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A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 9.

Example: 845721 is divisible by 9 because 8+4+5+7+3+1 = 27 and 27 is a multiple of 7

Divisibility for 10

If any number except 0 end in 0, the nmber is divisible by 10.

Example: 3,000, 10,000, 000, 200, 500 are divisible by 10

Divisibilty for 11

A number is divisible by 11 if after subtracting and adding the digits successively,

the answer is divisible by 11.

Example: Is 4972 divisible by 11?

4-9 +7 -2 = 0, 0 is divisible by 11. Therefore, 4972 is divisible by 11.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS

Very often two or more numbers are grouped together to indicate that they are to
be considered together as a single number. To avoid confusion, grouping, grouping
sumbols are used.

The grouping symbols are:

() parenthesis [] brackets

{} braces ─ vinculum

Rules:
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1. Simplify expression inside parentheses and other grouping symbols first.

2. Do multiplication and division next, in the order they occur that is, from left to
right.

3. Do addition and substraction last, in the order they occur, that is from left to
right.

In short, you can remember this by using the mnemonic “Please Mind Dear Aunt
Sally’. The first letters will remind you of “Parentheses, Multiplication and Division,
Addition and Subtraction.’ (PMDAS)

Example:

Simplify 16 x 2 ÷ 8 + 12 x 3 – 48 ÷ 6 x 3 = 32

EXPONENTS AND POWERS

An exponent is the number that indicates how many times a whole number is used as a
factor.

Example:

25 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

FRACTIONS

The symbol a/b, where a,b are the elements of whole nos. and b ≠ 0, is called a
fraction.

The number above the bar is the numerator and the number below the bar is the
denominator. The word fraction if derived from the latin word fraction, meaning’ to break
into parts.

Kind of Fractions:
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1. Proper Fractions – is a fraction in which the numberator is less tan the denominator.

Example: 1/3, 2/3, 15/28, 105/201

2. Improper fraction – A fraction in which the numerator is greater than the

denominator.

Example: 5/2, 25/8, 128/121

3. Mixed Fractions – is composed of a whole number and a fraction.

Example: 2 1/3, 3 2/5, 15 16/17, 100 25/31

4. Equivalent Fraction – fractions that show the same value.

Example: 2/5 = 8/20, 16/20 = 32/40, 101/120 = 303/360

Addition and Substraction

Adding and Subtracting Fractions with similar or Like Denominators

To add or subtract fractions with similar or like denominators, add or subtract rhe
numerators. Write the sum or difference over the common denominator.

Examples:

1. 14/27 + 11/27 = 25/27 2. 7/18 , 4/18 = 3/18 = 1/6

Adding and Subtracting Frantions with Dissimilar or Unlike Denominators

1. Find the leat common denominator (LCD)

2. Change each fraction to equivalent fraction using LCD.

3. Add or subtract the numberators and write the result over the LCD

4. If necessary, reduce the answer to lowest terms.

Example: Calculate 4 ¼ + 2 4/5 – 1 1/3

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4 ¼ = 4 15/60

+ 2 4/5 = +2 48/60

- 1 1/3 + -1 20/60

__________________________

5 43/60

Multiplication and Division

Rules for Multiplying Fractions

To multiply two fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.
Write the product of the numerators over the product of the denominators. If necessary,
reduce the answer to lowest terms.

Example: Find the product

a. 2/9 x 5/8 = 5/36

b. 3/5 of 5 = ¾ x 5 = 15/14 = 3 ¾

c. (2/3) 3 = 2/3 x 2/3 x 2/3 = 8/27

d. 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/77 = 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/17 = 7/11

Rules for Multiplying Mixed Numbers

1. Change each mixd number to an improper fraction

2. Multiply the numerators.

3. Place the result over the product of the denominators.

4. Express the answer as a mixed number or as a proper fraction reduced to lowest

terms.

