Topic    Teaching and

6   Learning
Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Ex
Expl
plai
ain
n the
the me
mean
anin
ing
g of teac
teachi
hing
ng st
stra
rate
tegi
gies
es;;
2. Exp
Explai
lain
n the b
beha
ehavio
viouri
urist,
st, ccogn
ogniti
itive
ve an
and
d con
const
struc
ructiv
tivist
ist tteac
eachi
hing
ng st
strat
rategi
egies;
es;
3. Ap
Appl
ply
y th
thee va
vari
riou
ouss te
teac
achi
hing
ng sstr
trat
ateg
egie
iess in iins
nstr
truc
ucti
tion
on..
4. Di
Disc
scus
usss the
the co
conc
ncep
eptt o
off thi
think
nkin
ing
g sski
kill
lls;
s;
5. Di
Disc
scus
usss the
the im
impo
port
rtan
ance
ce of thin
thinki
king
ng sk
skil
ills
ls;;
6. Di
Disc
scus
usss type
typess of thi
think
nkiing sk
skil
ills
ls;;
7. Dis
Discu
cuss
ss how lea
learni
rning
ng pro
probl
blems
ems cou
could
ld be ove
overco
rcome
me by und
unders
erstan
tandi
ding
ng
thinking skills;
8. Ac
Accu
cura
rate
tely
ly ex
expl
plai
ain
n tthe
he us
usee of
of thin
thinki
king
ng to
tool
ols;
s;
9. Di
Disc
scus
usss tthr
hree
ee type
typess o
off thi
think
nkiing ttoo
ools
ls;; aand
nd
10. Disc
Discuss
uss how tthink
hinking
ing sskil
kills
ls ccould
ould be iimpro
mproved
ved by u
using
sing thin
thinking
king tools.
tools.

 INTRODUCTION

6.1 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.1.1 Definition of Strategy

A strategy is a tool or method used to accomplish a task. For example, we may
use a crane to lift heavy objects or bake a cake. A teaching strategy is a method or
technique to enhance learning performance.
 

76
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Strategies are goals intended to facilitate a performance. Strategies are processes

that when matched to task requirements, improve performance.

Below are some examples of teaching strategies:

Table 6.1:
6.1 : Teaching Strategies

Teaching Strategy Definition

Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously
contribute ideas. Example: A group of students giving their
opinions on the danger of smoking.
Computer Computer-based representation of real situations or systems.
Simulation Example: Using acid-base titration to determine end-points. Or a
simulator for pilots to train before being allowed to pilot an
aircraft.
Cooperative A learning technique in which learners are members of an
Learning interdependent problem-solving group in which they collaborate,
share and delegate responsibilities, practise with others of
varying abilities, and practise communicating with others.
Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do
something.
Dialog Journals Logs or notebooks used by more than one person for exchanging
experiences, ideas, or reflections  used most often in education
as a means of sustained writing interaction between students and
teachers at all educational levels and in second language and
other types of instruction. Example: A logbook to keep track of
studentsÊ supervision.
Discovery Learning An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner
discovers. Example: An experiment with acids and bases to
discover their characteristics.
Discussion Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions  usually to
analyse, clarify or reach conclusions about issues, questions or
problems.
Drill Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a skill in order to fix it
in his or her mind.
Experiential Learning by doing  Includes knowledge and skills acquired
Learning outside of book\lecture learning situations through work, play
and other life experiences. Experiential education includes
adventure education, environmental education and service
learning.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   77

Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside school
grounds.
Game Typically a competition or contest that involves demonstration of
understanding of content or skill.
Guided D esign Reasoning-centred instructional method developed by Charles E.
Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques and
a prepared outline of decision-making steps to guide students
through the process of resolving open-ended problems.
p roblems.
Hands-on A learning event that engages learners in a practical application
of content and skills.
Inquiry Also referred to as scientific inquiry; refers to activities in which
learners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists
study the natural world.
Laboratory A learning event that involves practising science skills and using
scientific equipment.
Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest
of the group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
Model Simulation A learning event in which an educator and/or learner models or
simulates a natural or physical phenomenon.
Multimedia Integration of more than one medium in a presentation or module
Instruction of instruction.
Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.
Peer Response A learning event in which one learner gives written or verbal
feedback to another learner.
Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learning
occurs.
Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows some
content to a learning audience; similar to a lecture.
Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to a
question raised for inquiry.
Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role (possibly a role that one would
not normally occupy), as part of group learning session directed
towards understanding that role or the
t he situations.
Simulation and The use of role playing by actors during the operation of a
Games comparatively complex symbolic model of an actual or
hypothetical social process; usually includes gaming and may be
all-man, man-computer, or all-computer operations.
 

78
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.2 DIRECT INSTRUCTION 

Direct instruction 
instruction   (DI) is a popular behaviourist instructional strategy for
classroom teaching initially developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann. It
grew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter with
disadvantaged children (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966).
This method is somewhat related to mastery learning, but it is more explicit
regarding curriculum design and effective planned instructional delivery (lesson
planning). Some call this method "teacher proof" under the condition that he
really is willing to learn a teaching script developed by professional instructional
designers. Direct instruction is available as commercial instructional programmes
that include materials and teacher training/ in-classroom coaching.

Features  
The following are features of direct instruction:

Scripted Lesson Plans. Such lesson plans relieve the teacher from time-
consuming preparation tasks. These are explictly tested examples and
sequences made by professional instructional designers.
 Signal-based teachers. Teachers frequently send signals to learners to which
they should respond.
 Skill focused: Skills are taught in sequence until students have them
automated.
 Appropriate pacing: Teacher-directed instruction followed by small collective
or individual learning/ repeating activities. Pacing of different teaching
methods is rather fast but children must have space to respond.

Frequent probing/ testing and assessments with appropriate corrective
feedback/ differential praise.
 Direct instruction is not just drill & practice. Learners can engage in more
complex tasks during certain activities.

