Chapter 5

Electric Fields in Material Space

Islamic University of Gaza
Electrical Engineering Department

Dr. Talal Skaik

2012
1
 Introduction
• In chapter 4, Electrostatic fields in free space were considered.
• This chapter covers electric fields in materials.
• Materials are generally classified as conductors and non-
conductors.
• Non-conducting materials are unusually referred as insulators or
dielectrics.
• Materials may be classified in terms of their conductivity σ , in
mhos per meter (  / m ), or siemens per meter (s/m).

2
 Properties of Materials
• A material with high conductivity (σ>>1) is referred to as metals.
• A material with small conductivity (σ<<1) is referred to as
insulator (or dielectric).
• A material with conductivity lies between those of metals and
insulators are called semiconductors.
• Table B.1 in Appendix B (Values of conductivity of common
materials).
 Copper and aluminium are metals.
 Silicon and germanium are semiconductors.
 Glass and rubber are insulators.
3
 Properties of Materials
 Some conductors exhibit infinite conductivity at temperature
near absolute zero (T=0 k), and they are called superconductors.
 Dielectric materials have few electrons available for conduction
of current.
 Metals have abundance of free electrons.

4
5.3 Convection and Conduction Currents
• Electric current is generally caused by motion of electric charges.
• The current in (Amperes) through a given area is the electric
charge passing through the area per unit time.

dQ
I=
dt
• In a current of one ampere, charge is being transferred at a rate
of one coulomb per second.

5
 Convection and Conduction Currents
• If current ΔI flows through a planar surface ΔS, the current
∆I
density is: J =
∆S

• If current is normal to the surface: ∆I = J ∆S

• If the current is not normal to the surface: ∆I = J ⋅ ∆S
• The total current flowing through a surface S is:

=
I ∫ J ⋅ ∆S
S
6
 Convection Current
 Doesn’t involve conductors and consequently doesn’t satisfy

ohms law.

 It occurs when current flows through an insulating medium such

as liquid, vacuum.

 Ex) beam of electrons in vacuum tube is a convection current.

7
 Convection
Current

• If there is a flow of charge of density ρV at velocity u=uyay the

current is:

∆Q ρV ∆V ρV ∆S ∆y
∆I= = = = ρV ∆S u y
∆t ∆t ∆t
∆I
J y = ρV u y
=
∆S
In General: J=ρV u
 
Convection Current Density J=ρV u
8
 Conduction Current
 Requires a conductor.
 A conductor has a large number of free electrons that provide
conduction current due to an impressed electric field.
 When electric field is applied, the force on an electron with
 
charge –e is : F = − eE
 In free space, the electron would accelerate.
 In material, the electron suffers continual collisions.
 The electron will move with different velocities between
collisions.

9
 Conduction Current
 The average velocity is called the drift velocity u.
 eτ 
u= − E
m
 τ : average time between collisions.
 m: mass of electron.
 Drift velocity is directly proportional to the applied field.
 If there are n electrons per unit volume, ρV =-ne
  ne 2 
τ 
 The conduction current density is: J=ρ u = E =σ E
V

  m

J=σ E
10
 5.4 Conductors
• A conductor has abundance of charge that is free to move.
• A perfect conductor (σ=∞) can not contain an electrostatic field
within it.

Isolated Conductor
11
 Conductors
• Inside conductor=E 0 and −
= ∇V 0, which implies V=0. Thus,

a conductor is an equipotential body.

• According to gauss law, ε ∫ E ⋅ dS= ∫ ρV dV

S V

• If E=0, then the charge density ρV = 0.

Inside an isolated perfect conductor, E=0, ρ V =0, Vab =0

(Vab is potential difference between two points a and b in the

conductor)
12
 Conductors
• When a potential difference is applied at the ends of the
conductor, E≠0 inside the conductor. ( conductor not isolated,
wired to a source).
• An electric field must exist inside the conductor to sustain the
flow of current.
• The direction of the electric field E produced is the same as the
direction of the flow of positive charges or current I. This
direction is opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons.
• The opposition to the flow is called Resistance.

