Study of UHF and VHF Compact Antennas

Technological University Dublin
ARROW@TU Dublin
Doctoral Engineering
2015
Study of UHF and VHF Compact Antennas

Abraham Loutridis
Technological University Dublin
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Loutridis, A. (2015). Study of UHF and VHF compact antennas. Doctoral thesis. Dublin Institute of Technology. doi:10.21427/
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STUDY OF UHF AND VHF
COMPACT ANTENNAS
Abraham Loutridis
Doctor of Philosophy
Supervisors:
Prof. Max J. Ammann
Dr. Matthias John
Dublin Institute of Technology

School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
July 2015
Abstract
This thesis presents and describes designs of small antennas that operate in UHF and
VHF frequency bands. The proposed antennas are designed for integration into small
volumes, therefore low profile, compact size and good radiation properties are the key
parameters in this work. A further investigation on miniaturization techniques, as well as
the ground plane effects on the general performance, is also made.
The main objective is the design of novel compact sized geometries, lightweight and
cost efficient, operating in the lower UHF and VHF frequency bands. The groundplane
size and the antenna position with respect to it, are two parameters which are investigated
and contribute to optimum design performance. Compact solutions are realised in this
work based on folded, meander-line and inverted-F geometries providing broadband
operation and omnidirectional radiation properties.
The investigation of broadband properties of a dual band folded monopole led to a
controllable frequency-ratio with wide range, operating in the WLAN frequency
spectrum. The proposed solution offers high efficiency and gain and stable
omnidirectionality across the operating frequency band.
The study also deals with planar inverted-F antennas (PIFA) operating in the LTE
frequency bands. The two highly efficient broadband antennas provide compactness, gain
i
stability and are fabricated using low-cost materials. By configuring an optimised position
of the PIFA on the groundplane, the impedance bandwidth, the gain and the total
efficiency can be significantly improved. A more compact solution of a dual band PIFA
structure is provided with omnidirectional radiation characteristics and large frequency
ratio for machine-to-machine applications.
A novel tuneable meander line structure operating over the frequency range of
412 − 475 MHz is designed for integration into smart meter devices. The resonant
frequency of this antenna can be tuned using a sliding via connector. A matching stub is
introduced into the proposed geometry to improve the impedance matching and to shift
the resonant frequency to lower values. This innovative solution overcomes material
loading problems when installed on a concrete wall, as well as the S 11 characteristic are
not impaired with the small sized ground plane.
Finally, a dual band meander line folded monopole antenna in the lower UHF and
VHF frequency bands is proposed for smart metering and Wireless M-Bus applications.
The miniaturization of the proposed solution is based on a double-sided meandering
structure which also offers good isolation between the two sections and an easily
controlled large frequency-ratio. The introduction of a shunt lumped inductor improves
the impedance matching at both frequencies. The antenna despite its compact size offers
high total efficiency and gain across the operating frequency bands.
ii
Declaration
I certify that this thesis which I now submit for examination for the award of PhD, is
entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others, save and to the
extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.
This thesis was prepared according to the regulations for postgraduate study by
research of the Dublin Institute of Technology and has not been submitted in whole or in
part for another award in any other third level institution.
The work reported on in this thesis conforms to the principles and requirements of the
DIT's guidelines for ethics in research.
The Institution has permission to keep, to lend or to copy this thesis in whole or in
part, on condition that any such use of the material of the thesis be duly acknowledged.
Signature: Date
Abraham Loutridis
iii
Acknowledgements
I am sincerely thankful to my supervisors, Professor Max J. Ammann and Doctor
Matthias John, for the guidance they provided me during the elaboration of my work. I
would also like to thank them for the patience, the support and the encouragement shown
to me all this time.
I thank all my colleagues at the Antenna and High Frequency Research Centre for
their support and interesting discussions. In particular, I am very grateful to Giuseppe and
to Kansheng for their assistance and our discussions regarding to issues related to antenna
miniaturization techniques. I also wish to express my gratitude to my colleagues Padraig,
Antoine, Xiulong, Afshin, Oisin, Adam and Domenico with whom I had the great
pleasure to work and socialize for the last four years.
I thank my colleagues at the Centre for Telecommunications Value-Chain Research
group for the extraordinary learning experience we shared those years. I am also very
grateful to Science Foundation Ireland for supporting my research work.
My heartfelt thanks to all my friends here in Dublin and back in Greece for their
invaluable company has been always greatly supportive and valuable to me.
iv
Very special thanks go to my housemates Panos for our countless hours of
philosophising and Rasa for making me feel at home all the time and for the great fun we
had altogether during the last year of my studies.
I would like to express all my gratitude to my close family back in Greece for their
lasting love. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my parents, to my sister to my grandmother
and to my brother in law for their support and love that they showed me all these years.
v
Abbreviations
AMR Automatic Meter Reading
AUT Antenna Under Test
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CST Computer Simulation Technology GmbH
ECC Electronic Communication Committee
EIRP Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power
ESA Electrically Small Antenna
FIT Finite Integration Technique
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GSM Global System for Mobiles
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
LTE Long Term Evolution
MWS CST Microwave Studio
M2M Machine-to-Machine
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PCS Personal Communication System
PIFA Planar Inverted-F Antenna
RF Radio Frequency
SGH Standard Gain Horn
VNA Vector Network Analyzer
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
vi
Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... I
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................... IV
ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... VI
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS .......... 6
1.3 MOTIVATION FOR ELECTRICALLY SMALL ANTENNAS ....................................... 7
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ........................................................................................ 9
2. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................... 11
2.1 ANTENNA T HEORY ................................................................................................ 11
2.1.1 DIPOLE AND MONOPOLE ANTENNAS ............................................................... 11
2.1.2 PLANAR I NVERTED-F ANTENNAS ..................................................................... 13
2.1.3 MEANDER LINE ANTENNAS .............................................................................. 14
2.1.4 INPUT IMPEDANCE ............................................................................................. 15
2.1.5 RETURN L OSS AND BANDWIDTH ...................................................................... 16
2.1.6 RADIATION PATTERN ........................................................................................ 17
2.1.7 DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN .................................................................................... 18
2.1.8 ANTENNA E FFICIENCY ...................................................................................... 19
2.1.9 FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRICALLY SMALL ANTENNAS ........ 19
2.1.10 WHEELER CAP METHOD ................................................................................ 21
2.1.11 COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS .......................................................... 25
2.2 SOFTWARE SIMULATION AND MODELLING TOOLS ........................................... 25
2.2.1 TIME & FREQUENCY DOMAIN SOLVER ........................................................... 27
2.3 PROTOTYPING ....................................................................................................... 28
2.4 MEASUREMENT SETUP ......................................................................................... 28
2.4.1 VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER (VNA) ........................................................... 30
2.4.2 ANECHOIC CHAMBER ........................................................................................ 31
vii
2.4.3 STANDARD GAIN ANTENNA (SGA) .................................................................. 31
2.4.4 COORDINATE SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 32
3. PRINTED FOLDED MONOPOLE ANTENNA ................................................... 33
3.1 ANTENNA DESIGN ................................................................................................. 33
3.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY ............................................................................................. 36
3.3 GROUND PLANE INVESTIGATION ........................................................................ 40
3.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS ............................................................... 46
3.5 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 49
4. PLANAR INVERTED-F ANTENNAS ................................................................... 51
4.1 DUAL BAND LTE PIFA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS ........................................... 51
4.1.1 ANTENNA DESIGN .............................................................................................. 52
4.1.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY ......................................................................................... 54
4.1.3 GROUND PLANE I NVESTIGATION ..................................................................... 58
4.1.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS ............................................................ 65
4.2 DUAL LTE PIFA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS ...................................................... 69
4.2.1 ANTENNA DESIGN .............................................................................................. 69
4.2.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY ......................................................................................... 72
4.2.3 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS ........................................................... 76
4.3 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 82
5. MEANDER LINE MONOPOLE ANTENNA ........................................................ 83
5.1 MEANDERED ANTENNA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS ........................................... 84
5.2 ANTENNA CONFIGURATION ................................................................................. 84
5.3 MATCHING STUB ................................................................................................... 87
5.4 GROUND PLANE SIZE ............................................................................................ 88
5.5 MEASURED AND SIMULATED RESULTS ............................................................... 89
5.6 INSTALLED PERFORMANCE .................................................................................. 95
5.7 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 98
6. VHF & UHF MEANDERED MONOPOLE ANTENNA ...................................... 99
6.1 VHF & UHF MEANDERED MONOPOLE ANTENNA .......................................... 100
6.2 ANTENNA CONFIGURATION ............................................................................... 100
6.3 PARAMETRIC INVESTIGATION ........................................................................... 105
6.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS ............................................................. 109
7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ............................................................ 114
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 118
APPENDIX A. ............................................................................................................. 130
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Wireless Communication Technology. ...................................................... 3

Figure 1.2. The radiansphere. ........................................................................................ 6
Figure 1.3. (a) λ/2 dipole, (b) λ/4 monopole on a ground plane................................... 8
Figure 2.1. Voltage and Current distribution of (a) half wave and (b) full wave
dipole. ............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 2.2. Voltage and Current distribution of quarter wave monopole. .............. 13
Figure 2.3. The evolution of the PIFA design. ............................................................ 14
Figure 2.4. Planar Inverted-F Antenna (PIFA) structure. ........................................ 14
Figure 2.5. Meander Line Monopole Antenna structure. ......................................... 15
Figure 2.6. The three radiation pattern types (a) isotropic, (b) omnidirectional and
(c) directional [1]. .......................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.7. Measurement Wheeler Cap method [57]. ................................................ 22
Figure 2.8. Different shapes of shields is used in the Wheeler Cap method [57]. ... 23
Figure 2.9. The (a) Tetrahedral and the (b) Hexahedral mesh type......................... 26
Figure 2.10. Measurement setup. ................................................................................. 29
Figure 2.11. Near R1 and Far R2 field boundaries. ................................................... 30
Figure 2.12. Standard Spherical Coordinate System. ................................................ 32
Figure 3.1. Evolution of the folded monopole antenna. ............................................. 34
Figure 3.2. Antenna geometry. ..................................................................................... 35
Figure 3.3. Manufactured folded monopole antenna prototype. .............................. 35
Figure 3.4. The simulated S11 dependence on the height (h) of the monopole. ........ 36
ix
Figure 3.5. The simulated S11 dependence on the width (a) of the horizontal strip of
the monopole. ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the length (l) of the monopole. ......... 38
Figure 3.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the width (f) of the feeding strip of the
monopole ........................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 3.8. The current distribution at (a) 2.45 GHz and (b) 5.8 GHz. ................... 39
Figure 3.9. The simulated S11 dependence on the size of the ground plane. ............ 41
Figure 3.10. Simulated Total Efficiency for various ground plane sizes. ................ 42
Figure 3.11. Simulated radiation patterns for various ground plane sizes at
2.45 GHz. ........................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 3.12. Simulated radiation patterns for various ground plane sizes at 5.8 GHz.
......................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.13. The simulation model with the antenna located in the (a) centre of the
plastic enclosure and the antenna located in the (b) corner of the plastic enclosure.
......................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.14. Simulated S11 for two different locations of the antenna into the plastic
enclosure. ....................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the printed folded monopole antenna.
......................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 3.16. The printed folded monopole antenna in the anechoic chamber. ....... 47
Figure 3.17. Measured and simulated radiation patterns at 2.45 GHz. ................... 48
Figure 3.18. Measured and simulated radiation patterns at 5.8 GHz. ..................... 49
Figure 4.1. Rear view (a), Front view (b), Left view (c), General view (d), CST
simulation model and the coordinate system (e). ....................................................... 53
Figure 4.2. Manufactured dual band LTE PIFA prototype. .................................... 54
Figure 4.3. The simulated S11 dependence on the feeding strip position (a) of the
PIFA. .............................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 4.4. The simulated S11 dependence on the height (h) of the PIFA. ............... 55
Figure 4.5. The simulated S11 dependence on the length of the rear folded section (b)
of the PIFA. .................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the length of the front folded section
(d). ................................................................................................................................... 57
x
Figure4.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the shorting strip position (s) of the
PIFA. .............................................................................................................................. 58
Figure 4.8. The parameters X and Y which define the position of the PIFA antenna.
......................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.9. Ground plane current distribution at 825 MHz for three different
position of the PIFA. ..................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.10. Simulated S11 when moving the antenna along y-axis. ......................... 60
Figure 4.11. Simulated S11 when moving the antenna along x-axis. ......................... 61
Figure 4.12. Radiation patterns for different positions of the PIFA on the ground
plane. .............................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 4.13. The simulated S11 dependence on the size of the ground plane. .......... 63
Figure 4.14. Simulated Total Efficiency for various ground plane sizes. ................ 63
Figure 4.15. Current Distribution at 867, 1917 and 2652 MHz. ............................... 64
Figure 4.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the PIFA antenna. ............................ 65
Figure 4.16. The simulated total and radiation efficiency. ........................................ 66
Figure 4.17. Measured and simulated (a) azimuth (x-y), (b) elevations (z-y) and (c)
(z-x) plane patterns at 825 MHz. ................................................................................. 67
(z-x) plane patterns at 2200 MHz. ............................................................................... 68
Figure 4.19. Schematic illustration of dual LTE PIFA design evolution. ................ 70
Figure 4.20. Antenna Model and the coordinate system. .......................................... 71
Figure 4.21. Antenna geometry and parameters. ....................................................... 71
Figure 4.22. Dual PIFA LTE Antenna prototype....................................................... 72
Figure 4.23. Simulated S11 variation for different values of (a). ............................... 73
Figure 4.24. Simulated S11 variation for different values of (b). ............................... 73
Figure 4.25. Simulated S11 variations for different values of (c)............................... 74
Figure 4.26. Simulated S11 variations for different values of (w). ............................. 75
Figure 4.27. The current distribution at (a) 760 MHz and (b) 1860 MHz. .............. 76
Figure 4.28. Simulated and measured S11 for the PIFA antenna. ............................ 77
Figure 4.29. StarLab spherical coordinate system [74]. ............................................ 78
Figure 4.30. Measured and simulated total efficiency and realized gain. ................ 78
xi
Figure 4.31. Measured and Simulated Peak Directivity. ........................................... 79
(z-x) plane patterns at 760 MHz. ................................................................................. 80
(z-x) plane patterns at 1860 MHz. ............................................................................... 81
Figure 5.1. Illustration of the antenna designed steps. .............................................. 84
Figure 5.2. Simulated S11 for the two different antenna models. .............................. 85
Figure 5.3. Antenna geometry and the coordinate system. ....................................... 86
Figure 5.4. (a) Improved impedance matching and control of frequency, (b) Smith
chart................................................................................................................................ 87
Figure 5.5. Simulated S11 dependence on the ground plane size. .............................. 88
Figure 5.6. Simulated and measured S11. .................................................................... 91
Figure 5.7. Current distribution at 450 MHz. ............................................................ 92
Figure 5.8. Total measured and simulated efficiency of the antenna at 420, 450 and
470 MHz. ........................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 5.9. The antenna inside the anechoic chamber. .............................................. 93
Figure 5.10. Azimuth radiation patterns in the xz-plane at 450 MHz. .................... 93
Figure 5.11. Elevation radiation patterns in the xy-plane at 450 MHz. ................... 94
Figure 5.12. Elevation radiation patterns in the yz-plane at 450 MHz. ................... 94
Figure 5.13. The simulation model with ground plane (a) parallel to the wall and (b)
perpendicular to the wall. ............................................................................................. 95
Figure 5.14. Simulated and measured S11 for the parallel case. ............................... 97
Figure 5.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the perpendicular case. .................... 97
Figure 6.1. Schematic illustration of the three basic design models. ...................... 101
Figure 6.2. Simulated S11 for the three basic design models. .................................. 101
Figure 6.3. Folded meander line monopole antenna and coordinate system. ........ 103
Figure 6.4. Improved impedance matching and control of frequency. .................. 104
Figure 6.5. Manufactured meandered monopole prototype (a) Front View, (b) Rear
View. ............................................................................................................................. 104
Figure 6.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the height r of the back meander line
section. .......................................................................................................................... 105
xii
Figure 6.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the height f of the front meander line
section. .......................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 6.8. The simulated S11 dependence on the height f1 of the last front four
meander line strips. ..................................................................................................... 107
Figure 6.9. The current distribution of the antenna in (a) 169 MHz and (b) 433 MHz.
....................................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 6.10. Simulated and measured S11. ................................................................ 110
Figure 6.11. Wheeler Cap measurement setup (a) without cap, (b) with cap. ...... 111
Figure 6.12. Azimuth radiation patterns in the xy-plane at 433 MHz. .................. 112
Figure 6.13. Elevation radiation patterns in the xz-plane at 433 MHz. ................. 112
xiii
List of Tables
Table 1.1. The frequency spectrum. .............................................................................. 4