Kenny (1980) lists the following features:

(a
(a)) Go
Goal
alss aare
re clea
clearr tto
o tthe
he stud
studen
ents
ts;;
(b) Tim
Timee al
alloc
located
ated for instruc
instructio
tion
n is suf
suffic
ficient
ient and cont
continu
inuous
ous;;
(c
(c)) Co
Cont
nten
entt cove
covere
red
d is ex
exte
tens
nsiv
ive;
e;
(d)
(d) St
Stud
udent
ents'
s' pe
perf
rfor
orman
mance
ce is mo
moni
nito
tore
red;
d;
(e) Que
Questi
stions
ons aare
re at a low ccogni
ognitiv
tivee lev
level
el aand
nd pr
produc
oducee man
many
y cor
correc
rectt res
respons
ponses;
es;
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   79

(f) Feedba
Feedback
ck to sstud
tudent
entss iiss iimme
mmedia
diate
te and aca
academ
demica
ically
lly orient
oriented;
ed;
(g)
(g) The ttea
each
cher
er ccont
ontro
rols
ls tthe
he iinst
nstru
ruct
ctio
iona
nall go
goal
als;
s;
(h) The tteac
eacher
her cchoos
hooses
es m
mate
ateria
riall app
appropr
ropriat
iatee for tthe
he st
stude
udent's
nt's lev
level;
el;
(i
(i)) Th
Thee ttea
each
cher
er pace
pacess tthe
he te
teac
achi
hing
ng;; aand
nd
(j)
(j) Inte
Intera
ract
ctio
ion
n iiss sstr
truc
uctur
tured
ed bu
butt not
not au
autho
thori
rita
tari
rian.
an.

Koslov et al. (1999) identify the following typical phases of a lesson (see also
Gagne's nine events of instruction.
(a)
(a) At
Atte
tent
ntio
ion
n an
and
d Fo
Focu
cus:
s: Sho
Short
rt w
wak
ake-
e-up
up
(b) Ori
Orienta
entatio
tion
n or Pre
Prepara
paratio
tion:
n: Te
Teache
acherr pre
presen
sents
ts go
goal
al of tthe
he le
lesso
sson
n and
demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior work.
(c) Mod
Model:
el: T
Teac
eacher
her ddemo
emonstr
nstrate
atess con
concep
cepts,
ts, p
prop
roposi
ositio
tions,
ns, stra
strateg
tegies
ies and/o
and/orr
operations. This can include repetitions, variations with different examples
in order to help generalisation. Teacher also can ask short questions and
accept focused questions from learners.
(d) Lea
Lead:
d: Tea
Teache
cherr orga
organis
nises
es so
some
me guguide
ided
d pra
practi
ctice.
ce. Fi
First
rstly,
ly, aall
ll to
toget
gether (choral
her (choral
responding ) and then more individually. If necessary, he goes back to
model.
(e) Test
Test:: S
Stud
tudents
ents hav
havee tto
opprac
ractis
tisee indiv
individu
iduall
ally
y ((wri
written
tten).
).
(f) Feedba
Feedback:
ck: Stud
Students
ents are cor
correc
rected
ted (us
(using
ing pos
positi
itive
ve rewa
rewards)
rds)
(g) Err
Error
or cor
correc
rectio
tion:
n: Per
Persis
sistent
tent eerror
rrorss are id
identi
entifie
fied
d and if nece
necessa
ssary,
ry, te
teach
acher
er
has to start over with model/lead/ test.
(h) Addi
Additio
tional
nal materi
material:
al: Learn
Learners
ers ar
aree enga
engaged
ged wi
with
th dif
differ
ferent
ent ma
materi
terials
als where
where
the same strategies have to be applied to a common feature (more
generalisation).
(i) Prob
Problem
lem sol
solvin
ving
g an
and
d st
strat
rategy
egy dis
discri
crimin
minati
ation
on skil
skills
ls are
are iintro
ntroduc
duced
ed in
in fu
future
ture
lessons (once students master a certain vocabulary of basic strategies).

More generally, there is probably wide consensus in the instructional design

community that the structure of programme sequences should lead to shifts from
overt to covert problem solving, from simple contexts to complex contexts that
include irrelevant stimuli, from immediate to delayed feedback, from teacher-
oriented presentation to the learner as chief form of information, etc. (Kenny,
1980).
 

80
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.3 INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

Indirect instruction is more student centered. It involves student involvement in
observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypothesis.

6.3.1 Needham Model

One example of the indirect instructional strategy is the Needham Model.
Needham has identified five phases in the learning process based on the
fundamentals of constructivism. These phases are:
Table 6.2:
6.2 : Needham Five Phases in Learning Process

Phases Purpose Examp le of Activities

Activities

 Provide events that contradict

 Gain studentsÊ interest and
each other
Orientation attention.  Give problems for the
 Provide motivation
students to think about
 Concept mapping
Elicitation of  Identify studentsÊ previous  Q&A sessions that lead to
Idea ideas. thinking
 Hands-on and minds-on
 Expand or modified previous
activities
Restructuring of ideas based on scientific ideas
 Activities that utilised
Idea  Investigate using scientific
science-process skills
skills
 Group communication
Application of  Apply the idea into new  Solving new problems
Idea situation 
Designing projects
 Reflective questioning
 Value how far the ideas have  Help students to their change
Reflection
transform of ideas and the processing
skill that they have achieved

6.3.2 Laurillard Conversational Framework

Laurillard (1993, 2002) claims there are four main aspects of the teaching-learning
process and that different educational media can be analysed (and used) in terms
of these dimensions.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   81

This framework can be considered both learning learning theory 

theory   and a practical
framework for designing educational environments. Higher education, according
to Laurrillard, is much about acquiring "ways of seeing the world." Associated
pedagogic strategy 
strategy   has to consider different forms of communication and
associated mental activities: Discussion, adaptation, interaction, reflection.
Design of learning environments
Laurillard's framework includes four important components:
 Teacher's concepts;
 Teacher's constructed learning environment;
 Student's concepts; and
 Student's specific actions (related to learning tasks).

