Research and Research Techniques

Done by:

Oshia Gaynor and Keisha Smith

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 Table of content

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Definition and characteristics of research 2

Types of research 3-10

Sampling 11-13

Sources of data 14-16

Data collection tools 17-20

Evaluation of research 21-22

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 Research

What is a research 
 Research is the use of various quantitative and qualitative techniques of investigation to obtain desired information on a given subject or
phenomenon. 

Characteristics of research 

1. It is structured and systematic process that follows certain rules or procedures for arriving at conclusions. 
2. It requires a clear statement and expectation of what the researcher expects to find at the end of the investigation. 
3. It is logical and subjected to the rules of critical thinking and validity which we associate with the argument. 
4. It is empirical- based on data specifically collected about which generalizations may be made. 
5. It requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research. 
6. It is replicable. Others should be able to replicate the process and procedure set out in the methodology and gets the same results. This
ensures the validity of your process. 

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 Types if Research

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational
communication.
This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to
improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that the numbers of men visiting this store are more. One good method to
determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential customers in the category.

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that they help reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience with
reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic
research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used:

1. One-on-One Interview: Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal
interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in
depth from the respondent.
One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and what their motivations
are. If the researcher is well experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need more
information the researchers should ask such follow up questions that will help them collect more information.
These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the
in-depth interview is conducted face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the respondents and match the
responses.

2. Focus groups: A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods, used in data collection. A focus group
usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.

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The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the why what and how questions. One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t
necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices and responses
can be collected at the click of a button.
Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other qualitative research methods. Typically they are used to explain complex
processes. This method is very useful when it comes to market research on new products and testing new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research: Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring
environment.
This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments which could be anywhere from an organization to a city
or any remote location. Here geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.
This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and
discussions, you experience the natural settings first hand.
This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds.
It’s a challenging and a time-consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe and infer
the data.

4. Case study research: The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed as into a valuable qualitative research
method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.
This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to
operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data
collection methods and inferring the data.samp

5. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source.
This data can be used in a new research. This is similar to going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to
collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation: Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic
information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather
information or data. The qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.
Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t
involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.
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Qualitative Research
Quantitative research, is defined as a the systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical or computational techniques. Quantitative research gathers information from existing and potential customers using sampling
methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After
careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
An example of quantitative research is, the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the
patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a doctor
take to see a patient, how often does the patient walk into a hospital and other such questions. 
Quantitative research is mostly conducted in social sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data from the
research study. In this research method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity
under question.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate and many a times, are investigational in nature. The results achieved from this
research method are logical, statistical and unbiased. Data collection happens using a structured method and conducted on larger samples
which represent the entire population

There are multiple types of primary quantitative research.

They can be distinguished into the four following distinctive methods, which are:

Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative research methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a
sample of respondents, using various types such as such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys etc.

Cross-sectional surveys

 Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys, conducted in situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the
target population at a given point in time. Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data gathered using this type of
survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the variables which is considered for research. All throughout the survey,
this one variable will stay constant.

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Longitudinal surveys

 Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various
time durations in order to observe a change in respondent behaviour and thought-processes. This time period can be days, months, years or
even decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyse the change in buying habits of teenagers over a period of 5 years will conduct
longitudinal surveys.

Correlational Research:
Comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely knit entities
and how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give value to
naturally occurring relationships and a minimum of two different groups are required to successfully conduct this quantitative research
method. Without assuming different aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be established.

Causal-Comparative Research
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called the quasi-experimental research, this quantitative research
method is used by researchers to draw conclusions about cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is
dependent on the other independent variable. The independent variable is established but not manipulated and its impact on the dependent
variable is observed. These variables or groups must be formed as they exist in the natural set up. As the dependent and independent variables
will always exist in a group, it is advised that the conclusions are carefully established by keeping all the factors in mind.

Experimental Research Experimental research also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a
theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not be proved in the past and is
merely a supposition. In an experimental research, an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is
used in natural sciences.

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Triangulation Research

Triangulation refers to the application and combination of several research methods in the study of the same phenomenon.[1] By combining
multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the
problems that come from single method, single-observer, and single-theory studies.

Types of Triangulation

1. Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons.

2. Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation.
3. Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon.
4. Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one method to gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires,
and documents.

Sampling

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Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population.

Population A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific query

Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a sample is known as sampling. Number of elements in the sample is the
sample size.

 Sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all those within a population who can
be sampled, and may include individuals, households or institutions. For example, you might have a sampling frame of names of people in a
certain town for a survey you're going to be conducting on family size. The sample space is all possible outcomes from your survey: 1 person,
2 people, 3 people…10 or more.

Types of Sample

There are two types of sampling:

 Probability
 Non-Probability

Probability Sampling

This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every element of the population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected
sample. It’s alternatively known as random sampling.

Simple Random Sampling- reach member of the sample had an equal chance of selection but is removed from the pool once it has been
selected. This is known ad simple without replacement.