13
• To derive Resistance:
V
The magnitude of electric field is given by E =
l I
Assuming conductor has uniform cross section of area S, J =
I σV S
= σ E=
S l l
V l R=
R= =
I σS σS
l ρC l 1
R= = , ρC= ⇒ Resistivity
σS S σ
If the cross section of the conductor is not uniform:

V − ∫ E ⋅ dl
R= =
I ∫ σ E ⋅ dS
The power P (in watts): ∫ E ⋅ J dv or
P=
v
P=
I 2R
14
 Example 5.1
If J 1
r 3 ( 2 cos θ a r + sin θ a φ ) A/m 3
, calculate the current passing through
• (a) a hemispherical shell of radius 20 cm, 0<Ѳ<π/2, 0<φ<2π
• (b) a spherical shell of radius 10 cm.
Solution:
∫
I =⋅ = sin θ dφ dθ ar
2
J dS , dS r
π /2 2π π /2
1 2
∫
= ∫ θ θ φ θ 2π ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ
2
(a ) I ( 3
2 cos ) r sin d d r =0.2
r r = 0.2 r =θ 0
θ 0=
= φ 0

Let u=sinθ , du = cos θ dθ

π /2
4π sin θ 2
=I = 10
=π 31.4 A
0.2 2 0
( b) 0 < θ < π , r=
0.1 Alternatively for this case:
π
4π sin θ
∫ J ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv =
2
I = 0 I=  0 , since ∇ ⋅ J = 0
0.1 2 0 S v
15
 Example 5.3
• A wire of diameter 1 mm and conductivity 5 x 107 S/m has 1029 free
electrons per cubic meter when an electric field of 10 mV/m is applied.
Determine
• (a) the charge density of free electrons.
• (b) the current density
• (c) the current in the wire
• (d) the drift velocity of the electrons (take e=-1.6 x 10-19 C)
• Solution
( a ) ρV ==
ne (1029 )( −1.6 × 10−19 ) =
−1.6 × 1010 C / m3
σE =
( b) J = (5 × 107 )(10 × 10-3 ) =
500 kA / m 2
 d  5π
2

( c ) I =JS =(5 × 10 )(π )   = × 10-6 × 105 =0.393 A

5

2 4
J 5 × 105
J ρV u,=
( d )sin ce= u = = 3.125 × 10 −5
m/s
ρV 1.6 × 10 10

16
 Example 5.4
• A lead (σ=5 x 107 S/m ) bar of square cross section has a hole
bored along its length of 4 m so that its cross section becomes
that of figure 5.5. find the resistance between the square ends.
• Solution
l
R=
σS
2
1
where S =d 2 − π r 2 =32 − π  
2
 π
=  9 −  cm 2
 4
4
Hence R=
5 × 106 ( 9 − π / 4 ) × 10−4
= 974 µΩ

17
 5.5 Polarization in Dielectrics
• In dielectric materials, charges are not able to move about freely,
they are bound by finite forces. (displacement will take place
when external force is applied).
• Atoms or molecules are electrically neutral since positive and
negative charges have equal amounts.
• When Electric field is applied, positive charges move in the
direction of E, and negative charges move in the opposite
direction.
• The molecules are deformed from their original shape, and each
molecule gets some dipole moment.

+Q (nucleus)
-Q (electron) 18
 Polarization in Dielectrics
• The dipole moment is  
P=Qd
Where d is the distance vector from –Q to +Q of the dipole.
• If there are N dipoles, the total dipole moment due to the
electric field is:
N
Q1d1 +Q 2d 2 +  +Q N d N = ∑ Q k d k
k =1

• As a measure of intensity of polarization, define Polarization P (in

coulombs per meter squared) as the dipole moment per unit
volume of the dielectric:
N

∑Q d k k
P = lim k =1
∆v → 0 ∆v
19
 Polarization in Dielectrics
Two groups of dielectrics:
• Nonpolar: nonpolar dielectric molecules do not posses dipoles
until the application of electric field.
• Examples: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

• Polar: molecules have built-in permanent dipoles that are

randomly oriented. When external E is applied, dipole moments
are aligned parallel with E.