Figure 6.1:
6.1 : Laurillard's Conversational Framework

Each (larger) pedagogical scenario should include all four kinds of activities
(communication forms) that happen in eight kinds of "flows" in the model.

(a) Discussion
 between the teacher and the learner
(i) Tea
Teacher
chers'
s' and lea
learner
rners'
s' cconce
oncepti
ption
on sshoul
hould
dbbee m
mutut
ututall
ally
y aacce
ccessi
ssible
ble
(ii)
(ii) Bo
Both
th shou
should
ld aagr
gree
ee o
on
n le
lear
arni
ning
ng o
obj
bjec
ecti
tive
vess
 

82
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

(b) Adaptation
of the learners actions and of the teacher's constructed environment.
(i) Teache
Teacherr m
must
ust ada
adapt
pt o
obje
bjecti
ctives
ves wit
with
h re
regar
gard
d tto
o eexis
xistin
ting
g cconc
oncept
eptions
ions
(ii
(ii)) Lea
Learner
rnerss mus
mustt int
integra
egrate
te ffeed
eedbac
back
k and llink
ink iitt to h
his
is ow
own
n con
concep
ceptio
tions
ns

(c) Interaction
 between the learner and the environment defined by the teacher
(i) Tea
Teache
cherr mus
mustt "a
"adap
daptt to worl
world,"
d," i.e.
i.e. cr
creat
eatee an env
environ
ironmen
mentt ad
adapt
apted
ed tto
o
the learning task given to the learner
(ii
(ii)) Tea
Teache
cherr mus
mustt foc
focus
us on ssuppo
upport
rt fo
forr tas
task
k and gi
give
ve ap
approp
propria
riate
te fe
feedb
edback
ack
to the learner.

(d) Reflection
of the learner's performance by both teacher and learner

(i) Tea
Teache
cher
adapt r sh
theshould
ould
task tosupp
support
ort the
learning lea
learne
needs rnerr to rev
revise
ise his con
concep
ceptio
tions
ns and
and tto
o

(ii)
(ii) Lea
Learner
rner sshoul
houldd ref
reflec
lectt at al
alll sta
stages
ges of the le
learn
arning
ing pr
proce
ocess
ss (i
(init
nitial
ial
concepts, tasks, objectives, feedback, ...)

Learning Styles Model

Felder design
The Felder design mod el is
el is an instructional design model based on learning style
consideration. While some learning style people argue that pedagogical designs
(in particular, electronic learning environments) should accommodate different
learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficient
to incorporate a variety of teaching modes.

Felder-Silverman
Felder-Silverman m odel

According to Felder (1996, 1993), this model classifies students along the
following dimensions:
(a) Wha
Whatt typ
typee of iinfo
nforma
rmation
tion doe
doess the sstude
tudent
nt pr
prefe
eferent
rential
ially
ly pe
perce
rceive
ive??
(i) Sensing learners   (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and
procedures) or
(ii) Intuitive learners   (conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theories
and meanings).
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   83

(b) Thro
Through
ugh whi
which
ch mod
modali
ality
ty is se
sensor
nsory
y info
informa
rmatio
tion
n most effec
effectiv
tively
ely pe
perce
rceive
ived?
d?
(i) visual learners   (prefer visual representations of presented material--
pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or
(ii) verbal learners  (prefer
 (prefer written and spoken explanations).

(c) Wit
With
h whi
which
ch or
organ
ganisat
isation
ion o
off inf
inform
ormati
ation
on is the sstude
tudent
nt most
most co
comfo
mforta
rtable
ble??
(i) Inductive learners  (prefer
  (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific
to the general) or
(ii) Deductive learners   (prefer presentations that go from the general to
the specific).
(d) How doe
doess tthe
he stud
student
ent pref
prefer
er tto
opproc
rocess
ess inf
informa
ormatio
tion?
n?
(i) Active learners  (learn
 (learn by trying things out, working with others) or
(ii) Reflective learners  (learn
 (learn by thinking things through, working alone);

(e)
(e) Ho
Howw doe
doess the sstud
tuden
entt pro
progr
gres
esss tow
towar
ards
ds un
unde
derst
rstan
andi
ding
ng??
(i) Sequential learners   (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps)
or
(ii) Global learners  (holistic,
 (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).

6.3.3 Active Learning

What is meant by active learning?

According to Boyer, E. (1990):

„Great teachers stimulate active  not passive  learning, and they encourage
students to be critical, creative thinkers, with the capacity to go on learning after
their college days are over.‰

According to Bonwell and Eison (1991). active learning involves:

 Less emphasis on transmitting information and more on developing students'
skills;
 Higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation);
 Activities (e.g. reading, discussing, writing); and
 Greater emphasis on students' exploration of their own attitudes and values.
 

84
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

According to Meyers and Jones (1993):

 Research literature suggests that students must do more than just listen. They
must read, write, discuss or be engaged in solving problems.
 Most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in such
higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Thus, active learning is:
 A class teaching and learning techniques that involves students in learning
activities other than passively listening to lectures;
 Can be defined as instructional activities relating students to doing things
and then reflecting on what they are doing or what problems they are
solving;
 Can occur in class or outside of class (e.g. computer simulations, Internet
assignments or discussion, independent study research).

Can be used with all levels of students from first year to graduate level.

6.3.4 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning (CL) is an instructional paradigm in which teams of
students work on structured tasks (e.g. homework assignments, laboratory
experiments or design projects) under conditions that meet five criteria: positive
independence, individual accountability, faceto-face interaction, appropriate
use of collaborative skills and regular self-assessment of team functioning
(Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998).

Mod elsare
Below used in Cooperative
some Learning
Learning learning:
models in cooperative

THINK-PAIR-SHARE
THINK
 Assign a topic.
 Students think.
PAIR
 Students move to assigned partners.

