Promoting Self-Regulation in the First Five Years: A Practice Brief

Early childhood is a period of rapid brain development that paves the way for growth of self-regulation skills.
This brief builds on reviews of the theoretical and intervention literature to provide early childhood leaders such
as program administrators with guidelines for promoting self-regulation development in children aged birth
through 5 years, both programmatically and through supportive environmental contexts. The brief is based on
work conducted by the Duke Center for Child and Family Policy for the Administration for Children and Families
(ACF), described in a series of four reports referenced throughout the brief, which can be accessed online at
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/research/project/toxic-stress-and-self-regulation-reports.

Self-Regulation: What is it and why is it important?

Self-regulation has a foundational role in promoting wellbeing across the lifespan, including physical,
emotional, social, and economic health and educational achievement. Self-regulation can be defined as the act
of managing thoughts and feelings to enable goal-directed actions. This means, for instance, finding ways to
cope with strong feelings so they don’t become overwhelming; learning to focus and shift attention; and
successfully controlling behaviors required to get along with others and work towards goals. Supporting self-
regulation development in early childhood is an investment in later success, because stronger self-regulation
predicts better performance in school, better relationships with others, and fewer behavioral difficulties.
Moreover, the ability to regulate thoughts, feelings, and actions helps
children successfully negotiate many of the challenges they face,
promoting resilience in the face of adversity (For more information, see
Report 1: Foundations for Understanding Self-Regulation from an By proactively teaching and
Applied Developmental Perspective, supporting self-regulation
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/resource/self-regulation-and- skills across settings, we
toxic-stress-foundations-for-understanding-self-regulation-from-an- can help children from all
applied-developmental-perspective)
backgrounds enter
Self-regulation is recognized as one of the key areas of early child kindergarten ready to
development in the Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework learn.
(Administration for Children and Families, 2015:
https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/hs/sr/approach/pdf/ohs-framework.pdf), where skills related to self-
regulation are woven into both the Approaches to Learning and the Social/Emotional Development domains.
The information in this brief and the referenced reports can be used to complement that of the Head Start
Framework, providing an overview of child skills and caregiver practices that are key in the development self-
regulation.

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How does self-regulation develop?
Factors Contributing to
As depicted in the figure, multiple layers of factors contribute Self-Regulation Enactment
to self-regulation, from biological predisposition to caregiver
support and environmental context. While biology sets the supports

stage for self-regulation readiness, more complex skills and

motivation for self-regulation develop through interaction
with caregivers and the broader environment over an
extended period from birth through young adulthood (and
beyond). Biology

In infancy, the brain is primed to create connections that

support the beginnings of self-regulation. Across early
childhood, brain-based capacity for self-regulation increases
rapidly. Just like with literacy or math, however, this capacity
will not be fully realized without support from the
environment. For literacy, young children need exposure to
print materials in the environment, combined with active instruction, support, and practice. Self-regulation is
much the same: children learning self-regulation skills need structured environments, supportive relationships,
and direct instruction and coaching in a progression of self-regulation skills.

Just as with literacy, there will be individual differences in development that require different levels of
support. For instance, some children may be more temperamentally sensitive and thus more easily
overwhelmed by sensory input. Other children may experience more stressors in their environments. Both of
these situations can make it harder for children to self-regulate. Nevertheless, with intervention and support
aligned with their level of need, children can effectively build skills to manage their thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. For more information on self-regulation development, visit Report 1 in this series: Foundations for
Understanding Self-Regulation from an Applied Developmental Perspective,
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/resource/self-regulation-and-toxic-stress-foundations-for-
understanding-self-regulation-from-an-applied-developmental-perspective.

What are the benefits of focusing on self-regulation development in early childhood?