Table 1.2. Wireless Communication Frequency Spectrum. ........................................ 4
Table 2.1. Properties of FR4 and Brass used for antenna prototyping. ................... 28
Table 4.1. Measured and Simulated Total Efficiency and Realized Gain. .............. 79
Table 5.1. Comparison of theoretical and measured total efficiency. ...................... 91
xiv
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
T he rapid evolution of wireless cellular communications started with the
deployment of the 1st generation of mobile networks in the early 1980s and led to
the requirement for compact terminal antennas. The new communication systems and
newly introduced applications operating at frequencies in the ultra-high frequency (UHF)
and super-high frequency (SFH) bands (Table 1.1) set strict requirements for the antenna
in terms of size and efficiency. The portability and mobility of wireless technology
demands compact and handheld devices with small enough size to be easily carried, of
light weight and with low cost.
Dipole and monopole antennas were the two most practically used antennas types for
wireless communication systems in the early stage of their development. The broadband
radiation characteristics and manufacturing simplicity made monopoles the most widely
used antennas for portable devices such as mobile and cordless phones, laptops, wireless
metering devices, etc. The introduction of Global System for Mobiles (GSM), General
packet radio service (GPRS) and other mobile services such as Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN), Bluetooth, ad-hoc networks, etc. (Table 1.2) as well the availability
1
1. Introduction
of the frequency spectrum generated further specifications and requirements for antenna
designers.
In 1889, Heinrich Hertz was the first developer of a wireless communication system
in which he forced an electrical spark to occur in the gap of a dipole antenna. For the
receiver he used a loop antenna. By 1901, Marconi was transmitting data across the
Atlantic Ocean by using several vertical wires attached to the ground. Across the Atlantic
Ocean, the receive antenna was a 200 meter wire held up by a kite [1]. Since then, an
extensive evolution of electrically small antennas (ESA) and compact integrated antennas
followed making it one of the important elements that make modern wireless devices
possible.
Modern mobile communication applications require large available channel capacity,
large quantities of transmitting data, high efficiency, flexibility and capability to handle
multiband frequencies. Modern mobile terminals define additional requirements for the
antennas used, like compact size, low profile and low-cost, omnidirectional radiation
characteristics, adopted low and safe levels of Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) values [2,
3] for devices operating within close proximity to the human body as specified in [4]. The
trend in universal wireless access connectivity and the compatibility of different devices
drive the motivation for miniaturization of antennas able to work well across a broadband
bandwidth with good efficiency.
Nowadays, wireless communication technology (Fig. 1.1) has replaced the wired
networks in an efficient way, increasing the distance beyond the capabilities of typical
cabling. Wireless communication technology is used to meet many needs such as:
2
1. Introduction
 To provide a backup connection in case of network failure,
 To link portable or temporary workstations,
 To overcome problems where cabling is difficult or financially impractical,
 To remotely connect mobile users or networks.
A large range of wireless applications involves home security systems, Wi-Fi, cellular
phones, wireless power transfer, wireless sensors and smart meters. The implementation
and optimization of existing wireless technology can be addressed also in automotive,
airborne and medical applications offering reliability and low operating cost.
Figure 1.1. Wireless Communication Technology.
3
1. Introduction
Table 1.1. The frequency spectrum.

Band Frequencies Wavelengths*
VLF 3 kHz 30 kHz 100 km 10 km
LF 30 kHz 300 kHz 10 km 1 km
ML 300 kHz 3 MHz 1 km 100 m
HF 3 MHz 30 MHz 100 m 10 m
VHF 30 MHz 300 MHz 10 m 1m
UHF 300 MHz 3 GHz 1m 10 cm
SHF 3 GHz 30 GHz 1 cm 1 mm
*Wavelength: 𝜆(𝑚) = 300⁄𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) ⇒ 𝜆(𝑐𝑚) = 30⁄𝑓(𝐺𝐻𝑧)
Table 1.2. Wireless Communication Frequency Spectrum.

Wireless System Frequency Range
AM/FM Radio 535-1605 KHz/88-108 MHz
Broadcast TV (Ch. 2-6) 54-88 MHz
Broadcast TV (Ch. 7-13) 174-216 MHz
ISM Band (LPD433) 433.05-434.79 MHz
DVB-T/TVWS (UHF) 470-862 MHz
1G/2G Cell Phones 806-902 MHz/1.85-1.99 GHz
3G UMTS 746-798 MHz, 814-894 MHz
3G UMTS 1.7-1.85 GHz, 2.5-2.69 GHz
Satellite Digital Radio 2.32-2.325 GHz
4G LTE 690-960 MHz, 1.7-2.69 GHz
ISM Band (Bluetooth, 802.11b WLAN) 2.4-2.4835 GHz
5.8 GHz ISM Band 5.725-5.875 GHz
Digital Broadcast Satellite 12.2-12.7 GHz
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) 27.5-29.5 GHz, 31-31.3 GHz
Fixed Wireless Services 38.6-40 GHz
4
1. Introduction
1.1 ELECTRICALLY SMALL ANTENNAS

In according to Harold A. Wheeler, a small antenna is one in which the maximum
dimension is less than the “radianlength”. The radianlength is equal to 1/2π wavelength
[5]. Another expression to define a compact antenna is that it fulfils the condition ka<1,
which k=2π/λ where, a is the radius of the minimum sphere (radiansphere) [6] that
encloses the antenna (Fig. 1.1). For over 60 years, extensive research took place on the
theoretical and practical field of fundamental limitations and small antennas by Chu [7],
Wheeler [5, 6], Harrington [8], Fano [9] and other pioneers providing facts and results
which are invaluable for the antenna engineers.
Over the years new miniaturization techniques have been documented to reduce the
size of an antenna for a given frequency. Using high dielectric constant substrates enables
more miniaturization as more of the antenna fields are coupled in the substrate [1, 10]. A
variety of different folded [11, 12, 13, 14], spiral [15, 16], fractal [17, 18, 19, 20] and
meander line [21, 22, 23, 24] geometries are reported in order to reduce the antenna size.
Antenna designers also employ lumped elements (capacitors and inductors) and
varactor diodes [25, 26, 27, 28, 29] to improve impedance matching and antenna
bandwidth as well to control the resonant frequency. Lumped elements can be used to
achieve a good impedance matching to the source but they introduce additional losses
into the antenna system. On the other hand, incomplete matching is more critical and has
stronger impact on the antenna total efficiency than inserted losses from lumped elements.
Despite of this disadvantage, these kind of compact antennas with external matching
networks exist in many real applications because of their simple design methodology.
5
1. Introduction
Figure 1.2. The radiansphere.
1.2 ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS FOR WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Monopole antennas have been used as the best choice for various portable and mobile
equipments. The simplicity of the antenna design, the fulfilment of the performance
specifications, particularly with respect to bandwidth and efficiency, are the basic criteria
for the antenna designers to create electrically small antennas that are compatible with
modern wireless technology, which will also operate on a small ground plane.
The ongoing evolution of wireless communication and the demand for high speed and
high quality data transfer using portable and personal communication (PCS) services [30,
31] has led to the need for a reorientation of antenna design specifications as a basic part
of any wireless system. The modern handheld devices require antennas which are
embedded on a small area, a relatively short distance from a user body tissue operating in
accordance with Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Regulations.
6
1. Introduction
Modern wireless units tend to have small and compact size, low-cost
manufacturability, flexibility to integrate with the wireless communication system and an
omnidirectional radiation performance in at least one plane. The consideration of
frequency of operation, impedance matching, broadband or wideband operation, high
gain and efficiency, omnidirectional radiation pattern, ground plane size and Specific
Absorption Rate (SAR) are the fundamental electrical characteristics that drove the
designers to introduce a wide variety of antenna structures and topologies to balance the
particular demands for modern wireless communication systems.
1.3 MOTIVATION FOR ELECTRICALLY SMALL

ANTENNAS
At its resonant frequency f0, the length L of the half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole is equal
to a half of the wavelength λ0. The quarter-wavelength (λ/4) vertical monopole consists
of one arm of a half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole, placed on a horizontal ground plane
(Fig. 1.3).
Monopoles and dipoles have good radiation properties but for a 4G mobile phone
which operates at 800 MHz, a quarter-wavelength (λ/4) is almost 9.4 cm, hence a typical
dipole would not be suitable to embed in a modern portable device.
Moreover, some constrains such as the narrow bandwidth (up to 10% FBW)
performance, as well as the balanced feeding, (need for baluns in some cases) and the
protrusive and extended structure make them less attractive solutions for compact designs
especially for low frequencies.
7
1. Introduction
Balun
Figure 1.3. (a) λ/2 dipole, (b) λ/4 monopole on a ground plane.
Miniaturization techniques and methods enable antenna designers to enclose
monopole antennas with large electrical length into a compact physical size. Electrically
small and compact antennas including monopoles, dipoles, normal-mode helix antennas
[32, 33], planar inverted-F antennas (PIFA’s) [34, 35, 36, 37, 38], microstrip patches [39,
40] and meander line antennas [21, 22, 23, 24] used mostly for small terminals and
handheld units. Additionally, miniaturization techniques give more freedom to the
available space and allow the integration of other components on the same Printed Circuit
Board (PCB). The low manufacturing cost is favoured from this integration.
This thesis presents an investigation of electrically small and compact antennas and
the use of miniaturization techniques. A variety of topologies that include folded and
meander-line monopoles and Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFA’s) are designed and
studied, as well an extensive investigation of the ground plane size which is an integral
part of the electrically small antennas. Miniaturisation techniques are analysed and
8
1. Introduction
developed for application to antennas which are ready to be integrated into different types
of mobile and compact units.
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

