa
print ERDAS IMAGINE dialogs.
4. Utilities Menu
 Click Utilities on the ERDAS IMAGINE menu bar. The Utilities menu opens:
Table 4: Utility Menu Options

Compress raster images using the JPEG compression technique
JPEG Compress Images
and save them in an ERDAS IMAGINE format.
Decompress images compressed using the JPEG Compress
Decompress JPEG Images
Images utility.
Convert Pixels to ASCII Output raster data file values to an ASCII file.
Convert ASCII to Pixels Create an image from an ASCII file.
Convert a raster image to polygons saved as ERDAS
Convert Images to Annotation
IMAGINE annotation (.ovr).
Convert an annotation file containing vector graphics to a
Convert Annotation to Raster
raster image file.

Provide a direct means of creating chips for one or more

Create/Update Image Chips
images.
Mount/Unmount CD-ROMa Mount and unmount a CD-ROM drive.
Make a set of links to items on CD for systems that convert CD
Create Lowercase Parallel Linksa
paths to uppercase.
Create Font Tables Create a map of characters in a particular font.
Create a symbol library to use as annotation characters from an
Font to Symbol
existing font.
Open Image Compare dialog. Compare layers, raster, map
Compare Images
info, etc.
Reconfigure Raster Formats Start a DLL to reconfigure raster formats.
Reconfigure Vector Formats Start a DLL to reconfigure vector formats.
Reconfigure Resample Methods Start a DLL to reconfigure resampling methods.
Reconfigure Geometric Models Start a DLL to reconfigure the geometric models
5. Help Menu
 Select Help from the ERDAS IMAGINE menu bar. The Help menu opens.
Table 5: Help Menu Options

View the On-Line Help for the ERDAS IMAGINE icon
Help for Icon Panel
panel.
IMAGINE Online
Access the root of the On-Line Help tree.
Documentation
IMAGINE Version View which version of ERDAS IMAGINE you are running.
Display and edit DLL class information and DLL instance
IMAGINE DLL Information
information.
About ERDAS IMAGINE Open ERDAS IMAGINE Credits.
4.2.2 Display an Image
Next, you display a Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image in a Viewer.
1. Click the Viewer menu bar, select File -> Open -> Raster Layer.

2. In the Select Layer To Add dialog, click the Recent button. A dialog with a listing of the
most recent files you have opened displays. You can individually select these files and
then click OK to display them quickly in the Select Layer To Add dialog.

3. Click Cancel in the List of Recent Filenames dialog.

4. In the Select Layer To Add dialog, click the Goto button.
5. Click Cancel in the Select a Directory dialog.
6. In the file name part of the Select Layer To Add dialog, click the file lanier.img.
7. Click the Raster Options tab at the top of the Select Layer To Add dialog. The Raster
Options display.
8. Under Layers to Colors, display band 4 in the Red color gun, band 5 in the Green color
gun, and band 3 in the Blue color gun.
9. Click OK in the Select Layer To Add dialog to display the file.

4.3 ImageClassification In ERDAS IMAGINE

Classification is the process of sorting pixels into a finite number of individual classes, or
categories of data based on their data file values. If a pixel satisfies a certain set of criteria, then
the pixel is assigned to the class that corresponds to that criterion.
There are two ways to classify pixels into different categories:
 Supervised
 Unsupervised
4.3.1 Supervised Classification

Supervised classification is more closely controlled by you than unsupervised classification. In
this process, you select pixels that represent patterns you recognize or that you can identify with
help from other sources. Knowledge of the data, the classes desired, and the algorithm to be used
is required before you begin selecting training samples. By identifying patterns in the imagery,
you can train the computer system to identify pixels with similar characteristics. By setting
priorities to these classes, you supervise the classification of pixels as they are assigned to a class

value. If the classification is accurate, then each resulting class corresponds to a pattern that you
originally identified.
4.3.2 Unsupervised classification

is more computer-automated. It allows you to specify parameters that the computer uses as
guidelines to statistical patterns in the data. In this manual, you perform both a supervised and an
unsupervised classification of the same image file.
4.4 Perform Supervised Classification

In this section, you define the signatures using the following operations: Collect signatures from
the image to be classified using the area of interest (AOI) tools.
1. Open ERDAS IMAGINE - Select File -> Open -> Raster Layer from the Viewer
menu bar, or click the Open icon on the Viewer toolbar to display the image file to
be classified.
The Select Layer To Add dialog opens.
2. In the Select Layer To Add dialog File name section, select image_1.img, which is
located in the <D/Training 2011/landsat/image_1.img>/. This is the image file that is
going to be classified.
3. Click the Raster Options tab at the top of the dialog, and then set the Layers to Colors
to 4, 5, and 3 (Red, Green, and Blue, respectively).
4. Click the Fit to Frame option to enable it.