Humans learn more quickly during their first few years than at any other time in their lives. Experiences,
particularly those with significant others like caregivers and siblings, literally “wire the brain’s architecture”,
laying the foundation for what is to come (see Harvard’s Center on the Developing Child for more information:
http://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/brain-architecture/). Intentional work by adults to
promote self-regulation capacity early in the lives of children can help them to develop critical skills like
attentional control, problem-solving, and coping strategies for managing distressing environmental or
emotional experiences. Capitalizing on the developmental readiness of the earliest years, approaches that
systematically combine interventions with supportive caregivers and environments can proactively foster self-
regulation skills and help children enter kindergarten ready to learn.

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This is not to say that early childhood is the only opportunity for self-regulation intervention—indeed, self-
regulation continues developing at least through young adulthood, if not across the lifespan. However, laying
the foundation early may prevent childhood struggles, avoiding later need for more intensive interventions,
and thus may prove more cost-effective in the long run.

How important are parents and other caregivers in the development of self-regulation?

There is a well-established link between parenting and the development of self-regulation in childhood,
summarized in Report 2: A Review of Ecological, Biological, and Developmental Studies of Self-Regulation and
Stress, http://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/resource/self-regulation-and-toxic-stress-a-review-of-ecological-
biological-and-developmental-studies-of-self-regulation-and-stress. As indicated by almost 50 studies
identified in a comprehensive literature review, parental warmth, responsiveness, and sensitivity support self-
regulation development and may buffer the effects of other stressors in the family and environment. Parents
are not the only caregivers shaping the lives of young children, however. Child care providers, preschool
teachers, extended family members, and other adults who spend significant time caring for children can be
instrumental in supporting their development of self-regulation.

During the first years of life, caregivers are particularly central to development. Young children are dependent
upon their caregivers to create a safe, nurturing, and appropriately stimulating environment so they can learn
about the world around them. There are three broad categories of support that caregivers can provide to
young children to help them develop the foundational self-regulatory skills that they will need to get the best
start in life. Together, these describe the supportive process of “co-regulation” between adults and children:

 Provide a warm, responsive relationship where children feel

respected as individuals, comforted and supported in times of
stress, and confident that they will be cared for no matter
what. This positive relationship will promote self-efficacy and
allow children to feel secure enough to practice new skills and
learn from mistakes.
 Structure the environment to make self-regulation
manageable, providing a buffer against environmental
stressors. This means creating an environment that is
physically and emotionally safe for children to explore and
learn at their level of development without serious risk to
their wellbeing. Consistent, predictable routines and
expectations likewise promote a sense of security by providing
clear goals for behavior regulation.
 Teach and coach self-regulation skills through modeling, instruction, opportunities for practice,
prompts for skill enactment, and reinforcement of successive approximations. Like a coach on a sports
team, caregivers should first instruct children in skills, and then provide needed supports, or
scaffolding, for self-regulation enactment in the moment.

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Co-regulation will look different at different ages as children’s capacity for self-regulation grows, but remains a
critical component of self-regulation across development. Caregiver capacity for co-regulation will depend, in
large part, on that caregiver’s own self-regulation skills. Young children are incredibly sensitive to the emotions
and behaviors of adults. Adults who are themselves feeling overly stressed may have a harder time calming a
young child and, thus, may actually increase that child’s agitation, which in turn makes it harder to soothe
them. Caregivers who focus on improving their own coping and calm-down skills will build their own self-
regulation, provide a more calming influence to children in their care, and be better able to teach these same
skills to children as they grow.

What does self-regulation look like during early childhood?

Self-regulation skills and capacity change considerably over the first five years of life, based in part on cognitive
and motor skill development. Here are examples of self-regulation skills that children might be ready for, by
developmental age group.

In infancy:
 Shifting attention or averting gaze when overwhelmed
 Self-soothing by sucking fingers or a pacifier to reduce distress

In toddlerhood:
 Focusing attention for short periods
 Adjusting behavior to achieve goals
 Beginning to label feelings
 Briefly delaying gratification
 Turning to adults for help with strong feelings

In preschool-aged children:
 Recognizing a growing array of feelings in self and others
 Identifying solutions to simple problems
 With support, using strategies like deep breaths and self-talk to calm down
 Focusing attention and persisting on difficult tasks for increased lengths of time
 Perspective-taking and early empathy

What does effective co-regulation look like during early childhood?

