NOTES IN FIRE TECHNOLOGY & ARSON INVESTIGATION

EVOLUTION OF FIRE

Early humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and frighten away predators. Sitting
around a fire may have helped unite and strengthen family groups and speed the evolution of early
society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel out of warm, equatorial regions and, eventually spread
throughout the world. But fire also posed great risks and challenges to early people, including the threat
of burns, the challenge of controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the threat of
wildfires.

As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses of fire. They used fire to provide
light, to make better tools, and as a weapon in times of war. Early religions often included fire as a part
of their rituals, reflecting its importance to society. Early myths focused on fire’s power.

In ancient Greece and later, fire was considered one of the four basic elements, a substance from
which all things were composed. Its great importance to humans, the mystery of its powers, and its
seeming capriciousness has made fire divine or sacred to many people. Fire as a god is a characteristic
feature of Zoroastrianism, in which, as in many sun-worshiping religions, fire is considered the earthly
representative or type of the sun.

Vesta
 Roman goddess of the hearth
 To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose six priestesses called
Vestal Virgins who were responsible to keep the holy fire going in a community hearth.

Prometheus
 Fire bearer
 He stole fire from the gods, gave it to man, and taught him many useful arts and sciences.

Early Fire Making Techniques

1. Rubbing together pieces of flint that could produce sparks that would set fire to wood shavings.
2. Rubbing together pieces of wood until the wood produced a hot powder that could light kindling
3. Adaptation of the bow and drill which consisted of a block of wood and a stick that was fixed in
the looped string of a small, curved bow.
4. Use of wood piston to compress air inside a bamboo tube that contained wood shavings.
Compressed air became increasingly hotter, eventually igniting the shavings.
5. Use of tinderbox – moisture-proof, metal carrying case held tinder, usually charred cotton or
linen cloth, and pieces of steel and flint. Striking the steel and flint together produced a spark
that lighted the tinder.
6. Tinderbox that operate like a present-day cigarette lighter in which the rotary motion of a metal
wheel against flint set off sparks in tinder.
7. Development of phosphorus match. (mid 19th century)

Uses of Fire

Prehistoric Uses of Fire

1. Hunter gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) made use of fire so that
they can remain active after the sun set, protect themselves from predators, warm themselves,
cook, and make better tools.

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 2. Source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-burning fires to continue their activities
after dark and inside their dwelling.
3. Enabled people to make better weapons and tools.

People learned to control fire by blowing at it through reed pipes. Then they used this technique
to burn hollows in logs to create cradles, bowls and canoes.

Fires in Early Civilizations

1. Artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks.
2. Ancient people developed improved devices for using fire to provide light
3. Use of candles made of yarn or dry brushes dipped in animal fat.

Modern Uses of Fire

1. Used in appliances that relies on fire to operate
2. Used to supplement main heating system in their homes
3. Used over campfires
4. Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste
5. Used in incinerators to destroy garbage
6. Fire also heat large boilers to generate steam which then powers large turbines.
7. Used in power plants to generate electricity
8. Used as a weapon in times of war (catapult)

THE TECHNOLOGY OF FIRE

Fire
 The heat and light that comes from burning substances, produced by the combustion of
substances.
 It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between a combustible matter and an
oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light. When a
substance burns, heat and light are produced. Burning is also called combustion.

Fire (conflagration) is the common term of the burning process – the combustion of a fuel.
Combustion involves rapid oxidation.

Oxidation (slow & rapid)

 The chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements (fuel) of
a combustible substance.

Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. Rapid oxidation of material is chemically termed as
combustion. In some fuels, if the heat during oxidation is not easily dissipated, the temperature
gradually rises until the material automatically ignites.

When this situation occurs, the material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags or
papers saturated or soaked with animal fat (or vegetable oil), if stored in confined space where heat of
oxidation is not dissipated fast enough, tend to undergo spontaneous combustion.

Elements of Fire

1. Heat – ignition temperature

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 2. Fuel – combustible matter (organic material, hydrocarbons)
3. Oxidizing agent – the common oxidizing agent is oxygen; others are bromates, iodine, nitric acid,
peroxides, chlorates, etc

Air is composed of: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% inert (inactive but are still combustible)
gases

Fire Triangle
 A geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship of the three elements of fire. Each side of the
triangle represents an element, such that if one side is missing then there is no triangle; meaning
fire cannot be produced.

If any of the elements are not available, the combustion does not take place. Normally, oxygen is
supplied by air, ignition temperature can be provided by the ignition device (like flame), and any
combustible material (usually organic matter) burns when heated by the ignition device. Most
combustible materials burn in gaseous state only.

If there is sufficient supply of oxygen, there is rapid oxidation resulting to complete combustion.
If the supply of oxygen and vaporization of a matter is sufficient combustion is accompanied by heat and
light. If there is insufficient supply of oxygen, there is smoldering fire. In smoldering fire, no flames are
manifested.

To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased) until ignition point is reached. Thus,
before a combustible material starts to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain
degree of temperature. When the temperature of a substance is very high, it releases highly combustible
vapors known as free radicals.

Flash Point
 The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily
(when a flame or spark is applied).

If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flash point, then it can be instantly ignited thus producing a
momentary fire. If its temperature still increases, such that it continuously releases combustible vapors,
the condition results to sustained burning (combustion). Hence, the fuel is deemed to have reached its
fire point.

Fire Point
 The temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it has been ignited – that even if the
source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn.

If a substance automatically burns without any human or mechanical intervention, the

temperature of the substance has been spontaneously increased until it reaches the auto-ignition point.

Auto-ignition / Self-Ignition Point

 The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance can be heated to release vapors that will
ignite without the application of a flame or spark.
 It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion take place.
 It is usually much higher (in temperature than the fire point).

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Flammable range or Explosive Range of a Fuel
 It refers to the volume range needed to burn or explode a fuel when it is ignited.

THE THEORY OF FIRE

Temperature of Fuel Chemical Reaction

Normal
OXIDATION

FLASH POINT

COMBUSTION
FIRE POINT

Combustion may be in the form of:

a. Glowing combustion (condense-phased combustion) – manifested by embers
b. Gas- phased combustion – flame (blue / yellow/orange)

Fire Properties

Physical properties

a. Specific Gravity
b. Vapor Density
c. Vapor Pressure
d. Temperature
e. Boiling Point
f. Fire Point
g. Flash Point
h. Auto-ignition point – kindling temperature
Chemical properties

a. Endothermic reaction
b. Exothermic reaction
c. Oxidation
d. Combustion
e. Flame

Flame
 The matter produced by fire.
 It is composed of burning incandescent gases.
 It is manifested of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion.

Requirements to Produce Flame

1. high temperature
2. reactants (fuel and oxidizer / gases / vapors)

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 3. concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reaction between reactants

Types of Flames

1. According to color and completeness of combustion

a. Luminous flame
 reddish-orange in color
 it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion
 It has lower temperature

b. Non-luminous flame
 bluish in color
 it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion
 it has higher temperature than luminous flame

2. According to burning fuel and air mixture

a. Premixed flame – e.g. flame of a Bunsen Burner or LPG
b. Diffused flame – e.g. flame of the oxyacetylene torch (ethyl alcohol lamp)

3. Based on smoothness
a. Laminar flame – smooth flame (ex. from candle)
b. Turbulent flame – rough flame (ex. building / forest fire)

Hydrocarbon
 Any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen (water).

Pyrolysis
 It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel.
 It is the thermal decomposition of combustible matter.
 It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

Free radicals – combustible vapors such as:

1. hydrogen gas
2. carbon dioxide
3. carbon monoxide (most hazardous) – can cause asphyxia
4. nitrogen

Two Basic Modes of Fire

1. Flaming mode
 It is represented by the fire tetrahedron – a four-sided figure with the sides representing fuel,
temperature, oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical chain reaction.

2. Surface or Smoldering Mode

 It is represented by the fire triangle with the three sides representing fuel, temperature and
oxygen.

FUELS (COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS)

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 Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some, especially chemical fuels
used in rockets, need special oxidizers in order to burn. Oxidizers are compounds that contain oxygen.
Nuclear fuels do not burn but release energy through the fission (splitting) or fusion (joining together) of
atoms.

In the fire triangle, fuel is one of the vital elements needed to produce fire. To burn a fuel, it must
be heated to its ignition point.

General Categories of Fuels

1. Solid combustible materials – includes organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic solid
materials.
2. Liquid combustible materials - includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous substances – includes those toxic hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

Classification of Combustible Materials

1. Class A Fuels (can cause Class A fires)

 Ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic substances such as wood and
wood-based products
 It includes some of those synthetic and/or inorganic materials like rubber, leather, and
plastics.