„Please move to your partner that we assigned earlier.‰

 Students discuss with partners.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   85

SHARE
 Teacher calls on students to share with class.
„Student #4, Derick, what did you and your partner say about how to best
solve word problems?‰

(a) Modification: Timed Pair Share

(i)
(i) If y
you
ou w wan
antt to prepreve
vent
nt o one
ne ppers
erson
on ffrom
rom mo mono
nopo
poli
lisi
sing
ng tthe
he
conversation, set a time limit and students take turns talking.
(b) Modification: Rallyrobin
(i) If tthe
he d
disc
iscussi
ussion
on iiss su
suppos
pposed
ed to gene
generate
rate a list
list fro
from
m the
the pa
pair
ir o
off
students, the students can take turns writing.
(c) Modification: Think-Write-Pair-Share
(i) Slo
Slows
ws p
pace
ace of d
disc
iscuss
ussion
ion.. Al
Alll st
stude
udents
nts writ
writee th
their
eir ide
ideas
as so
so te
teach
acher
er ccan
an
monitor the participation.

(d) Managing student behaviour

(i)
(i) Ass
Assig
ign
nppar
artne
tners
rs to av
avoi
oid
d iiss
ssue
uess o
off p
pop
opul
ular
arit
ity.
y.
(ii)
(ii) Cha
Change
nge p
part
artners
ners to aallo
llow
w st
studen
udents
ts tto
o exp
experi
erienc
encee ea
each
ch ot
other
herÊs
Ês
communication styles.
(iii
(iii)) Re
Requi
quire
re q
qui
uiet
et thin
think
k ttim
ime.
e.
(i
(iv)
v) Mo
Moni
nito
torr disc
discus
ussi
sion
ons.
s.
(v) Ask stu
studen
dents
ts to shar
sharee what the
their
ir part
partner
ner sai
said
d to empha
emphasis
sisee that
listening skills are important.

NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER

 Place students in groups of four.
 Number students in each group 1  4.
 Present information to students.
 Require students to think about answer in groups and develop a consensus.
 Call on number 1, 2, 3 or 4, and ask any student with that number to raise
their hand.
 Call on one student or several students for answers.
 

86
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Modification: Involving the Class

(a) Aft
After
er st
studen
udents
ts pr
prese
esent
nt their
their aanswe
nswers,
rs, y
you
ou ca
can
n cal
calll on tthe
he en
entir
tiree class
class to
show agreement or disagreement. Every student must answer.
„Who agrees with this answer? Show me a thumbs-up sign if you agree or
thumbs down if you think another answer is correct.‰
(b)
(b) If yo
you
uwwan
antt jjus
usti
tifi
fica
cati
tion
on,, aask
sk „W
„Why
hy?‰
?‰

JIGSAW
 Students are part of a learning group and research team.
 Students meet in their LEARNING GROUP and define goals.
 Each student from the group joins a separate RESEARCH TEAM to research
their part of the goal.
 Students return to the LEARNING GROUP to share results and teach group
members.
 The LEARNING GROUP shares with entire class.
Modification: Individual Experts
(a) Inst
Instead
ead of jjoin
oining
ing a res
resear
earch
ch te
team,
am, stu
student
dentss wo
work
rk in
indep
depende
endentl
ntly
y an
and
d
 become an „expert‰ before sharing with the LEARNING GROUP.
GROUP .
„Each of you will now become an expert in your topic. Here are the
resources you can use‰

GROUP INVEST
INVESTIGATI
IGATION
ON
 Teacher introduces a unit.


Students list topics to be investigated.
 LEARNING GROUP chooses a topic.
 LEARNING GROUP determines subtopics for members to investigate.
 Members prepare report on subtopic for LEARNING GROUP.
 Subtopics combined into information on topic.
 LEARNING GROUP presents their topic to class.

Managing Student Behaviour

(a) Coa
Coach
ch le
learni
arning
ng gr
groups
oups o
on
n equ
equita
itable
ble d
dist
istrib
ributi
ution
on of ssubt
ubtopi
opics
cs an
and
d wor
work-
k-
load.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   87

(b) Lis
Listen
ten tto
o stu
studen
dents
ts as tthey
hey rresp
espond
ond to the re
repor
ports
ts pr
prese
esente
nted
d by in
indiv
dividu
iduals
als..
Encourage sensitivity and demonstrate examples of respectful
disagreement.
„I sense that you are displeased with your teammateÊs research. Talk to me
about what you would have done with that subtopic. WeÊll figure out how
we can work with him.‰

6.3.5 Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is the process of acquiring new knowledge based
on recognition of a need to learn. In problem-based learning, small groups of
students are presented with contextual situations and asked to define the
problem, decide what skills and resources are necessary to investigate the
problem and then provide possible solutions (Duch, Groh & Allen, 2001).
Therefore, ill-structured problem-based learning has been chosen as the
instructional material strategy. Ill-structured Problem-based Learning provides
students with opportunities to learn in situations that are similar to those they
will encounter in the real world. Students work together in small groups guided
 by tutors who are responsible for ensuring that the learning objectives for each
case are identified.

Savery and Duffy's (1994) model of the PBL process proposes some steps that a
facilitator could follow:
(a) Fac
Facili
ilitat
tator
or ide
identi
ntifie
fiess or desi
designs
gns an il
ill-s
l-struc
tructure
tured
d prob
problem
lem or ta
task
sk rel
releva
evant
nt to
the learner.
(b)
(b) Fa
Faci
cili
lita
tato
torr pre
prese
sent
ntss the p
prob
roble
lem
m to th
thee lea
learn
rners
ers..
(c)
(c) Le
Lear
arne
ners,
rs, in tthe
heir
ir o
own
wn g
grou
roups
ps,, co
coll
llab
abor
orat
ativ
ivel
ely:
y:
(i
(i)) Ge
Gene
nera
rate
te wo
work
rkin
ing
g iide
deas
as or po
poss
ssib
ible
le;;
(ii
(ii)) Ide
Identi
ntify
fy aavai
vailab
lable
le iinfor
nformat
mation
ion rel
relate
ated
d to the prob
problem
lem;;
(iii
(iii)) Iden
Identi
tify
fy lear
learni
ning
ng iiss
ssues
ues;;
(iv)) Ide
(iv Identi
ntify
fy res
resourc
ources
es tto
o lo
look
ok u
up
p or cons
consult
ult;;
(v)
(v) Ass
Assig
ign
n ta
task
skss to the
the va
vari
riou
ouss grou
group
p me
memb
mber
ers;
s;
(vi)
(vi) Ga
Gathe
therr info
inform
rmat
atio
ion;
n; an
and
d
(vii)
(vii) Prop
Propose
ose sol
soluti
ution(s
on(s).
).