Just as child self-regulation skills change as they grow and develop, so do their needs for co-regulation support
from their caregivers.

In infancy, babies require adults to manage a large portion of their

Caregiver capacity for regulatory needs, from feeding to temperature control to management of
co-regulation depends environmental stimuli. Infants react physically to the sensory information
around them, with little capacity to change their experience. They need
on the caregiver’s own
adults who are sensitive to their cues, responsive to their needs, and able
self-regulation skills. to provide a soothing presence in times of distress.

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Toddlers are beginning to build motor and language skills that allow them to control some aspects of their
environment, like moving away from a loud noise or asking for something to eat. They continue to have strong
emotions that far outweigh these emerging skills, however. In this developmental period, caregivers can begin
to purposely teach and model skills like waiting (i.e., brief delay of gratification) and using simple words to
communicate feelings and needs. Adults are still largely responsible for structuring a safe and manageable
environment, as well as for providing comfort and reassurance when toddlers are upset.

During the preschool years, children experience rapid growth in areas of the brain associated with self-
regulation, which makes them developmentally much more prepared to learn and use self-regulation skills.
Likewise, growing language skills during the preschool years allow children to use words in managing their
thoughts and feelings and asking for help. This is the perfect time for caregivers to actively teach and coach
skills like emotion identification, problem-solving, perspective-taking, and calm-down strategies. Children will
need considerable repetition, prompting, and practice in using these new skills. Caregiver modeling of these
skills is also important, as children watch adults closely to learn how they should behave. Co-regulation in this
stage will include teaching and communicating clear rules and expectations and using consistent natural or
logical consequences provided firmly but calmly. As in earlier developmental periods, preschool children
continue to need structured, predictable environments and warm,
responsive caregivers that provide them a supportive context in
which to practice new skills.
There are two primary approaches to
Self-Regulation Interventions: What is the evidence of
effectiveness in early childhood? self-regulation intervention used
either alone or in combination:
There are many interventions available that address some or all 1. Teaching caregivers how to co-
components of self-regulation development. Based on a review of regulate
studied preventive interventions between 1989 and 2013, 102
2. Directly teaching children age-
studies were that evaluated interventions targeting self-regulation
appropriate self-regulation skills
development in early childhood. Across these studies, there are two
approaches most commonly used to promote self-regulation, either alone or in combination: teaching
caregivers how to co-regulate, and providing children with age-appropriate skills instruction. Both of these
approaches have strong evidence of effectiveness. The best approach to use may vary by age group, setting, or
child and family risk status. Findings for infants/toddlers and preschool-aged children are summarized below.
For information on the methodology or detailed findings of this review, see Report 3: A Comprehensive Review
of Self-Regulation Interventions from Birth through Young Adulthood,
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/resource/self-regulation-and-toxic-stress-report-3.

Infants and Toddlers

There are relatively few programs for the infant/toddler age group that explicitly address self-regulation
development as a goal of intervention. Those that exist typically target caregiver co-regulation, are delivered
by clinicians or other clinically-trained staff, and often focus on at-risk families. Typical intervention length is 6
to 12 sessions, and most are delivered through home visits. Caregiver interventions often focus on
attachment/relationship building, sensitivity to child cues, and (for toddlers) age-appropriate behavior
management strategies like redirection. In addition, many caregiver interventions target the caregiver’s own

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capacity to self-regulate, both to support caregiver coping and calm-down skills and to help caregivers learn
how to co-regulate.

There is considerable variability in the effects of self-regulation interventions on infants and toddlers, with
some interventions showing large positive effects and some finding no significant change in child self-
regulation-related outcomes. The most common area that improves with intervention is child attachment,
arguably the most critical outcome for this age group due to its long-term impact on self-esteem and
interpersonal relationship success. More than a third of the studies also found substantial effects for child
behavior regulation, such as cooperation and rule-following.