Polarization of a polar molecule:

(a) permanent dipole (E = 0),
(b) alignment of permanent
dipole (E ≠ 0).

• Examples: water, sulfer dioxide 20

 Polarization in Dielectrics
• When polarization occurs, two charge densities are formed:
(1) An equivalent surface charge density ρ ps is formed over the
surface of the dielectric.

ρ ps= P ⋅ a n
where an is unit normal to the surface.
(2) An equivalent volume charge density ρ pv is formed throughout
the dielectric.
ρ pv = −∇ ⋅ P
Notes:
ρ ps and ρ pv are called bound (or polarization) surface and
volume charge densities, respectively, as a distinct from free
surface and volume charge densities ρ s and ρ v .
• Bound charges are those that are not free to move within the
dielectric material; they are caused by the displacement that
occurs on a molecular scale during polarization. 21
 Polarization in Dielectrics
• If the entire dielectric were electrically neutral prior to
application of E and if we have not added free charge, the
dielectric will remain electrically neutral. Thus the total charge of
the dielectric material remains zero.

Qbs : total bound surface charge

Qbv : total bound volume charge
ρ ps= P ⋅ a n
Qbs = ∫ ρ ps dS = 
∫ P.dS
ρ pv = −∇ ⋅ P
Qbv =−Qbs = ∫ ρ pv dv =− ∫ ∇.Pdv
v v

∫ ρ psdS + ∫ ρ pv dv = Qbs − Qbs = 0

total charge= 
S v

22
 Polarization in Dielectrics
• If the dielectric region contains free charge with volume charge
density of ρV , the total volume charge density is:
ρ=
t ρv + ρ pv

=
∇⋅E
1
ε0
(ρ v ρ pv )
+=
1
ε0
( ρv − ∇ ⋅ P )
∇ ⋅ ( ε 0 E+P ) = ρv = ∇ ⋅ D ⇒ D=ε 0 E + P
• The application of E to the dielectric material causes the flux
density to be greater than it would be in free space.
• Polarization is proportional to the applied electric field:

P=χ eε 0 E
• Where χ e is the susceptibility of the material.
Susceptibility of a material describes its response to an applied field.
23
 5.6 Dielectric Constant and Strength
D=ε 0 E + P = ε 0 E + χ eε 0 E
D=ε 0 (1 + χ e ) E=ε 0ε r E
ε
D=ε E , ε =ε 0ε r , ε r =(1 + χ e ) =
ε0
• ε is called the permittivity of the dielectric.
• εo is the permittivity of free space. ε0=10-9/36π F/m.
• εr is the relative permittivity.

The dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) ε r is the ratio of

the permittivity of the dielectric to that of free space.

• Table B.2 in appendix B, values of dielectric constants of some

materials.
24
• No dielectric is ideal. When the electric field in a dielectric is
sufficiently large, it begins to pull electrons completely out of the
molecules, and dielectric becomes conducting.
• Dielectric breakdown occurs when a dielectric becomes
conducting.
• The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that a
dielectric can tolerate or withstand without electrical breakdown.

25
 5.7 Linear, Isotropic, and homogeneous
Dielectrics
• A material is linear if D varies linearly with E.
• Materials for which ε (or σ) does not vary in the region being
considered (the same at all points , i.e. independent of (x,y,z) are
said to be homogeneous.
• Materials are inhomogeneous (or monohomogeneous) when ε is
dependent on the space coordinates.
• Materials for which D and E are in the same direction are said to
be isotropic.
• For anisotropic (or nonisotropic) materials, D, E, and P are not
parallel. ε or χe has nine components.

26
 Linear, Isotropic, and homogeneous Dielectrics

 Dx  ε xx ε xy ε xz   E x 
 D  = ε  
ε yy ε yz  E y
 y   yx  
 Dz   ε zx ε zy ε zz   E z 

• A dielectric material is linear if D= εE and ε does not change with

the applied E field.
• A dielectric material is homogeneous if D= εE and ε does not
change from point to point.
• A dielectric material is isotropic if D= εE and ε does not change
with direction.