Steps two
 becomes throughand
available five may betherepeated
redefines problem.and reviewed as new information
 

88
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

ACTIVITY 6.1

Teaching/ learning strategies are selected in the design phase when

designing instructional materials for effective instruction. The
strategies chosen
constructivist may be depending
perspectives based on onbehaviourist,
the learningcognitive
outcomes.or
Discuss and design using a specific teaching/ learning model, for
example, the Needham Model, Problem-based Learning Model
(constructivist) or GagneÊs Nine Events of Instructions (cognitive), a
lesson plan for classroom use. You may include some snapshots of
your storyboard.

6.4 THINKING SKILLS

6.4.1 What are Thinking Skills?

The statement by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), „I think, therefore I am,‰ expresses
the meaning of thinking for us as humans. Our brain is the most important thing
we have but people usually do not bother to think about thinking. According to
De Bono, thinking skills are not about intelligence or high IQ. „Intelligence is like
the horsepower of a car while thinking is the driving skills with which an
individual drives his or her intelligence‰ (De Bono, 1995, p. 6).

So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-Skills
Terms," offers a set of definitions which is widely, though not universally,
accepted by theorists and programme developers. These include (Cotton, 1991)
1991)::

(a) loom's Taxonomy 

Bloom's
B Taxonomy  
This is a popular instructional model developed by prominent educator
Benjamin Bloom. It categorises thinking skills from the concrete to the
abstract  knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The last three are considered higher-order skills.

(b) ognition  
Cognition
C
This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/
neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.

(c) reative Thinking 

Creative
C Thinking  
This is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characterised by four
components  fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   89

perspectives easily), originality (conceiving something new) and

elaboration (building on other ideas).

(d) ritical Thinking 

Critical
C Thinking  
The process of determining the authenticity, accuracy or value of
something; characterised by the ability to seek reasons and alternatives,
perceive the total situation, and change one's view based on evidence. It is
also called logical thinking and analytical thinking.

(e) nfusion  
IInfusion
Integrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infused
programmes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, which
teach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.

(f) etacognition  
Metacognition
M
This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring one's own
thinking; the pinnacle of mental functioning.

(g) hinking Skills 

Thinking
T Skills  
This is a set of basic and advanced skills and subskills that govern a
person's mental processes. These skills consist of knowledge, dispositions,
and cognitive and metacognitive operations.

(h) ransfer  
Transfer
T
This is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to any
subject.

6.4.2 Importance of Thinking Skills

Why do we need thinking skills? According to Teacher Net of United Kingdom
(2008), thinking skills will lead to:
 Children building their own internal planning systems;
 Developing attention;
 Increased perception;
 Enhanced memory skills;
 Intellectual development; and
 Motivation.

They also think that thinking skills will help to prevent overload due to the
quantity of knowledge in the curriculum and solve the problem of difficulty in
 

90
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

learning. Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (2008) gave five reasons

why we should develop thinking skills:
(a) We need to produce Ma Malaysian
laysian citizens who can think skilfully in order to
achieve the goals of Vision 2020;
(b) As stated in our National Philosophy of Education, we need to develop
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
 balanced and harmonious;
(c) One of the objectives of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools
(ICPS) is to develop pupilsÊ ability to think critically and creatively as well
as make decisions and solve problems;
(d) Thinking skills help in the better understanding of a language; and
(e) Thinking skills are also lifelong skills.

6.4.3 Categories of Thinking Skills

Although various definitions and types of thinking skills have been proposed in
the world of education, most of them are similar as they contain the following
terms (Kizlik, 2008):

(a) hinking  
Thinking
T
Thinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective
transactions between items of perceived information.

(b) etacognition  
Metacognition
M
Metacognition refers to awareness and control of one's thinking, including
commitment, attitudes and attention.

(c) ritical t
Critical
C hinking  
 thinking
Critical thinking refers to reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on
deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinkers try to be aware of their
own biases as well as be objective and logical.

(d) reative thinking 

Creative
C thinking  
Refers to the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfil a need, or to
get original or otherwise appropriate results by the criteria of the domain in
question.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   91

Kizlik (2008) listed other terms of thinking skills based on the functions of
instruction. He stated that instruction is a conglomeration of decisions and
activities that are made and carried out in order to procure the desired outcomes
for learners. Some of these decisions and activities are as follows:
 Activating prior knowledge
 Analysing skills
 Attention
 Attitudes
 Classifying
 Commitment
 Comparing
 Composing
 Comprehending
 Concept formation
 Conditional information
 Core thinking skills
 Creative thinking
 Critical thinking
 Curriculum
 Decision making
 Declarative information
 Defining problems

In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and common
thinking skills  critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.
 

92
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.4.4 Critical and Creative Thinking

Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (PPK, 2008) noted that critical
thinking skills are required in order to skilfully assess and analyse data and
information. Making
parts and studying an part
each analysis means
in more breaking up data and information into
detail.

Skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,

arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biased
statements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,
interpreting and summarising.

Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.
The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classed under
creative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinking
skills as shown below:

Figure 6.2: Model of critical and creative thinking skills

Based on the model of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills as shown above, PPK
(2008) created the types of thinking skills as the following:
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   93

Figure 6.3: Types of thinking skills

6.4.5 Problem Solving

Foshay and Kirkley (2003) stated that for much of the 20th century, educators
have devoted their attention to defining and teaching problem-solving skills. In
the early 1900s, problem solving was viewed as a mechanical, systematic, and
often abstract (decontextualised) set of skills, such as those used to solve riddles
or mathematical equations. These problems often have correct answers based on
logical solutions with a single correct answer (convergent reasoning).

