Upgrading & Repairing PCs Eighth Edition sold for $695.

sold for $695. This system consisted of a main circuit board screwed to a
piece of plywood; a case and power supply were not included. Only a few of
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- these computers were made, and they reportedly have sold to collectors for
more than $20,000. The Apple II, introduced in 1977, helped set the
- 1 - standard for nearly all the important microcomputers to follow, including
the IBM PC.

Personal Computer Background The microcomputer world was dominated in 1980 by two types of computer
systems. One type, the Apple II, claimed a large following of loyal users
and a gigantic software base that was growing at a fantastic rate. The
* Personal Computing History other type, CP/M systems, consisted not of a single system but of all the
* The IBM Personal Computer many systems that evolved from the original MITS Altair. These systems were
compatible with one another and were distinguished by their use of the CP/M
* The IBM-Compatible Marketplace 16 Years Later operating system and expansion slots, which followed the S-100 (for slots
with 100 pins) standard. All these systems were built by a variety of
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- companies and sold under various names. For the most part, however, these
companies used the same software and plug-in hardware. It is interesting to
Many discoveries and inventions have directly and indirectly contributed to note that none of these systems were PC- compatible, or Mac-compatible, the
the development of the personal computer. Examining a few important two primary standards in place today!
developmental landmarks can help bring the entire picture into focus.
The IBM Personal Computer
Personal Computing History
At the end of 1980, IBM decided to truly compete in the rapidly growing
A modern digital computer is largely a collection of electronic switches. low-cost personal computer market. The company established what then was
These switches are used to represent, as well as to control, the routing of called the Entry Systems Division, located in Boca Raton, Florida, to
data elements called binary digits (or bits). Because of the on or off develop the new system. This small group consisted of 12 engineers and
nature of the binary information and signal routing used by the computer, designers under the direction of Don Estridge; the team's chief designer
an efficient electronic switch was required. The first electronic computers was Lewis Eggebrecht. The division developed IBM's first real PC. (IBM
used vacuum tubes as switches, and although the tubes worked, they had many considered the 5100 system, developed in 1975, to be an intelligent
problems. programmable terminal rather than a genuine computer, even though it truly
was a computer.) Nearly all these engineers had been moved to the new
The tube was inefficient as a switch. It consumed a great deal of division from the System/23 DataMaster project, which in 1980 introduced a
electrical power and gave off enormous heat--a significant problem in the small office computer system that was the closest predecessor to the IBM
earlier systems. Primarily because of the heat they generated, tubes were PC.
notoriously unreliable--one failed every couple hours or so in the larger
systems. Much of the PC's design was influenced by the DataMaster's design. In the
DataMaster's single-piece design, the display and keyboard were integrated
The invention of the transistor, or semiconductor, was one of the most into the unit. Because these features were limiting, they became external
important developments leading to the personal computer revolution. The units on the PC, although the PC keyboard layout and electrical designs
transistor was invented in 1948 by Bell Laboratories engineers John were copied from the DataMaster.
Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. The transistor, which
essentially functions as a solid-state electronic switch, replaced the much Several other parts of the IBM PC system also were copied from the
less suitable vacuum tube. Because the transistor was so much smaller and DataMaster, including the expansion bus (or input/output slots), which
consumed significantly less power, a computer system built with transistors included not only the same physical 62-pin connector but also almost
was much smaller, faster, and more efficient than a computer system built identical pin specifications. This copying was possible because the PC used
with vacuum tubes. the same interrupt controller as the DataMaster and a similar direct memory
access (DMA) controller. Expansion cards already designed for the
The conversion to transistors began the trend toward miniaturization that DataMaster could then be easily re-designed to function in the PC.
continues to this day. Today's small laptop (or palmtop) PC systems, which
run on batteries, have more computing power than many earlier systems that The DataMaster used an Intel 8085 CPU, which had a 64K address limit, as
filled rooms and consumed huge amounts of electrical power. well as an 8-bit internal and external data bus. This arrangement prompted
the PC design team to use the Intel 8088 CPU, which offered a much larger
In 1959, engineers at Texas Instruments invented the integrated circuit (1M) memory address limit, and an internal 16-bit data bus, but only an
(IC), a semiconductor circuit that contains more than one transistor on the 8-bit external data bus. The 8-bit external data bus and similar
same base (or substrate material) and connects the transistors without instruction set allowed the 8088 to be easily interfaced into the earlier
wires. The first IC contained only six transistors. By comparison, the DataMaster designs.
Intel Pentium Pro microprocessor used in many of today's high-end systems
has more than 5.5 million transistors, and the integral cache built into Estridge and the design team rapidly developed the design and
some of these chips contains as many as an additional 32 million specifications for the new system. In addition to borrowing from the
transistors! Today, many ICs have transistor counts in the multimillion System/23 DataMaster, the team studied the marketplace, which also had
range. enormous influence on the IBM PC's design. The designers looked at the
prevailing standards, learned from the success of those systems, and
In 1969, Intel introduced a 1K-bit memory chip, which was much larger than incorporated into the new PC all the features of the popular systems--and
anything else available at the time. (1K bits equals 1,024 bits, and a byte more. With the parameters for design made obvious by the market, IBM
equals 8 bits. This chip, therefore, stored only 128 bytes--not much by produced a system that filled its niche in the market perfectly.
today's standards.) Because of Intel's success in chip manufacturing and