27
 Example 5.5
A dielectric cube of side L and center at the origin has polarization
P=ar where a is a constant and r=xax+yay+zaz. Find all bound
charge densities and show that the total bound charge vanishes.
Solution:
for each of the six faces , there is a surface charge ρ ps .
for the face located at x=L/2:
aL
ρ ps =
=
P ⋅ a x x L=
/2
=
ax x L /2 =
2
L /2 L /2
6aL 2
totalbound surface charge is : Qs = ∫ =
ρ ps dS 6 ∫ ∫ ρ ps= dydz = L 3aL3
S − L /2 − L /2
2
bound volume charge density is ρ pv = −∇ ⋅ P = −( a + a + a ) = −3a
total bound volume charge is Qv = ∫ ρ pv dv =
−3a ∫ dv =
−3aL3
Hence total charge is Qt = Qs + Qv = 3aL3 − 3aL3 = 0
28
 Example 5.6
• The electric field intensity in polystyrene (εr =2.55) filling the space
between the plates of parallel-plate capacitor is 10kV/m. The
distance between the plates is 1.5 mm. Calculate:
• (a) D (b) P (c) the surface charge density of free charge on the plates.
• (d) the surface density of polarization charge.
• (e) the potential difference between the plates.
• Solution
10−9
(a) D=ε 0ε r E= × (2.55) ×104 = 225.4 nC/m 2
36π
10−9
(b) P=χ eε 0 E = ( ε r − 1) ε 0 E= (1.55) × ×104= 137 nC/m 2
36π
(c) ρ s =D ⋅ a n = Dn =225.4 nC/m 2
(d) ρ ps =P ⋅ a n =Pn =137 nC/m 2
(e)V =Ed = (
104 1.5 ×10−3 = )
15 V
29
 Example 5.7
A dielectric sphere (εr =5.7) of radius 10 cm has a point charge of 2pC
placed at its centre. Calculate:
(a) The surface density of polarization charge on the surface of the sphere.
(b) The force exerted by the charge on a -4pC point charge placed on the
sphere.
• Solution
(a) Assuming point charge is located at the origin,
Q
E= ar
4πε 0ε r r 2

χ eQ
P=χ eε 0 E = a
4πε r r 2 r

ρ ps =P ⋅ a r
(ε − 1) Q =
= r
(4.7)2 ×10−12
=13.12 pC/m 2

4πε r r 2 4π (5.7)100 ×10−4

Q1Q2 (−4)(2) ×10−24
(b) F = a a r = −1.263 a r pN
4πε 0ε r r 2 r
10 −9
4π × (5.7)100 ×10−4
36π 30
 Example 5.8
Find the force with which the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor
attract each other. Also, determine the pressure on the surface of
the plate due to the field.
Solution
ρs
E= a n where a n is a unit normal to the plate
2ε
and ρ s is the surface charge density.
ρs ρ s2 S
F=QE ρ=
= s S. an an
2ε 2ε 0ε r
or
ρ s2 S Q 2
=
F =
2ε 2ε S
ρ s2
The pressure is force per area =
2ε 0ε r 31
 5.8 Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
From principle of charge conservation, the time rate of decrease of charge
within a given volume must be equal to the net outward current flow
through the surface of the volume.
dQin
I OUT ∫S J ⋅ dS =
= −
dt
where Qin is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
dQ d ∂ρ
− in = − ∫ ρv dv = − ∫ v dv
dt dt V V
∂t
Using divergence theorem, ∫ J ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv
S V