2. Class B Fuels (can cause Class B fires)

 Materials which are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic substances, oil,
and other chemicals such those liquid petroleum products.

3. Class C Fuels (can cause Class C fires)

 Normally fire resistant materials
 Materials used in electrical wiring and other electrical appliances
4. Class D Fuels (can cause Class D fires)
 Combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and
potassium

5. Class K – Kitchen fires

 A new classification as of 1998 and involves fires in combustible cooking fuels such as
vegetable or animal fats.

Solid Fuels

1. Biomass (wood-based products / plants)

 The name given to such replaceable organic matter as wood, garbage, and animal manure that
can be used to produce energy.
 Wood has been used as a fuel since prehistoric times – longer than any other material.
 Biomass materials other than wood are used as fuel. For example, heat produced by burning
nutshells, rice and oat hulls, and other by-products of food processing is often used to operate
plant equipment.

Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products

a. Physical form

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 b. Moisture content – water content
c. Heat conductivity
d. Rate and period of heating
e. Rate of combustion
f. Ignition temperature

2. Fabrics and Textiles

Almost all fibers and textiles are combustible.
Fiber – very fine thin strand (thread-like) object
Fabric – twisted or woven fibers
Textiles – machine woven or knitted fabric

Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers
1. From plants – cellulose fibers
- coir (coconut fiber)
- kapok, cotton (seed fibers)
- pinya fiber
- pulp (wood fiber)
2. From animals
- wool, silk, protein fibers (leather)
3. From minerals
- asbestos

b. Synthetic or Artificial Fibers

1. Organic fibers
- cellulose fibers
- non-cellulose fibers
2. Inorganic fibers – fiberglass, steel

Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers

a. Chemical composition
(except when the material contains flame or fire retardant)
b. Fiber finish – fiber coating
c. Fabric weight
d. Tightness of weave
e. Flame-retardant treatment

Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI)

 A numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once source
of ignition is removed.
 If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it will cease to burn once the flame is
removed is also high.
 Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing
because they do not ignite easily. Also, they will not continue burning after the source of
heat or flame is removed.

3. Plastics
 These are included as ordinary fuels under Class A.

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4. Coal
 It is burned to create heat to turn water into steam. The steam is then used to rotate turbines,
machines that generate electricity.
 Some coal is made into coke, a charcoal-like solid that is an essential raw material in the
production of iron and steel.
 It is used to heat building and to provide energy for industrial machinery.

5. Peat
 Partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bogs and used as a fuel chiefly in areas
where coal and oil are scarce.
 In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut, formed into blocks and dried.
 The dried blocks are then burned to heat homes.

Liquid Fuels
 These are made primarily from petroleum, but some synthetic liquid fuels are also produced.

Petroleum
 It is also called crude oil, ranges from clear yellow-brown oils to thick, black tars.
 Some crude oil is burned as fuel in stoves and boilers without processing.
 Most petroleum is refined to produce such fuels as gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.

Gasoline
 It is used to provide energy for most motor vehicles and piston-engine airplanes.

Diesel Oil
 Powers most trains, ships, and large trucks.

Kerosene
 Provides energy for jet planes.

Distillate Oils
 These are light oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings.

Gasohol (gas & alcohol)

 It consists of a mixture of gasoline and alcohol.
 The alcohol in gasohol is often produced from such grains as corn and wheat.

Two General Groups of Liquid Fuels

1. Flammable liquids
 These liquids have a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F) and a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 psi (per square inch) at 37.8 C.

2. Corrosive liquids
 These liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 C (100 F).

Note: Technically speaking, flammable and combustible liquids will not cause fire. It is the vapors they
produce which burn or explode when exposed to air under the influence of heat. Gasoline is most widely
used flammable liquid.

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Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and burning of liquids
1. wind velocity
2. temperature
3. heat of combustion
4. latent (invisible) heat of evaporation
5. atmospheric pressure (dependent on the environment)

Techniques of preventing fire and explosion caused by liquid fuels

1. Exclusion of ignition source.
2. Exclusion of air supply – excluding air by various means
3. Shutting off the fuel supply, if possible
4. Keeping liquids in closed container
5. Proper ventilation to prevent the accumulation of vapor within the flammable range
6. Using an atmosphere of inert gas instead of air
7. Cooling the liquid to stop evaporation
8. Combination of the above

Gas Fuels
 It includes natural and manufactured gases.
 Such fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses, and
industries.

Characteristics of Gas Fuel

1. Matters that has no definite volume and no definite shape.
2. It is composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random motion in a straight line.
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container and are relatively
far from one another.

Classification of Gases

Based on Source
1. Natural Gas
Gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provide energy for industries.
It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas.
It is usually mixed with compounds of the foul-smelling element sulfur so gas leaks can be
detected.

Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become liquids
when placed under large amounts of pressure. When pressure is released, they change back into
gas. Such fuels, often called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG), are
easily stored and shipped as liquids.

2. Manufactured Gas
 This gas-like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are abundant and others
are scarce.
 Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating and by various
chemical procedures.

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  Gas can also be produced by treating such biomass as animal manure with bacteria called
anaerobes. The bacteria expel methane as they digest the waste.

Based on or according to physical properties

1. Compressed gas (oxygen tanks in medical centers)
2. Liquefied gas (ex. the one put in LPG)
3. Cryogenic gas (ethanol)

Based on usage
1. Fuel gases
2. Industrial gases
- oxygen, acetylene
- Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide
- Hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine
- Chlorine, fluorine
3. Medical gases
- Chloroform, nitrous oxide
- oxygen

Basic hazards of gases

When confined in a container:

1. gases expand when heated
2. pressure is developed inside the container causing container failure
3. the gas container is destroyed due to contact with flames

Hazards vary with the physical and chemical properties of the gas and the nature of the
environment in two which they are released. All gases, except oxygen, are hazardous to life if they
displace the breathing air. Most odorless and colorless gases are particularly dangerous, as they are not
detectable when inhaled.

Advanced hazards of gases

Combustion explosion is among the dangers related to gases. This hazard occurs in the
following steps:
1. The liquid phases of a flammable gas or a liquefied flammable gas are released from its container,
piping or equipment.
2. The gas mixes with air.
3. With certain proportion of gas and air, the mixture is ignitable and will burn.
4. When ignited, the flammable mixture burns rapidly and produces heat at a fast rate.
5. The heat is absorbed by anything within the vicinity of the flame and very hot combustion products.
6. If the heated air is not free to expand because it is confined, pressure in the container will increase.
7. If the container is not strong enough to withstand pressure, some parts of the container will suddenly
depart or break thus resulting to violent release of the pressure accompanied by a loud sound known
as explosion. Since the source of the pressure is combustion, this kind of explosion is known as
vapor-air explosion.

Explosion

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  A violent explosion effect of chemical reaction when combustion process is confined so that
appreciable pressure occurs.

Detonation
 A violent reaction beginning with a very simple ignition that initiates a chain reaction.
 A rapid and confined combustion process that produces energy waves that propagates (spreads) in
supersonic (very fast) speed.
 Energy waves develop into a “shock front” that results to a very strong explosion.

Nuclear Fuels
 It provides energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms.
 Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear
energy. When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of
heat.
 Used mainly to generate electricity.
 They also power some submarines and ships.
 Nuclear energy can also be produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.

*Nuclear fission – splitting of the nucleus of atoms

*Nuclear fusion – combining two light nuclei of atoms

HEAT

Heat
 Energy in transit
 It always flows from a substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature,
raising the temperature of the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the
volume of the bodies remains constant.
 It does not flow from a lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer,
work, is also present.

Temperature
 The measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
 The hotness or coldness of something.

Thermometer
 Instrument used to measure temperatures which can be commonly expressed in degrees Celsius
(Centigrade), F (Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin or Absolute).

Temperature Scales

1. Celsius / Centigrade
 It is widely used throughout the world, particularly for scientific work, although it was
superseded officially in 1950 by the international temperature scale.
 Water has a freezing point of 0º Celsius and a boiling point of 100 degree Celsius.

2. Fahrenheit
 Used in the English-speaking countries for purposes other than scientific work and based on the
mercury thermometer.
 The freezing point of water is defined as 32º F and the boiling point as 212 º F.

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3. Kelvin or Absolute
 The most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale.
 Zero is defined as the absolute zero of temperature, that is, -273.15 º C, or -459.67 º F.

4. Rankine
 Another scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point.
 Each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale.
 The freezing point of water is 492 º R, and the boiling point is 672 º R.

5. International Temperature Scale

 In 1933, scientists of 31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale with additional
fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamics principles.

Latent Heat
 The quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to gas.
 Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.