However, under the influence of cognitive learning theories, problem solving

shifted to represent a complex mental activity consisting of a variety of cognitive
skills and actions. Garofalo & Lester (1985) stated that problem solving included
higher-order thinking skills such as "visualisation, association, abstraction,
comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, generalisation 
each needing to be managed and coordinated."
 

94
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

There are various problem-solving models now. One example of a general

problem-solving model in the 1960s and 1970s is Bransford's IDEAL model:
 Identify the problem;
 Define the problem by thinking about it and sorting out relevant information;
 Explore solutions by looking at alternatives, brainstorming and checking out
different points of view;
 Act on the strategies; and
 Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

The problem-solving model given by Kreger (2002) consisted of seven steps:

(a) Read and analyse the problem scenario;
(b) List what is known;
(c) Develop a problem statement;
(d) List what is needed;
(e) List possible actions;
(f) Analyse information; and
(g) Present findings.

Cognitive research done in the last 20 years has led to a different model of
problem solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set of
cognitive, behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In
1983, Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where the
problem solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and
the problem at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three
characteristics of problem solving:
(a) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour;
(b) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution; and
(c) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on
previous knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992).

Figure 6.4 (Gick, 1986) shows a problem-solving model which is frequently used,
according to Foshay and Kirkley (2003):
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   95

Figure 6.4: Problem solving model

6.4.6 Decision Making

According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), decision is a choice or judgement that
a person makes after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do; and
decision making is the process of deciding about something important especially
in a group of people or in an organisation.

So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before we
could claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possible
consequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result of
the taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in effectiveness of the taken action.

How to make a good decision? Decision making consists of complicated stages

owing to its characteristic as a process leading to an event. Since decision
making is a process, we must be clear on what is the problem. Then, we need to
list all possible alternatives and ask ourselves what we are going to do. Then, we
must state the factors that we have to weigh in making the decision. There are
many types of frameworks or processes to simplify the process of making
decisions. The most common decision making consists
consists of five stages, as
presented in the Figure 6.5:

Figure 6.5: Decision making process

 

96
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

The five stages of decision making are:

(a) Define the problem;
(b) Analyse the problem;
(c) Identify available alternatives;
(d) Choose the best alternative after appraising all the alternatives; and
(e) Implement the alternative in the situation.

ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Discuss what are thinking skills.
2. State the steps in a simple problem-solving method

6.5 THINKING TOOLS

Thinking tools are used to assist learners in organising their thinking. There is a
significant relationship between the type of tool and the way that a skill, concept,
process or disposition is best learned. In this module, we will discuss three types
of thinking tools  mind map, graphic organiser and CoRT I.

6.5.1 Mind Map

A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items
linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to
generate, visualise, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in studying,
organisation, problem solving, decision making and writing (Wikipedia, 2008).

Basically, a mind map is an image-centred diagram that represents semantic or

other connections between portions of information. According to Buzan (2002), a
mind map is the ultimate organisational thinking tool. Figure 10.1 shows the
uses and users of mind map. It is usually used for learning, brainstorming,
memory, visual thinking and problem solving. The target group of mind map
users includes educators, engineers, psychologists and people in general.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   97

Figure 6.6:
6.6 : Uses and Users of Mind Map

According to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed
 by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically
visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull also used structures of
the mind map form. But it was British popular psychology author Tony Buzan
who popularised the use of mind maps.

The characteristics of mind map are as follows:

 Use key words or images;
 Use a lot of colours;
 Use interesting forms, shapes, styles and patterns;
 Use arrows or codes; and
 Are very creative and delightful.

6.5.1a Roles of Mind Map

According to Buzan (2002, p9), a mind map will:

 Give an overview of a large subject or area;
 Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know where
you are going and where you have been;
 Gather large amounts of data in one place;
 Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;
and
 Be enjoyable to look at, read, muse over and remember.

According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative, save
time, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their thinking. They will
remember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby passing exams with
 

98
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze. Mind maps also
enable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate, survive and save
trees.

Simply, mind map is used as a:

 Technique of writing notes for speeches, briefings, lectures or reading
materials;
 Technique of forming the framework for writing reports, essays or
presentations;
 Technique of writing synopses or summaries after literature review;
 Tool for presentations (more simple and interactive); and
 Guideline to remember something without referring to the original material.

6.5.1b How to Do a Mind Map

Four important things are required in order to create a mind map (Buzan, 2002):
 Blank unlined paper;
 Coloured pens and pencils;
 Your brain; and
 Your imagination.

Buzan suggests using the following foundation structures for mind mapping
(Wikipedia, 2008):
(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using aatt lleast
east three colours;
(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;
(c) Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters;
(d) Each word/ image must be alone and sitting on its own line;
(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre;
(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/ image;
(g) Use colours  your own code  throughout the mind map;
(h) Develop your own personal style of mind mapping;
(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   99

(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or
outlines to embrace your branches.

The following is a simple way to do a mind map:

(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;
(b) Draw a few lines that m match
atch the title and write the iimportant
mportant subtitle on the
drawing lines; and
(c) Create a few characters in categories at the end of each line.

Figure 6.7 is an example on types of television programmes:

Figure 6.7:
6.7 : Mind Map on Types of Television Programmes

6.5.2 Graphic Organiser

Graphic tools and organisers help students to organise their ideas and present
information. They also help students to clarify their thinking and to process,
organise and prioritise information. Visual organisation of information supports
students by revealing patterns and relationships. Consequently, they can
understand concepts by describing and remembering the relationships between
different ideas and concepts (LTAG, 2006).
 