∂ρv
→ ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv = − ∫ dv
∂t ∂ρv
V V
∇⋅J = −
∂ρv ∂t
⇒ ∇⋅J = −
∂t
This equation is called continuity of current equation or continuity equation.
32
 Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
Consider introducing a charge at some interior point of a given
material (conductor or dielectric).
From Ohm's law J=σ E
ρv
From Gauss's law ∇ ⋅ D=ρv and hence ∇ ⋅ E=
ε
substituting in the continuity equation,
∂ρ
∇⋅J = − v
∂t
∂ρv
∇ ⋅ σ E= −
∂t
σρv ∂ρv ∂ρv σ
= − + ρv = 0
ε ∂t ∂t ε
∂ρv σ
+ ρv = 0
∂t ε
33
 Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
∂ρv σ
+ ρv = 0
∂t ε
∂ρv σ
Separating the variables: =− ∂t
ρv ε
σt
and integrating both sides: ln ρv =− + ln ρv 0
ε
where ln ρv 0 is a constant of integration.
ε
ρv ρ= v0 e
− t /T
r
where Tr
σ
Tr is the time constant in seconds.
ρv = ρv 0 e − t / Tr

34
 Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
• When we introduce a volume charge density at an interior point in a
material, it decays resulting in a charge movement from the interior point
at which it was introduced to the surface of the material.
• The time constant Tr of this decay is called relaxation time or
rearrangement time.
• Relaxation time is the time it takes for a charge placed in the interior of
a material to drop to e-1 or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
• It is very short for good conductors and very long for good dielectrics.
• For a good conductor the relaxation time is so short that most of the
charge will vanish from the interior point and appear at the surface within
a short time.
• For a good dielectric the relaxation time is very long that the introduced
charge remains wherever placed for times up to days.

35
 5.9 Boundary conditions
• When the field exists in a medium consisting of two different
media, the conditions the field must satisfy are called boundary
conditions.
• For the electrostatic field the following boundary conditions are
important:
• Dielectric – dielectric interface.
• Conductor – dielectric.
• Conductor – free space.

We will use Maxwell Equations: ∫ E ⋅ dl =0, ∫ D ⋅ dS=Q enc

36
 Dielectric-dielectric Boundary
conditions
• Consider the boundary between two dielectrics with permittivities

37
 Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions
The fields in the two media can be expressed as:
E1 =E1t + E1n E2 = E 2t + E 2 n
Apply the equation ∫ E ⋅ dl =
L
0 to the path abcda in the figure

∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
∫
abcda
E ⋅ dl = E1t ∆w − E1n
2
− E2n
2
− E 2t ∆w + E 2 n
2
+ E1n
2
= 0

E1t ∆w − E 2t ∆w =0
E1t = E 2t
→ E1t =
E 2t

•Tangential components of E are equal at the boundary.

•Et undergoes no change on the boundary and it is continuous
across the boundary.

38
 Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions
D1t D2t
E1t = E 2t → = → ε 2 D1t = ε1 D2t
ε1 ε2
• The tangential component of D under goes some change across the
boundary.
• So D is said to be discontinuous across the boundary.
• The boundary conditions for the normal components are obtained
by applying Gauss’s law on a small pill box shaped volume as in the
next figure.

∫ D ⋅ dS =
S
Q

D1n ∆S − D2 n ∆S =∆Q =ρ S ∆S Assuming ∆h → 0

ρS
D1n − D2 n =
ρS
D1n − D2 n =
39
Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions

40
 Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions
ρS
D1n − D2 n =
If no free charge exists at the boundary, ρS =0
D1n = D2 n
D1n = D2 n
• Normal components of D are equal at the boundary.
• Dn undergoes no change on the boundary and it is continuous
across the boundary.
E1n ε 2
D1n = D2 n → ε1 E1n = ε 2 E2 n → =
E2 n ε1
• The normal component of E undergoes some change
across the boundary.
• So En is said to be discontinuous across the boundary.
41
 Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions
If the field on one side is known, we can find the field on the other side.
θ1 : angle between E1 and normal.
θ2 : angle between E2 and normal.