Sublimation
The process of changing from solid to gas.

Melting
The process of changing from solid to liquid.

Vaporization
The process of changing from liquid to vapor/gas.

If the pressure is constant, these processes occur at constant temperature. The amount of heat
required to produce a change of phase is called latent heat, and hence, latent heats of sublimation,
melting, and vaporization exist.

Specific heat
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance one degree.

Heat transfer
 In physics, heat transfer is the travel of energy from one part of a substance to another or from
one body to another by virtue of the difference in temperature.
 The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies.

1. Conduction requires physical contact between the bodies or portions of bodies exchanging
heat.

2. Radiation does not require contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies.

3. Convection - It involves the motion of matter.

- It occurs when a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid body at a different temperature
and is always accompanied by the motion of the liquid or gas.

FIRE BEHAVIOR

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Thermal Balance
It refers to the rising movement or pattern of the fire.
The normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed.

Thermal Imbalance
The abnormal movement of fire due to interference of foreign matter.
It often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire originated.

Dangerous/fatal behavior of fire

1. Back draft
 It is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs
in the form of explosion.
 This may occur because of improper ventilation. If room is not properly ventilated,
highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden
combustion occurs which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
 The explosion is a result when air or oxygen is suddenly introduced in an area where
there is tremendous amount of incomplete combustion of products.
 These radical gases do not burn even if ignition temperature has been reached because
there is lack of oxygen.
 This is a dangerous condition that usually results to fatal behavior of fire.

Characteristics of Back draft

a. fire gases are under pressure
b. confinement of excessive heat
c. there is little flame or no visible flame
d. smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
e. windows are smoke stained
f. muffled sounds are heard inside the building
g. violent rushing of air inside when opening is made

2. Flashover
 It is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels.
 It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or
flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached.
 When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense
fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of fireballs.
Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards within a few seconds.

3. Bite back
 A fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishments operation and
becomes stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash fire
 It is better known as dust explosion.
 This may happen when a metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to be
hit by a lightning.

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  The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent
chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

Phases of Fire

1. Incipient phase – growth stage

a. normal room temperature
b. the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 º F
c. ceiling temperature is about 200 º F
d. pyrolysis products: mostly water vapors and carbon dioxide; small quantities of carbon
monoxide and sulfides may be present.

2. Free-burning phase – developing stage

a. accelerated pyrolytic process take place
b. development of convection current; formation of thermal column as heat rises
c. temperature: 800-1000 º F @ the base of fire
1200-1600 º F @ the ceiling
d. pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls (crawling of the flame) leaving burnt
patterns (fire fingerprints)
e. occurrence of flashover

3. Smoldering phase – decaying stage

a. oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and the heat to
develop in layers
b. products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon monoxide
with an ignition temperature of about 1125 ºF
c. ceiling temperature: 1000-1300 ºF
d. heat and pressure in the room builds up
e. building or room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little
oxygen
f. when sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, back draft occurs.

CAUSES OF FIRE

A. Natural Causes

1. Spontaneous heating
 Automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous combustion due to auto-ignition
of organic materials.
 The gradual rising of heat in a confined space until ignition temperature is reached.
 A slow process causing the burning of a plant combustible material even without an
external source of heat.

Factors affecting the development of spontaneous combustion

a. air supply b. insulating materials c.
temperature

2. Lightning
 A form of electricity.

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  A natural electric current with great magnitude, producing tremendous amperage and
voltage.
 It usually strikes objects that are better electrical conductors than air.
 It can cause fire directly or indirectly.
 Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission lines causing an induced line
surge.
 It can cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod
covered with dust, the dust would suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.
 A lightning may be in the form of:
a. Hot bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials.
b. Cold bolt – shorter in duration; capable of splintering a property or literally blowing
apart an entire structure; produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very
high temperature.

3. Radiation of sunlight - when a light hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it.

B. Accidental causes

1. Electrical Mishaps
a. short-circuit – unusual or accidental connection between 2 points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.

b. arcing – production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated

electrodes; an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between
2 electrical conductors.

c. sparking – production of incandescent particles when 2 different potentials (charged

conductors) come in contact; occurs during short-circuits or welding operations.

d. Induced current – induced line surge – increase of electrical energy flow or power
voltage; induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of
insulating materials, exploding of the fuse-box, or burning of active electrical appliances.

e. Overheating of electrical appliances – increase or rising of amperage while electric

current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of
insulating materials; maybe gradual or rapid; internal or external.

2. Purely Accidental Causes

a. ignorance in using volatile substances or chemicals
b. overfilling of fuel tanks
c. spilling of flammable liquids.

3. Negligence and other Forms of Human Error

a. smoking
b. misuse of fuels and explosives
c. misfiling of fuel tanks
d. motor vehicle traffic accidents

C. Intentional Causes – incendiary - arson

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 15

 * Preparations or traces of accelerants and plants and trailer in the burned area may indicate
intentional cause of fire.
FIRE CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENTS

1. Pre-Fire Planning
 This activity involves developing and defining systematic course of actions that maybe
performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection
 It involves the process of establishing the SOP in case fire breaks out.

2. Evaluation – Size-Up (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation)

 This is the process of knowing the emergency situation.
 It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the appropriate
course of action that provides the highest probability of success.
 The things to consider in SIZE-UP (Evaluation of the situation):

a. Learn the facts of the situation – by answering the 5 Ws and 1 H

b. Understand the probabilities of dangerous or fatal behavior of fire
c. Know your own situation or capabilities – weaknesses and strengths; available manpower and
equipment
d. Determine the specific course of action – entry or rescue

3. Evacuation
 the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the burning area to
minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case it propagates to other
adjacent buildings.

4. Entry
 This is the process of accessing the burning structure.
 Entry maybe done in a forcible manner.
 The following are the purposes of conducting forcible entry:
a. to provide access for fire fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments
b. to provide rescue
c. to aid in ventilation

5. Rescue
 This is the operation of removing (extricating).
 Thus, saving people and other livestock from the burning building and others involved
properties, conveying them to a secured place.

6. Exposure – cover exposure

 This is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning structure in order to prevent
the fire from extending to another building.

7. Confinement
 This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started.
 The process of preventing fire from extending from another section or from one section to
another section of the involved building.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 16

8. Ventilation
 This is the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases.
 It includes the process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved building with
normal air from outside atmosphere.

9. Salvage
 The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the fire.
 Steps: a. remove the material outside the burning area
b. protect or cover the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with
water proofing).

10. Extinguishment
 This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general methods of fire
extinguishments like cooling.

11. Overhaul
 This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein to eliminate
conditions that may cause reflash.
 It involves complete extinguishments of sparks or smoldering (glowing) substances (embers)
to prevent or eliminate possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.

12. Fire Scene Investigation

 This is an inquiry conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Fire Trucks
 The term usually means any other type of truck used to carry equipment or people to a fire or
emergency.

Fire Engines
 It has large pump that takes water from a small fire hydrant or other source.
 The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses.
 Engines carry several sizes of hoses and nozzles.
 Many also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line.
 Engines used for fighting grass or bush fire carry a tank of water and such tools as shovels
and rakes.

Ladder Trucks
 These are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes.
 These also carry forcible entry tools (axes, power saws, and sledge hammers) which
firefighters use to gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to let out smoke.

Kinds of Ladder Trucks

1. Aerial ladder truck

 It has metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable.
 The ladder can be raised as high as 100 feet (30 meters) or about eight – ten storeys.
2. Elevating-platform truck
 It has a cage - like platform that can hold several people.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 17

  The platform is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable.
 The lifting device consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) or an extendable boom
made of several sections that fit inside each other.
 The boom on the largest trucks can extend 150 feet (46 meters).
 A built-in hose runs the length of the boom and is used to direct water on a fire.
 In most cases, a pump in a nearby engine generates the pressure needed to spray the water.

Rescue Trucks
 These are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry tools that
ladder truck carry.
 They have such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal and hydraulic jacks,
for lifting heavy objects.
 It may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, commonly known by
the trade name Jaws of Life, firefighters can apply a large amount of pressure to two objects
to squeeze them together to or pry them apart. It is often used to free people trapped in
automobiles and other vehicles after the incident.
 It also carries small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for
rescuing people from water or high places.
 In addition it carries medical supplies and equipment.

Special Fire Vehicles

 It includes airport crash trucks and hazardous material trucks.
 Airport crash trucks are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water
is ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that involve jet fuel, gasoline, or
certain metals.

Protective Clothing
Firefighters require special clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, heat, toxic
gases or lack of oxygen, loss of vision, loss of communication, and physical damage.

