Re-engaging young people

with education and training

What are the alternatives?
Alternative education programs are one way of responding to the
disengagement of young people from mainstream schools. While there
are a great variety of programs, those where young people experience
success have incorporated a number of elements of best practice (Mills &
McGregor 2010). This article reviews the attributes of effective alternative
programs, with a particular focus on programs situated in Queensland,
Australia. Establishing what constitutes a successful alternative program
becomes increasingly important in an education climate that includes
rapid movement toward a standardised educational experience with the
attendant potential to further alienate those young people already existing
on the margins of mainstream schooling.

by Kimberley Wilson,
E
X
ngagement in schooling is a key factor in producing equitable social and
employment outcomes for all young people. School retention is an issue of growing
Kellie Stemp &
concern highlighted in international social inclusion agendas and prioritised at
Sue McGinty national and state levels through educational reform policies targeted at the senior phase of
learning. In 2009, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) responded to disturbingly
low rates of Year 12 completion by mandating young people’s participation in schooling
until completion of Year 10, with a further requirement of remaining in full-time education,
training or employment until the age of 17 (COAG 2009). Substantial funding has been
allocated to support the implementation of these school retention reforms, yet a significant
proportion of young people continue to disengage prior to achieving their Senior Certificate
or equivalent.
In 2009, 16% of teenagers (15- to 19-year-olds) nationally were identified as not being fully
engaged in work or study. This was a sharp increase from 2008, and reversed a previously
downward trend. This rise has been attributed to a downturn in the labour market and the
absence of an offsetting increase in education participation. Early school leavers who do not
continue in education are disadvantaged in the labour market and are less likely to be in
full-time work and more likely to be unemployed or not in the labour market (Robinson &

32 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011

Lamb 2009). According to the Department school context – academics, relationships
of Education, Employment and Workplace with teachers and peers, and school size. The
Relations (DEEWR 2010), 80% of available academic aspect takes into consideration
jobs in Australia require post-school suspensions, missed classes and academic
qualifications, yet only 50% of the workforce failures that leave some students “weary
has such qualifications. of the school experience and distrustful
In discussing school retention, it must that the education system can be a tool for
be noted that there are concerns in relation their success” (Lange & Sletten 2002, p.11).
to the accurate identification of early school The relationship dynamic in the school
leavers. There is limited data available to setting is related to the strength of students’
track young people who have disengaged connections to their peers and adults as
from school prior to the age of 15. They well as to the overall school climate, which
comprise a significant cohort generally not has a significant impact on the academic
reflected in studies focused on measuring investment of at-risk students. School size as
senior school retention. Younger students a factor is linked to research that consistently
may fall between the cracks, if they demonstrates that large school size is an
experience long absences through suspension important dimension contributing to student
and/or school exclusion, which create alienation from the traditional schooling
ripe grounds for complete disengagement. system (Lange & Sletten 2002).
Another shortcoming of school retention A number of authors (see, for example,
studies is the focus on retention from one Smyth 2002; Croninger & Lee 2001) find
year to the next, which also omits those a middle ground between the concepts
highly mobile students who might cease of student/family contextual risk factors
enrolment at one school yet fail to re-enrol and school inadequacy in putting forward
at another school or experience an extended the idea that students who experience
period of absence before re-enrolment. complex life experiences may be further
disadvantaged by a lack of “school” capital.
Factors related to Some young people struggle to connect
with the culture of the traditional school
youth disengagement and therefore require an empathetic and
It is common to find in any discussion supportive school response to ensure both
centred on youth disengagement a list of academic success and social wellbeing
individual factors that predispose a person (Mills & McGregor 2010). It is suggested
to being “at risk” of early school leaving. that schools could mitigate disengagement
Curtis and McMillan (2008, p.8) identify risk factors by transforming relationships
“not having an intention to complete school, for learning so that they are inclusive of
coming from a non-nuclear family, being students’ families and communities and, as
a below average academic achiever, being such, holistically support and enable young
male, having an unfavourable attitude people to build social capital (Leadbeater
towards school and perceiving student– 2008). However, this is not the typical
teacher relations as unsympathetic” as education experience for many young
personal attributes associated with a greater people, with the result that many disengage
likelihood of non-completion of school. from education completely and do not have
Low-skilled parental occupation and parental the resources required to fully participate
non-completion of post-secondary education within their community.
and training are also considered to be
contributing factors.
A more detailed exploration of
Consequences of disengagement
school-based factors related to student for individuals and communities
disengagement is provided by Lange and The consequences of youth disengagement
Sletten (2002) who highlight three influential from education for young people and their
factors that impact upon engagement in the communities are significant. Long-term

Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011 33

 effects include marginal participation in COAG National Partnership Agreement
work, further education and training and (2008) highlights three main areas of reform
skill development (Zyngier 2003), with focus – multiple learning pathways, career
a consequent higher likelihood of future development, and mentoring – which are
reliance on government assistance (Peace intended to maximise student engagement
2006). This in turn increases the risk of and attainment, and align well with an
extended social dislocation, and physical and alternative approach to schooling.
mental health problems (Mission Australia Alternative education is a term used to
2006). Additionally, research demonstrates broadly encompass educational activities
a positive relationship between truancy and that fall outside the traditional schooling
crime, as well as between failure to complete system (Aron 2006). In the Australian
high school and criminal activity (Purdie & context, it commonly refers to programs
Buckley 2010). Even in the event of achieving serving vulnerable youth who are no
full-time employment, adults who have not longer enrolled in mainstream schools.
completed school earn less than those who The academic integrity of alternative
have fully completed their formal schooling programs has been questioned in the past,
(Alexander, Entwisle & Kabbani 2001). As primarily because of the emphasis placed on
reported by Curtis and McMillan (2008), attainment of “basic skills” and vocational
The learning the majority of school non-completers in education training. There have been calls
experiences of Australia find employment in the “blue for long-term studies of student outcomes
collar” work industry; however, the to ensure that students are transitioning
students will availability of this type of employment from alternative programs to either further
be invalidated opportunity is highly dependent on the education or meaningful employment (Lange
health of the economy. & Sletten 2002). With little data available in
if community The consequences of disengagement this area, it is indeed difficult to gauge the
members are magnified for Indigenous communities success of alternative programs, except via
in that the proportion of Indigenous anecdotal reports from those working in the
and potential young Australians not fully engaged in field. However, it is also important to note
employers work or training is almost three times that students, their families, schools and
that of non-Indigenous teenagers. The outside institutions may all have different
question the unemployment rate for Indigenous young perceptions of “success”.
academic Australians is twice that of non-Indigenous Establishing the integrity of alternative
youth, and Indigenous young people face a programs is essential to ensure their survival,
integrity of greater range of difficulties in finding secure as many programs (particularly in the
the alternative and meaningful employment opportunities public sector) rely heavily on government
(Mission Australia 2006). funding to meet operational costs and must
education demonstrate the ability to operate within
program. Addressing disengagement an accountability framework (Queensland
Department of Education and the Arts
through alternative approaches (DETA) 2004). In addition, and perhaps most
In light of the serious consequences of importantly, the learning experiences of
disengagement, and the political push to students will be invalidated if community
increase retention rates, a wide variety of members and potential employers question
alternative learning programs have been the academic integrity of the alternative
developed in Australia (see, for example, Te education program. If alternative programs
Riele 2007), particularly in the last decade. are conceptualised by the wider public as
There is a growing realisation that flexible “second best” to mainstream schooling (Te
and socially inclusive education services are Riele 2008), there is a strong likelihood that
a necessary component of engaging those students themselves will become aware of
young people who face the most challenges this deficit view and will devalue their own
in fulfilling the “learning or earning” agenda educational experience as not comparable to
of the current educational climate. The that of mainstream schooling.

34 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011

Re-engagement and flexible support include flexi schools (government),
flexi schools (NGO), community-based VET,
learning options in Queensland TAFE–school linkage and in-school support.
Reforms to the senior phase of learning Additional programs identified included
designed to improve student engagement mentoring, teaching culture, wilderness
and retention gathered momentum in the programs, youth justice learning programs
state of Queensland in 2002 under the and community-based learning (Powell &
influence of the Queensland ‘Smart State’ Shafiq 2009).
strategy, which incorporated a renewed In 2010, Edmund Rice Education
emphasis on education, employment, Australia (EREA) established the Youth+
training and youth affairs (Harrevald & organisation which administers a suite of
Singh 2011). The Education and Training flexible education initiatives including the
Reform (ETRF) agenda saw the 2006 passing Edmund Rice Education Australia Flexible
of the Youth Participation in Education and Learning Centre Network (EREAFLCN) in
Training Act 2003, which included a legal Queensland, as well as programs tailored
requirement for young people to remain specifically for young people in care and
formally enrolled in education and training for those requiring support to transition to
until the age of 17 with a concomitant further education and training (EREA 2010).
promise to “enhance learning options that The Youth+ suite of programs currently cater
provide greater flexibility to meet the needs for the following young people:
of even more 15–17-year-olds” (DETA • those who have had contact with the
2004). The enactment of this agenda saw juvenile justice system;
the provision of sizeable funding to support • those in the care of the Department of
strategies and programs catering for those Child Safety;
students considered at serious risk of • those with a history of extended periods
disengaging from education or training. of unexplained absences;
In 2003, the Queensland Department • those who are Indigenous;
of Education and the Arts conducted the • those who are highly mobile;
Flexible Learning Services Survey, which • those who have had repeated
reviewed the education services responding difficulty conforming to the behaviour
to young people who had disengaged requirements of mainstream education
or were at risk of disengaging from and training;
mainstream schooling (DETA 2004). The • those with mental illness or at risk of
survey identified a total of 121 services and engaging in self-harming behaviours or
indicated that a range of flexible learning substance abuse;
services were being offered in Queensland • those with chronic illness leading to
including services within state schools; extended absences;
annexes to state schools providing long-term • those who have been excluded
education programs; flexi schools (state and from school;
non-state); community-based youth services; • those who are homeless;
short and long-term education, training • those who are young parents;
and employment preparation programs; • those who have repeatedly suffered from
Technical and Further Education (TAFE) severe negative schooling experiences;
and other training providers; and behaviour • those with a generational history of early
management programs (DETA 2004). school leaving; and
In 2009, The Youth Affairs Network of • those searching for a different educational
Queensland (YANQ) provided a snapshot experience (EREA 2010, p.3).
of Queensland’s re-engagement services,
which involved a survey of 128 services that While providing a comprehensive and
were categorised into different types based growing suite of programs, Youth+ have
on their focus and aims. Services related highlighted concerns in meeting the current
specifically to the provision of educational demand for flexible learning options, with

Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011 35

 more than 2,000 young people on waiting • c hoice – voluntary participation by
lists in Queensland (EREA 2010). There is teachers, students and families;
unquestionably a need for further expansion • autonomy and control – horizontal rather
of quality, flexible learning programs to cater than vertical hierarchy of authority and
for an increasing number of young people decision-making;
who find themselves disenfranchised from • curriculum and skills – curriculum
the mainstream schooling experience. relevant to students’ needs and life
experiences; and
Best practice alternative • spirit of common enterprise – purposeful
emphasis on school as community
education approaches (Raywid 1982).
The provision of a wide range of flexible
learning options, as indicated in the surveys Additionally, authors such as Lange and
reported above, results in diversity rather Sletten (2002) and Leadbeater (2008)
than homogeneity in relation to the goals of emphasise the importance of providing
programs, student demographics, program integrated, relevant and individualised
resources and facilities, management and learning plans for marginalised young people
administration models and relationships attending alternative education settings. As
with mainstream education and community a local Australian exemplar, the education
agencies. This makes a concise definition of model that underpins the EREAFLCN
“what works” for disengaged young people approach integrates these characteristics
problematic, but a number of authors have through an emphasis on flexible pedagogy
attempted to highlight elements of best and incorporation of a learning framework
practice, which both engage and improve that is relevant and responsive. This learning
the educational and social outcomes of framework “emerges from openness,
marginalised young people. negotiation, experimentation and the
interaction of mindsets which seek the
Spielhofer et al. (2005) have identified the common good of the young person within
following characteristics as best practice in a context of individual skills and potential”
the delivery of projects and activities for (EREA 2010, p.5). Learning choices within
disengaged young people: the framework encompass the whole of
• offering activities that are meaningful the young person’s needs and incorporate
and relevant that they can participate literacy and numeracy skills, creative arts
in voluntarily; and technology, vocational and employment-
• delivering learning in an environment focused outcomes, sport and recreation
that is not like a school; activities, relationship development and
• providing one-on-one support for young community participation. The intention
people, tailored to individual needs is to enable young people to develop an
and circumstances; appropriate skill base that will empower
• employing staff with the skills and them to fully participate in community life
qualities necessary to develop meaningful (EREA 2010).
and supportive relationships with young
people; and Mills and McGregor’s (2010) recent study
• establishing strong links with schools and examined best practice from the perspectives
other agencies to support the transition of the young people who attend alternative
of young people into further education education settings in Queensland and found
or training. that students consistently identified the
following as of key importance:
In relation to alternative programs that • learning programs – opportunities
operate formally as schools, some of the traits to undertake traditional subjects and
commonly attributed to successful educative curricula as well as workplace training
programs have been identified as that of: and access to vocational qualifications;