Initially, in Chapter 2 an overview of dipole, monopole, PIFA and meander line
antennas is provided. A theoretical background on the operation principle of antennas is
also presented. The simulation software, prototyping method, measurement setup and
techniques used in the thesis are introduced and described.
A printed folded monopole antenna for WLAN applications is investigated in
Chapter 3. The effects of key geometrical parameters of the monopole and the role of the
ground plane size in the general performance of the antenna are studied.
In Chapter 4, two LTE Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFAs) for M2M application are
introduced. Both configurations are optimised and developed for better impedance
matching and bandwidth. The PIFA position on the ground plane and the ground plane
size are investigated.
Chapter 5 deals with the design of a novel tuneable meander line monopole operating
in the lower UHF band. A parametric study of the ground plane size is made and the
antenna is optimised for impedance matching. The installed performance of the monopole
embedded in a plastic housing and placed on a concrete wall is investigated.
A dual-band meander-line monopole operating in VHF and lower UHF bands for
smart meters is presented in Chapter 6. The proposed design is optimised in both
frequency bands for impedance matching. A geometrical parametric investigation is made
9
1. Introduction
and the frequency-ratio performance is also reported. The radiation and total efficiency
of proposed antenna is measured based on the Wheeler Cap Method providing good
agreement with the simulated results.
Chapter 7 gives conclusions and outlines as well as possibilities for future work. A
List of Journal and Conference Publications are listed in chronological order given in
Appendix A.
The novelty which is provided in this work is summarized in the following paragraph.
A compact low profile dual band folded monopole for WLAN applications enable to
control large frequency ratio with more than 90% efficiency and 2 dBi gain across the
two bands is presented. In an effort to move to lower frequencies and to maintain the
compact size of the design, two LTE PIFAs with large and easily controlled frequency
ratio ranges are provided with more than 80% efficiency and 2 dBi gain across the
operating frequency range. A novel forked feed is introduced providing compactness. A
tuneable novel UHF meander line monopole for M2M applications with very compact
size and with good and stable efficiency (21%-24%) across the tuneable band is proposed.
The tuneability of the antenna is based on a novel tuneable sliding via connector which
controls the antenna electrical length offering adjustability to its radiation performance.
Finally, the first dual band printed meander line monopole antenna is presented operating
at 169 MHz and 433 MHz offering more than 20% and 50% efficiency at the first and
second resonant frequencies, respectively.
10
2. Background
2. Background
A
n antenna can be defined as an electrical device which converts electric power
into radio waves and vice versa [41]. The IEEE defines the antenna as a means
for radiating or receiving radio waves [42]. In this chapter the definitions of fundamental
parameters and performance metrics of an antenna are given.
The design and software simulation tools used in this work are presented.
Additionally, facilities used for the analysis, fabrication and measurement of the proposed
antennas are described.
2.1 ANTENNA THEORY

2.1.1 DIPOLE AND MONOPOLE ANTENNAS
A dipole antenna is the simplest and most widely used antenna type which consists of
two identical conductive wires. Between the two halves of the dipole, a current source is
applied, connected to the two adjacent ends. Dipole antennas are resonant, with the
current flowing back and forth between the ends of the two elements. A half-wave dipole
has two wire elements of approximately a quarter wavelength long (λ/4). In Fig. 2.1 a half
11
2. Background
wave and a full wave dipole with their voltage and current distribution along the two
structures is shown.
-V
+V
Ipeak
λ +V
λ/2 Ipeak
Ipeak
-V
-V
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1. Voltage and Current distribution of (a) half wave and (b) full wave dipole.
The basic principle of a conventional quarter wavelength (λ/4) monopole mounted
over a ground plane is that the length L, is equal to a quarter of the wavelength λ/4 at its
fundamental resonant frequency f0 (𝐿0 = 𝜆0 ⁄4 , 𝑓0 = 1⁄𝜆0 ⇒ 𝜆0 = 1⁄𝑓0 ) [1]. Fig 2.2
below shows the corresponding voltage and current distribution along a quarter
wavelength monopole structure. The reflections from the ground plane produce a virtual
identical monopole below it (mirror effect) and the monopole antenna can be evaluated
in much the same way as dipole antenna.
12
2. Background
+V
λ/4
Monopole
Ground Plane Ipeak
Mirror Image
-V
Figure 2.2. Voltage and Current distribution of quarter wave monopole.
Τhe radiation pattern for the monopole antenna is strongly affected by a finite sized
ground plane while its impedance is minimally affected [43]. Whereas a ground plane
with diameter of 10λ or larger (infinite size) has a fairly small effect on the feed-point
impedance of a monopole antenna [44].
2.1.2 PLANAR INVERTED-F ANTENNAS

Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFAs) are a widely used terminal antenna type with
many advantages which make them suitable for integration in portable and compact
devices [45]. The evolution of the PIFA design [46, 47, 48] can be started from a quarter
wavelength (λ/4) wire monopole (Fig. 2.3 (a)) which is placed above a ground plane and
it is folded by 90° as it shown in Fig. 2.3 (b). By connecting the monopole to the ground
plane through a shorting pin, a significant impedance matching improvement can be
13
2. Background
achieved. The overall height is reduced while the antenna maintains the good
performance.
Feeding Point 50 Ω Feeding Point 50 Ω Shorting Point Feeding Point 50 Ω
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.3. The evolution of the PIFA design.
Finally, the bandwidth of the antenna can be improved if the wire is replaced by a
planar radiating patch, as it shown in Fig. 2.4.
Radiating Patch
Ground Plane
Feeding Pin
Shorting Pin
Figure 2.4. Planar Inverted-F Antenna (PIFA) structure.
2.1.3 MEANDER LINE ANTENNAS

Meander Line Antennas [49, 50, 51] are a type of monopole antenna which can
achieve miniaturization in size. The starting evolution point of the basic meander
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2. Background
monopole design is achieved by folding the conductor back and forth, decreasing the
overall height of the antenna and introducing more wire into the structure (Fig. 2.5).
A meander line monopole is a set of horizontal and vertical wires which form turns.
For a fixed wired length, as the number of turns increases, the antenna volume decreases
and as the separation between the wires increases, the resonant frequency decreases [23].
Feeding Point 50 Ω Feeding Point 50 Ω
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5. Meander Line Monopole Antenna structure.
2.1.4 INPUT IMPEDANCE

The antenna input impedance 𝑍𝑖 (𝑓) relates the voltage and current at the antenna input
port. The real part 𝑅𝑖 (𝑓) of the input impedance represents the power that the antenna
radiates or absorbs. The imaginary part 𝑗𝑋𝑖 (𝑓) of the input impedance represents the
power that is stored in the near field of the antenna. The input impedance is frequency
dependent [52]:
𝑍𝑖 (𝑓) = 𝑅𝑖 (𝑓) + 𝑗𝑋𝑖 (𝑓) (2.1)
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2. Background
2.1.5 RETURN LOSS AND BANDWIDTH

The return loss is the ratio that compares the power reflected 𝑃𝑟 at the antenna port to
the power 𝑃𝑖 that is fed into the antenna from the transmission line. It is usually expressed
as a ratio in decibels (dB):
𝑅𝐿(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log 𝑃𝑖 ⁄𝑃𝑟 (2.2)
The return loss is also expressed as the negative of the magnitude of the reflection
coefficient in dB,
𝑅𝐿(𝑑𝐵) = −20 log|𝛤|, (2.3)
where the reflection coefficient is given by
𝑍𝑖 − 𝑍0
𝛤= (2.4)
𝑍𝑖 + 𝑍0
The return loss is related to the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) and expressed
by the following equation:
1 + |𝛤|
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = (2.5)
1 − |𝛤|
The impedance bandwidth (BW) is another fundamental antenna parameter. It
describes the frequency range over which the antenna has a return loss remains below
−10 dB (VSWR 2:1). For electrically small antennas which operate at relatively low
frequencies, a return loss below −6 dB (VSWR 3:1) is acceptable. The fractional
bandwidth (FBW) is the ratio of the bandwidth divided by the centre frequency and is
given by:
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2. Background
𝑓𝑢 −𝑓𝑙
𝐹𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓0
× 100%, (2.6)
where fu is the upper frequency and fl is the lower frequency.
2.1.6 RADIATION PATTERN

The radiation pattern of an antenna is the three dimensional spatial distribution of
radiated energy as a function of the antenna position along a constant radius [1]. Radiation
properties include radiation intensity, field strength, phase and polarization.
Figure 2.6. The three radiation pattern types (a) isotropic, (b) omnidirectional and (c)
directional [1].
An antenna with isotropic radiation pattern is an ideal antenna having equal radiation
in all directions. A directional antenna radiates more effectively in some directions than
in others. Some antennas may also be described as omnidirectional which have an
17
2. Background
isotropic radiation pattern in a single plane. An example of omnidirectional antenna is the
dipole antenna (Figure 2.6 (b)).
2.1.7 DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN

The antenna directivity D is defined the ratio of the radiation intensity in a certain
direction to the radiation intensity of an isotropic radiator [1]:

𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷=𝑈 =𝑃 , (2.7)
0 𝑟𝑎𝑑
where U is the radiation intensity, U0 is the radiation intensity of the isotropic radiator
and Prad is the total radiated power.
The antenna gain G is related to directivity D and to the radiation efficiency η of an
antenna [1]
𝐺(𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝜂 × 𝐷(𝜃, 𝜑) (2.8)
The antenna gain is usually expressed in dBi and signifies the ratio of radiated power
in a given direction relative to that of an isotropic radiator which is radiating the electrical
power uniformly in all directions.
According to the IEEE standards, gain does not include losses arising from impedance
and polarization mismatches [53]. The term realized gain is used when mismatch effects
are included.
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2. Background
2.1.8 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

The antenna radiation efficiency η is defined as the ratio of radiated power Prad to the
power delivered (input power) Pinput to the antenna:
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂= (2.9)
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
An efficient antenna radiates most of the input power. An inefficient antenna has more
of the power absorbed as losses within the antenna. The losses can be due to limited
conductivity of the antenna or due to dielectric losses.
The Total Efficiency ηT of an antenna is the Radiation Efficiency η multiplied by the
impedance mismatch loss (1 − |𝛤|2 ) of the antenna:
𝜂𝑇 = (1 − |𝛤|2 ) × 𝜂 (2.10)
For electrically small antennas, 40 to 50% (−3.9 to −3 dB) of Total Efficiency is
usually the acceptable level in the design phase and it is challenging to obtain a fully
embedded antenna.
2.1.9 FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRICALLY

SMALL ANTENNAS
In recent years there has been some emphasis on establishing a link between the
volume occupied by an electrically small antenna and the Quality Factor (Q) and its
bandwidth (BW). Early studies on the fundamental limitations and performance of small
antennas were published by Harold Wheeler [5, 6]. Chu determined the lowest possible
Quality Factor Q (2.11) of a linearly-polarized omnidirectional antenna and introduced
the concept of maximal and practical gain [7]:
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2. Background
1 1
𝑄 > 𝑘 3 𝑎3 + 𝑘𝑎, (2.11)
where k is the wave number in free space, k=2π/λ and a is the radius of the minimum
sphere that encloses the antenna.
Following Chu’s work and same principle for a circularly-polarized antenna, McLean
obtains the smallest possible Q [53]:
1 1 3 2
𝑄 = 2 [(𝑘𝑎) + 𝑘𝑎], (2.12)
In 1958, Harrington [8] extended Chu’s previous obtained results and defined the
natural gain limit for a practical antenna:
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑘𝑎)2 + (𝑘𝑎), (2.13)
Based on the theory of the evaluation of the energy stored around the antenna, Fano
[9], Collin [55] and Fante [56] derived expressions for the radiation Q which verify Chu’s
earlier results.
The theoretical investigation on the fundamental limits of an electrically small
antenna expands to the relationship between the bandwidth (BW) which is an important
parameter for antennas and the Quality Factor (Q). Considering the antenna as a resonant
RLC circuit, the Fractional Bandwidth (FBW) can be defined by:
1
𝐹𝐵𝑊 = (2.14)
𝑄
In practice, an antenna’s Fractional Bandwidth is also defined in terms of VSWR.
The relationship between Q and VSWR is given by:
20
2. Background
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 − 1
𝑄= (2.15)
𝐹𝐵𝑊√𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅
Fano introduced an expression for the maximum Fractional Bandwidth that can be
achieved with a lossless matching network that matches to a resonant circuit (antenna)
[9].
27 1
𝐹𝐵𝑊 = , (2.16)
𝑄 𝑅𝐿
where RL is the desired return loss.
2.1.10 WHEELER CAP METHOD

One of the simplest, cheapest and most accurate methods to determine the antenna
radiation efficiency is the Wheeler Cap method which was presented by H. A. Wheeler
in 1959 [6]. Harold Wheeler presented a method for measuring the efficiency of
electrically small antennas (ESAs) and it is more accurate compared with other methods,
such as, gain comparison, radiometric and pattern integration.
The wheeler cap method is based on the "radiansphere" concept which defines the
boundary between the near field and the far field of any small antenna (Fig. 2.7). The
distance between the Antenna Under Test (AUT) and the walls of wheeler cap is called
"radianlength" and it is λ/2π. The measurement procedure separates into two parts which
are without cap (measurement in free space) and with cap and they will respectively
determine the radiation resistance and loss resistance (Fig. 2.7). The cap consists of a
conducting radiation metal shield.
21
2. Background
Wheeler suggested that the placement of the antenna within a conductive cavity would
reduce the radiation in the far-field without affecting the losses of the antenna. The
method is based on the assumption that the placement of the antenna into the cavity shorts
the radiation resistance Rrad, while the losses Rloss remains constant. Wheeler indicates
that the size of the cavity must be very large to avoid the excitations of the near-field and
small enough to prevent the emergence of resonances at the frequency of measurement.
Figure 2.7. Measurement Wheeler Cap method [57].
In the practice, there are many factors that influence the measurement accuracy, such
as the thickness of the shield and the reflections by walls, floor and ceiling of the room if
the measurements is made indoors. Otherwise, the choice of material and shape of the
caps will affect results during measurement.
22
2. Background
Figure 2.8. Different shapes of shields is used in the Wheeler Cap method [57].
 The Constant Power Loss Method
The radiation efficiency can be defined as radiated power is directly proportional to
input power, where input power is the sum of radiated power and loss power. Thus the
radiation efficiency, η, is given by:
Prad I2 R rad R rad

η= P = 2 2 = , (2.17)
rad +Ploss I R rad +I R loss R rad +R loss
where
Prad is radiation power of antenna
Pin is input power
Ploss is loss power (reflection power)
I is the input current
Rrad is radiation resistance of antenna
Rloss is loss resistance.
With the Wheeler Cap on, the radiation resistance is zero and the antenna reflection
coefficient is measured and referred to as S11WC.
23
2. Background
Ploss
=1- S211WC (2.18)
Pin
Without the Wheeler Cap the radiation resistance is that of the antenna radiating into
free space and the antenna reflection coefficient is measured and referred to as S11FS.
Prad +Ploss
=1- S211FS (2.19)
Pin
The antenna efficiency becomes
Prad (1-|S11FS |2 )-(1-|S11WC |2 ) |S11WC |2 -|S11FS |2