Fire Ladder

Straight Ladder
 It is non-adjustable in length and consists only of one section.
 Sometimes called a wall ladder, used for quick access to windows and roofs of one and two-
storey buildings. (12’, 14’, 16’, 18’ and 24’)

Extension Ladder
 It is adjustable in length.
 It consists of two or more section, which travels in guides or brackets to permit length
adjustment.
 It provides access in windows and roofs within the limits of extendable length.

Roof Ladders
 It is designed for one specific function. However, it may be used for other purposes if
condition warrant.
 These are equipped with folding at the top and which provide a means of anchoring the
ladder over the roof ridge or other roof part.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 18

  These are generally equipped to lie flat on the roof surface so that firefighters may stand on
the ladder for roof work.
 Their length range from 12 to 20 feet.

Folding Ladders or Collapsible Ladders

 It provides a means of reaching through opening into attics and lofts and other areas which
are somewhat difficult to reach without a special ladder.
 It is constructed so that they can be folded or collapsed for small or closet work.
 These are usually short in length since they only require reaching a short distance.

Aerial Ladders
 is a mechanical unit generally operated by hydraulic power that is mounted / built chassis.
 The source of power is usually derived from apparatus engine which actuates a hydraulic
hoist.
 These are currently constructed of metal and are trusted to provide adequate strength.
 These generally range in length from 65 to 100 feet.

Tower Ladders
 Tower ladder apparatus combines some features of both aerial ladder equipment and
elevating platforms.

Pompier Ladders
 It consists of a large gooseneck hook at the tip, with a single bed through which the rungs
project.

Fire Hose and its Parts

Fire Hose
 A type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the source of
supply to a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire.

Hose Hoist
 It is a device over which rope or hose may be pulled to hoist or lower equipment when
firefighters are operating in buildings above the ground level.
 It consists of a metal frame, curved so that it will fit over a windowsill or the edge of the roof.
 It contains two or more rollers over which rope or hose may be drawn.
 This device reduce the possibility of cutting the hose on the sharp edge of the wall, cornice,
or roof while it is being raised or lowered.

Hose Clamp
 It is a tool to shut off the water in hose lines when other control valves are not applicable.
 It is used to replace a burst section of hose, to extend lines, or to hold water back for line
advancement without shutting off the source of supply.

Hose Jacket
 It is used to seal small cuts or breaks which may occur in fire hose or to connect damaged
couplings of the same size.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 19

Hose Spanner Wrench
 It is to tighten or loosen hose couplings, but this versatile tool can be used to close utility
cocks, pry, and hammer.

Fire Hose Rams and Ridges

 It protects hose from injuries from vehicles crossing hose lines.
 Firefighters at the nozzles will receive sudden jerks each time a wheel cuts off the water
momentarily.

Nozzle
 It is a piece of firefighting equipment used to direct and control a stream of water.
 The characteristics of the stream of water or fire stream are determined mainly by the nozzle.

Water Sprinkler System

 They are generally used to protect living quarters, adjacent and passageways.
 The system may extinguish fire in these places.
 Their primary function is to protect the building structure, limit the spread of fire and control
the amount of heat produced.
 They also protect the people in these areas and maintain escape routes.

Using the Right Fire Fighting Tools

Fire Category Burning Material Extinguishing Method Extinguishing Agent

Class A Ordinary combustible Cool below flash point Water
materials
Class B Flammable or combustible Cut oxygen supply Foam
liquids
Class C Electrical Equipment Cut oxygen supply Dry chemical powder
Class D Combustible metal Cut oxygen supply, cool Dry powder
below flash point
Class K Cooking Oils Cut oxygen supply, cool Dry chemical powder
below flash point

Specific Fire Fighting Tips

Upon discovery of Fire or Smoke

1. Remove persons from immediate danger.
2. Alert others in near vicinity and Administration
3. Contain Fire and Smoke (close doors)
4. Evacuate and/or Extinguish

It is a normal reaction for most people to immediately flee, at the first onset of fire. This is
certainly the safest personal approach to any fire. However, there are specific instances when you can
actually successfully fight fire, provided:
 The fire has just started, and it is still smalls
 You have the correct, appropriate firefighting equipment.
 You know what you are doing.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 20

 Assuming the above conditions, here are specific tips and firefighting techniques:
1. TIMING
2. Equipment Familiarity and Firefighting Practices

What to do if someone actually catches fire?

 Stop moving immediately.
 Drop to the ground or floor.
 Roll to smother the flames. If you have a fire blanket or damp clothing material, cover the
person as he or she rolls.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

The extinguishment of fire is based on an interruption of one or more of the essential elements in
the combustion process. With flaming combustion the fire may be extinguished by reducing temperature,
eliminating fuel or oxygen, or by stopping the uninhibited chemical chain reaction. If a fire is in the
smoldering mode of combustion, only three extinguishment options exist: reduction of temperature,
elimination of fuel or oxygen.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT THEORY

 
1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction
  One of the most common methods of extinguishment is by cooling with water.
 The process of extinguishment by cooling is dependent on cooling the fuel to a point where it
does not produce sufficient vapor to burn.
 If we look at fuel types and vapor production, we find that solid fuels and liquid fuels with
high flash points can be extinguished by cooling.
 Low flashpoint liquids and flammable gases cannot be extinguished by cooling with water as
vapor production cannot be sufficiently reduced.
 Reduction of temperature is dependent on the application of an adequate flow of water in
proper form to establish a negative heat balance.
 
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal
 In some cases, a fire is effectively extinguished by removing the fuel source.
 This may be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing
solid fuel in the path of the fire.
 Another method of fuel removal is to allow the fire to burn until all fuel is consumed (this
should be combined with the process of confinement).

3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution

 The method of extinguishment by oxygen dilution is the reduction of the oxygen
concentration in the fire area.
 This can be accomplished by introducing an inert gas into the fire or by separating the oxygen
from the fuel.
 This method of extinguishment will not work on self-oxidizing materials or on certain metals
as they are oxidized by carbon dioxide or nitrogen (the two most common extinguishing
agents)
 
4. Extinguishment by Chemical flame Inhibition
 Some extinguishing agents, such as dry chemicals and halons, interrupt the flame producing
chemical reaction, resulting in rapid extinguishment.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 21

  This method of extinguishment is effective only on gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in
the smoldering mode of combustion.
 If extinguishment of smoldering materials is desired, the addition of cooling capability is
required.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Portable fire extinguishers are designed to attack a fire in its initial stage. The selection of a
suitable extinguisher is primarily influenced by the following factors:
 the size and rate of fire spread
 the class of fire (i.e. type of materials involved)
 the training and capabilities of the person using the extinguisher

Note: Always follow the specific instructions on a fire extinguisher and familiarize yourself with
these instructions prior to an emergency situation. Persons should be trained in the use of extinguishers
to optimize their effectiveness.

General Guidelines for Using a Fire Extinguisher

1. raise the alarm, summon help and have someone call the fire service.
2. keep your escape path at your back. Never allow the fire to get between you and the escape path.
3. select the correct extinguisher for the class of fire
4. remember P.A.S.S.
… Pull the pin
… Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of flames
… Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright
… Sweep the extinguisher or nozzle from side to side covering the base of the fire.
5. observe fire after initial extinguishment, it may rekindle
6. the contents of small extinguishers may last as little as 8 seconds and up to 60 seconds for larger
extinguishers. The time to discharge an extinguisher depends on the type and size of the extinguisher

REMEMBER: Saving lives through a quick escape is far more important than saving property.

An emergency is not the time to read extinguisher instructions, if you do not know how to use the
extinguisher or the type of materials involved in the fire:
• Close the door to contain the fire
• Ensure everyone is out of the building
• Ring the fire service.
• Never go back into the building once out
• Wait to meet the fire service

Types of fire extinguishers

 Water (solid Red): wood and paper fires - not electrical
 Foam (Blue band): flammable liquid fires - not electrical
 Carbon Dioxide (Black band) electrical fires
 Dry Chemical (White band) flammable liquids and electrical fires
 Wet chemical (Oatmeal band) fat / oil fires - not electrical
 Special Purpose (Yellow band) various (eg. metal fires)

Fire extinguisher locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are color-coded according
to the extinguishing agent. The important thing to remember is that fire fighting must always be
secondary to the safety of people.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 22

Extinguishing Agent
- a substance that will put out a fire. Every extinguishing agent operates by attacking one or more
side of the fire tetrahedron. The specific actions involved are the following:

1. Cooling
 To reduce the temperature.
 This is a direct attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.

2. Smothering
 To separate the fuel from oxygen.

3. Oxygen dilution
 To reduce amount of available oxygen needed to sustain combustion.

4. Chain breaking
 To disrupt the chemical process that sustains the fire

Types of Extinguishing Agent:

1. Water Extinguishing Agent

 It is a liquid between the temperatures of 0 °C and 100 °C (32 °F and 212 °F); at 100 °C (212
°F) it boils and burns to steam.
 Fresh water weighs slightly less, and seawater slightly more.
 Being fluid and relatively heavy, water is easily transported through fire mains and hoses
when it is placed under pressure.