36 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011

• learning environment – relaxed school employment, training and community
climate, flexibility, staff–student dialogue service to young people.
and negotiation, voluntary attendance,
sense of community; and The ideal alternative school
• teaching relationships – accepting By summarising the best-practice literature
students for who they are, respect it is possible to construct a picture of what
between staff and students, young people the ideal alternative school might look like
feeling “celebrated”, receiving sufficient in the modern educational context. It would,
time and assistance to complete work, in the first instance, be physically located
“connected” and “conversational” within the community place of the young If possible,
teaching strategies. people it is intended to serve. This would
enable a strengthening of the ties between
the school
To guide best-practice curriculum delivery school and community and make possible an would employ
in alternative education settings, Mills and exchange of resources and capital. If possible,
McGregor (2010) provided recommendations the school would employ teaching and
teaching and
which indicated that there should be: non-teaching staff from the same community non-teaching
• provision of appropriate curricula that to further strengthen local bonds. Student
suit the needs of students and provide numbers would be limited to a maximum
staff from
them with pathways towards work and of 100 students (preferably fewer) to enable the same
further education; the development of a cohesive inner-school
• flexibility to develop diverse curricula community and the fostering of personalised
community
responsive to the needs and aspirations relationships between staff and students. to further
of young people who choose to attend Teaching staff would be highly qualified
alternative settings; and professionals with experience in working
strengthen
• curricula connected to young people’s with young people from disadvantaged local bonds.
worlds that value the diversity of the backgrounds. They would have the necessary
student population while maintaining skills to identify the strengths that each
concern with learning that is intellectually student brings to the educational setting and
challenging (refer to Wilson & Stemp would be able to develop individualised
(2010) for a practical example of the learning plans to ensure that each young
application of a place-based learning person reached their full potential. Teaching
approach to engage young people staff themselves would be supported by
attending an alternative setting). a range of qualified support staff such as
youth workers and guidance counsellors
Mills and McGregor (2010, p.9) also note the to ensure that young people achieve both
importance of alternative education settings academic and social outcomes. Diverse
acting in the capacity of “full-service” cultural backgrounds and other dimensions
schools. This service requires cooperation of difference would be celebrated as a rich
between alternative schools and welfare component of the cultural fabric of the
agencies in order to provide wraparound school. The school itself would operate in
services such as “the provision of crèches, an open and democratic manner that would
housing support, advocacy services, meals invite participation by marginalised young
and physical and mental health counselling”. people and their families. This would then
The provision of transport assistance is fulfil the primary criteria of the successful
also an important component of alternative alternative school – that young people choose
approaches, and a key recommendation to attend and to actively re-engage with the
of Mission Australia’s Youth Employment learning process.
Strategy Report (2006) is to encourage
greater use of mobile outreach service Conclusion and recommendations
delivery options, particularly in rural and
Current inadequate methods of tracking
remote areas, to both reduce social exclusion
young people who have disengaged from
and enable the provision of integrated

Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011 37

 formal schooling, particularly very early • s trategic planning (long-term vision for
school leavers, make it difficult to ascertain the program); and
the exact numbers of young people who have • curriculum (best-practice curriculum and
fallen through the cracks of the mainstream culturally responsive pedagogy).
schooling system. However, the data that are
available indicate that youth disengagement To implement a “full service” program, it
remains a significant social concern, and this is often necessary to enlist the assistance
is verified by the experiences of alternative of local agencies, which may work in
service providers who find themselves partnership to enable the provision of
unable to meet the growing demand from this additional support for young people.
young people, which at times results Partnerships can also reduce the burden of
in extensive waiting lists such as those funding alternative programs, which remains
experienced by the Youth+ organisation a persistent issue for most service providers
(EREA 2010). (McGregor & Mills 2010) as the intense
While it is highly concerning that many support provided for young people is costly
young people are currently not engaged in in relation to human resources. Community
either education or training, the creation support is also critical to the long-term
of a successful alternative program is success of the program as “education is,
one that cannot be rushed for the sake of at its essence, learning about life through
expediency. Successful programs are built on participation and relationship in community”
the foundation of a well-defined philosophy (Cajete 1994, p.25). Participation, relationship
that integrates the principles of best-practice and community must always remain central
alternative approaches and clearly articulates to the alternative approach.
to both staff and students the nature, purpose
and intent of the program. References
Mills and McGregor (2010) make a very
Alexander, K.L., Entwisle, D.R. & Kabbani, N.S.
clear point that alternative schooling sites
2001, ‘The dropout process in life course perspec-
are not aspiring to mainstream models and
tive: Early risk factors at home and school’,
neither are they behaviour management
Teachers College Record, v.103, n.5, pp.760-822.
centres or “dumping grounds” for
Aron, L.Y. 2006, An overview of alternative education,
troublesome students. The authors state:
U.S Department of Labor and The Urban
… the alternative practices of flexible Institute, Washington.
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models of effective teaching and be used to Indigenous education, Kivaki Press, Durango.
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(Mills & McGregor 2010, p.10). partnership agreement on youth attainment and
transitions, Australian Government Publishing
In order for this to be accomplished,
Service, Canberra.
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Croninger, R.G. & Lee, V.E. 2001, ‘Social capital and
embrace a holistic and integrated approach
dropping out of high school: Benefits to at-risk
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students of teachers’ support and guidance’,
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Curtis, D. & McMillan, J. 2008, School non-com-
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well-equipped school buildings that
nal Studies of Australian Youth (LSAY) Report 54.
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with young Australians, DEEWR, retrieved from,
• transport/mobile services (such as vans
<http://www.deewr.gov.au/Youth/YouthAt-
with appropriate carrying capacity);
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 30 NUMBER 4 2011 39