Example: Simplify 1 ½ x 1/ 7/9= 3/2 x 16/9

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3/2 x 1 6/9 = 8/3 = 2 2/3

Rules for Dividing Fractions

If a, b, c and d are all real numbersm and if b≠ 0, c≠0, d≠-, then a/b ÷ c/d = a/b x d/c

Example: Divide: 3 3/8 by 2 ¼

= 27/8 ÷ 9/4= 27/8 x 4/9 = 27/8 x 4/9= 3/2 = 1 ½

DECIMALS

A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator can be expressed as a power

of ten

Examples

(1) 6/10 = 6/101 = .6 (2.) 16/100 = 16/102= .16 (3.) 425/1000 = 425/ 103 =
.425

Operations on Decimals

To add Decimals

1. Write the numbers to be added vertically and line up the decimal points.

2. Add all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column.

3. Be sure to place a decimal point in the sum in the correct location

Example: Add 6.47 + 340.8 + 73.523

To Subtract Decimals

1. Write the numbers to be subtracted vertically such that the decimal points are in a
column.
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2. If the number of decimal places in the subtrahend exceeds that in the minuend, insert
the necessary number of zeros to the right of the last decimal place in the minuend.

3. Subtract all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column and
regroup when necessary.

4. Write the decimal point in the difference. This should be in line with the other decimal
points.

Example: Subtract 462 – 26.528

To Multiply Decimals

1. Calculate the product, in the same manner as whole numbers.

2. Put a decimal point in the appropriate location so that the number of decimals places
in the product equals the sum of the number of decimal places in all the factors.

Examples: Find the product of 43.7 and 0.00035

To Divide Decimals

1. Move the decimal point in the divisor up to the necessary number of places to the
right to make it a whole number.

2. Move the decimal point in the dividend to the same number of places to the right.

3. Put a decimal point in the quotient immediately above the new decimal point in the
dividend.

4. Proceed with the technique for dividing whole numbers, take note of the location of
the decimal point in the quotient,

Example: Find the quotient of 0.02904 ÷ 0.04

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INTEGERS

The set of integers consists of the positive whole numbers, negative whole
numbers, and zero. { . . . . , -5, -4 , -3, -2 , -1 ,0 ,1 ,2 ,3 , 4 ,5 . . . }

Examples: +45 or 45 ‘Positive forty-five’

-57 ‘negative fifty-seven’

0 ‘Zero’

THE NUMBER LINE

- 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Negative Integers Positive Integers

For any numbers a, the opposite of a is denoted by –a.

Examples: The opposite of 100 is -100

The opposite of -99 is 99

6 stands for a gain of P6, while -3 stands for a loss of P3

OPERATIONS ON INTEGERS

Addiition

1. if the addends have the same signs, add the numbers disregarding the signs. The
sign of the sum will be the common sign of the addends.

Example: +138 + + 200 = 338

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If the addends are of different signs, subtract the smaller number from the larger
number and write the sign of the larger number.

Example: - 285 + 100 = -185

Subtraction

1. In subtracting signed numbers, change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed to
addition of integers.

-10,348

Example - - 9,753

_______________

-595

Multiplication

1. When two numbers of the same signs are multiplied, the product is positive.

2. When two numbers of opposite signs are multiplied, the product is negative.

Example: Multiply + 12 by + 4 = 48

Multiply -16 by 5 = -80

Division

1. In dividing numbers of the same signs, their quotient is a positive number.

2. In dividing numbers of different signs, their quotient is a negative number.

Examples: Find the quotient

-96 -84

a. ______ = -32 b. - _______ = 12

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3 -7

Cognitive Reasoning and Problem Solving

- Finding Patterns

Objectives

-Recognize simple non-mathematical patterns

- Recognize number patterns

- Recognize patterns that will help gain mathematical maturity

Many discoveries in mathematics are based on patterns. A mathematician often

uses the strategy of generalizing to form a rule based on a few exampes.

The process of finding patterns is not quick or direct as following a recipe or list
of instructions. It requires the concept of sequence.

A sequence is a set of numbers in a particular order. The numbers in a sequence

are called terms of the sequence. If we have the sequence 1,3,5,7,9 . . . The first term in
1, the second term is 3, the third is 5 and so on.

Example

Given the following sequence of letters,A, C, D, F, G, I

What are the next two letters?

Solution:

To discover the pattern for this problem, let us look at the first nine letters of the
English alphabet, A B C D E F G H I, Let us cross out those letters that are not included
in the sequence, A B C D E F G H I. Following this pattern, J should come after I. Then
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we should skip K and write L. A B C D E F G H I J K L. Hence, the two succeeding lettrs

are J and I.

From the examples shown, it is seen that patterns involve not only numbers, but
also non-mathematical objects like letters, words, and figures.