Extinguishing Capabilities of Water

 Water is primarily a cooling agent. It absorbs heat and cools burning materials more
effectively than any of the commonly used extinguishing agents.
 Water provides a smothering action.

2. Foam extinguishing agent

 A blanket of bubbles that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering.
 The bubbles are formed by mixing water and foam-making agent (foam concentrate). The
result is called foam solution.
 Various foam solutions are lighter than the lightest flammable oils.
 When applied to burning oils, they float on the surface of the oil.

Extinguishing effects of foam:

 Used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids, including oils.
 It has a cooling effect which is capable of extinguishing Class A fires.

3. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Agent

 It delivers a quick smothering action to flames, reducing oxygen and suffocating the fire.
 It dissipates without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue.
 It is a colorless and odorless gas, hence, will not damage clothing, equipment and other
valuable items.

Extinguishing Properties of Carbon Dioxide

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 23

  It extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the
oxygen content is too low to support combustion.
 It is effective on Class B fires, where the main consideration is to keep the flammable vapors
separated from oxygen in the air.

Limitations on the Use of Carbon Dioxide

 Effectiveness
- It is not effective on substances that contain their own oxygen.
- It is not effective on combustible metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, and
zirconium.
 Possibility of re ignition
- It has a very limited cooling capacity, hence, it takes time for the material to cool.
 Hazards
- It is suffocating in the concentration necessary for extinguishments. A person exposed to
this concentration would suffer dizziness and unconsciousness.

4. AFFF – Aqueous Film Forming Foam

 Light water.
 A synthetic foam-forming liquid designed for use with fresh water.
 When proportionally mixed with water, it generates white foam with a remarkable ability to
make a water float on flammable liquid which are lighter than water.
 This double action foam and aqueous film enhances extinguishments of flammable liquid
fires and prevent reflash.
 This action also takes place on spilled or leaking liquid fuels, which have not been ignited so
they are secured and are not readily ignited.

5. BCF-HALON 1211
 Stands for Bromochlorodifluoromethane
 One of the modern and effective fire-extinguishing agents available for general risk.
 Vaporizing liquid which will chemically interrupt the chain reaction taking place in the
flames.
 Has the ability to minimize the possibility to reflash after the fire has been extinguished.
 A colorless, non-corrosive liquefied gas that leaves no messy residue.
 Highly recommended for use in industrial factory, home computers and electronic companies,
motor vehicles, etc.

6. DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHING AGENT

 Chemicals in powder form.
 It should not be confused with dry powders which are intended only for combustible
materials.

Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical

 Cooling. No dry chemicals exhibit any great capacity for cooling. However, a small amount
of cooling takes place simply because the dry chemical is at lower temperature than the
burning material. Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel to the cooler dry chemical when the
latter is introduced to the fire.

 Smothering. When dry chemical react with the heat and burning material, some carbon
dioxide and water vapor are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the air surrounding
the fire. The result is a limited smothering effect.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 24

  Shielding of Radiant Heat. Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the combustion area.
This cloud reduces the amount of heat that is radiated back to the heart of fire, i.e., the opaque
cloud absorbs some of the radiation feedback that is required to sustain the fire. Lesser vapor
is produced, thus, the fire becomes less intense.

 Chain Breaking. Chain reactions are necessary for continued combustion. In these, chain
reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules are broken down by heat.

All dry chemical agents may be used to extinguish fires involving

 Flammable oils and greases
 Electrical equipment
 Hoods, ducts and cooking ranges in galleys and diet kitchens.
 Certain combustible solid such as pitch, naphthalene and plastics (except those that contain
their own oxygen)
 Machinery spaces, engine rooms and paint and tool lockers

DEFINITION OF TERMS (R.A. 9514)

Abatement. Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.

Bale. A large bundle or package of hay or a raw material such as cotton, tightly bound with string or wire
to keep it in shape during transportation or storage.

Blasting Agent. Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.

Blowout. A sudden release of oil and gas from a well.

Boil-over. The expulsion of crude oil (or certain other liquids) from a burning tank in which the light
fractions of the crude oil burn off producing a heat wave in the residue, which on reaching a water strata
may result in the explosion of the portion of the contents of the tank in the form of a froth.

Cargo Tank. Any tank having a liquid capacity more than four hundred fifty liters (450ℓ) used for
carrying flammable and combustible liquids.

City/Municipal Fire Marshal. The duly designated head of the City or Municipal Fire Station including
those designated as “Officer-in-Charge” or in an “Acting” capacity.

Chemical Plant. A large integrated plant or that portion of such plant other than a refinery or distillery
where flammable or combustible liquids are produced by chemical reactions or used in chemical
reactions.

Combustible Waste. Also known as loose waste material, are those generated by an establishment or
process and, being salvageable, are retained for scrap or reprocessing on the premises where generated.
These include, but not limited to, all combustible fibers, hay, straw, hair, feathers, down, wood shavings,
turnings, styropor, all types of plastics, all types of

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 25

paper products, soiled cloth trimmings and cuttings, rubber trimmings and buffings, metal fines, used oil
and any mixture of the above items, or any other salvageable combustible waste material.

Corrosive Liquid. Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with certain
chemicals.

Curtain Board. A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and extending
below the bottom chord of the roof trusses to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments
so that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.

Dust. Any finely divided solid, four millimeters (4 mm) or less in diameter which, if mixed with air in the
proper proportion, becomes explosive and may be ignited by a flame or spark or other source of ignition.

Ember. A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned, and is still oxidizing
without the manifestation of flames.
Fire Alarm. Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warn the occupants of the
building or fire fighting elements of the presence
or danger of fire.

Fire Alerting System. A fire alarm system activated by the presence of fire, where the signal is
transmitted to designated locations instead of sounding a general alarm.

Fire Brigade. A collective term that is used to refer to a group of firefighters, primarily performing fire
suppression activities in areas such as, but not limited to, community/barangay, company, and other
government and nongovernment establishments.

Fire Door. A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or partitions.

Fire Exit Drill. A practice drill for the orderly and safe evacuation of occupants in the buildings.

Fire Hazard. Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of the
occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the
safeguarding of life and property.

Fire Lane. The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and unobstructed at all
times for the expedient conduct of fire fighting operations.

Fire Resistance Rating. The time duration that a material or construction can withstand the effect of a
standard fire test.

Fire Safety Constructions. Refers to the design and installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows, vents,
means of egress and other elements integral to and incorporated into a building or structure in order to
minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the building is evacuated.

Fire Trap. A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it lacks adequate exits
or fire escapes.

Fire Volunteer. A person who voluntarily enters into firefighting service through a Fire Volunteer
Organization (FVO) and undergoes the same discipline as that of BFP firefighters.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 26

Fire Wall. A wall designed to prevent the spread of fire, having a fire resistance rating of not less than
four (4) hours with sufficient structural stability to remain standing even if construction on either side
collapses under fire conditions.

Flame Retardant. Any compound or mixture which when applied properly improves the resistivity or fire
resistance quality of fabrics and other materials.

Flame Spread Rating. The time in which flame will spread over the surface of a burning material.

Flammable Finishes. Are material coatings in which the material being applied is a flammable liquid,
combustible liquid, combustible powder or flammable or combustible gel coating.

Forging. A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.

Fulminate. A kind
Hazard Evaluation. Identification of potential hazards which includes risk evaluation that takes into
account the likelihood of the hazard resulting in a fire or explosion.

Hazardous Fire Area. Any area covered with dry grass, cogon, reeds, brush, and other highly
combustible growth or any area used for stockpiling of used or waste materials that, by virtue of exposure
to environment, may cause its deterioration, decomposition or other conditions that fires are likely to
occur therein and hard to suppress.

Hazardous Operation/Process. Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, or other similar

operations that use or produce materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.

Hose Box. A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored and arranged for fire
fighting.

Hose Reel. A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound and connected.

Jumper. Any piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical
system.

Occupant Load. The maximum number of persons that may be allowed to occupy a particular building,
structure, or facility, or portions hereof.

Occupant. Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions.

Overloading. The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consume electrical
current beyond the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.

Owner. The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real property.

Pyrophoric. Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.

Salvage Yards or Shops. An inclusive term that refers to wrecking yards, junk yards or waste material
handling plants/shops, which can be used interchangeably.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 27

Smelting. Refers to the process of melting or fusing metallic ores or compounds so as to separate
impurities from pure metals.