design, Busicomp, a Japanese calculator manufac-turing company, asked Intel IBM brought its system from idea to delivery in one year by using existing
to produce 12 different logic chips for one of its calculator designs. designs and purchasing as many components as possible from outside vendors.
Rather than produce 12 separate chips, Intel engineers included all the The Entry Systems Division was granted autonomy from IBM's other divisions
functions of the chips in a single chip. and could tap resources outside the company, rather than go through the
bureaucratic procedures that required exclusive use of IBM resources. IBM
In addition to incorporating all the functions and capabilities of the contracted out the PC's languages and operating system to a small company
12-chip design into one multipurpose chip, the engineers designed the chip named Microsoft. That decision would be the major factor in establishing
to be controlled by a program that could alter the function of the chip. Microsoft as the dominant force in PC software today.
The chip then was generic in nature, meaning that it could function in
designs other than calculators. Previous designs were hard-wired for one -----------------------------------------------------------------
purpose, with built-in instructions; this chip would read from memory a NOTE: It is interesting to note that IBM had originally contacted
variable set of instructions that would control the function of the chip. Digital Research (the company that created CP/M, then the most
The idea was to design almost an entire computing device on a single chip popular Personal Computer operating system) to have them develop
that could perform different functions, depending on what instructions it an operating system for the new IBM PC, but they were leery of
was given. working with IBM, and especially balked at the non-disclosure
agreement IBM wanted them to sign. Microsoft jumped on the
The first microprocessor--the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor--was introduced opportunity left open by Digital Research, and as a result has
in 1971. The chip operated on 4 bits of data at a time. The successor to become one of the largest software companies in the world. IBM's
the 4004 chip was the 8008 8-bit microprocessor, introduced in 1972. use of outside vendors in developing the PC was an open
invitation for the aftermarket to jump in and support the
In 1973, some of the first microcomputer kits based on the 8008 chip were system--and it did.
developed. These kits were little more than demonstration tools and did -----------------------------------------------------------------
little except blink lights. In late 1973, Intel introduced the 8080
microprocessor, which was 10 times faster than the earlier 8008 chip and On Wednesday, August 12, 1981, a new standard was established in the micro-
addressed 64K of memory. This breakthrough was the one that the personal computer industry with the debut of the IBM PC. Since then, hundreds of
computer industry had been waiting for. millions of PC-compatible systems have been sold as the original PC has
grown into an enormous family of computers and peripherals. More software
MITS introduced the Altair kit in a cover story in the January 1975 issue has been written for this computer family than for any other system on the
of Popular Electronics magazine. The Altair kit, considered to be the first market.
personal computer, included an 8080 processor, a power supply, a front
panel with a large number of lights, and 256 bytes (not kilobytes) of The IBM-Compatible Marketplace 16 Years Later
memory. The kit sold for $395 and had to be assembled. The computer
included an open architecture bus (slots) that prompted various add-ons and In the more than 16 years since the original IBM PC was introduced, many
peripherals from aftermarket companies. The new processor inspired other changes have occurred. The IBM-compatible computer, for example, advanced
companies to write programs, including the CP/M (Control Program for from a 4.77MHz 8088-based system to 300MHz or faster Pentium II-based
Microprocessors) operating system and the first version of the Microsoft systems--nearly 2,000 times faster than the original IBM PC (in actual
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) programming processing speed, not just clock speed). The original PC had only one or
language. two single-sided floppy drives that stored 160K each using DOS 1.0, whereas
modern systems easily can have 10G (10 billion bytes) or more of hard disk
IBM introduced what can be called its first personal computer in 1975. The storage. A rule of thumb in the computer industry is that available
Model 5100 had 16K of memory, a built-in 16-line-by-64-character display, a processor performance and disk-storage capacity at least double every two
built-in BASIC language interpreter, and a built-in DC-300 cartridge tape to three years. Since the beginning of the PC industry, this pattern has
drive for storage. The system's $9,000 price placed it out of the shown no sign of changing.
mainstream personal computer marketplace, which was dominated by
experimenters (affectionately referred to as hackers) who built low-cost In addition to performance and storage capacity, another major change since
kits ($500 or so) as a hobby. The IBM system obviously was not in the original IBM PC was introduced is that IBM is not the only manufacturer
competition for this low-cost market and did not sell well. of "PC-compatible" systems. IBM originated the PC-compatible standard, of
course, and it continues to set standards that compatible systems follow,
The Model 5100 was succeeded by the 5110 and 5120 before IBM introduced but the company does not dominate the PC market as it did originally. More
what we know as the IBM Personal Computer (Model 5150). Although the 5100 often than not, new standards in the PC industry are developed by companies
series preceded the IBM PC, the older systems and the 5150 IBM PC had and organizations other than IBM. Today it is Intel and Microsoft who are
nothing in common. The PC IBM turned out was more closely related to the primarily responsible for developing and extending the PC hardware and
IBM System/23 DataMaster, an office computer system introduced in 1980. In software standards, respectively. Some have even taken to calling PCs
fact, many of the engineers who developed the PC at IBM had originally "Wintel" systems, owing to the dominance of those two companies.
worked on the DataMaster.
Even so, there are literally hundreds of system manufacturers producing
In 1976, a new company called Apple Computer introduced the Apple I, which computers that are fully PC compatible, not to mention the thousands of
peripheral manufacturers whose components expand and enhance PC-compatible
systems.