η= = = (2.20)
Prad +Ploss (1-|S11FS |2 ) 1-|S11FS |2
 The Constant Loss Resistor Method
Also, the antenna reflection coefficient S11WC can be represented as
S11WC=(Rloss-Rs)/(Rloss+Rs ) (2.21)
The antenna reflection coefficient S11FS can be represented as
S11FS=((Rrad+Rloss )-Rs)/((Rrad+Rloss )+Rs ), (2.22)
where Rs is the source resistance.
Equations (2.17), (2.21) and (2.22) are transposed to become
Rloss/Rs =(1+S11WC)/(1-S11WC ) (2.23)
((Rrad+Rloss ))/Rs =(1+S11FS)/(1-S11FS ) (2.24)
The radiation efficiency now is
1+S 1+S
R rad ( 1-S 11FS ) - ( 1-S 11WC ) (1-S11FS )(1+S11WC )
η= = 11FS 11WC
=1- (2.25)
R rad +R loss 1+S11FS (1+S11FS )(1-S11WC )
( 1-S )
11FS
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2. Background
2.1.11 COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS
The most common method used to measure the radiation efficiency of an antenna is
the Gain /Directivity method which is based on anechoic chamber measurements [58].
The advantage of G/D method is the ability for accurate measures. However, this method
has some limitations, such as requiring large space for installation [59]. In order to reduce
the costs of design and development of an antenna, a simpler and quicker method, such
as the Wheeler Cap method, was used [60].
Another method to determine small antennas efficiency in multipath environment is
the reverberation chamber (RC) method [61]. A reverberation chamber is a screened room
with a maximum of reflections of electromagnetic energy. It operates as a multi-mode
cavity with one or two mechanical stirrers to perturb the boundary conditions of the
electromagnetic environment or stir the inevitable standing waves. Inside the chamber,
two antennas can be allocated; a transmit antenna which excites the chamber and an
antenna under test (AUT) with a radiation efficiency which is to be determined [62].
The Wheeler Cap method was used due to the ease to implement, the fast accurate
results which are in a very good agreement with simulations.
2.2 SOFTWARE SIMULATION AND MODELLING TOOLS

CST Microwave Studio (CST MWS) [63] is a 3D electromagnetic software simulation
tool which is used to design and to simulate the antennas presented in this work. In a
comprehensive design environment (CAD interface), CST MWS allows modelling of the
antenna geometry, the properties of the materials and the surrounding space. The
25
2. Background
electromagnetic behaviour of the design can be analysed. The simulation delivers a
variety of parameters including far field radiation pattern, gain, the total and radiation
efficiency, S-parameter information and VSWR. Electric and magnetic field as well the
surface current distribution are also available. The time domain and frequency domain
solver are mainly used for the simulations. A unique meshing and sub-gridding technique
(Tetrahedral or Hexahedral mesh type) is used for every antenna structure (Fig. 2.9).
Figure 2.9. The (a) Tetrahedral and the (b) Hexahedral mesh type.
CST MWS also allows exporting of parameter data for further analysis and processing
and the geometry data in a format readable by the circuit board plotter software used to
prototype the antennas.
26
2. Background
2.2.1 TIME & FREQUENCY DOMAIN SOLVER

The Time Domain Solver (TDS) calculates the electromagnetic fields through time at
discrete locations and at discrete time samples. It calculates the transmission of energy
between various ports or other excitation sources of the designed structure to the
boundaries. A Time Domain Solver (TDS) is efficient for High Frequency structures such
as connectors, transmission lines and antennas obtaining the broadband frequency
behaviour of the simulated device.
The Frequency Domain Solver (FDS) calculates by using a broadband frequency
sweep (frequency by frequency) in order to derive the full broadband spectrum from a
relatively small number of frequency samples. Frequency Domain Solver (FDS) is
suitable for compact structures or devices with a high Quality Factor (Q) value.
CST MWS is based on the Finite Integration Technique (FIT) which was proposed in
1977 by Thomas Weiland [64] and it is a spatial discretization numerical method to solve
electromagnetic field problems in time and frequency domains. It delivers the spatial
properties of the continuous equations such as conservation of charge and energy.
The basis of this approach is to apply Maxwell equations in integral form suitable for
complex geometries. The Finite Integration Technique (FIT) is a method with high
flexibility in geometric modelling and boundary handling as well as incorporation of
arbitrary material distributions and material properties such as anisotropy, non-linearity
and dispersion. Additionally, the use of a three-dimensional (3D) Cartesian mesh
combined with a time integration scheme leads to efficient calculation algorithms, which
allow simulating real world electromagnetic field problems [65].
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2. Background
2.3 PROTOTYPING
For the manufacturing of prototypes, a LPKF ProMat C60 Circuit Board (PCB) plotter
was used to mill prototype designs from a PCB material layer. The substrates used are
single or double-sided FR4 laminates with specific properties [66] (Table 2.1).
Additionally, thin layers of Brass were used as main components of some prototypes. To
facilitate measurements 50 Ω SMA (Sub Miniature version A) connectors were used to
excite the prototypes providing good performance from DC to 18 GHz and also good
mechanical durability.
Table 2.1. Properties of FR4 and Brass used for antenna prototyping.
Properties FR4 Brass
εr 4.2-4.5±0.2 (1 GHz) -
μ 1 1
tanδ 0.02 (1 MHz) − 0.014 (1 GHz) -
Electric Conductivity - 2.74 × 107 S m−1
Thermal Conductivity 0.3 K m W−1 109 K m W−1
Thickness 1.52 mm 0.15 mm
Copper Layer Thickness 0.035 mm -
2.4 MEASUREMENT SETUP

The accuracy of the measurement results are due to the use of the measurement setup
which consists of a partially anechoic chamber, the Antenna Under Test (AUT) and a
Standard Gain Horn Antenna (SGH) which are both mounted in the chamber (Fig. 2.10).
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2. Background
The Antenna Under Test is placed on the top of a fiberglass mast which is centred on the
turntable base which rotates by 360° in Azimuth. Both antennas are connected to a vector
network analyzer. The turntable and measurement data from the vector network analyzer
are gathered, processed and plotted in a PC using software which controls both devices.
The measured radiation patterns are obtained in far field conditions (Fig. 2.11).
Figure 2.10. Measurement setup.
29
2. Background
Figure 2.11. Near R1 and Far R2 field boundaries.
2.4.1 VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER (VNA)

For measuring the performance of the prototype antennas a Vector Network Analyzer
(VNA) Rohde&Schwarz ZVA 24 is used [67, 68]. A Vector Network Analyzer measures
the amplitude and phase of the wave quantities and uses these values to calculate a
complex S-parameter, VSWR as well as Smith Chart. The real and the imaginary part of
the impedance are also available.
The VNA is connected to a PC and can be controlled since all its functions are
available to the PC via a network. Proprietary software controls the measurement of
radiation pattern.
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2. Background
2.4.2 ANECHOIC CHAMBER

A radio frequency anechoic chamber is an electromagnetic shielded space whose
walls are covered with absorbing materials that can absorb almost all of the incident
electromagnetic radiation, providing an approximate free space environment. The partial
anechoic chamber used in the measurement setup has absorbing materials which were
placed in strategic positions on the walls to absorb the incident power and to degrade the
signal reflections from the antenna that could impair and affect the accuracy of the
measurement results.
The absorbing material used in the partial chamber is EMERSON & CUMING
ECCOSORB VHP-18 pyramidal carbon loaded urethane foam absorber of 45.7 cm total
height and a maximum reflectivity of −30 dB at 500 MHz, −40 dB at 1 GHz, −45 dB at
3 GHz and −50 dB above 5 GHz [69].
2.4.3 STANDARD GAIN ANTENNA (SGA)

Horn antennas of known gain and S-parameters value have been used as reference
antennas to measure and to calculate the gain of the antennas under test. The measurement
setup uses two standard gain horn antennas, one covering from 1 GHz (3.8 dBi) to 10 GHz
(17.7 dBi) and the other from 500 MHz (5.3 dBi) to 2.9 GHz (11.1 dBi). The manufacturer
is SCHWARZBECK [70].
The calculation of the AUT’s gain is made by the Friis transmission equation [1],
which relates the power Pr which is delivered to the receiver to the input power of the
transmitter Pt:
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2. Background
4𝜋𝑅 𝑃
(𝐺𝐴𝑈𝑇 )𝑑𝐵 = 20 log ( ) + 10 log (𝑃𝑟 ) − (𝐺𝑆𝐺𝐻 )𝑑𝐵 , (2.26)
𝜆 0
where (GSGH) dB is the known gain of the horn antenna and R is the distance between
the two antennas.
2.4.4 COORDINATE SYSTEM

Based on the IEEE Standard Test Procedures for Antennas [71], the antenna’s
coordinate system presented in the following Figure 2.5. The radiation pattern of an
antenna under test which located at the centre of the spherical coordinate system is
dependent on the two angular coordinates Θ and Φ. The distance R from the antenna
under test (AUT) to the measuring point (SGH) is fixed and only the two angular
coordinates (Θ, Φ) are variables in a given radiation pattern.
Figure 2.12. Standard Spherical Coordinate System.
32
3. Printed Folded Monopole Antenna
P rinted Folded Monopole Antennas [11, 12, 13, 14] are designed with the main
advantage of the low profile size and ease of integration to compact size devices,
offering a very easy and a low cost prototyping and fabrication.
In this chapter a probe-fed printed folded monopole antenna placed on a conventional
rectangular ground plane for WLAN applications is presented and discussed. The dual
band antenna is operating at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz. It is a low profile size antenna with
omni-directional radiation characteristics in both bands. A parametric study of key
geometrical parameters is reported as well as the effect of the ground plane size on the
radiation performance.
3.1 ANTENNA DESIGN

The evolution of the folded monopole design can be started from a conventional
quarter wavelength (λ/4) PIFA antenna placed on a ground plane. By reducing the length
of the extended horizontal arm of the PIFA as it shown in Fig. 3.1 a folded monopole
antenna shorted to the ground plane, with dual band performance can be achieved.
33
Figure 3.1. Evolution of the folded monopole antenna.
A 70 mm × 70 mm brass ground plane (Table 2.1) was used. The folded monopole
with perimetric length of 53.38 mm (≈ 0.44λ0 with λ0 = 122.4 mm at 2.45 GHz) and height
of h = 20.2 mm (≈ 0.165λ0) is printed on a single-side FR-4 substrate (Table 2.1) with
dimensions 22.2 mm × 17 mm. The width of the shorting and the feeding strip is
s =0.5 mm and f = 1.98 mm respectively. The length (l) of the horizontal arm of the
antenna is l = 10.5 mm and the width a = 3.57 mm. The monopole is fed via a 50 Ω SMA
connector through the ground plane (Fig. 3.2).
From the fabrication point of view, the FR-4 substrate is touched on the metallic
ground plane and does not affect the measured and simulated results. The connection
between the two parts (FR-4 substrate and ground plane) is via shorting strip which is
soldered to it.
34
X Y
Figure 3.2. Antenna geometry.
Figure 3.3. Manufactured folded monopole antenna prototype.
35
3.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY

A parametric investigation of the variation of S11 with respect to four geometric
parameters of the printed folded monopole shown in Fig. 3.2 is made.
The frequency of operation of the monopole is strongly dependant on its height (h).
The height (h) of the monopole was varied from 16.2 mm to 22.2 mm in 2 mm increments.
Fig. 3.4 shows the simulated S11 for different values of height (h) of the antenna. The
results indicate that as the height (h) is increased both resonant frequencies shifted
upwards with a significant impedance matching improvement for the second resonance.
By selecting the proper value of h = 20.2 mm can be tuned both resonances to the desired
values.
Figure 3.4. The simulated S11 dependence on the height (h) of the monopole.
36
The width (a) of the horizontal strip of the monopole was found to have a significant
influence on the frequency-ratio range of the antenna. The width (a) of the horizontal strip
was varied from 0.57 mm to 5.07 mm in 1.5 mm increments. From the graph (Fig. 3.5) it
is clearly visible that increasing the value (a) shifts the second resonance upwards with
little effect on the lower resonance. The frequency-ratio between the upper and the lower
resonance Fr = fu/fl continuously increases from 1.88 to 3.82 as the value of (a) changes
from 0.57 mm to 5.07 mm. The desirable frequency-ratio for the proposed antenna is
2.36.
Figure 3.5. The simulated S11 dependence on the width (a) of the horizontal strip of
the monopole.
37
The horizontal arm length (l) is one of the geometrical parameters which is also
investigated and varied from 2.5 to 12.5 mm with a step size of 4 mm. The results
(Fig. 3.6) clearly indicate that as the length (l) increases the lower resonance shifts
upwards while in the upper resonance a significant impedance matching improvement
occurs as well as a frequency shifting. In that case the proposed value is 10.5 mm.
The dependence of the S11 on the width of the feeding (f) strip was investigated for
the two bands. The results are shown in the following Fig. 3.7. The width of the feeding
strip as increased from 0.98 mm to 3.98 mm an upward shift of the first resonance with
little effect of the impedance matching on both resonances occurred.
Figure 3.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the length (l) of the monopole.
38
Figure 3.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the width (f) of the feeding strip of the
monopole
Figure 3.8. The current distribution at (a) 2.45 GHz and (b) 5.8 GHz.
39
The current distribution at both frequencies is shown in Fig. 3.8. For the first resonant
frequency (Fig. 3.8(a)) the main part of the monopole which resonates is the feeding and
the shorting strips. The electrical length of the two strips is almost 33 mm and it is slightly
over λ0/4 at 2.45 GHz (λ0/4 = 30.6 mm). The distance between the horizontal strip and
the ground plane is less than λ0/4 and due to the mirror effect, there is a current cancelation
between the two parts. For the second resonance (Fig. 3.8(b)) the main current distribution
comes from the horizontal part of the monopole and partially from the two vertical strips
where the current is strong but with opposite phase. The length of the horizontal strip is
almost 13 mm which is slightly over λ0/4 at 5.8 GHz (≈ 12.9 mm) and the distance from
the ground plane (≈ 16.63 mm) allows the contribution given by these currents to radiation
to become dominant.
3.3 GROUND PLANE INVESTIGATION