Reasoning based on patterns is sometimes called cognitive reasoning. Students

often use cognitive reasoning when they answer tests. Employees also often use this
type of reasoning in the performance of their jobs. All of us, in one way or another, use
cognitive reasoning in our daily lives.

A collection of numbers arranged in order from left to right, such that there is a
first term, second term, etc, and are separated by commas, is called a number
sequence.

Example:

What are the next three terms of this sequence?

1, 1, 2,4, 8, 16 ,32 ,64

Solution:

To describe a sequence, we often try to find a pattern that relates the number of
a term to the term itself. Now for the sequence 1, 1, 2, 4,8 , 16, 32 ,64, the pattern is not
obvious. First, let us look at the relationship between the terms. The first term, I and the
second term, 1, are equal but the third term is 2, which may be treated as the sum of
the forst two terms.

Considering the sums of the terms, we have

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1+1=2

And if we add the first, the second, and the third terms, we have 1 + 1 + 2 = 4,
which is fourth term. Continuing the patterm

1 + 1 + 2 + 4= 8, fifth term

1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 16, sixth term

1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 32, seventh term

1 + 1 + 2+ 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 = 64,eight term

Hence for the next three terms,

64 + 64 = 128 ninth term

128 + 128 =256 10th term

256 + 256 = 512, eleventh term

READING FOR UNDERSTANDING AND ANALYSIS

Objectives

Analyze the problem to be solved step by step with the aid of a picture or a
diagram. Sometimes a math problem looks more difficult than it really is. You must dirst
understand the problem before you attempt to solve it. It often helps to rewrite the
problem using only the important information. This makes it easier to figure out what
you must do.

Guideline for comprehension

1. Jot down the key words or phrases.

2. Write down what is being asked for.

3. Restate what you have read in your own words.

4. Prepare a visual representation

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Example Given the numbers 6, 2 ,3 ,1 ,4 and 5. If the second number is less then the
fourth circle the number that is the difference between the first numbers, circle the
second number.

Solution:

To do this, we have the following:

1. The key word is less than.

2. We are to circle a number in 6 2 3 1 4 5.

3. If the second number is less than the fourth number, then circle the number
that is the difference between the first and the sixth numbers. Circle the second number
if the third is less than the first. 5th no.

4. Now Consider:

6 2 3 1 4 5

1st no.

2nd no. 3rd no. 4th no. 6th no,

2. (2nd number) > (4th number)

3. (3rd number) < 6 (1st number)

Thus, 6 2 3 1 4 5

PLANE GEOMETRY

Plane geometry deals with shapes like lines, circles and triangles . . . shapes that
can be drawn on a flat surface called a Plane.
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Common Symbols Used in Geometry

Symbol Meaning Example In Words

∆ Triangle ∆ABC has Triangle ABC has three

equal sides

Angle ∟ABC is 45º The angle formed by Abc

. is 45º degress

┴ Perpendicular AB┴CD The line AB is . .

. perpendicular to line CD

║ Parallel EF║GH The line EF is parallel to line GH

º Degrees 360º makes full circle

∟ Right Angle is 90º A right angle is 90 degrees

AB Line Segment AB The line between A and B

AB Line “AB” AB The Infinite line that includes

. A and B
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AB Ray AB AB The line that start at A. goes.

. through B and continues on

≅ Conguent ∆ABC≅∆ Triangle ABC is congruent to

. triangle DEF

~ Similar ∆DEF~∆ Triangle DEF is similar to triangle

. MNO

∴ Therefore a=b ∴ b = a a equals b, therefore b equals a

Glossary of Gemometric Terms

Line
A line is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a line as a “straight”
Line that we might draw with a ruler on a piece of paper, except that in geometry, a line
extends forever in both directions. We write the name of a line passing through two
different points A and B as “ line AB”, the two headed arrow over AB signifying a line
passing through points A and B.
Example: The following is a diagram of two lines: line AB and line HG

H
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The arows signify that the lines drawn extend indefinitely in each direction.

Point

A point is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a point as a “dot”

On a piece of paper. We identify this point with a number or letter. A point has no length
or width, it just specifies an exact location.

Example: The following is a diagram of points A, B, C and Q:

Intersection

The term is used when lines, rays, line segments or figures meet, that is they
share a common point. The point they share is called the point of intersection. We say
that these figures intersect.