PC-compatible systems have thrived, not only because compatible hardware

can be assembled easily, but also because the primary operating system was
available not from IBM but from a third party (Microsoft). The core of the
system software is the BIOS (Basic Input Output System), and this was also
available from third-party companies like AMI, Award, Phoenix, and others.
This situation allowed other manufacturers to license the operating system
and BIOS software and to sell their own compatible systems. The fact that
DOS borrowed the functionality and user interface from both CP/M and UNIX
probably had a lot to do with the amount of software that became available.
Later, with the success of Windows, there would be even more reasons for
software developers to write programs for PC-compatible systems.

One of the reasons why Apple Macintosh systems will likely never enjoy the
success of PC-compatibles is that Apple controls all the software (BIOS and
OS), and until recently had not licensed any of it to other companies for
use in compatible systems. Apple now seems to recognize this flawed stance
because they have begun to license this software; however, it seems too
late for them to effectively compete with the PC-compatible juggernaut. It
is fortunate for the computing public as a whole that IBM created a more
open and extendible standard. The competition among manufacturers and
vendors of PC-compatible systems is the reason why such systems offer so
much performance and so many capabilities for the money.

The IBM-compatible market continues to thrive and prosper. New technology

continues to be integrated into these systems, enabling them to grow with
the times. Because of the high value that these types of systems can offer
for the money and the large amount of software that is available to run on
them, PC-compatible systems likely will dominate the personal computer
marketplace for perhaps the next 15 to 20 years as well.

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