The size of the ground plane was found to have a significant influence on the radiation
performance of the folded monopole antenna. A parametric study of the ground plane size
was made and simulations were carried out for ground plane sizes of 30 × 30 mm2 to
90 × 90 mm2. Fig. 3.9 shows a plot of the simulated S11 results as a function of ground
plane size. From the results it becomes obvious that the lower resonant frequency can be
effectively controlled (impedance matching and frequency shifting) by the size of the
ground plane. The upper resonance is unaffected by the ground plane size which is
electrically large and almost twice wavelength (99 mm ≈ 2λ0) at 5.8 GHz (λ0 ≈ 51.7 mm).
40
Fig. 3.10 shows a plot of the simulated total efficiency (%) for various ground plane
sizes. The efficiency for the lower resonance is very high (more than 92%) for its centre
frequency f0 for each ground plane size. For the upper resonance the total efficiency is
stable without notable changes. The simulated maximum value of the total efficiency at
2.45 and 5.8 GHz is 98% and 90% respectively for ground plane size of 70 × 70 mm.
Radiation patterns cuts (x-y, z-x and z-y) were simulated using CST MWS and are
presented in Figs. 3.11 and 3.12 for both frequencies in 10 dB/division scaled plots. The
patterns are shown for ground plane sizes of 30 × 30 mm2, 50 × 50 mm2, 70 × 70 mm2
and 90 × 90 mm2.
Figure 3.9. The simulated S11 dependence on the size of the ground plane.
41
Figure 3.10. Simulated Total Efficiency for various ground plane sizes.
For the azimuth plane (x–y) the radiation patterns are omnidirectional for both
frequencies with a small variation of gain as the ground plane size varies. The two
elevation radiation patterns (z–x) and (z–y) at the lower resonant frequency are found to
be more dipole-like with two visible nulls at θ = 0° and θ = 180° as the ground plane size
is increased from 30 mm × 30 mm to 90 mm × 90 mm.
As the size of the ground plane is increased the gain at θ = 30° and θ = 330° is
increased. For the upper resonant frequency, in both elevation planes (z–x) and (z–y)
(Fig. 3.12) the gain below the ground plane (θ = 180°) is decreased and respectively
increased above the ground plane (θ = 0°) as the size increases.
42
To investigate the installed performance of the proposed antenna, a simulation model
is created (Fig. 3.13) with the antenna in a plastic enclosure made from Plexiglas (εr = 3.6,
tanδ = 0.001 and thickness = 3 mm) with outer dimensions 190 × 190 × 40 mm3
(L × W × H). Two scenarios were evaluated, with the antenna located in the centre and
in the corner of the plastic enclosure as shown in the Fig. 3.13.
43
Fig. 3.14 show the simulated S11 for the two different positions. From inspection of
the results, the first resonant frequency shifts slightly downwards due to the wall
permittivity loading and this becomes more acute when the monopole is closer to the wall
surface (corner). For the case that the antenna is located in the centre of the enclosure the
resonant frequency shifted downwards by 0.01 GHz and for the corner located case the
frequency shifted downwards by 0.05 GHz.
44
Figure 3.13. The simulation model with the antenna located in the (a) centre of the plastic
enclosure and the antenna located in the (b) corner of the plastic enclosure.
Figure 3.14. Simulated S11 for two different locations of the antenna into the plastic
enclosure.
45
3.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS

The simulated and measured S11 for the folded monopole with the 70 × 70 mm2 ground
plane is shown in Fig. 3.15. The simulated and measured results are in good agreement.
The lower band has a −10 dB impedance bandwidth of 300 MHz (2.34 − 2.64 GHz) for
the simulated results and 280 MHz (2.32 − 2.6 GHz) for the measured results. For the
upper band the simulated results provide 530 MHz (5.56 − 6.09 GHz) bandwidth, while
the measured results provide 500 MHz (5.61 − 6.11 GHz) bandwidth. The fractional
bandwidth for the first band is 11.4% and for the second 8.6%.
Figure 3.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the printed folded monopole antenna.
46
The simulated and measured azimuth (y–x) and elevation (z–x) plane radiation pattern
at both frequencies are illustrated in Figs. 3.17 and 3.18. All the measured gain patterns
are illustrated against the simulated patterns in 10 dB/division scaled plots. For each
radiation pattern the cross-polar and the co-polar components are presented together.
From the obtained results it is seen that at the lower frequency (Fig. 3.17) the
omnidirectional pattern provides good polarization discrimination in the azimuth (y–x)
plane. Cross-polar components in the higher frequency (Fig. 3.18) in both planes are due
to the greater flow of current in the horizontal strip of the monopole. The measured peak
realized gain is 2.0 dBi for the first resonance and 5.7 dBi for the second resonance.
Figure 3.16. The printed folded monopole antenna in the anechoic chamber.
47
Figure 3.17. Measured and simulated radiation patterns at 2.45 GHz.
48
Figure 3.18. Measured and simulated radiation patterns at 5.8 GHz.
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter presented the study of the performance of a printed folded monopole
antenna in the WLAN frequency range which is placed on a conventional rectangular
ground plane. A parametric investigation of key geometrical parameters of the monopole
as well as the effect of each parameter to the general radiation performance of the
49
monopole is reported. The folded monopole is studied also in terms of the ground plane
size. The obtained results showed that the ground plane as an integral part of the antenna
effectively controls the first resonant frequency (impedance matching and frequency
shifting), improving also the total efficiency over the operating frequency range. The
effect of the ground plane on radiation pattern as its size increased is turned to be a more
dipole-like at the E–plane for the first resonance. For the second resonance when the
ground plane size is increased the antenna becomes more directive at θ = 0° direction and
less directive at θ = 180°. The proposed antenna provides good omnidirectional radiation
characteristic at both bands, is low profile, with additional benefit of a large frequency-
ratio range which is easy to control.
50
4. Planar Inverted-F Antennas
P
lanar Inverted-F Antennas [32, 33, 34, 35, 36] are generally used in the portable
devices market due to their low-cost and low profile architecture. They provide
broad band and omnidirectional radiation properties.
This chapter describes the implementation of two Planar Inverted-F antennas (PIFAs)
which can be used for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications in a broad frequency
range. Performance metrics include impedance bandwidth and radiation patterns.
In the first section a dual-band Planar Inverted-F antenna covering the lower and the
upper LTE band is described. The second section introduces a dual PIFA antenna which
is more compact and covers the whole lower LTE band and partially the upper LTE band.
A parametric investigation of key geometrical parameters of both antennas is given as
well as the effect of the ground plane size on the general radiation performance.
4.1 DUAL BAND LTE PIFA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS

A dual band PIFA antenna was designed for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications
to enable broadband functionality at both LTE frequency bands 690 − 960 MHz and
1710 − 2690 MHz. It is required to meet standards specifications of −6 dB S11 and 50%
51
total efficiency or greater across the proposed frequency range. The antenna size is
suitable to integrate in terminal devices for mesh networking applications, automotive
and vehicles and generally for indoor and outdoor assets.
4.1.1 ANTENNA DESIGN

The geometry and coordinate system of the antenna is shown in Fig. 4.1. A
178 mm × 247 mm ground plane consists of a single sided FR-4 substrate (Table 2.1).
The front and the rear part of the PIFA antenna (Fig. 4.1(a), (b)) are printed on FR-4
layers (Table 2.1) with dimensions l = 67 mm (≈ 0.18λ0 with λ0 = 481.15 mm at
623.5 MHz) mm × h = 30 mm (≈ 0.08λ0). The top part of the PIFA antenna consists of a
thin brass layer (Table 2.1) with dimensions l = 67 mm × w=33 mm (≈ 0.09λ0). The PIFA
is fed via a 50 Ω SMA connector through the ground plane to a feeding strip of width
f = 2.7 mm which is located a = 20.5 mm from the left edge of the antenna. The fold-over
metallization lengths for the front and back sections are d = 23 mm and b = 12 mm
respectively. The shorting strip has width (c) of 7.4 mm and is printed on a thin FR-4
layer (thickness = 0.2 mm) it touches the inner part of the FR-4 rear side layer and
connects to the top face of the antenna. The shorting strip is located 20 mm (s) away from
the left edge of the antenna.
In Fig. 4.2 a general view of the manufactured dual band LTE PIFA prototype is
demonstrated. Several fabrication details can be considered as typical for the considered
antenna prototype. The soldering of the top plate with the two vertical FR-4 layers was
52
very crucial as well as the connection of the very thin shorting strip with the brass top
plate and the ground plane was challenging and precise execution was needed.
Figure 4.1. Rear view (a), Front view (b), Left view (c), General view (d), CST simulation model
and the coordinate system (e).
53
Figure 4.2. Manufactured dual band LTE PIFA prototype.
4.1.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY

A parametric study of five key geometrical parameters of the antenna is made. The
position of feeding strip (a) is optimised to obtain the desired resonance bands. From the
S11 (Fig. 4.2) it is seen that moving the feeding strip of the PIFA antenna from the left to
the right side shifts the first resonance upwards and effectively controls the impedance
matching of both bands. The optimised value of the parameter (a) for the proposed
antenna is 19.15 mm.
The operating frequency of the antenna is strongly dependent on its height (h). The
height (h) is varied from 25 mm to 40 mm in 5 mm increments. As the height increases
(Fig. 4.3), the impedance matching at the first resonance improves. For the second and
third resonance as the height increases, the impedance matching deteriorates. The
optimized value of the height (h) for the proposed antenna is 30 mm, providing good
matching for both LTE bands.
54
Figure 4.3. The simulated S11 dependence on the feeding strip position (a) of the PIFA.
Figure 4.4. The simulated S11 dependence on the height (h) of the PIFA.
55
The height (b) of the back folded section is investigated. In Fig. 4.4 simulated results
for the parameter (b) are shown. As the value of the back folded section (b) increases
from 5 mm to 27 mm, the second band shifts downwards with a little effect on the lower
resonance. A proposed value for the PIFA length (b) was chosen to be 12 mm.
The height of the front folded section (d) is also investigated. From the obtained
results (Fig. 4.5) it is clear that the impedance matching of the second resonance is
improved as the parameter (d) is increased. However, the impedance matching of the first
resonance is also strongly dependent on this parameter. The proposed value of the
parameter (d) is 23 mm.
Figure 4.5. The simulated S11 dependence on the length of the rear folded section (b) of the
PIFA.
56
Another way to obtain the desirable frequency bands is to define the position (s) of
the shorting strip. The positon of the shorting strip is varied from the left side (0 mm) of
the antenna to the right side (67 mm). The obtained results clearly show that all resonant
frequencies can be controlled (impedance matching and frequency shifting) by varying
the parameter (s). By considering the results of Fig. 4.6 the best value of the length (s) is
20 mm.
Figure 4.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the length of the front folded section (d).
57
Figure4.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the shorting strip position (s) of the PIFA.
4.1.3 GROUND PLANE INVESTIGATION

The position of the PIFA antenna on the ground plane (Fig. 4.7) as well as the ground
plane size, has a significant influence on the antenna performance [72]. A parametric
study of the PIFA position on the ground plane demonstrates that the optimum position
is the bottom left corner of the ground plane. For the y-axis the antenna is moved from
the bottom left corner (0 mm) of the ground plane to the top right corner (111 mm) with
a step size of 37 mm. For the x-axis the antenna is moved from the bottom left corner
(0 mm) to the bottom left corner (210 mm) with a step of 70 mm.
58
Figure 4.8. The parameters X and Y which define the position of the PIFA antenna.
Figs. 4.9 and 4.10 show that the position of the PIFA along the edge greatly influences
the impedance matching and the bandwidth of the lower resonances of the antenna. The
position of the PIFA also effects the radiation pattern and the gain (Fig. 4.11). This can
be explained by the finite ground plane having distinct characteristic modes depending
on its size and the frequency [73]. The surface current of the ground plane for three
different positions of the PIFA at 825 MHz is simulated using CST MWS and is presented
in Fig. 4.8. When the PIFA is positioned in the bottom right corner of the ground plane a
strong current distribution across the right side of the ground plane and especially at the
two corners is excited. The ground plane excitation modes is turned to be a more dipole-
like. On the other hand, when the PIFA is positioned in the middle of the bottom side and
the right side of the ground plane the current distribution is weak without significant
59
contribution to the antenna radiation performance. In that case, the ground plane
excitation modes is more monopole-like.
Figure 4.9. Ground plane current distribution at 825 MHz for three different position of the
PIFA.
Figure 4.10. Simulated S11 when moving the antenna along y-axis.
60
Figure 4.11. Simulated S11 when moving the antenna along x-axis.
A parametric study of the ground plane size was made and simulations were carried
out for ground plane sizes of 133 × 178 mm2 to 237 × 346 mm2. From the graph (Fig. 4.13)
it is clearly visible that the antenna is not heavily dependent on the ground plane size due
its electrical large size (< 0.84λ0 at 825 MHz) and does not significantly affect the three
resonances.
Fig. 4.14 shows a plot of the simulated total efficiency (%) for various ground plane
sizes. From the obtained results it is understood that the total efficiency of the antenna
does not change significantly as the ground plane size varies.
61
Figure 4.12. Radiation patterns for different positions of the PIFA on the ground plane.
62
Figure 4.13. The simulated S11 dependence on the size of the ground plane.
Figure 4.14. Simulated Total Efficiency for various ground plane sizes.
63
Figure 4.15. Current Distribution at 867, 1917 and 2652 MHz.
The surface current distribution at three frequencies is shown in Fig. 4.15. For the first
resonant frequency it is evident that the main part of the antenna which resonates is the
front folded part of PIFA and partially the back folded one. For the second and the third
resonance the back folded part of PIFA contributes more to the radiation of the antenna.
64
From the top view it is particularly interesting be stated that the ground plane is an integral
part of the antenna and contributes as a main part of the radiator at the three frequencies.
4.1.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS

The measured and simulated S11 for the PIFA antenna placed on the 178 × 247 mm2
ground plane are in good agreement as seen in Fig. 4.14. The S11 was less than −10 dB
over the range 688.5 − 1009.8 MHz, 1736.3 − 2121.5 MHz and 2459 − 2698 MHz giving
fractional bandwidths of 40.6%, 20.87% and 9.31%, respectively. The frequency range
for S11 less than −6 dB is 623.5 − 1111.8 MHz and 1621.74 − 3007.04 MHz, (62% and
75%, respectively).
The simulated total efficiency at 825 MHz and 2200 MHz is 85% and 97%
respectively. The maximum value is 98% at 1915.4 MHz (Fig. 4.15).
Figure 4.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the PIFA antenna.
65
Figure 4.16. The simulated total and radiation efficiency.
In Figs. 4.16 and 4.17 the simulated and measured radiation patterns for (x–y) azimuth
and (z–y), (z–x) elevation planes at 825 MHz and 2200 MHz are illustrated.
In the three planes at 825 MHz it is observed that the phi (φ) component provides
good omnidirectional characteristics, which is also observed at the azimuth (x–y) plane
of 2200 MHz for the theta (θ) component. Moreover, at 825 MHz in the elevation (z–y)
plane good discrimination between the two components is provided.
The measured maximum gain for the lower and upper band is 4.5 dBi and 6.4 dBi,
respectively. The measured gain, averaged over the principle plane cuts (x–y, z–y and
z–x) was −1.1, −1.2 and −2.1 dBi for 825 MHz and −1.4, −1.7 and −1.6 dBi for
2200 MHz.
66
Figure 4.17. Measured and simulated (a) azimuth (x-y), (b) elevations (z-y) and (c) (z-x) plane
patterns at 825 MHz.
67
68
4.2 DUAL LTE PIFA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS

A Dual Planar Inverted-F-Antenna [32, 33, 34, 35, 36] placed on a 130 mm × 70 mm
ground plane which is a typical M2M device PCB size. The antenna was designed with
smaller size compared to the antenna of the first section and covers the lower LTE band
(690 – 960 MHz) and partially the upper LTE band (1670 – 2067 MHz). The antenna is
suitable for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications.
4.2.1 ANTENNA DESIGN

As a first step of the dual LTE PIFA antenna implementation is a single PIFA which
resonates and provide one resonance. A long arm PIFA antenna resonates at lower
frequency f1 as well as a short arm PIFA resonates at higher frequency f2 as it shown in
Figure 4.19. A novel forked feed is introduced to combine the two PIFAs in the same
geometry sharing the same feed, providing the dual band operation.
The antenna structure and coordinate system is depicted in Fig. 4.20. The radiating
element is located on a FR-4 (Table 2.1) rectangular ground plane with dimensions
13 × 70 × 1.5 mm3. The sides of the prototyped antenna are printed on thin FR-4 layers
of thickness 0.2 mm with dimensions 70 mm (≈ 0.15λ0 with λ0 = 455.9 mm at
658 MHz) ×19 mm (≈ 0.041λ0). The top part of the antenna consists of two thin copper
layers (thickness = 0.15 mm). The top left (59.61 mm × 11 mm) and the top right
(9.92 mm × 11 mm) part have a fold-over segments of length a = 9.7 mm and b = 18.3 mm
respectively. The antenna comprises two PIFAs sharing the same feed. A small gap
(0.2 mm) separating the two PIFAs (Fig. 4.21). The shorting strip of each PIFA has a
69
width of 0.2 mm. The antenna is fed via a 50 Ω SMA connector through the ground plane
to a 5.1 mm wide feeding strip, forked at the top with a small gap (0.2 mm) to separate
the two feeds.
Figure 4.19. Schematic illustration of dual LTE PIFA design evolution.
70
Figure 4.20. Antenna Model and the coordinate system.
Figure 4.21. Antenna geometry and parameters.
71
Figure 4.22. Dual PIFA LTE Antenna prototype.
4.2.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY

The dependence of the lower resonance on the height (a) of the left folded part was
investigated for four different values. It is apparent that the matching and first resonant
frequency is heavily dependent on this parameter as well as some effects on the second
resonance. The optimum value of this parameter (a) is 9.7 mm.
The upper resonance is strongly dependent on the height (b) of the right folded section.
The height (b) is varied from 16 mm to 19 mm. From the obtained result (Fig. 4.24) it is
evident that the second resonant frequency can be controlled (impedance matching and
frequency shifting) by varying the parameter b. The proposed value of the folded length
(b) is 18.3 mm.
72
Figure 4.23. Simulated S11 variation for different values of (a).
Figure 4.24. Simulated S11 variation for different values of (b).
73
The position (c) of the feed and the shorting point can determine the electrical length
of both PIFAs. As the feed and shorting point moved from the right side (5.97 mm) of the
antenna to the centre (35 mm) both resonances are shifted. The frequency ratio Fr = fu/fl
between the upper and the lower resonance continuously increases from 1.43 to 2.99 as
the value of (c) changes from 35 mm to 5.97 mm. The proposed value of the parameter
(c) is 9.97 mm.
Figure 4.25. Simulated S11 variations for different values of (c).
Finally, the last key parameter which is studied for this antenna is the width (w) of the
top part of the two PIFAs. From the obtained results it is clear that the second resonance
is effectively controlled and shifted downwards as the parameter (w) increased from 5 mm
74
to 14 mm. The width (w) has a strong impact and improves the impedance matching of
the first resonant frequency. The proposed value of (w) is 11 mm.
Figure 4.26. Simulated S11 variations for different values of (w).
The current distribution at both frequencies is shown in Fig. 4.27. For the first resonant
frequency (Fig. 4.27(a)) the main part of the antenna which resonates is the longest arm
PIFA. The electrical length of the longest PIFA is almost 90 mm which is almost a quarter
wavelength at 760 MHz (λ0/4 = 98.6 mm). For the second resonance (Fig. 4.27(b)) the
main current distribution comes from the shorter arm PIFA of the antenna. The length of
the shortest PIFA is almost 46 mm which is slightly over a quarter wavelength at
1860 MHz (λ0/4 ≈ 40.3 mm).
75
(a) (b)
Figure 4.27. The current distribution at (a) 760 MHz and (b) 1860 MHz.
4.2.3 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS

In Fig. 4.28 the measured and simulated S11 show good agreement. The antenna
operates at 760 MHz with a −10 dB and −6 dB impedance bandwidth of 208 MHz
(682 – 890 MHz) and 306 MHz (658 – 964 MHz) respectively for the lower band and at
1860 MHz with a −10 dB and −6 dB impedance bandwidth of 220 MHz
(1750 – 1970 MHz) and 396 MHz (1671 – 2067 MHz) respectively for the upper band.
The simulated results provide a −10 dB and −6 dB impedance bandwidth of 162 MHz
(711 – 873 MHz) and 281 MHz (680 – 961 MHz) at the centre frequency of 765 MHz for
the first band and a −10 dB and −6 dB impedance bandwidth of 192 MHz
(1797 – 1989 MHz) and 341 MHz (1725 – 2066 MHz) at the centre frequency of
1893 MHz for the second band.
76
Figure 4.28. Simulated and measured S11 for the PIFA antenna.
In Fig. 4.30 the measured and the simulated total efficiency and realized gain are
given. There is a reasonable agreement between the simulated and measured results. The
total efficiency and the realized gain of the antenna were measured by Microwave Vision
Group (MVG) in StarLab 0.6 – 18 GHz and are listed in Table 4.1. This chamber uses the
nearfield measurement technique to calculate the equivalent far-field data of the AUT.
The antenna under test is positioned in the centre of a circular ‘arch’ which contains 15
separate measurement probes spaced equally apart as can be seen in Fig. 4.29. The
antenna is rotated horizontally through 360° and the combination of this rotation and the
array of probes allows a full 3D scan of the antenna to be carried out, allowing full 3D
radiation patterns to be measured, plotted and analysed. Efficiency, gain and directivity
77
information can be transformed and calculated from the far-field radiation pattern data
[74].
Figure 4.29. StarLab spherical coordinate system [74].
Figure 4.30. Measured and simulated total efficiency and realized gain.
78
Table 4.1. Measured and Simulated Total Efficiency and Realized Gain.
Total Efficiency (%) Realized Gain (dBi)
Frequency (MHz) Simulated Measured Simulated Measured
690 78.2 64.8 1.2 1.9
760 98.5 83.6 2.5 3.6
960 73.8 58 1.5 0.8
1710 68.8 65.2 4.4 3.5
1860 96.9 79.8 5.4 4.1
The radiation patterns of the three plane cuts (x–y, z–x and z–y) for 760 MHz and
1860 MHz are shown in Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 respectively. All the measured patterns are
illustrated against the simulated patterns in 10 dB/division scaled plots.
It is observed that the theta (θ) component provides good omnidirectional
characteristics in the (x–y) plane for both frequencies, which is also observed in the
(z–y) plane for 760 MHz for the phi (φ) component.
Figure 4.31. Measured and Simulated Peak Directivity.
79
80
81
4.3 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter presented the study of the performance of two Planar Inverted-F antennas
on rectangular ground planes in the LTE frequency range respectively. A parametric
investigation of key geometrical parameters of the two antennas are reported.
The first PIFA antenna is studied in terms of the ground plane size and positioning.
The obtained results show that the position of the PIFA on the ground plane effectively
controls both resonant frequencies (impedance matching and frequency shifting). The S11
shows stronger dependence on the ground plane size than the radiation properties and the
total efficiency does not change significantly.
The second PIFA antenna which is smaller and mounted on a typical device size
ground plane covers the lower LTE band and partially the upper. The proposed antenna
has been optimised with good omnidirectional radiation characteristic at both bands, high
efficiency and gain, is low profile, with additional benefit of a large frequency-ratio range
fu/fl = 2.44 which is easy to control.
82
5. Meander Line Monopole Antenna
M eander line monopole antennas [21 22, 23, 24] are mainly used in compact and
portable smart devices. With this state of the art technology, antenna designers
are able to integrate compact meander line structures in small envelopes achieving
broadband performance, providing also high gain and efficiency for its compact size.
This chapter proposes a geometry based on a folded meander line structure which is
suitable for automated meter reading (AMR) systems [75]. The Electronic
Communication Committee (ECC) allocates narrowband channels in the 410 – 470 MHz
range [76]. CDMA and more recently eLTE operate in this band with channel bandwidths
in the region of ~1 − 5 MHz [77, 78]. Performance metrics include impedance bandwidth,
radiation patterns and total efficiency.
In this section a tuneable folded meander-line monopole antenna covering the lower
UHF band (412 – 475 MHz) is studied. The antenna configuration is optimized for
impedance matching. The effect of the ground plane size on the general radiation
properties is analysed. Finally, the installed performance of the proposed antenna is
investigated with the antenna embedded in a plastic housing and placed on a concrete
wall.
83
5.1 MEANDERED ANTENNA FOR M2M APPLICATIONS

The antenna is designed for integration into a compact smart meter device for cellular
communications technologies [79] which provides a tuneable functionality over the
frequency range of 412 – 475 MHz. According to specifications for 450 MHz meter
reading system applications [80], there is a requirement for an omnidirectional antenna
and a S11 of better than −6 dB over the proposed frequency range with narrow channel
bandwidths and maximum EIRP of +27 dBm. Designing a small-size, high-efficiency,
broadband antenna, is a considerable challenge for the antenna designer.
5.2 ANTENNA CONFIGURATION

The initial implementation idea which leads to the final meander line design is a
folded monopole antenna as it shown in Fig. 5.1. The position of the feeding and the
shorting strips is changed to the back side of the FR4 substrate allows more available
space to confine the electrical length (meander line) into a compact physical size and to
move to lower frequencies (Fig. 5.2).
Meandered Monopole Antenna
Folded Monopole Antenna
Figure 5.1. Illustration of the antenna designed steps.
84
Figure 5.2. Simulated S11 for the two different antenna models.
The antenna geometry, shown in Fig. 5.3, is printed on double-sided FR-4 substrate
(Table 2.1). The antenna of height h = 15 mm ≈ 0.02λ0 (λ0 = 724.5 mm at 414 MHz) and
length l = 42.3 mm ≈ 0.058λ0 is located on the corner of a 130 mm × 70 mm ground plane
which represents a typical device PCB. The feeding and shorting strips (width = 0.5 mm
and 0.7 mm respectively) are located on the rear side of the substrate and connected to
the meander line (width = 0.5 mm) on the front side using a via and a slider connector.
The separation between the horizontal strips a1, a2 and a3 is 0.85 mm. The gap
between the vertical strips b1, b2 and b3 is 0.83 mm. The lower horizontal strips c1 and c2
have a separation of 0.5 mm and between c2 and c3 the separation is 0.68 mm. The gap
between the two vertical strips d1 and d2 is 0.8 mm. The separation between the strips is
optimised to obtain the best impedance matching for the desired frequency.
85
The moveable U-shaped aluminium via-slider is mounted through a slot in the
substrate, connecting the two sides of the PCB. The start and end positions of the via-
slider are at 0 mm ≤ P ≤ 33.5 mm (Fig. 5.3). The monopole antenna is fed using a 50 Ω
microstrip line (width = 1.3 mm) with a SMA connector below the ground plane.
Figure 5.3. Antenna geometry and the coordinate system.
86
5.3 MATCHING STUB

To improve the impedance matching of the antenna, a matching stub is added and
shorted to the ground plane as shown in Fig 5.4 (a) and also shifts downwards the resonant
frequency by introducing additional capacitance and reducing the real impedance towards
50 Ω (Fig. 5.4 (b)). The matching stub consists of two strips (width = 0.5 mm) with
horizontal and vertical length 10 mm and 2.5 mm, respectively.
Figure 5.4. (a) Improved impedance matching and control of frequency, (b) Smith chart.
87
5.4 GROUND PLANE SIZE