5. Click OK in the Select Layer To Add dialog. The file image_1.img displays in the
Viewer. If you would like to see only the image in the Viewer and not the surrounding
black space, right-click in the Viewer and select Fit Window to Image.
A. Open Signature Editor
1. Click the Classifier icon on the ERDAS IMAGINE icon panel.
2. Select Signature Editor from the Classification menu to start the Signature Editor.
The Signature Editor opens

3. In the Classification menu, click Close to remove this menu from the screen.
4. In the Signature Editor, select View -> Columns. The View Signature Columns dialog
opens.
5. In the View Signature Columns dialog, right-click in the first column, labeled Column,
to access the Row Selection menu. Click Select All.
6. Shift-click Red, Green, and Blue in Column boxes 3, 4, and 5 to deselect these rows.
These are the CellArray columns in the Signature Editor that you remove to make it
easier to use. These columns can be reinstated at any time.
7. In the View Signature Columns dialog, click Apply. The Red, Green, and Blue columns
are deleted from the Signature Editor.
8. Click Close in the View Signature Columns dialog.
B. Use AOI Tools to Collect Signatures
The AOI tools allow you to select the areas in an image to be used as signatures. These
signatures are parametric because they have statistical information.
1. Select AOI -> Tools from the Viewer menu bar. The AOI tool palette displays.

2. Use the Zoom In tool on the Viewer toolbar to zoom in on one of the light green
areas in the image_1.img file in the Viewer.
3. In the AOI tool palette, click the Polygon icon.

4. In the Viewer, draw a polygon around the green area you just magnified. Click to draw
the vertices of the polygon. Middle-click or double-click to close the polygon (depending
on what is set in Session -> Preferences). After the AOI is created, a bounding box
surrounds the polygon, indicating that it is currently selected. These areas are agricultural
fields.
5. In the Signature Editor, click the Create New Signature(s) from AOI icon or select
Edit -> Add from the menu bar to add this AOI as a signature.
6. In the Signature Editor, click inside the Signature Name column for the signature you
just added. Change the name to Agricultural, and then press Enter on the keyboard.
7. In the Signature Editor, click in the Color column next to Agricultural and select Green.
8. Repeat step 2 through step 7 to collect all training sample or signature file.
9. On signature Editor go to file click save to save sig. file.

10. On signature Editor go to classify click supervised classification to classify the image.
11. Click dowdown arrow in output file and save the classified image in <D/Training
2011/Image classification/> by super_class.
12. Click OK in the Supervised Classification dialog to classify the image_1.img file using
the signatures in the Signature Editor.
A Job Status dialog displays, indicating the progress of the function.
13. When the process is 100% complete, click OK in the Job Status dialog

14. While processing is completed Click Close on process list.

15. Close other box as signature file and AOI.
16. From the Manu bar click viewer and add classified image from in <D/Training
2011/Image classification super_class/>
17. From Viewer 2 click Raster - Attributes  edit  Add Area Column


4.5 Perform Unsupervised Classification

This section shows you how to create a thematic raster layer by letting the software identify
statistical patterns in the data without using any ground truth data.
1. Click the Classifier icon in the ERDAS IMAGINE icon panel to start the Classification
utility.
The Classification menu opens.

2. Select Unsupervised Classification from the Classification menu to perform an

unsupervised classification using the ISODATA algorithm.
The Unsupervised Classification dialog opens.
3. In the Unsupervised Classification dialog under Input Raster File, enter image_1.img.
This is the image file that you are going to classify.
4. Under Output Cluster Layer, enter image_isodata.img in the directory of your choice.
This is the name for the output thematic raster layer.
5. Click Output Signature Set to turn off the checkbox. For this example, do not create a
signature set. The Output Signature Set file name part is disabled.
6. Click OK in the Unsupervised Classification dialog to start the classification process.
The Unsupervised Classification dialog closes automatically. A Job Status dialog
displays, indicating the progress of the function.
7. Click OK in the Job Status dialog when the process is 100% complete.

8. Click the Open icon again in the Viewer toolbar to display the thematic raster layer,
Unsup_class.img, over the image_1.img file.
9. Click the Raster Options tab at the top of the Select Layer To Add dialog.
10. Click Clear Display to turn off this checkbox.
11. Click OK in the Select Layer To Add dialog to display the image file.
12. Select Raster -> Attributes from the Viewer menu bar.The Raster Attribute Editor
displays.
13. In the Raster Attribute Editor, select Edit -> Column Properties to rearrange the
columns in the CellArray so that they are easier to view.
The Column Properties dialog opens.

