Description

Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquakes are accordingly measured with a seismometer, commonly known as a seismograph.
The magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported using the Richter scale or a related Moment
scale (with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being hard to notice and magnitude 7 causing serious
damage over large areas).
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground.
Sometimes, they cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property.
An earthquake is caused by tectonic plates getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground.
The strain becomes so great that rocks give way by breaking and sliding along fault planes.
Earthquakes may occur naturally or as a result of human activities.
Smaller earthquakes can also be caused by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear
experiments.
In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a natural
phenomenon or an event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.
Most naturally occurring earthquakes are related to the tectonic nature of the Earth.
Such earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes.
The Earth's lithosphere is a patchwork of plates in slow but constant motion caused by the release to
space of the heat in the Earth's mantle and core.
The heat causes the rock in the Earth to become flow on geological timescales, so that the plates move
slowly but surely.
Plate boundaries lock as the plates move past each other, creating frictional stress.
When the frictional stress exceeds a critical value, called local strength, a sudden failure occurs.
The boundary of tectonic plates along which failure occurs is called the fault plane.
When the failure at the fault plane results in a violent displacement of the Earth's crust, the elastic strain
energy is released and seismic waves are radiated, thus causing an earthquake.
This process of strain, stress, and failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory.
It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy.
Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth and is converted into
heat, or is released to friction.
 Causes
Why Do Earthquakes Happen?

Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This sudden
release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two blocks of rock or two
plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little. They don't just slide smoothly; the rocks catch on
each other. The rocks are still pushing against each other, but not moving. After a while, the rocks break
because of all the pressure that's built up. When the rocks break, the earthquake occurs. During the
earthquake and afterward, the plates or blocks of rock start moving, and they continue to move until they
get stuck again. The spot underground where the rock breaks is called the focus of the earthquake. The
place right above the focus (on top of the ground) is called the epicenter of the earthquake.
Break a block of foam rubber in half.
Put the pieces on a smooth table.
Put the rough edges of the foam rubber pieces together.
While pushing the two pieces together lightly, push one piece away from you along the table top while
pulling the other piece toward you. See how they stick?
Keep pushing and pulling smoothly.
Soon a little bit of foam rubber along the crack (the fault) will break and the two pieces will suddenly slip
past each other. That sudden breaking of the foam rubber is the earthquake. That's just what happens
along a strike-slip fault.
Earthquake-like seismic waves can also be caused by explosions underground. These explosions may be
set off to break rock while making tunnels for roads, railroads, subways, or mines. These explosions,
however, don't cause very strong seismic waves. You may not even feel them. Sometimes seismic waves
occur when the roof or walls of a mine collapse. These can sometimes be felt by people near the mine.
The largest underground explosions, from tests of nuclear warheads (bombs), can create seismic waves
very much like large earthquakes. This fact has been exploited as a means to enforce the global nuclear
test ban, because no nuclear warhead can be detonated on earth without producing such seismic waves.
Effect
Ground Shaking
Ground shaking is the most familiar effect of earthquakes. It is a result of the passage of seismic
waves through the ground, and ranges from quite gentle in small earthquakes to incredibly
violent in large earthquakes. In the 27 March 1964 Alaskan earthquake, for example, strong
ground shaking lasted for as much as 7 minutes! Buildings can be damaged or destroyed, people
and animals have trouble standing up or moving around, and objects can be tossed around due to
strong ground shaking in earthquakes. However, you should note that, while many people are
killed in earthquakes, none are actually killed directly by the shaking -- if you were out in an
open field during a magnitude 9 earthquake, you would be extremely scared (I know I would),
but your chance of dying would be zero or damn near it. It is only because we persist in building
buildings, highways, and the like that people are killed; it's our responsibility, not the
earthquake's.
Below is an image of the Cypress viaduct which was part of Interstate 880 in Oakland, CA. The
upper level of the two-level structure has collapsed onto the lower level as a result of failure of
the support columns. The columns failed partially in response to ground shaking from the 17
October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake amplified by loose sediments near the Oakland waterfront.
41 people were killed in the collapse.
Ground Rupture
Ground rupture is another important effect of earthquakes which occurs when the earthquake
movement along a fault actually breaks the Earth's surface. While active ground rupture is
comparatively rare, there have been cases of it in California -- for example, during the 1906
earthquake, fences near Pt. Reyes were offset by as much as 7 meters. And in the Owens Valley
earthquake in 1872, a fault scarp as much as 8 meters high broke the ground near Lone Pine.
Rupture causes problems for humans by, well, rupturing things; pipelines, tunnels, aqueducts,
railway lines, roads, and airport runways which cross an area of active rupture can easily be
destroyed or severely damaged.
Landslides
Landslides are caused by earthquakes both by direct rupture and by sustained shaking of unstable
slopes. They can easily destroy buildings in their path, or block roads and railroad lines, or take
hilltop homes with them as they tumble. They even can dam rivers on occasion, like in the 17
August 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake (magnitude 7.1) in Montana.
Safety tips
To prepare for earthquake, FEMA advises that you prepare three things: your home, your family,
and your community. Be sure that each member of your family knows what to do during an
earthquake. Schedule drills with your family to practice what your earthquake safety plan. These
drills should include the specific steps for Drop, Cover, and Hold On! Also, make sure all of
your family members know when and how to contact 9-1-1.

Earthquakes may strike at anytime, anywhere. Protect yourself and your family by having an
earthquake readiness plan in place. Here are some tips for your earthquake readiness plan.

Take some time to discuss evacuation with your family. Sketch a floor plan of your home; walk
through each room and discuss evacuation details.
Plan a second way to exit each room or area. If special equipment is needed, mark where it is
located.
Mark where your emergency food, water, first aid kits, and fire extinguishers are located.
Store a type-ABC fire extinguisher in an easily accessible location.
Mark where the utility switches or valves are located, and learn how to turn off your gas and
water mains, as well as electricity.
Indicate the location of your family’s emergency outdoor meeting place.
Keep several flashlights in easily accessible places around the house.
Keep a wrench or turn-off tool in waterproof wrap near the gas meter.
Know whether you live, work or play in a tsunami hazard zone.
Obtain a NOAA Weather Radio with the Public Alert feature to notify you of tsunamis and other
hazards.
Keep a flashlight, slippers and gloves next to beds.
Keep your gas tank at least half full.
Determine safe spaces away from windows in each room of your home. Choose spots where it is
unlikely something will fall on you.
Prepare a disaster kit. Stock up on canned food, a first-aid kit, 3 gallons of water per person, dust
masks, goggles, battery-operated radio and flashlights.
Earthquake Preparedness
Preparedness measures
Preparedness can consist of survival measures, preparation that will improve survival in the
event of an earthquake, or mitigating measures, that seek to minimise the effect of an earthquake.
Common survival measures include storing food and water for an emergency, and educating
individuals what to do during an earthquake.[2] Mitigating measures can include firmly securing
large items of furniture (such as bookcases and large cabinets), TV and computer screens that
may otherwise fall over in an earthquake. Likewise, avoiding storing items above beds or sofas
reduces the chance of objects falling on individuals.[1]

Planning for a related tsunami, tsunami preparedness, can also be part of earthquake
preparedness.[3]

Building design and retrofitting

FORTFOLIO
 IN
SCIENCE VIII
DULDUAO,JUSTIN ANGELO B
VIII- DIAMOND
MRS.MALASA,LUTHGARDA