Source of Ignition. A source of energy sufficient to ignite a flammable atmosphere such as open flames,
smoking, incandescent material, electrical welding arcs, and electrical or mechanical equipment not
suitable for use in a particular hazard zone.

Sprinkler System. An integrated network of hydraulically designed piping system installed in a building,
structure or area with outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when
activated by heat or combustion products from a fire.

Standpipe System. A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on each
floor, including a system by which water is made available to water outlets as needed.

Toxicity. The degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism.

Ventilation. The process of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical means to or from any
space; also refers to the copious flushing of an area with fresh air for the
mitigation of explosion and other fire hazards.

Vertical Shaft. An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the
base to the top of a building.

Vestibule. A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house or
building.

FIRE INVESTIGATION

The process of determining the origin, cause and development of a fire or explosion.

A. Nature of Fire Investigation

A fire or explosion investigation is a complex endeavor involving both art and science. The
compilation of factual data, as well as an analysis of those facts, should be accomplished objectively and
truthfully.

B. Systematic Approach
The systematic approach recommended is that of the scientific method which is used in the
physical sciences. This method provides for the organizational and analytical process so desirable and
necessary in a successful fire investigation.

C. Relating Fire Investigation to the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a principal of inquiry that forms a basis for legitimate scientific and
engineering processes, including fire incident investigation.

The scientific method is applied using the following six steps:

 Recognize the need: In this case a fire or explosion has occurred and the cause must be
determined and listed so that future, similar incidents can be prevented.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 28

  Define the problem: Having determined that a problem exists; the investigator or analyst must
define in what manner the problem can be solved. In this case, a proper origin and cause
investigation must be conducted. This is done by examination of the scene and by a combination
of other data collection methods, such as the review of previously conducted investigations of the
incident, the interviewing of witnesses or other knowledgeable persons, and the results of the
scientific testing.
 Collect Data: Facts about the fire incident are now collected. This is done by observation,
experiment, or other direct data gathering means. This is called empirical data because it is based
upon observation or experience and is capable of being verified.
 Analyze the Data (Inductive Reasoning): All of the collected and observed information is
analyzed by inductive reasoning. This is the process in which the total body of empirical data
collected is carefully examined in the light of the investigator’s knowledge, training, and
experience.
 Develop Hypothesis: Based upon the data analysis, the investigator must now produce a
hypothesis or group of hypotheses to explain the origin and cause of the fire or explosion
incident. This hypothesis must be based solely upon the empirical data that the investigator has
collected.
 Test the Hypothesis (Deductive Reasoning): All other reasonable origins and causes must be
eliminated. This is done by the principle of deductive reasoning, in which the investigator
compares his or her hypotheses to all known facts. If the hypothesis cannot withstand, the fire
cause must be listed as “unknown”.

Basic Method of a Fire Investigation

Using the scientific method in most fire incidents should involve the following six major steps
from inception through final analysis.

 Receiving the Assignment: The investigator should be notified of the incident, what his or her
role will be, what he or she is to accomplish.
 Preparing for the Investigation: The investigator should marshal his or her forces and resources
and plan the conduct of the investigation.
 Examination of the Scene: The investigator should conduct the examination of the scene and
collect basic data necessary to the analysis.
 Recording the Scene: The scene should be photographed and diagrammed, and notes of the
progress of the investigation should be made. Valuable empirical data should be noted and
preserved.
 Collecting and Preserving Evidence: Valuable physical evidence should be recognized,
properly collected, and preserved for further testing and evaluation or for courtroom presentation.
 Analyzing the Incident: In incident scenario or failure analysis should be described, explaining
the origin, cause and responsibility for the incident. This analysis should be reported in the proper
forum to help prevent reoccurrence.

Basic Steps in a Fire Scene Investigation

 Search systematically  Check and verify
 Observe  Take note
 Take photograph  Draw diagrams
 Work by process of elimination (after
testing)

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 29

 Types of Fire Investigation

 Basic Investigation: Under this step, the concerns are

o To determine what property was damaged
o Causes and reasons
o The number and extent of injuries or fatalities
o The recommended corrective actions to prevent reoccurrence

 Technical Investigation: This focuses on:

o There is suspicion of arson in connection with any fire
o There is suspicion of negligence or violation of regulations
o The cause of any fire is undetermined (to establish the most probable cause)
o There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire suppression or rescue
operation.
o Loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.

 Arson Investigation
o The direct result of the basic or technical investigation or it may be brought about from
outside knowledge.

Personnel who are Qualified to Investigate Fires

 Should possess knowledge of investigative techniques

 Should have an insight of human behavior
 Should have a firsthand knowledge of the fire chemistry and behavior of fire
 Should be resourceful

Preliminary Legal Considerations

 Authority to Conduct the Investigation: The investigator should ascertain the basis and extent
of his or her authority to conduct the investigation. Normally, the authority is public or
governmental. Proper identification of the basis of authority will assist the investigator in
complying with applicable legal requirements and limitations.
 Right of entry: Once a legal entry onto the property has been established, the investigator should
notify any officer or authority then in charge of the scene of his or her entry. In the event that
destruction, disposal, or removal is authorized or necessary, the investigator should engage in
such act only after the scene has been properly recorded and the record has been verified as to
accuracy and completeness.
 Method of Entry: Whereas right of entry refers to the legal authority to be on a given premise or
fire scene. There are four general methods by which entry maybe obtained:
o Consent: The person in lawful control of the property can grant the investigator
permission or consent to enter and remain on the property. This is voluntary act on the
part of the responsible person and can be withdrawn at any time by that person. When
consent is granted, the investigator should document it.
o Exigent Circumstance: It is generally recognized that the fire department has the legal
authority to enter a property to control and extinguish a hostile fire. It is also been held
that the fire department has an obligation to determine the origin and cause of the fire in
the interest of the public good and general welfare.

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 30

 o Administrative Search Warrant: The purpose of an administrative search warrant is
generally to allow those charged with the responsibility, by ordinance or statute to
investigate the origin and cause of a fire and fulfill their obligation according to the law.
An administrative search warrant may be obtained from a court of competent jurisdiction
upon showing that consent has not been granted or has been denied.
o Criminal Search Warrant: The purpose of a criminal search warrant is to allow the
entry of government officials or agents to search for and collect any evidence of a crime.

Sources of Information

A. Purpose of Obtaining Information. The thorough fire investigation always involves the examination
of the fire scene, or by evaluating the prior documentation of that scene. The fire investigator should not
however, end with the mere examination of the fire scene.

B. Forms of Information: Sources of information will present themselves in different forms.

 Verbal: Sources which, maybe encountered by the fire investigator, may include but are not
limited to, verbal statements during interviews, telephone conversations, tape recording and the
like.
 Written: Sources may include, but are not limited to, written reports, written documents,
reference materials, newspapers and the like.
 Visual: Visual sources of information, by definition, are limited to those that are gathered
utilizing the sense of sight. Sources may include but are not limited to, photographs, videotapes,
motion pictures, and computer generated animations.
 Electronic: Computers have become an integral part of modern information and data systems. As
such, the computer system maintained by any particular source of information may provide a
wealth of information relevant to the fire investigation.

Origin Determination

Determination of the origin of the fire will frequently involve the coordination of information
derived from:
 The physical marks (fire patterns) left by the fire
 The observations reported by person who witnessed the fire or were aware of the conditions
present at the time of the fire
 The analysis of the physics and chemistry of fire initiation, development, and growth as an
instrument to related known or hypothesized fire conditions capable of producing those
conditions.

There is no single item sufficient to establish the origin of fire, thus the investigator must use all
the available resources in developing potential scenarios and determining which scenarios plausibly
fit all of the evidence available. It is important that the determination of a single point of origin not be
made unless the evidence is conclusive.

The purpose of determining the origin of the fire is to identify the geographical location where
the fire began. If the specific location where the heat source ignited the first fuel can be identified,
then the point of origin can be determined.

Generally, the various activities of origin determination will follow a routine sequence, while the
specific actions within each activity are taking place at the same time. Investigator should establish a
systematic procedure to follow for each type of incident. By following a familiar procedure, the

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 31

 investigator can concentrate on the incident at hand and not have to dwell on the details of what the
next step in the procedure will be.