More consistent effects are evident for caregivers, in keeping with the focus on co-regulation in this age group.
These caregiver gains may pay off in improved child self-regulation as children grow. More specifically, results
for caregivers show medium to large effects in the following areas:

 Increased warmth and responsivity to infants and toddlers, with improved ability to read child cues
 Changes in attitudes and beliefs, such as parenting self-efficacy and age-appropriate developmental
expectations
 Improved parenting skills such as positive behavior management (for toddlers), supervision, and
communication with their child

Preschool-aged Children
Studies of self-regulation interventions are far more numerous for children in the preschool age range than for
infants/toddlers. Most are delivered universally within a preschool setting, and about half are taught by
classroom teachers. Interventions for this age group typically target child skill-building directly, using explicit
teaching and coaching of self-regulation skills over an extended period of time (typically 30 or more lessons).
More than half also target parent co-regulation, and one quarter seek to build teacher co-regulation skills
including positive behavioral management and classroom climate.

Interventions for preschool children show more consistent effects on self-regulation skills than do studies of
infants/toddlers, including significant improvement in child stress levels and regulation of emotions, thoughts,
and behaviors. Some studies also show that self-regulation changes lead to improvements in functioning more
broadly in areas such as interpersonal skills, language, and learning. These functional outcomes are less
directly related to intervention targets, and therefore show more variability of effects than do core self-
regulation outcomes.

Interventions for caregivers, though utilized in only 59% of studies, demonstrate substantial gains for both
parents and teachers. Similar to infant/toddler programs, parents of preschoolers show medium effects in the
following areas:

 Improved co-regulation, including warmth and responsivity as well as skill coaching and support
 Changes in attitudes and beliefs, such as parenting self-efficacy, attitudes about parenting, and
parenting satisfaction
 Improved parenting skills such as positive behavior management, supervision, and communication

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Interventions targeting teachers produce medium to large improvements in classroom climate: after
intervention, teachers have classrooms that are rated as more welcoming, supportive, and positive.

What are the key considerations for promoting early childhood self-regulation in practice?
Given the foundational nature of self-regulation for functioning across domains, careful consideration of
systematic regulatory skill-building in early childhood has the potential for broad long-term benefits. Based on
a theoretical model and review of the intervention literature, suggestions for early childhood leaders to
implement preventive self-regulation education, intervention, and environmental scaffolding are as follows:

1. As a low-intensity support for all parents and guardians, provide easily-accessible information about
self-regulation development and caregiver co-regulation. Though parents experiencing significant
stress and adversity will likely require more intensive support (see recommendation 2), parent
education can proactively promote caregiver attention to self-regulation and co-regulation. In
addition, information provided universally across a whole community can contribute to shared
language, knowledge, and norms for positive, supportive parenting. Self-regulation and co-regulation
information could be provided to parents as tip sheets, informal discussion, and/or more formal
informational seminars available in locations already frequented by parents, such as: primary care/well
visits, child care centers, children’s museums, and other family-friendly settings. Key components of
early childhood co-regulation to promote include:
a. Interacting in warm, responsive ways
b. Recognizing and responding to child cues
c. Providing physical and emotional comfort when child is distressed
d. Modifying the child’s environment to decrease demands and stress
e. Providing consistent routines and structure
f. Modeling self-calming strategies
g. Teaching rules, redirecting, and using effective, positive behavior management strategies that
are age-appropriate
h. For preschool children: intentional modeling, monitoring, and coaching of specific, targeted
self-regulation skills such as identifying and expressing emotion, calming down, waiting, and
solving problems

Resources and informational materials on these topics may be already available through well-
established parenting programs such as Triple P, Parents as Teachers, or Incredible Years, as well as
through the US Department of Education: https://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/earlylearning/talk-
read-sing/feelings-families.pdf

2. For parents experiencing high levels of stress or adversity, deliver interventions with demonstrated
effects on parental self-regulation and co-regulation. In families with risk factors, including teen
parents, poverty, and mental health or substance use concerns, targeted interventions show promise
for impacting both parent and child outcomes. Given variability in outcomes, programs should be
selected carefully. For a list of interventions that have been studied with children 0-5, see pages 3-23

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 of the Report 3 appendix: Effect Size Outcomes by Intervention and Developmental Groups,
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/appendix_c_final_b508.pdf.