The ground plane size was found not to have significant influence on the antenna
performance. A parametric study of the ground plane size was made and simulations were
carried out for ground plane sizes of 40 × 100 mm2 to 170 × 230 mm2. Fig. 5.5 shows a
plot of the S11 for different ground plane sizes. From the graph it is clear that the ground
plane size does not significantly affect the resonant frequency and the impedance
matching of the antenna. For the given ground plane sizes the resonant frequency does
not change more than 4 MHz.
Figure 5.5. Simulated S11 dependence on the ground plane size.
88
5.5 MEASURED AND SIMULATED RESULTS

In Fig. 5.6 the measured and simulated S11 for 5 different tuning positions of the via-
slider connector P, which controls the resonant frequency are shown. The measured
−10 dB and −6 dB tuneable impedance bandwidth, is 412.4 – 474.8 MHz
(BW = 62.4 MHz) and 71.6 MHz (409.5 – 481.1 MHz) respectively. The measured −6 dB
and −10 dB bandwidths at 414 MHz (λ0 ~ 724.5 mm) are ~8 MHz and ~3 MHz
respectively.
The position of the via-slider for resonance at 450 MHz is P = 17 mm with a −10 dB
impedance bandwidth of 7.2 MHz (446.5 – 453.7 MHz) and a −6 dB impedance
bandwidth of 12.6 MHz (444.1 – 456.7 MHz).
The tuneability of the proposed antenna could be also achieved with diodes or
varactors. However, the installation of diodes and varactors in a limited available space
with the requirement of bias and DC suppliers is a constraint for implementation.
The meander-line monopole is the dominant part of the antenna which contributes and
resonates at 450 MHz. The current distribution is shown in Fig. 5.7. The two open
circuited lines after the slider connector are an integral part of the antenna
reconfigurability and have been included in all simulations and measurements including
total efficiency. If the open circuited strips are cut after tuning the antenna, this would
cause a slight upward shift in frequency.
The total efficiency was simulated and measured and is illustrated in Fig. 5.8 for three
different frequencies and indicates 21% total measured efficiency at 420 MHz, 24% at
89
450 MHz and 21.7% at 470 MHz. It is observed that there is a reasonable agreement
between the simulated and measured results.
In an attempt to calculate the maximum theoretical total efficiency of the proposed
antenna and to define how close is the measured values to the fundamental limitations, a
mathematical explanation is described.
Harrington [7] defined the natural gain limit for a practical antenna: Gmax =(ka)2 +(ka).
In [81] the maximum directivity of an antenna appointed with the following reasonable
formula: Dmax =(ka)2 +3. The relation between the antenna gain and directivity is
expressed through the following formula:
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜂 × 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⁄𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑘𝑎)2 + 𝑘𝑎 ⁄(𝑘𝑎)2 + 3 (5.1)
Based on the previous expression, the maximum total efficiency is equal to:
𝜂 𝑇 = (1 − |𝛤|2 ) × 𝜂 = (1 − |𝛤|2 ) × [(𝑘𝑎)2 + 𝑘𝑎⁄(𝑘𝑎)2 + 3], (5.2)
where k is the wave number in free space, k = 2π/λ and a is the radius of the minimum
sphere that encloses the antenna. The theoretical and measured total efficiency values of
the antenna are listed in Table 5.1. The radius a of the proposed antenna’s radiansphere
was calculated at 74.2 mm which is 0.11λ0 of the respective wavelength λ0 ≈ 667 mm at
450 MHz. The wavenumber k at 450 MHz is 0.0094 and ka = 0.0094 × 74.2 ≈ 0.69. The
theoretical maximum total efficiency is calculated through the formula (5.2):
ηT =(1-|Γ|2 )× [(ka)2 +ka⁄(ka)2 +3]=(1-|Γ|2 )×0.335=0.98×33.5=0.328≈32.8%.
As can been seen from the acquired results in Table 5.1 the measured total efficiency
is very close to the theoretical maximum values, which shows that the proposed antenna
is quite efficient compared to its size and to the operating frequency range.
90
Table 5.1. Comparison of theoretical and measured total efficiency.

Total Efficiency (%) 420 MHz 450 MHz 470 MHz
Theoretical 28 32.8 30
Measured 21 24 21.7
Figure 5.6. Simulated and measured S11.
In Figs. 5.10 to 5.12 the measured and simulated azimuth (x–z) and elevation (x–y)
and (y–z) plane radiation patterns at 450 MHz are illustrated. In Fig. 5.11 it is seen that
the omnidirectional pattern provides good polarization discrimination in the elevation
(x–y) plane. The maximum measured gain is −6.1 dBi. There is good agreement between
the measured and the simulated results. The radiation patterns are stable across the
tuneable band.
91
Figure 5.7. Current distribution at 450 MHz.
Figure 5.8. Total measured and simulated efficiency of the antenna at 420, 450 and 470 MHz.
92
Y
Z
Θ Φ
X
Figure 5.9. The antenna inside the anechoic chamber.
Figure 5.10. Azimuth radiation patterns in the xz-plane at 450 MHz.
93
Figure 5.11. Elevation radiation patterns in the xy-plane at 450 MHz.
Figure 5.12. Elevation radiation patterns in the yz-plane at 450 MHz.
94
5.6 INSTALLED PERFORMANCE

To investigate the installed performance of the proposed antenna, a simulation model
is created (Fig. 5.13) with the antenna in a Plexiglas housing (εr = 3.6, tanδ = 0.001 and
thickness = 3 mm) with outer dimensions 81 × 266 × 172 mm3 (H × L × W) and placed
on a concrete wall (εr = 5.8 at 450 MHz, thickness = 200 mm). Two scenarios were
evaluated, with the antenna ground plane oriented parallel and perpendicular to the wall
surface as shown in the Fig. 5.13.
Figs. 5.14 and 5.15 show the measured and simulated S11 for the two different
orientations. From inspection of the results, the resonant frequency shifts downwards due
to the wall permittivity loading and this becomes more acute when the monopole is closer
to the wall surface (parallel case).
Figure 5.13. The simulation model with ground plane (a) parallel to the wall and (b)
perpendicular to the wall.
95
The distance between the edge of the ground plane and the wall for the parallel and
perpendicular case was respectively 13.1 mm and 3.5 mm. For the parallel case the
resonant frequency shifted downwards by 8 MHz for simulation and by 9 MHz measured.
For the perpendicular case the frequency shifted downwards by 7 MHz for simulation and
by 7.5 MHz for the measured case.
To mitigate the wall proximity loading detuning effects, the slider was adjusted to
tune the antenna back to 450 MHz. This also improved the total efficiency for both cases.
The simulated total efficiency for the parallel case before retuning was 17.6% and after
retuning was 22.9%. For the perpendicular case the simulated total efficiency before
retuning was 14.5% and after was 19.7%. In both cases some energy is absorbed by the
concrete wall. This absorption is greater for the perpendicular case where the total
efficiency is 3.2 percentage points less than for the parallel case. For both cases the via-
slider was re-adjusted to tune the resonant frequency to 450 MHz. The via-slider positions
were P = 21.3 mm and P = 20.3 mm for the parallel and perpendicular cases respectively.
96
Figure 5.14. Simulated and measured S11 for the parallel case.
Figure 5.15. Simulated and measured S11 for the perpendicular case.
97
5.7 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter a study of a meander-line folded monopole antenna for emerging
applications in smart metering at 450 MHz was presented. The proposed compact antenna
was studied in terms of the ground plane size, the matching stub role and the via-slider
connector with respect to the monopole performance. The results show that the S11
characteristic is not heavily dependent on the ground plane size. The frequency is shifted
downwards by 23 MHz with a significant impedance matching improvement by adding a
matching stub into the antenna geometry. The electrical length of the monopole is
increased and controlled by introducing a via-slider which connects the sides of the PCB.
The rear feeding and grounding position allows more freedom of available space for the
meander-line and confines the electrical length into a compact physical size. The antenna
provides 21% to 24% measured total-efficiency across the tuneable bandwidth.
The packaged antenna performed well despite material loading and when installed on
a concrete wall. The via-slider tuneable position can re-adjusted to tune the resonant
frequency of the monopole to 450 MHz.
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7. VHF & UHF Meandered Monopole Antenna
6. VHF & UHF Meandered Monopole

Antenna
I ntelligent metering systems for the measurement of water, gas, heat and electricity
consumption enable modern smart cities. These smart metering applications
require a long range link between the sensor grid nodes and the data aggregators,
overcoming building penetration losses. The demand for harmonised frequency bands for
several existing and new applications led the Electronic Communication Committee
(ECC) [82] to reconsider the use of the 169 MHz and 433 MHz bands. The Wireless
Metering Bus (WM-Bus) specification, introduced a narrow band channel of 75 kHz with
a maximum EIRP of +27 dBm (+500 mW) [83] providing long range solutions.
The size of a smart metering device is typically around 150 × 150 mm2 with a volume
which must house the electronic components, battery and the integrated antenna. Meander
line structures [21, 22, 23, 24] due to their low compact size are suitable for integration
in small envelopes achieving broadband performance with omnidirectional
characteristics.
In this chapter a dual-band folded meander line monopole antenna for Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) [84] and Wireless-M-Bus applications operating in the
99
VHF and lower UHF bands is presented. Performance measures include impedance
bandwidth, radiation patterns, total and radiation efficiency.
6.1 VHF & UHF MEANDERED MONOPOLE ANTENNA

A dual-band printed antenna is designed for integration in smart meter devices for
Wireless M-Bus and M2M applications operating at 169 MHz and 433 MHz. The antenna
configuration is optimized for impedance matching at both frequencies. A parametric
investigation of key geometrical parameters is reported. The proposed antenna provides
omnidirectional radiation characteristics and excellent measured total efficiency.
6.2 ANTENNA CONFIGURATION

The basic procedure steps for designing a novel dual-band miniaturized antenna based
on a meander line topology is presented in Fig. 6.1. As the first step, a basic folded
monopole (Fig. 6.1 (a)) is employed to design the antenna. The antenna resonates at
around 1100 MHz with poor impedance matching (Fig. 6.2 blue line). The two horizontal
strips (feeding and shorting) are meander (Fig. 6.1 (b)) in order to introduce more
electrical length to the antenna geometry shifting the resonant frequency downward by
500 MHz (Fig. 6.2 red line). The final design step is defined with the shorting strip not
be shorted anymore, but with an open end and positioning to the back side of the substrate
(Fig. 6.1 (c)) providing better isolation from the feeding strip and increasing the electrical
length of the antenna. The last antenna is dual band (Fig. 6.2 black line) with the lowest
resonant be shifted downwards more than 300 MHz from the previous one.
100
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.1. Schematic illustration of the three basic design models.
Figure 6.2. Simulated S11 for the three basic design models.
101
The antenna (Fig. 6.3) is printed on double-sided FR4 substrate, (Tabled 2.1) with
dimension of 150 mm × 150 mm ≈ (0.085λ0, λ0 = 1775.15 mm at 169 MHz) representing
the meter motherboard. The meandered monopole of height h = 40.23 mm (≈ 0.02λ0) and
length l = 45.02 mm (≈ 0.025λ0) is located on the corner of the ground plane. The antenna
is fed with an SMA connector through a 50 Ω microstrip line (width = 2.94 mm) which
is stepped to a short section (length = 0.85 mm and width = 0.35 mm) which connects to
the antenna through via 1. The rear meander line (width = 0.35 mm) with uniform spacing
runs up the substrate to via 2 which connects to an extended meander line section located
at the front with an 4.25 mm open end which terminates 0.31 mm away from the ground
plane level. The introduction of a shunt lumped inductor (L = 56 nH, 0.2 Ω) 20.15 mm
away from via 1 improves the matching at both frequencies as shown in Fig. 6.4.
102
Figure 6.3. Folded meander line monopole antenna and coordinate system.
103
Figure 6.4. Improved impedance matching and control of frequency.
Practically, the presence of lumped elements (inductors/capacitors) introduce
additional losses to antenna, but the main advantage of such designs is to improve
impedance matching (Fig. 6.4), reducing the missmatch losses and thus, to increase the
total efficiency of the antenna system. Looking at the S11 results in Fig. 6.4 it becomes
evident that the introduction of an inductor reduce the missmatch losses from 0.75 dB to
0.07 dB for the first resonance and from 0.28 dB to 0.01 dB for the second one.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5. Manufactured meandered monopole prototype (a) Front View, (b) Rear View.
104
6.3 PARAMETRIC INVESTIGATION