Recommended Techniques to Follow when Examining a Fire Scene

A. Fire Damage Assessment: These assessments include recognizing and documenting heat
movement and intensity patterns and analyzing the importance and direction of each pattern
found.
B. Notes: The investigator should be making detailed, written, or tape-recorded notes. These notes
should list all the pertinent observations, including the type, location, description, and
measurements of the patterns and other details.
C. Photography: The patterns should be photographed several different ways as to effectively show
their shape, patterns, size and the location within the fire scene.
D. Vector Diagrams: Vectoring is applied by constructing a diagram of the scene including; walls,
doorways, and doors, windows, and any pertinent furnishings or contents. Then through the use
of arrows, the investigators note his or her interpretations of the direction of heat and flame
spread.
E. Depth-of-Char Survey Grid Diagram: For analysis purposes, the investigator can construct a
depth-of-char grid diagram. On this diagram, the char measurements are recorded on graph paper
to a convenient scale.

Cause Determination

The determination of the cause of a fire requires the identification of those circumstances and
factors that were necessary for the fire to have occurred.

The circumstances and factors include but are not limited to: device or equipment involved in the
ignition, the presence of the competent ignition source, the type and form of the material first ignited, and
the human actions that allowed the factors to come together so as to allow the fire to occur.

A. Classification of the Cause:

 Accidental Fire Cause
 Natural Fire Cause
 Incendiary Fire Cause
 Undetermined Fire Cause

Safety

Fire scenes by their nature are dangerous places. Fire investigators have a duty to themselves and
to others who may be endangered at fire scenes to exercise due caution during their investigations.

A. Investigating the Scene Alone: Fire scene examinations should not be undertaken alone. A
minimum of two individuals should be present. In that way, if an investigator should become
trapped or injured, assistance would be at hand.
B. Safety Clothing and Equipment
C. Fire Scene Hazards
D. Personal Health and safety
E. Factors Influencing Scene Safety
a. Status of suppression c. Utilities
b. Structural stability d. Standing water

UC CCJE Notes in CDI 5 (2015) – Page 32

 F. Safety of Bystanders
G. Safety of the Fire Scene Atmosphere

Arson Investigation

Republic Act No. 6975

 It is otherwise known as the DILG Act of 1990.
 It created the Bureau of Fire Protection, referred to as the Fire Bureau under Rule VIII, Section
49.

Powers and Functions of the Fire Bureau:

 The Fire Bureau is held responsible for the prevention and suppression of destructive fires on
buildings, houses, and other structures, forests, land transportation vehicles and equipment, ships
or vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major seaports, petroleum industry
installations, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire code
and other related laws.
 It is also empowered to investigate all causes of fires and, if necessary, file the proper complaints
with the city or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case.
 It is a community-oriented government agency that provides assistance to the citizenry not only
during fire but also in times of typhoons, floods, earthquakes, vehicular accidents, and various
other calamities.
 It primary mission is to serve the fire safety needs of the country,
 It is also active in rescue, evacuation, and paramedic and relief operation in any life-threatening
situation.

Act No. 3815 (Revised Penal Code)

 It took effect in January 1, 1932.
 It penalizes the crime of arson under Article 320-326b.

Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the laws on Arson

Section 1. Arson. Any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished
by Prision Mayor.
The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property under
circumstances which expose to danger the life or property of another.

Section 2. Destructive Arson. The penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period to
Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or
combustible materials are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education
or social services.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of
persons or property
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other
official proceedings.
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or
private market, theater or movie house or any similar place or building.
7. Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 33

Section 3. Other Cases of Arson. The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be
imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies;
2. Any inhabited house or dwelling;
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
4. Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest;
4. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central; and
5. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.

Section 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson. The penalty in any case of arson shall be
imposed in its maximum period;
1. If committed with intent to gain;
2. If committed for the benefit of another;
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property
burned;
4. If committed by a syndicate.
The offense is committed by a syndicate if it is planned or carried out by a group of three
(3) or more persons.

Section 5. Where Death Results from Arson. If by reason of or on the occasion of the arson death results,
the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to death shall be imposed (consider R.A. 9346).

Section 6. Prima Facie evidence of Arson. Any of the following circumstances shall constitute prima
facie evidence of arson:
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment.
2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building not
necessary in the business of the offender nor for household us.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or combustible substances or materials
soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic
contrivance designed to start a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the
ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of
the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and/or
insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building or
property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in exchange
for the desistance of the offender or for the safety of the person or property of the victim.

Section 7. Conspiracy to commit Arson. Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by Prision Mayor
in its minimum period.

Section 8. Confiscation of Object of Arson. The building which is the object of arson including the land
on which it is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the State, unless the owner thereof can prove
that he has no participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite the exercise of due diligence on his
part.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 34

Section 9. Repealing Clause. The provisions of Articles 320 to 326-B of the Revised Penal Code and all
laws, executive orders, rules and regulations, or parts thereof, inconsistent with the provisions of this
Decree are hereby repealed or amended accordingly.

Section 10. Effectivity. This Decree shall take effect immediately upon publication thereof at least once in
a newspaper of general circulation.
 Done in the City of Manila, this 7th day of March, in the year of Our Lord, nineteen hundred and
seventy-nine.

Arson
 It is the malicious or intentional destruction of property by fire.
* Intent must be proven, otherwise, no crime exists.
* The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence designs must be shown.
* Fire caused by accident or negligence (if proven) does not constitute arson.

What constitutes arson?

a. Burning: There must be burning or charring (state where the fiber of the wood are destroyed or
decomposed, its identity or physical state changed).
b. Willfulness: The act was done purposely and intentionally
c. Motive: The moving cause that induces the commission of the crime
d. Malice: It denotes hatred or a desire for revenge
e. Intent: The purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will to do the act.

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

 Kind and character of the building burned
 Location of the building
 Extent or value of the damage
 Whether inhabited or not

Methods of proof of arson

Physical evidences of arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, corpus delicto
must be shown and identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus delicto is the fact that a crime has
been committed. The following must show it:
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complainant, firemen
responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate
location.
2. Criminal design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of
incendiary devices, flammable substances / materials such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate
that the fire is not accidental.
3. Evidence of intent – when valuables were removed from the building before the fire, ill-feeling
between the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put off the
fire and such other indications.

Basic Lines of Inquiry in Arson Investigation

A. Point of origin
This is the important point to be established. It is established by examining the witnesses, by
inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprints of fire. The fingerprint of fire
occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decompositions move upward on walls
leaving a burnt pattern (alligator pattern).

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 35

 Note the following fire setting mechanism:
1. Candles 2. Matches 3. electrical system 4. chemical methods

B. Motives of Arsonist
To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following that fires
are set by:

Motives of Arsonists
1. Economic gain
a. insurance fraud
b. desire to dispose merchandise
c. existing business transactions that the arsonist would like to avoid such as impending
liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash, prospective business failure, and
increase rentals
d. profit by the perpetrator other than the assured like insurance agents wishing business
with the assures, business competitors planning to drive others, person seeking job as
personnel protection, salvagers and contractors wishing to contact another building.
2. Concealment of crime
3. Punitive measure – due to hatred, jealousy and revenge
4. Intimidation or economic disabling

* pyromania – uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motivation.

Pyromaniacs do not run away from the fire scene since they love watching fire
burning.

Types of pyromaniac
a. abnormal youth
b. hero type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the
alarm or make some rescue works to appear as hero.
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts

C. Prime Suspects
The development of prime suspects involves the identification results from the full
development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the
development of expert testimony. The following technique may serve the investigation:
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other person
having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogation of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who turned the first
alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance

D. The Tell tale signs of Arson

These signs maybe obvious that the first firemen at the scene will suspect arson:
1. Burnt building – the type of the building may indicate a set of fire under certain circumstance.
2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires break out within a building, the fire certainly is
suspicious.
3. Color of smoke – some fire with little or no smoke must be made at the start of the fire scene
once the fire has assumed a major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke
will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 36

 a. When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the
fire, it indicates humid material burning such as burning hay, vegetable fibers,
phosphorous (with garlic odor).
b. Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing -
indicates plastic products and rubber.
c. Black smoke indicates lack of air. If accompanied by large flames, it indicates petroleum
products and rubber.
d. Reddish-brown smoke indicated nitrocellulose – HSO4, HNO3 or HCl
e. Meaning of color of smoke and fire:
- Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics,
etc.
- Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
- White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
- Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
- Purple / violet – potassium products
- Greenish-yellow flame – chloride or manganese products
- Bright reddish yellow flame – calcium products
- Gray or white smoke – burning dry wood
- Gray smoke with blowing ash – loosely packed organic matter such as straw or
wallpaper
E. Color of flame – the color of flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important
factor in determining incendiarism.
F. Amount of Heat – a reddish glow indicates heat of 500 degrees centigrade; a real bright red
about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate petroleum. Blue flame indicates the use of
alcohol as accelerant.
G. Smoke marks – Investigator shall determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the
characters as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere.
H. Size of fire – Fire makes what is termed a normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after
an examination of the material burned in the building and the normal ventilation offered by the
fire. The time element and the degree of headway by the flames to determine the factors of
possible incendiarism.
I. Direction of travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can be
shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials,
combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of
alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread abnormally fast. (upward /
lateral)
J. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame. This oftentimes
indicate that some accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a building and
the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing a fire often led to suspect presence of such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.
K. Odor – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often
used as accelerant and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of the
fire-setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain and at the same time
burn up any evidence of their crime.
L. Condition of Content – persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of
value either materially or sentimentally.