3. For child care providers, preschool teachers, and home visiting professionals, provide training in co-
regulation. This training would help caregivers to understand their role in supporting self-regulation,
both through the structure and content of their interactions with children. Teacher-directed training
has the potential to impact a large number of children, supporting self-regulation skill-building as a
protective factor for children who are experiencing stress in other areas of their lives. Training for
teachers would address topics including:
a. Building a positive relationship with each student
b. Structuring the environment to reduce regulatory demands and avoid over-stimulation
c. Proactively structuring the day to provide a predictable routine and prevent common behavior
problems
d. Teaching rules, redirecting, and using effective, positive discipline strategies that are age-
appropriate
e. Instructing, monitoring, and coaching specific, age-appropriate self-regulation skills
f. Incorporating activities to practice self-regulation skills

Resources and informational materials on these topics may be already available through well-
established programs for early childhood teachers such as Incredible Years or the Pyramid Model, as
well as through the US Department of Education:
https://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/earlylearning/talk-read-sing/feelings-teachers.pdf

4. Identify ways to support child care staff in their own self-regulation capacity. Caregivers will only be
effective at co-regulation if they can successfully self-regulate. Staff supports may include mindfulness
instruction, reflective supervision, and opportunities for personal “time outs” when needed.

5. For preschool-aged children, deliver well-evaluated child skills curricula that have been shown to
enhance regulation. Direct skills instruction and coaching in areas such as emotion identification,
problem solving, and anger management during preschool will lay the foundation for school readiness
and social-emotional success. Implementation of such curricula by early childhood education teachers
can be supported by technical assistance providers or mental health consultants to ensure fidelity and
effectiveness. Again, for a list of interventions that have been studied with children 0-5, see pages 3-23
of the Report 3 appendix: Effect Size Outcomes by Intervention and Developmental Groups,
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/appendix_c_final_b508.pdf.

6. For children with significant existing self-regulation challenges, provide more intensive support and
intervention from a mental health consultant or behavioral specialist. Caregivers for these children
will also benefit from instruction and coaching on providing consistent types of support in the
classroom and at home.

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Summary
Self-regulation plays a fundamental role in wellbeing, and the first five years of life are foundational in building
skills that can last a lifetime. Comprehensive interventions and environmental supports using a self-regulation
framework can produce broad, substantive changes in both child self-regulation and caregiver co-regulation
skills. Applied systematically and proactively, this self-regulation support can promote a solid foundation in
skills needed for social, emotional, behavioral, and academic success during the school years. Such early
investment is expected to pay large dividends in self-regulation capacity and outcomes across the lifespan.
Moreover, because stronger self-regulation predicts higher income, better financial planning, lower rates of
substance use and violence, and decreased long-term health costs, self-regulation investment can help us to
build healthier communities for our families.

For more information on how self-regulation interventions could be applied in programs supported by ACF,
visit Report 4: Implications for Programs and Practice, http://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/resource/self-regulation-
and-toxic-stress-implications-for-programs-and-practice.

October 2017

OPRE Brief: 2017-79

Project Officer: Aleta Meyer, PhD. OPRE

Suggested Citation: Rosanbalm, K.D., & Murray, D.W. (2017). Promoting Self-Regulation in Early Childhood:
A Practice Brief. OPRE Brief #2017-79. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation,
Administration for Children and Families, US. Department of Health and Human Services.

This brief was funded by the Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and
Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services under Contract Number
HHSP23320095642WC/HHSP23337035T.

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the
Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, the Administration for Children and Families, or the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services.