14. In the Column Properties dialog under Columns, select Opacity, then click Up to move
Opacity so that it is under Histogram.
15. Select Class_Names, and then click Up to move Class_Names so that it is under Color.
16. Click OK in the Column Properties dialog to rearrange the columns in the Raster
Attribute Editor.
The Column Properties dialog closes.

17. The data in the Raster Attribute Editor CellArray should appear similar to the following
example:
18. Analyze Individual Classes

Before you can begin to analyze the classes individually, you need to set the opacity for
all of the classes to zero.

 In the Raster Attribute Editor, click the word Opacity at the top of
the Opacity column to select all of the classes. The column turns
cyan in color.
 Right-hold on the word Opacity and select Formula from the Column Options
menu.
19. In the Formula dialog, click 0 in the number pad. A 0 is placed in the Formula field.
20. In the Formula dialog, click Apply to change all of the values in the Opacity column to
0, and then click Close.
21. Right-click in the Opacity column heading and choose Select None from the Column
Options menu.
22. In the Raster Attribute Editor, hold on the color patch under Color for Class 1 in the
CellArray and change the color to Red. This provides better visibility in the Viewer.
23. Change the Opacity for Class 1 in the CellArray to 1 and then press Enter on the
keyboard. This class shows in the Viewer.

24. In the Viewer menu bar, select Utility -> Flicker to analyze which pixels have been
assigned to this class.
The Viewer Flicker dialog opens.
25. Turn on the Auto Mode in the Viewer Flicker dialog.

The redish pixels in the Unsp_class.img file are the pixels Class 1. These areas are
water.

26. In the Raster Attribute Editor, click inside the Class_Names column for Class 1. Change
this name to Rock surface and then press the Enter key on the keyboard.
27. In the Raster Attribute Editor; hold on the Color patch for Rock surface. Select gray
from the dropdown list.
28. After you are finished analyzing this class, click Cancel in the Viewer
Flicker dialog and set the Opacity for Rock surface back to 0. Press the
Enter key on the keyboard.
29. Repeat these steps with each class so that you can see how the pixels are assigned to each
class. You may also try selecting more than one class at a time.
30. Continue assigning names and colors for the remaining classes in the Raster Attribute
Editor CellArray.
 In the Raster Attribute Editor, click the word Opacity at the top of
the Opacity column to select all of the classes. The column turns
cyan in color.
 Right-hold on the word Opacity and select Formula from the Column Options
menu.
31. In the Formula dialog, click 1 in the number pad. A 1 is placed in the Formula field.
32. In the Formula dialog, click Apply to change all of the values in the Opacity column to
1, and then click Close.
33. Right-click in the Opacity column heading and choose Select None from the Column
Options menu.
34. Change the Opacity for Unclassified in the CellArray to 0 and then press Enter on the
keyboard. This class will not shown in the Viewer.

35. In the Raster Attribute Editor, select File -> Save to save the data in the CellArray.
36. Select File -> Close from the Raster Attribute Editor menu bar.
37. Select File -> Clear from the Viewer menu bar.

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Haramaya University

College of Social Sciences

Basic GIS and Remote Sensing

By: - Mohammed Yusuf (Msc)

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page ii

2.1.5 Georeferencing scanned Toposheet .................................................................................... 26

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page iii

1 Introduction to GIS for Urban Land Administration

Precisely, GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, computer software,

1.2 GIS subsystems

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 1

B. Data Storage and Retrieval Subsystem;

1.2.1 Data input

1.2.2 Data storage and retrieval

1.2.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 2

1.2.4 Data output

1.3 Components of GIS

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 3

1.4 Geographic phenomena

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 4

 A spatial (geographic) extent

1.5 GIS data types

 Attribute data: It describes the characteristics of the spatial features. These

1.5.1 Spatial Data Models

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 5

b. Raster Data Formats

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 6

1.5.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector Data

 Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic

 Accurate geographic location of data is maintained;

Vector data Disadvantage

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 7

 The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly;

1.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster Data

Raster data Advantages

Raster Data Disadvantages

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 8

 It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell

1.6 Attribute Data Models

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 9

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 10

1.7 Geo referencing

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 11

1.8 Map Projection & Coordinate reference systems

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 12

1.8.1 The three families of map projections

1.8.2 Coordinate Reference System (CRS) in detail

1.8.3 Geographic Coordinate Systems

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 13

1.8.4 Projected coordinate reference systems

A two-dimensional coordinate reference system is commonly defined by two axes. At right

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 14

1.8.5 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) CRS in detail:

1.9 GIS Application for Urban Management

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 15

1.9.1 Urban Management and GIS

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 16

Activities Involved in Urban Management

Mohammed Yusuf & Samson Gizaw, HU 2019 Page 17