100
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Graphic organisers can help to motivate, increase recall, assist understanding,

create interest, combat boredom and organise thoughts. So, what is a graphic
organiser? According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a:

 Visual representation of knowledge;

 Semantic map;
 Structured overview;
 Concept map;
 Semantic organiser;
 Story map;
 Scaffolding;
 Way of structuring information into organisational patterns;
 Way to facilitate pre-reading, post-reading, pre-writing, revising, discussing
and reasoning;
 Way to promote active learning;
 Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;
 Framework for what is to be learned; and
 Way to access studentsÊ previous experience and knowledge.

6.5.2a Guidelines to Help St

Students
udents in Creating Gr
Graphic
aphic
Organisers

Gotoscience.com (2008) provides some guidelines to help students in creating

graphic organisers. These guidelines are given below:
 Discuss with students what are graphic organisers and how to use them;
 Show students examples and non-examples of graphic organisers;
 Use a completed graphic organiser to teach a lesson or fill in graphic
organisers while teaching a lesson;
 Let students help the teacher fil
filll in a b
blank
lank on the overhead projector;
 Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has the
same graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in together
or students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;
 Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in small
groups or individually;
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   101

 Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let them
design their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;
and
 Let students present thei
theirr graphic organiser to the class to tea
teach
ch a mini-lesson

or to explain why they chose a particular format.

6.5.2b Types of Gra

Graphic
phic Organisers
There are many types of graphic organisers used to illustrate a studentÊs or class'
prior knowledge about a topic or section of text, such as a star, a tree, a Venn
diagram or a flowchart. The process of converting a mass of data, information or
ideas into a graphic map gives the student increased understanding and insight
into a topic. Thus, in choosing a graphic organiser, we must know the functions
of each type of organiser. Table 10.1 shows some examples of graphic organisers
and their functions.

Table 6.3:
6.3 : Examples of Graphic Organisers
Comparing Decision
Describing Classifying Sequencing Causal
Contrasting Making

Brainstorming Double Cell Hierarchy Squirrels

Web Diagram Diagram Web
Webbing Money Web Research
Cycle
Cluster
Diagram
Desktop

Folder
System

Concept Map Simile 

School is 

Concept
Mapping
 

102
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Venn KWHL Thinking

grids
Matrix Venn
Expanded
Comparison
Matrix

Desktop Linear
Folder String
Flow System
Chart Expanded
Linear
String
Domino
Effect

(Cited from: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.h

htt p://www.graphic.org/goindex.html)
tml)

Besides knowing the functions of each type of graphic organiser, we need to

identify our purpose or the skills we want our students to develop. Generally,
graphic organisers could be used to develop the following skills:
 Comparison
 Categorise
 Explain
 Investigate
 Prediction

 Assumption
 Decision making
 Problem solving

The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learning
process is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting key
information in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state the
information in text form or sentences while a graphic organiser presents
information in figures with some key words. Figure 10. 3 shows how a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser have been applied for the purpose of
comparing. Figure 10.4 shows how a verbal organiser aand
nd a graphic organiser
have been applied for the purpose of categorising.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   103

Figure 6.8:
6.8 : Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Comparisons

Figure 6.9:
6.9 : Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Categorisation
 

104
    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.5.3 CORT
CoRT is the short form for Cognitive Research Trust, which was proposed by
Edward de Bono, a cognitive researcher. He was the proponent of lateral
thinking. He also advocated the teaching of thi
thinking
nking as a skill. According to de
Bono, there are six parts in a CoRT lesson:
 CoRT I - Breadth
 CoRT II Organisation
 CoRT III  Interaction
 CoRT IV  Creativity
 CoRT V  Information and Feeling
 CoRT VI - Action

However, in this topic, we will only discuss tool CoRT I. CoRT I consists of seven
techniques to guide us in the thinking process. These techniques are shown in
the figure 10.5:

Figure 6.10:
6.10 : Seven Techniques in CoRT I (Module HBEF3103, OUM)

6.5.3a CoRT I
Below are the details of CoRT I techniques:
 PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting)  The treatment of ideas
 CAF (Consider All Factors)  The factors involved
 C&S (Consequence and Sequel)  Focus on the consequences
 AGO (Aims, Goals, Objectives)  Focus on the purpose
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   105

 FIP (First Important Priorities)

 APC (Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices)  Focus on alternatives
 OPV (Other People's Views)  The other people involved

(a) PM
P M I 
P stands for Plus, which refers to good things about an idea and why you
like the idea. M stands for minus, which refers to bad things about an idea
and why you do not like it. I is interest, which refers to what you find
interesting about an idea. The steps of using PMI are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a PMI‰;
(iii) Give the good points;
(iv) Give the bad points;
(v) Give the points which are neither good nor bad, but are interesting;
and
(vi) Make a decision based on the collected information.

(b) CA
C AF 
CAF is the short form for consider all factors. You use CAF when you have
to choose, make a decision or think about something and there are many
factors that you have to consider.
consider. If you leave out some of these factors in
making a decision, it might seem right at the time but later turn out wrong.
Thus, before making a decision, you could see what factors have been left
out. The steps of CAF are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a CAF‰;
(iii) State all the factors that have to be considered;
(iv) Make a judgement for each factor; and
(v) Make a decision.

(c) C 
C   S 
C&S means consequence and sequel. This technique helps us to identify the
effect if we take some aactions.
ctions. There are four types of consequence:
 Immediate consequence;

 Short-term consequence (15 years);

 Medium-term consequence (525 years); and
 

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    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

 Long-term consequence (over 25 years).

The steps of C&S are:

(i) Listen to the chosen action;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a C&S‰;

(iii) State the immediate consequence;
(iv) State the short-term consequence (5 years);
(v) State the long-term consequence;
(vi) Repeat C&S for other alternative action; and
(vii) Evaluate the consequence and make decision.