This procedure may also be done by replacing the selected item/ member in the pool before the next draw. This is known as unrestricted
ransom sampling or random sampling with replacement.

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Stratified Random Sampling- each sub-group within a population (determined by variables such as age, sex, religious affiliation, social
group etc) is grouped and sampled separately and then put together to make a stratified sample of that population. This type of sampling is
ideal in cases where the population has significant heterogeneous characteristics even though they are part of a homogenous group like a
neighbourhood, consistency or parish. In sampling each strata of a population separately, they are the advantages of gaining more precise
results, and saving time and resources by not searching in the wider population for qualities peculiar to each strata.

Systematic Random Sampling- the sample is selected by some prearranged order or system. The order or system may already exist in the
population such as street numbers, lot numbers, and the telephone directory or it may be an implied order such as dates of birth. For enabling,
to select a minimum acceptable sample of ten percent of the total one hundred houses in a housing scheme, every tenth house would be
selected. The pre- determined manner of selecting the sample will reduce bias.

Cluster or area sample- the sample is selected in two stages. First a group or cluster of groups representing the population to be surveyed is
selected. Second, a random sample is selected from the list of people/ items identified in the cluster groups.

Non-Probability Sampling

It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of
sampling might be biased and makes difficult for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This type of sampling is also
known as non-random sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling includes:

1. Accidental Sampling- the sampling is drawn from people/items that are readily available and convenient. The researcher using such
a sample cannot scientifically make generalization about the total population because it would not be representative enough. This type
of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
2. Judgemental Sampling- the reader her uses the knowledge of the population to be surveyed or the knowledge of the population or the
knowledge of the resource persons who ate also knowledgeable about the population to make a judgement as to which items and how
many in the population should be selected.
3. Quota Sampling- the researcher uses his knowledge of the nature and composition of the total population to decide which members
and how many from different strata of the population should be selected so that the sample is representative of the population.

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 4. Snowball Sampling-This is a two phrase process. The first improves identifying and selecting a few members in the target
population within the required information. In the second phrase the small group is used to contact others in the population who also
possess the information or qualities required by researcher. The sample size will get larger or snowball in the second phrase.
5. Dense Sampling- This involves selecting a sample size or half or more of the population. Such a method of sampling would be
impractical for very large populations and would be both expensive and a huge demand on the researcher’s tone and both expensive
and huge demand on the researcher’s time and resources. The larger the sample size, the more representative the sample I'd likely to
be of the population.

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 Sources of Data

Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources, using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. It
is collected with the research project in mind, directly from primary sources. Examples include:

Literary creation: novels, short stories, poems, etc. 

Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under study);
Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
Diaries;
Internet communications on email, listeras;
Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
Letters;
Newspaper articles written at the time;
Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
Patents;
Photographs
Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution, government document);
Speeches;
Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);
Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores, buildings, novels, poems).

Characteristics of Primary Data Sources

1. They are eyewitness accounts of first records of the event. They ate written, created or recorded during the period or context under
investigation.
2. They are original sources on which interpretation, analysis and studies are based.

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 3. They exist in any media or genre which include poems, diaries, journals, scientific research, interviews, autobiographies, world of art,
publications, official and private rankings, legislation bills, pictures and maps, artefacts, furniture, clothing, oral history etc.
4. They tend to be native in style rather than analytical or evaluative. They consist of the collation of facts, impressions and observations.
5. They tend to be subjective in nature reflecting the view-point and individual or group bias of your recorder(s) of the event.

Secondary Data Source

Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other sources. Examples include:

Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);

Biographical works;
Commentaries, criticisms;
 Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);
Histories;
Literary criticism such as Journal articles;
Magazine and newspaper articles;
Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
Web site (also considered primary).

Characteristics of Secondary Sources

1. They are usually written or produced after the event that they purport to comment on.
2. They comment on primary sources offering explanation, evaluation and interpretation of them as well as other secondary sources.
They messy offer answers SMS solution to queries and questions raised by primary sources.

3. They tend to be analytical and interpretative in style.

4. They may attempt to be objective and balanced depending on their purpose and the author.
5. They could reflect the bias and attitude of the world-view in which they are written.
6. They ate obtained mainly through documentary media.
Tertiary Sources of Data

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 1. Tertiary sources are publications that summarize and digest the information in primary and secondary sources to provide
background on a topic, idea, or event. Almanacs;
2. Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
3. Chronologies;
4. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
5. Directories;
6. Fact books;
7. Guidebooks;
8. Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
9. Manuals;
10. Textbooks (also be secondary).

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 Data collection tools

Methods of administration

Face-to-face (in person) interviews

This is an interactive process in which trained interviewers visit people in their homes or place of work to directly collect data from them.
This is the method used in government census and it has proven to be quite effective.

The advantages associated with this method are:

1. There is high response rate; often over eighty percent.

2. Trained interviewers will garner better quality data than untrained ones.
3. Interviewers can make relevant observations on sensitive variables.
4. There is opportunity to probe answers given of necessary.
They’re number of clear disadvantages associated with this method.