Example: In the diagram below, line AB and line GH intersect at point D.

G B

A D

Examople: In the diagram below, line 1 intersects the square in points M and N:
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Example: In the diagram below, line 2 intersects the circle at point P:

Line segments

Lines segments is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a line
segment as a straight line that we might draw with ruler on a piece of paper. A line
segment does not extend forever, but has two distinct endpoints. We write the name of
a line segment with endpoints A and B as “line segment AB” Note how there are no
arrow heads on the line over AB such as when we denote a line or a ray.
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Example: The following is a diagram of two line segments: line segment CD and
line segment PM, or simply segment CD and segment PN.

Ray
A ray is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a ray as a straight
line that begins at a certain point and extends forever in one direction. The point where
the ray beginz is known as its endpoint. We write the name of a ray with endpoint A and
passing through point B as “ray AB”. Note how the arrow heads denotes the direction
the ray extends in: there is no arrow head over the endpoint.

Example: The following is a diagram of two rays: ray HG and ray AB.

H
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End point
An endpoint is a point used to define a line segment or ray. A line segment has
two endpoints: a ray has one.
Example: The endpoints of line segment DC below are points D and C, and the
endpoint of ray MN is point M below:

C M
N
Parallel Lines
Two lines in the same plane which never intersect are called parallel lines. We
say that two line segments are parallel if the lines that they lie on are parallel. If line l is
parallel to line 2, we write this as line 1 || line 2
When two line segments DC and AB lie on parallel lines, we write this as
segment DC || segment AB.
Example: Lines 1 and 2 below are parallel

2
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Example: The opposite sides of the rectangle below are parallel. The lines passing
through them never meet.

Pythagorean Theorem

Pythagorean theorem or Pythagora’s theorem is a relation in Euclidaean

geometry among the three sides of a right triangle (right angled triangle). It states:
In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side
opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides
are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).
The theorem can be written as an equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
where c represents the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b represent the lengths of
the other two sides.

The Pythagorean theorem is named after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras,

who by tradition is credited with its discovery and proof although it is often argued that
knowledge of the theorem predates him.
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ALGEBRA
Algebra is the brand of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of
operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them,
including terms, polynomials, eqyations and algebraic structures. Together with
geometry, analysis, topology combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the
main branches of pure mathematics.

The part of algebra called elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in
secondary education and introduces the concept of variables representing numbers.
Statements based on these variables are manipulated using the rules of operations that
apply to numbers, such as addition.

This can be done for a variety of reasons, including equation solving. Algebra is much
broader than elementary algebra and studies what happens when different rules of
operations are used and when operations are devised for things other than numbers.
Addition and multiplication can be generalized and their precise definitions lead to
structures such as groups, rings and fields.

Elementary Algebra

Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught to students who
are presumed to have no knowledge of mathematics beyond the basic principles of
arithmetic. In arithmetic, only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, - , x
÷), occur. In algebra, numbers are often denoted by symbols (such as a.x or y). This is
useful because it allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as a+b=b+a
for all a and b), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of
the real number system.
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It allows the reference to “unknow” numbers, the formulation of equations and the
study of how to solve these (for instance, Find a number x such that 3x+1 = 10º or going
a bit further “Find a number x such that ax+b=c”. Step which lets to the conclusion that
is not the nature of the specific numbers the one that allows us to solve it but that of the
operations involved.

It allows the formulation of functional relationships (such as “If you sell x tickets,
then your profit will be 3x-10 dollars, or f(x) = 4x – 10, where f is the function, and x is
the number to which the function is applied.”).

Polynomial
A polynomial (see the article on polynomials for detail) is an expression that is
constructed from one or more variables and constants, using only the operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication (where repeated multiplication of the same
variables is standardly denoted as exponentiation with a constant non-negative integer
exponents) For example, x2 + 2x – 3 is a polynomial in the single variable x.
An important class of problems in algebra is factorization of polynomials, that is
expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials. The example
polynomial above can be factored as (x –1) (x + 3). A related class of problems is
finding a; gebraic expressions for the roots o a polynomial in a single variable.

NATURAL SCIENCE
The natural Science component foR the General Education oart if the Licensure
Examination for teachers includes Biological Science-General Biology: Physical Science
with Earth Science

DEFINITION OF SCIENCE