(d) AG
A GO 
AGO stands for aims, goals and objectives. According to De Bono (1973),
AGO can help your thinking if you know exactly what you want to achieve.
It also helps you to understand other peopleÊs thinking if you can see their
objectives. The steps of AGO are:
(i) State the issue or problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a AGO‰;
(iii) Start the discussion session;
(iv) Remind yourself or all the members of group discussion by repeating
„What are our AGO?‰; and
(v) Continue until the decision is made.

(e) FIP   stands for first important priorities. This technique helps you to pick
FIP
FIP
out the most important points, the ones you have to give priority to and
deal with first after
after doing the PMI, CAF, AGO and C&S. The steps of FIP
are:
(i) Make the decision according to priority. Voice out the issue or
problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a FIP‰; and
(iii) List all the important things.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   107

(f) AP
A PC 
APC stands for alternatives, possibilities and choices. This technique trains
us to search for
for more alternatives and choose bbefore
efore we make a decision. It
also trains us to think together with the choices and possibilities we have.
The steps of APC are:
(i) Voice out the problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do an APC‰;
(iii) Generate as many alternatives as you can; and
(iv) Choose and make the decision.

(g) OP
O PV 
OPV stands for other points of view. Many thinking situations involve
other people, who may have very different viewpoints. This technique is
very effective when a discussion cannot end with a decision. However,
when we use this technique, we must be open minded and listen to other
peopleÊs opinions and ideas because they could be our guide in making
decisions. The steps of OPV are:
(i) State the problem;
(ii) Mention the alternative which will be taken;
(iii) Identify the individuals whose priorities could be affected because of
the taken alternative;
(iv) Ask the individuals for their opinion on the alternative that will be
taken;
(v) Decide after investigating the viewpoint of the individuals; and

(vi) Repeat the process if the decision is not applicable.

6.5.4 Question and Questioning

Effective questioning is considered a vital component of adult education and an
integral part of teaching in the medical profession. Questioning can do the
following (UAB, 2008; cited from www.uab.edu):
 Clarify concepts;
 Reinforce student understanding;
 Arouse curiosity;
 Emphasise key points;
 Stimulate interest; and
 

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    TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

 Promote higher-order thinking in students.

The process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008; cited from

www.uab.edu):

 Establishing
conducive an appropriate environment by creating a climate that is
to learning;
 Using the right mix of questions;
 Accurately phrasing questions;
 Allowing sufficient time for responses; and
 Using probes to further explore studentsÊ responses.

There are many types of questions and questioning skills. In this topic, we will
only discuss BloomÊs Taxonomy questions. According to the taxonomy, there are
six levels of questions, as shown below:

(a) Basic Order Question: KNOWLEDGE

(b) Basic Order Question: UNDERSTANDING/ COMPREHENSION
(c) Middle Order Question: APPLICATION
(d) Middle Order Question: ANALYSIS
(e) Higher Order Question: SYNTHESIS
(f) Higher Order Question: EVALUATION

The table below shows the definition of each level and the trigger words or
activities that could be used for that particular level.

Table 6.4:
6.4 : Trigger Words or Activities According to BloomÊs Taxonomy
Trigger Words or
Levels Definition
Activities
KNOWLEDGE  Ability to remember Tell, Recite, List, Memorise,
something previously learned Remember, Define, Locate
COMPREHENSION  Demonstrate basic Restate, Give Example,
understanding of concepts & Explain, Summarise,
curriculum Translate, Show symbols,
 Translate to other words Edit
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   109

APPLICATION  Transfer knowledge learned Demonstrate, Use guides,

in one situation to another maps, charts etc., Build,
Cook

ANALYSIS  Understand how parts relate Investigate, Classify,

to a whole Categorise, Compare,
 Understand structure and Contrast, Solve
motive
 Note fallacies
SYNTHESIS  Re-form individual parts to Compose, Design, Invent,
make a new whole Create, Hypothesise,
Construct, Forecast,
Rearrange parts, Imagine
EVALUATION  Judge value of something vis-  Judge, Evaluate, Give
à-vis criteria opinion or viewpoint,

 Support judgment Prioritise,

Critique Recommend,

(Cited from: http://www.hoover.k12.al.us/dves/Enrichment/new_page_2.htm)

http://www.hoover.k12.al.us/dves/Enrichment/new_page_2.htm)

Below are examples of each level:

(a) NOWLEDGE  
KNOWLEDGE
K
Name the states in Malaysia.

(b) OMPREHENSION  
COMPREHENSION
C
Match the vocabulary with the correct pictures.

(c) PPLICATION  
APPLICATION
A
Sketch the face of the thief as described in the story.

(d) NALYSIS  
ANALYSIS
A
Compare animals and plants; in what ways are they similar and different?

(e) YNTHESIS  
SYNTHESIS
S
Design your own instruction for Lesson 1 in English Language class.

(f) VALUATION  
EVALUATION
E
Defend the results of your research.
 

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ACTIVITY 6.3
Mind map is one of the powerful thinking tools nowadays.
(a) Discuss how mind maps can help in the thinking process.
(b) Design a mind map on the importance of critical and creative
thinking.

 Some examples of teaching strategies that are based on behaviourist or

constructivist principles are Nine Events of Instructions and Direct
Instructions.
 Other examples of Constructivist strategies are Needham Model, LaurillardÊs
Conversational Framework, Active Learning, Cooperative Learning and
Problem-based Learning.
 This topic discusses various definition, importance and categories of thinking
skills.
 There are three most important thinking skills discussed in the topic  critical
and creative thinking, problem solving and decision making.
 There are various problem solving models but the general one is BrainsfordÊs
IDEAL model.
 The most common decision-making methods consists of five stages  define,
analyse, identify alternatives, choose and implement.
 There are three types of thinking tools discussed in the topic  mind map,
graphic organiser and CoRT I.
 Also discussed is about questions and questioning techniques based on
BloomÊs Taxonomy.
 

  TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES   111

Active Learning LaurillardÊs Conversational

Framework
Cooperative Learning
Mind map
CoRT I
Problem solving
Critical and creative thinking
Problem-based Learning.
Decision making
Questioning techniques
Graphic organiser
IDEAL model