These include:

1. Travel costs for interviewers can be high.

2. The interviewers do not always visit at times convenient to the interviewee and hence may have to revisit.
3. High cost to recruit and train interviewers.
4. Interviewer bias communicated by demeanour, tone of voice and questioning style can unduly influence respondents.

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Telephone interviews

This involves trained interviews calling portions to collect data.

The advantages associated with this method are:

1. Possible coverage or wide geographical area.

2. It is quicker and less expensive than the face-to-face method.
3. Random digital dialling may be used to make Sampling selection easy.
4. High response rate possible (with several call-backs).
5. Interviewer can control questioning sequence.

The disadvantages of this method of data collection include the following:

1. Only people with telephones can be interviewed.
2. High costs involved for long distance calls; may need several call backs.
3. Respondents can be terminate interview by hanging up the phone.
4. Anonymity is limited.

Mail Surveys or Self-Administered Questionnaires

This involves posting out the data collection instrument to the respondents which they are required to complete in privacy and return.

The advantages associated with this method are:

1. It is relatively less expensive when compared to the face-to-face method but it can run up cost if the sample size is large.
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 2. It is convenient for distributing large numbers of the questionnaire in a short time over a wide geographical area.
3. Respondents can complete questionnaire at their convenience and in privacy.
4. Respondents can check personal records if memory fails.
5. It avoids interviewer bias.
The disadvantages of this method of data collection include the following:

1. Researcher will have to compile or procure an up-to- date mailing list of all persons to be included in the survey.
2. Lower response rate than the other methods of data collection.
3. Ineffective if respondents are not literate.
4. Slow response rate even though remainder lets and incentives can be used to speed up rate of return.
5. Researcher cannot control the conditions of response.
6. Some types of questions may not be possible, especially if sequencing is involved.

Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI)

This operates on the same principle as the normal telephone interview expect that the responses are immediately keyed into a computer to
save time spent processing the data

They key advantage of this method is the speed with which the computer could dial the numbers and the data could be captured.

The key disadvantages of this method would basically be the same as those for telephone interview.

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The Internet (On-Line Surveys)

This involves paying the questionnaire to a web site and respondents complete it on-line. This is a fairly new and increasingly popular method
but given the nature of the internet, there are concerns with issues of privacy.

The advantages of this method include the following:

1. Working online is relatively inexpensive.

2. Responses can be collected from a vast geographical area.
3. Anonymity can be possible through the use of encryption and secure browsers.
4. There is quick electronic capture of data and easy compilation.
There are limitations to the use of online surveying. These include the following:

1. Those with no internet access cannot participate.

2. It is difficult to guarantee a representative sample online.
3. Multiple responses from the same person are hard to detect.
4. It is difficult to use open-ended questions.

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Evaluation of Research

Reliability- reliability is the degree to which research method produces stable and consistent results(accurate inferences based on the results)
A specific measure is considered to be reliable if its application on the same object of measurement number of times produces the same
results. A measurement instrument may prove unreliable for a number of reasons which include:

1. The fact that the sample responding to the instrument may vary in their responses.
2. Inconsistency in the way the instrument is administered usually due to inadequate training of the data collectors.
3. Changes over time in the phenomenon being measured.
The test-retest method is one of the most popular ways to check reliability of an instrument. By this method, the researcher compares the
result of two separate tests of the same phenomenon, using the same

measuring instruments, but done at different times.

Viability- is repeated measurement give the same results. Reliability ask if the measurement is doing the same thing every time. This needs to
be consistent. In determining whether one’s research methodology is sound and effective, the researcher should seek to answer the following
questions:

1. What does the instrument/test measure?

2. Does it, in fact, measure what it is supposed to measure?
3. How well or how accurately does it measure it?
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There are several types of validity which the student researcher must consider before making any claims about her research. These include:

Face Validity which calls on the researcher to make a subjective judgment as whether the research instruments are measuring what they are
supposed to measure and whether the sample of the population selected to be measured is representative of the behavior or opinion or trait
that is being measured.

Content Validity- which refers to the accuracy with which an instrument measures the content that is being studied. It includes how
accurately questions asked tend to elicit the information which the researcher seeks.

Internal validity – which refers to whether the researcher can draw accurate conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationship within the
data. This is only possible of the research design is free from bias. Thus, research findings will be internally invalid if they are affected by
factors and variables other than those that the researcher thought caused them or if the interpretation of the findings by the researcher is not
supported by the data.

External Validity -refers to the extent that conclusions drawn from a sample maybe generalized to the larger target population or other
situations involving that population. If a research lacks external validity, the findings cannot be applied to situations other than the one in
which the research took place.

Bias- Research bias, also called experimenter bias, is a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to
portray a certain outcome credibility.

Currency is the timeliness of the Information. The date information was published or produced tells you how current it is or how
contemporaneous it is with the topic you are researching. Key indicators of the currency of the information are: date of copyright.

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