42
Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions

This is called law of refraction

43
 Conductor-dielectric Boundary conditions

Apply the equation ∫ E ⋅ dl =0 to the path abcda in the figure

∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
∫
abcda
E ⋅ dl =Et ∆w − En
2
− 0⋅
2
− 0 ⋅ ∆w + 0 ⋅
2
+ En
2
=0

→ Et ∆w
= 0 → E=
t 0 → D=
t 0 → D=
t ε 0ε r E=
t 0
=Dt ε=
0ε r Et 0 44
 Conductor-dielectric Boundary conditions

To find boundary conditions for normal components, apply gauss law:

∫ D ⋅ dS = Q
S
Dn ∆S − 0 ⋅ ∆S = ∆Q Assuming ∆h → 0

=
∆Q ρ S ∆S
Dn = = ρS Dn ε=
= 0ε r En ρS
∆S ∆S 45
 Conductor-dielectric Boundary conditions
Notes
• No electric field exists inside a conductor.
• Since E = −∇V , there is no potential difference between any
two points in the conductor.
• The electric field must be external to the conductor and must be
normal to its surface.

46
 Conductor-Free space Boundary conditions
Special case of Conductor-Dielectric conditions.

Replacing ε r = 1:
Dn ε=
= 0 En ρS
Dn ε=
0ε r En ρS
Dn ε=
= ρS
Dt ε=
= 0 Et 0
0 En

Dt ε=
As in the earlier case = 0 Et 0 47
 Example 5.9
• Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane
z=0. for z>0, εr1 =4 and for z<0, εr2 =3. a uniform Electric field
E1=5ax-2ay+3az kV/m exists for z ≥0. Find:
• (a) E2 for z≤0.
• (b) The angles E1 and E2 make with the interface.
• (c) the energy densities (in J/m3) in both dielectrics.
• (d) the energy with a cube of side 2 m centred at (3,4,-5).

48
 Example 5.9 - solution
E1 =E1n +E1t
E1n =E1.a n =E1.a z =→
3 E1n =3a z
E1t E=
1 -E1n 5a x -2a y

E=
2t E=
1t 5a x -2a y
D 2n =→
D1n ε 0ε r 2 E 2 n =
ε 0ε r1E1n
ε r1 4 4
=
E2n =E1n = E1n = 3a z 4a z
εr2 3 3
E 2 =E=
2t +E 2 n 5a x -2a y + 4a z kV/m
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
(b) α1 =90-θ1 , α 2 =90-θ 2
E1n 3 3
tan α1= = = → α1= 29.1 , θ1= 60.9
E1t 25 + 4 29
E 2n 4 tan θ1 ε r1
tan α 2= = → α 2= 36.6 , θ 2= 53.4 . (Note:
 
= is satisfied)
E 2t 29 tan θ 2 ε r 2 49
 Example 5.9 - solution
(c) The energy densities in (J/m 3 ) in both dielectrics:
w E1 = 12 ε1 E1 =
2 1
2 ( 4μJ/m
× 10
36π)×
−9
(25 + 4 + 9) × 10 6
= 672 3

w E 2 = ε 2 E2 =
1
2
2 1
2( 3 ×μJ/m) × (25 + 4 + 16) × 10 =
10−9
36π
6
597 3

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
(d) The energy with a cube of side 2 m centred at ( 3, 4, −5) .
{2 ≤ x ≤ 4, 3 ≤ y ≤ 5, -6 ≤ z ≤ −4}, z=-5 (Region 2)
4 5 −4
=
WE = ∫ w E 2 dv ∫ ∫ ∫ (=
w )dzdydx
x = 2 y = 3 z = −6
E2 w=
E 2 (2)(2)(2) 4.776 mJ

50
 Example 5.10
• Region y<0 consists of a perfect conductor while region y>0 is a
dielectric medium (εr1 =2). If there is a surface charge 2 nC/m2 on the
conductor, determine E and D at:
• (a) A(3,-2,2)
• (b) B(-4,1,5)
• Solution
(a) Point A(3,-2,2) is in the conductor
since y=-2<0 at A. Hence: E=0=D
-------------------------
(b) B(-4,1,5) is in the dielectric medium
since y=1>0 at B.
D n =ρ s = 2 nC/m 2
D 2×10-9
E= =π10a-9 a y =36 =113.1 a y V/m
ε 0 ε r 36π (2)
y
51