A parametric investigation of the variation of S11 with respect to three geometric
parameters of the meander line monopole shown in Fig. 6.1 is made.
The dual band operation of the monopole is strongly dependence on the height (r) of
the rear meandered section, which was varied from 34 mm to 58 mm. The results indicate
(Fig. 6.6) that as the height (r) is increased the first resonant frequency is shifted upwards
while the second resonance is shifted downwards. From the current distribution
Fig. 6.9(b) it can be seen that the rear meandered section mainly determinates the upper
resonance. By selecting the value of r = 38.3 mm both resonances can be tune to the
desired values.
Figure 6.6. The simulated S11 dependence on the height r of the back meander line section.
105
The height (f) of the front meander line section of the monopole was found to have a
significant influence on the frequency-ratio range of the antenna. This height was varied
from 30 mm to 48 mm. The simulations were made with uniform separation between the
meander line strips. From the S11 (Fig. 6.7) it is clearly visible that increasing the value
(f) shifts the first resonance downwards with little effect on the upper resonance. The
frequency-ratio between the upper and the lower resonance Fr = fu/fl continuously
increases from 1.61 to 3.11 as the value of (f) changes from 30 mm to 48 mm.
Figure 6.7. The simulated S11 dependence on the height f of the front meander line section.
The dependence of the first resonance on the height (f1) of the last two meander lines
on the front of the monopole was investigated. The results are shown in Fig. 6.8. When
the height (f1) of the two last meander line strips is increased from 10 mm to 17.7 mm the
106
first resonance is shifted from 203 MHz to 144.5 MHz with little effect on the impedance
matching. The second resonant frequency is not heavily dependent on from the height
(f1). This is confirmed by the current distribution (Fig. 6.9(b)) where the four last meander
line strips do not carry a strong current. The proposed value is f1 = 13.34 mm.
Figure 6.8. The simulated S11 dependence on the height f1 of the last front four meander line
strips.
The performance of the antenna is based the fundamental frequency at which the
structure resonates and radiates. That fundamental frequency is related to the antenna’s
resonant length which is caused by current paths (Fig. 6.9) within the structure. For the
proposed antenna the lower rear side meandered section and the upper front side
meandered sections determine the upper resonance (Fig. 6.9(b)) and the combined line
sections provide the lower resonance (Fig. 6.9(a)). In both resonant frequencies the
107
ground plane excites strong currents at the horizontal and the vertical side which have
same phase with the currents of the monopole. In the proposed antenna the ground plane
is an integral part and reinforces and contributes to the radiation performance. It should
be noted that in the upper resonance (Fig. 6.9 (b)) the current reversed the direction after
a full wavelength along the rear side meandered section.
Figure 6.9. The current distribution of the antenna in (a) 169 MHz and (b) 433 MHz.
108
Placing meander line sections on opposite sides of the PCB provides isolation,
miniaturization and greater freedom in controlling the frequency ratio. The frequency
ratio fu/fl of 2.56 is tuned and optimized by non-uniformity in the front meander line
section as well as some coupling of the front and back meander lines.
6.4 SIMULATED AND MEASURED RESULTS

In Fig. 6.10 the measured and simulated S11 is presented providing good agreement.
The measured −6 dB and −10 dB impedance bandwidth was 5.8 MHz
(165.7 − 171.5 MHz) and 3.3 MHz (167 − 170.3 MHz) respectively at 169 MHz and
53.9 MHz (417.5 − 471.4 MHz) and 26.4 MHz (424.7 − 451.1 MHz) at 433 MHz. The
fractional bandwidths in −6 dB is 3.4% for the first resonance and 12.4% for the second,
while the fractional bandwidths in −10 dB is 1.95% for the first resonant frequency and
6.1% for the second.
The simulated −6 dB and −10 dB impedance bandwidth was 5.7 MHz
(164.9 − 170.6 MHz) and 3.1 MHz (166.2 − 169.3 MHz) at 169 MHz and 30.4 MHz
(419.1 − 449.5 MHz) and 17.2 MHz (425.1 − 442.3 MHz) at 433 MHz.
109
Figure 6.10. Simulated and measured S11.
Efficiency measurements are performed using the Wheeler cap method [85] (Fig 6.11)
using a metallic box of 610 × 610 × 360 mm3. The measured radiation and total efficiency
for the first resonance is 20.4%. For the second resonance the measured radiation and
total efficiency is 50% and 49.4% respectively. These results are in good agreement with
simulation which indicate a radiation and total efficiency of 18.3% and 17.8% at 169 MHz
and 48.2% and 47.9% at 433 MHz respectively.
In Figs. 6.12 and 6.13 the measured and simulated azimuth (x–y) and elevation (x–z)
plane radiation patterns at 433 MHz are illustrated. The maximum measured gain is
4.6 dBi. There is a good agreement between measurement and simulation. The maximum
simulated realized gain at 169 MHz is −1.8 dBi. In AHFR Lab there is no suitable SGH
available to test and measure the radiation patterns at 169 MHz.
110
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.11. Wheeler Cap measurement setup (a) without cap, (b) with cap.
111
Figure 6.12. Azimuth radiation patterns in the xy-plane at 433 MHz.
Figure 6.13. Elevation radiation patterns in the xz-plane at 433 MHz.
112
6.5 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter a dual band folded meander line monopole antenna for emerging smart
metering and M2M applications at 169 and 433 MHz is presented. Three key geometrical
parameters of the proposed electrically small antenna were studied as well as the effect
to the frequency ratio Fr = fu/fl is reported. The introducing of a shunt lumped inductor
was found to significantly improve the impedance matching of both resonant frequencies.
The antenna provides good omnidirectional radiation characteristic at 433 MHz and more
than 20% and 49% measured total efficiency at 169 MHz and 433 MHz respectively. The
measured gain at 433 MHz is 4.6 dBi and the simulated gain at 169 MHz is −1.8 dBi. The
antenna is low cost and easy fabricated with additional benefit of a large easy controlled
frequency-ratio range.
113
7. Conclusions and Future Work

7.1 CONCLUSIONS
A
number of small novel antenna designs have been researched, developed and are
described in this thesis. Parametric studies were carried out on folded and
meander line monopoles and planar inverted-F antennas. The proposed geometries are
optimised and designed to provide sufficient bandwidth, good impedance matching,
omnidirectional radiation characteristics with high gain and efficiency, maintaining
compact size.
The main contributions of this dissertation are the following:
A folded and shorted printed monopole antenna has been proposed. A compact low
profile structure has been designed based on these principles offering an easy controlled
large frequency-ratio range and stable broad band omnidirectional radiation
characteristics. Moreover, this approach provides a good polarization purity between
horizontal and vertical polarized signals which is essential for maintaining the good link
between the receiver and the transmitters.
Two Planar Inverted-F structures have been designed operating broad band, with high
gain and efficiency. The effects of their key dimensional parameters have been
114
parametrically studied. Moreover, the antenna performance for different locations on the
ground plane and for various dimensions of ground plane layout have been investigated
accordingly. A size reduction of almost 50% was achieved when two PIFAs combined in
one antenna share the same feed. The study has demonstrated a controllable large
frequency-ratio range when the feeding and shorting point change position.
By seeking more compact solutions for low frequencies, two novel meander line
folded monopole antennas were designed. Miniaturization has been provided by double
sided PCB printed technique allowing integrating more electrical length into a compact
physical size and isolating the two printed sides. Matching stub structures have been
applied in order to improve the impedance matching. A via slider connector has been used
to connect the two sides of the PCB, enabling tuneability of the impedance matching
across a large frequency range and offering stable omnidiarectionality over the tuneable
range. The strong dependence of the frequency-ratio range on the meander line separation
was investigated in depth.
115
7.2 FUTURE WORK
D uring the development and test phase of this dissertation some research topics
which are worth further investigation have been identified and are outlined here.
Further investigation could be made in topics related with installed performance of
various antennas when they are integrated in actual devices. When an antenna is
integrated in housing, the impedance bandwidth was slightly increased as well as the
resonant frequency was shifted downwards [86]. The walls of the enclosure are
effectively decreasing the gain and the efficiency of the installed antenna. Future work
could focus on investigating the positioning of an antenna inside an enclosure in order to
find the optimum position and orientation.
Another interesting topic for extensive investigation is the packaging impact to an
integrated antenna in an actual device which contains numerous metal structures that
could potentially interfere its performance. Metal structures near antennas can change
input impedances and phase of received signals. Design guidelines to eliminate the
electromagnetic interference (EMI) emitted from the RF components and circuits could
be developed [87, 88]. To eliminate the electromagnetic emissions and keep EMI to a
minimum it would be very important to arrange the layout of ground planes to minimize
EMI [89, 90].
Further development could be done on ground planes which have been found to affect
the general performance of antennas [91, 92, 93]. The position and the orientation of the
antenna on the ground plane can dramatically affect the general performance [94]. Further
research could be devoted to the extensive investigation of different ground plane shapes.
116
Two compact solutions suitable for integration into packaging were proposed in this
thesis for smart metering applications. The double sided PCB printed meandered shape
and the matching stub technique were the two techniques for miniaturization providing
isolation between the meander line sections and improving the impedance matching
across the operating frequency range. A further study on broad-banding meander line
antennas should be made as well as an investigation on providing more than 2 bands
[95, 96].
A compact VHF antenna is proposed suitable for integration into packaging. Test and
measurements of the radiation patterns at 169 MHz were not carried out due to the non-
availability of a large sized anechoic chamber and a suitable Standard Gain Horn antenna.
Further research efforts should focus on the outdoor measurements [97, 98] where many
factors, such as the directivity of the antenna under test, the frequency range and
mechanical features of the antenna (size, weight and volume) should be considered to
ensure the performance metrics are measured with sufficient accuracy.
117
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Appendix A. List of Publications
Appendix A.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
I n this dissertation many of the ideas and designs have been published in various
journals and international conferences. These publications are listed here in reverse
chronological order.
Journal Publications
[JP1] K. Yang, A. Loutridis, X. Bao, G. Ruvio and M. J. Ammann, "Printed Inverted-F Antenna
with Reconfigurable Pattern and Polarization", IEEE Transactions Antennas and
Propagation Letters; (In review).
[JP2] A. Loutridis, M. John and M. J. Ammann, "Folded Meandered Monopole for Emerging
Smart Metering & M2M Applications in the Lower UHF Band," IEEE Antenna &
Propagation Magazine; (In review).
[JP3] A. Loutridis, M. John and M. J. Ammann, "Folded Meander Line Antenna for Wireless
M-Bus in the VHF and UHF Bands," Electronics Letters IET, vol. 51, no. 15, pp. 1138-
1140, July 2015.
130
Appendix A. List of Publications
[JP4] A. Loutridis, M. John, M. J. Ammann, "A Dual Band LTE PIFA Antenna for M2M
Applications," Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 1655-1658,
July 2015.
[JP5] A. Loutridis, M. John, M. J. Ammann, "Dual Band LTE Planar Inverted-F Antenna for
M2M Applications," Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, vol. 22, no. 12, pp.
2925–2929, Dec 2013.
Conference Proceedings
[CP1] A. Loutridis, K. Yang, M. John and M. J. Ammann, "Dual Band Printed Antenna for
M2M Applications in ISM and GSM bands," Loughborough Antennas & Propagation
Conference (LAPC), Loughborough, UK. 2015; (Accepted).
[CP2] A. Loutridis, K. Yang, M. John and M. J. Ammann, "Compact Printed Spiral FM

Antenna," Progress in Electromagnetics Research Symposium, (PIERS), Prague, Czech
Republic, July 2015.
[CP3] A. Loutridis, M. John and M. J. Ammann, "Printed Folded Meander Line Dual-Band
Monopole for TV White Space and GSM," European Conference of Antennas and
Propagation (EuCAP), Hague, Netherlands, Feb. 2014, pp. 2848-2852.
[CP4] A. Loutridis, M. John, M. J. Ammann, G. Ruvio, "A Wideband Printed Inverted-F

Antenna for M2M Applications in the Lower UHF Band," Loughborough Antennas &
Propagation Conference (LAPC), Loughborough, UK, Nov. 2013, pp. 242-245.
[CP5] A. Loutridis, M. John, G. Ruvio, M. J. Ammann, "A 2.45/5.8 GHz Folded Monopole
Antenna for WLAN Applications," Loughborough Antennas & Propagation Conference
(LAPC), Loughborough, UK, Nov. 2012.
131

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Study of UHF and VHF Compact Antennas

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Dublin Institute of Technology

parameters in this work. A further investigation on miniaturization techniques, as well as

the ground plane effects on the general performance, is also made.

work based on folded, meander-line and inverted-F geometries providing broadband

operation and omnidirectional radiation properties.

The investigation of broadband properties of a dual band folded monopole led to a

controllable frequency-ratio with wide range, operating in the WLAN frequency

omnidirectionality across the operating frequency band.

structure is provided with omnidirectional radiation characteristics and large frequency

ratio for machine-to-machine applications.

not impaired with the small sized ground plane.

The miniaturization of the proposed solution is based on a double-sided meandering

controlled large frequency-ratio. The introduction of a shunt lumped inductor improves

to me all this time.

miniaturization techniques. I also wish to express my gratitude to my colleagues Padraig,

pleasure to work and socialize for the last four years.

I thank my colleagues at the Centre for Telecommunications Value-Chain Research

grateful to Science Foundation Ireland for supporting my research work.

had altogether during the last year of my studies.

lasting love. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my parents, to my sister to my grandmother

Figure 1.1. Wireless Communication Technology. ...................................................... 3

Table 1.1. The frequency spectrum. .............................................................................. 4

T he rapid evolution of wireless cellular communications started with the

newly introduced applications operating at frequencies in the ultra-high frequency (UHF)

light weight and with low cost.

Modern mobile communication applications require large available channel capacity,

bandwidth with good efficiency.

 To provide a backup connection in case of network failure,

 To link portable or temporary workstations,

 To overcome problems where cabling is difficult or financially impractical,

 To remotely connect mobile users or networks.

and optimization of existing wireless technology can be addressed also in automotive,

Figure 1.1. Wireless Communication Technology.

Table 1.1. The frequency spectrum.

Table 1.2. Wireless Communication Frequency Spectrum.

1.1 ELECTRICALLY SMALL ANTENNAS

which are invaluable for the antenna engineers.

Figure 1.2. The radiansphere.

1.2 ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS FOR WIRELESS

accordance with Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Regulations.

manufacturability, flexibility to integrate with the wireless communication system and an

omnidirectional radiation performance in at least one plane. The consideration of

frequency of operation, impedance matching, broadband or wideband operation, high

particular demands for modern wireless communication systems.

1.3 MOTIVATION FOR ELECTRICALLY SMALL

of one arm of a half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole, placed on a horizontal ground plane

dipole would not be suitable to embed in a modern portable device.

especially for low frequencies.

Miniaturization techniques and methods enable antenna designers to enclose

handheld units. Additionally, miniaturization techniques give more freedom to the

of mobile and compact units.

1.4 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

antennas is provided. A theoretical background on the operation principle of antennas is

techniques used in the thesis are introduced and described.

A printed folded monopole antenna for WLAN applications is investigated in