Testimonial Evidence of Arson

To corroborate the physical evidence that you will have on hand, testimonial evidence is always
resorted to. Besides, as an investigator, it is impossible to observe everything directly. Undeniably, the
investigator has to be precise with his observation what others did observe. Persons who actually saw

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 37

what happened should therefore be availed of. If nobody saw all the incidents, insert his observation to
the entire picture. It will be found that all the witnesses will differ in many factors, like their willingness,
intelligence or capacity to report accurately or correctly. Their reports should be carefully studied and
accordingly judged and interpreted. Witnesses who are intelligent, trained and expert can easily have
their testimony gain acceptance in court.

Who can be witnesses?

Section 20 of the Revised Rules on Evidence provides that “except as provided in the next
succeeding section, all persons who, can perceive, and perceiving, can make known their perception to
others, may be witnesses”.
“Religious or political belief, interest in the outcome of the case, or conviction of a crime unless
otherwise provided by law shall not be a ground for disqualification.
1. Starting from the person who turned in the alarm
2. Those who suffered injuries in the fire should be interviewed.
3. The occupants and employees of the building
4. The spectators
5. The bookkeeper or accountant
6. The firemen
7. The first person who discovered the fire
8. The last person in the premises
9. The owners of banks
10. The police department
The Role of Circumstantial Evidence in Arson Investigation
Circumstantial evidence is sufficient for conviction if:
- There is more than one circumstance.
- The facts from which the inferences are derived or are proven.
- The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce a conviction beyond a
reasonable doubt.
As the crime of arson is difficult to establish, and convictions are so hard to get, those whose job
is to bring the facts in court, should most often rely upon circumstantial evidence to prove their facts.
One reason for the difficulty is that the incendiary does not invite witnesses to see him set the fire. There
has been a saying by people, “you cannot prove arson unless someone saw the arsonist light the match”.
But those who have placed themselves seriously in fire investigation know that such statement is not true
and that arson can be built by circumstantial evidence, as it is indeed a rare case in which there is an
eyewitness to the deed.

Example of Circumstantial Evidence

- Testimony of a witness that the accused was the only person who had been in the burned house from
the time he was seen leaving it five minutes before the outbreak of the fire up to the actual occurrence
of the fire.
- Fingerprints of the accused on a gasoline container.
- Testimony of a witness saying he smelled odor of gasoline emanating from the house shortly before
the fire.
- Excessive insurance
- Movable property removed just before the fire
- Separate fires
- Alibi – the usual form of alibi is that accused shows that he was somewhere when the crime was
committed and therefore, it would have been impossible for him to be the author of the crime
charged. One way of destroying alibi is to exclude alibi witnesses and to examine each one of them
in the minute’s detail.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 38

 Recording the Scene

In recording any fire or explosion scene, the investigator’s goal is to record the scene through a
medium that will allow the investigator to recall his or her observations at a later date and to document
the conditions at the scene. Common methods of accomplishing this goal include the use of photographs,
videotapes, diagrams, maps, overlays, recording and notes.

A. Photography
a. A visual documentation of the fire scene can be made using either film or video
photography.
b. They are the most efficient reminders of what the investigator saw while at the scene.
c. They can also substantiate reports and statements of the investigator

B. Timing
a. Photographs taking during or as soon as practical after a fire are an important means of
recording the fire scene, as the scene may become altered, disturbed, or even destroyed.
Some reasons why time is important include:
i. The building is in danger of imminent collapse or the structure must be
demolished for safety reasons.
ii. The condition of the building contents creates environmental hazards that needs
immediate attention.
iii. Evidence must be documented when discovered as layers of debris are removed,
documenting the layers can also assist in understanding the course of the fire.
C. Basics
a. The most fundamental aspect of photography that the investigator should grasp and
comprehend is how a camera works.
b. One of the most important aspects to remember about fire investigation photography is
light. The average fire scene consists of blackened subjects and blackened background
creating much less than ideal conditions for taking a photograph.

D. Composition and Techniques

a. In fire investigation, a series of photographs should be taken to portray the structure and
contents that remain at the fire scene.
b. The investigators generally take a series of photographs working from the outside toward
the inside of the structure.
c. From the unburned toward the heaviest burned areas.
d. The concluding photographs are usually of the area and point of origins as well as any
elements of the cause of the fire.

E. Sequential Photos
a. Sequential photographs are helpful in understanding the relationship of a small subject to
its relative position in a known area. The small object is first photographed from a distant
position where it is shown in context with its surrounding. Additional photographs are
then taken increasingly closer until the subject is the focus of the entire frame.
F. Mosaics
a. This is created by assembling a number of photographs in overlay form to give a more
than peripheral view of an area.
G. Assisting Photographer
a. If a person other than the fire investigator is taking the photographs, the angles and
composition need to be supervised by the fire investigator to ensure the shots needed to
document the fire are obtained.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 39

H. Suggested Activities to be Documented
a. During the Fire
i. These help show the fire’s progression as well as fire department operations. The
documentation should include suppression activities, overhaul, and the origin and
cause investigation
b. Crowd or People Photographs
i. Photographs of people in crowd are often valuable for identifying individuals
who may have additional knowledge that can be valuable to the overall
investigation.

c. Fire Suppression Activities

i. All aspects that include hydrant location, engine company position, hose lays,
attack line locations and other.
d. Exterior Photographs
i. A series of exterior shots should be taken to establish the location of a fire scene.
ii. Street signs, numerical address, or landmarks that can be readily identified and
are likely to remain for sometime should be photographed.
iii. Surrounding areas that would represent remote evidence, such as fire protection
and exposure damage, should also be photographed
e. Structural Photographs
i. Structural photographs document the damage to the structure after heat and flame
exposure.
ii. Structural photos can expose burn patterns to track the evolution of the fire and
can assist in understanding the fire origin.
iii. A recommended procedure is to include as much as possible all exterior angles
and views of the structure. This is necessary for a full explanation of a condition.
iv. Photographs of structural failures such as windows, roofs or walls should be
taken because such failures can change the route of fire travel and play a
significant role in the eventual outcome of the fire.

f. Interior Photographs
i. All ventilation points accessed or created by the fire should be photographed, as
well as all smoke, heat, and burn patterns.
ii. Rooms within the immediate area of the fire origin should be photographed even
if there is no damage. Closets and cabinet interiors should also be documented.
iii. All furniture should be photographed in its original position before and after
reconstruction as well as any protected areas left by any furnishings or other
contents.
iv. The position of doors and windows
v. Interior fire protection device
vi. Clocks should be photographed to indicate the time power was discontinued to
them or the time in which fire or heat physically stopped their movement.
g. Evidence Photographs
i. Items of evidentiary value should be photographed at the scene and can be re-
photographed at the investigator’s office or laboratory if a more detailed view is
needed.
ii. If photographs are taken in an archeological manner, the location and the position
of evidence that can be of vital importance will be documented permanently.
iii. Photographs orient the articles of evidence in their original location as well as
show their condition when found.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 40

 h. Aerial Photographs
i. The views from a high vantage point, which can be an aerial fire apparatus,
adjacent building, from an airplane or helicopter can often reveal fire spread and
patterns.

Fire Investigation Drawings

After selecting the level of detail to which a drawing will be made, the fire investigator needs to
decide how to record the damage patterns observed during the investigation. Supplemented by
photographs, drawings of damage provide good documentation of a fire scene and can assist the
investigator in re-analyzing a fire scene if previously unknown information becomes available.

A. Selection of Drawings
a. In selecting the type of drawing to obtain or create, the investigator should ask what
construction features, equipment, or other factors were important to the cause, origin and
spread of the fire.
b. Example: if the building caught fire due to an adjoining burning building, then a plan
showing the location of the two buildings would be important.

B. Symbols
a. The selection of drawing symbols is the investigator’s decision, most importantly, the
investigator should be consistent with the symbols used on a fire scene.

C. Minimum Drawings
a. In all fire cases the minimum drawing should consist of a simple sketch. A typical
building sketch would show the relative locations of rooms, stairs, windows, doors and
associated damage. These drawings can be done freehand with dimensions that are paced
off or approximated.

Lectures Notes on CDI 5 – page 41