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CHAPTER ONE

MEASUREMENT IN CHEMISTRY

1.1 The metric system

1.2 Accuracy and degree of precision

1.3 Calculations with measured quantities—addition and subtraction

1.4 Calculations with measured quantities—multiplication and division

1.5 The calculator and arithmetic

1.6 Exact numbers are treated differently from measured numbers

1.7 Conversion ratios and the factor label method

1.8 Working with large and small numbers—scientific notation

1.9 The calculator and scientific numbers

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Chemists make observations and often record these observations as

numerical measurements. These measurements include both a number and its

‘units’. As you will see, the units of a measurement are just as important as the

number in the measurement. The units describe the kind of measurement that

has been made. For example, a measurement of length is not expressed in

seconds because seconds is a measure of time, not length. This chapter defines

the important units used in chemistry and illustrates the ways we can use these

units to help us perform calculations.

The most fundamental measurements are those of length, mass and time.

Chemists also often make measurements of volume in order to measure

quantities of solutions, liquids and gases. This chapter, therefore, covers

measurements of length, mass, time and volume. Later, you will be introduced to

other kinds of measurements expressed in the units of ‘moles’ in Chapter 2 and

‘calories’ in Chapter 4.

All measurements are made relative to a defined scale expressed as

‘units’ such as inches or centimeters. For example, we hold a ruler next to the

side of a book to measure its length. The ruler is marked off in a set of arbitrarily

defined units. In the English system these units are called ‘inches’. In the metric

system different arbitrary lengths called ‘centimeters’ are marked on a meter stick

(Figure 1.1).

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Figure 1.1 This ruler can be used to measure a length in inches (top scale) or centimeters(lower

scale). Regardless of the length it measures, 1 inch is equivalent to 2.54 centimeters.

1.1 THE METRIC SYSTEM

Many different arbitrary sets of length and other measurements have been

invented by many different groups of people all over the world. As you will see,

the metric system is the easiest system of measurement to use and, therefore,

the only system used by scientists.

Any system devised to measure a quantity such as length must first define

an arbitrary length as the basic unit and then define larger and smaller units

relative to this basic unit. In the English system, the ‘foot’ is defined as 12 inches

while 1 ‘yard’ is defined as 3 feet. An important disadvantage of this system is

that conversion between feet and inches or inches and yards is arithmetically

difficult. For example, you must divide by 12 to convert 67 inches to the

equivalent number of feet—an awkward division to perform. In the late eighteen

century, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier invented the metric system—a

system that avoided the arithmetic difficulties posed by systems like the English

system.

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Lavoisier wanted to invent a system of measurement that everyone in the

world would be willing to use—voluntarily. He, and others, recognized that world

trade would benefit tremendously from a universal system of measurement. No

longer would the Chinese have to convert their measurement of length of cloth to

the French or English system when trading in Europe. Traders from everywhere

would immediately be able to compare the prices of goods because quantities

would be measured in the same units. However the question remained, “How do

you convince everybody in the world to adopt your system?” Clearly, you must

make your system easy to use. Lavoisier recognized a system based on the

decimal system would be the easiest to use.

Our numbering system is based on the Arabic ‘decimal system’. We have

nine symbols, or digits, representing numerical quantities and the ‘0’ representing

the zero quantity. In the Arabic system, the value of a symbol such as ‘2’

depends upon where it appears in a string of digits. For example, the digit ‘2’

signifies 200 in the hundreds place of a number but 2000 when found in the

thousands place. Each place is ten times greater than the place to its right and

ten times smaller than the place to its left. Thus you can multiply any number by

ten by moving the decimal place one place to the right. Similarly, we divide a

number by ten by moving the decimal place one place to the left. For example,

456 divided by ten is 45.6 while 456 times ten is 4560. Moving the decimal point

three times to the left or right accomplishes the division or multiplication of any

number by 1000.

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EX 1.1 Perform the following arithmetic.

456 x 10 = 4560 456 / 10 = 45.6

456 x 100 = 45,600 456 / 100 = 4.56

456 x 1000 = 456,000 456 / 1000 = 0.456

Lavoisier defined the metric system to fit the Arabic decimal system. He

1
defined a particular length to be ‘1 meter’ and then divided this length into
10

1 1
lengths (called ‘decimeters’ dm), lengths (called ‘centimeters’ cm) and
100 1000

lengths (called ‘millimeters’ mm). He invented larger units of length by defining

1000 meters as ‘1 kilometer’ (km).

10 dm = 1 m

100 cm = 1 m

1000 mm = 1 m

1 km = 1000 m

Converting between one set of units and another becomes no more

difficult than moving the decimal point. For example the quantity 45.89 m can be

converted to dm, cm, or mm by moving the decimal point once, twice or three

times to the right. This is equivalent to multiplying the 45.89 m by 10, 100, or

1000. The quantity 45.89 m can be converted to the equivalent number of km by

moving the decimal point three places to the left. Moving the decimal three

places to the left is equivalent to dividing the 45.89 m by 1000.

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EX 1.2 Perform the following conversions within the metric system by moving

the decimal point.

45.89 m = 458.9 dm

10 dm
(45.89 m) x ( ) = 458.9 dm
1m

45.89 m = 4589 cm

10 0 cm
(45.89 m) x ( ) = 4589 cm
1m

45.89 m = 45,890 mm

10 00 mm
(45.89 m) x ( ) = 45,890 mm
1m

45.89 m = 0.04589 km

1 km
(45.89 m) x ( ) = 0.04589 km
1000 m

Lavoisier developed similar decimal relationships between metric units for

mass and volume. His mass units, for example, are defined so that 1 gram is

equivalent to 1000 mg and 1000 g is equivalent to 1 kg (Table 1.1). Lavoisier

defined the unit of volume, 1 liter (1 L), as the volume of a cubic box 10 cm on

each side (Figure 1.2). A cubic box that is 10 cm on each side has a volume of

1000 cm3 and is defined as 1 liter. A liter can also be imagined as divided into

1000 smaller equal volumes called ‘milliliters’ (mL). In this way the metric system

of length (centimeters) is directly related to the units of volume (milliliters).

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 or 1 mL = 1 cm3

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Figure 1.2 A 1 L box measures 10 cm on each side. The volume of this box can be defined as

either 1000 mL or 1000 cm3.

TABLE 1.1

Definitions of metric units.

Length

1 m = 100 cm or 1 cm = 0.01 m

1 m = 1000 mm or 1 mm = 0.001 m

1 m = 1,000,000 μm = 1 x 106 μm or 1 μm = 0.000001 m = 1 x 10-6 m

1 km = 1000 m

Mass

1 g = 100 cg or 1 cg = 0.01 g

1 g = 1000 mg or 1 mg = 0.001 g

1 g = 1,000,000 μg = 1 x 106 μg or 1 μg = 0.000001 g = 1 x 10-6 g

1 kg = 1000 g

Volume

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm 3

1 cm3 = 1 mL

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EX 1.3 Convert the following quantity to the required equivalent units.

84.5 m = ______ cm (84.5 m = 8450 cm) –decimal 2 places to right)

10 0 cm
(84.5 m) x ( ) = 8450 cm
1m

9.56 g = ______ mg (9.56 g = 9560 mg) –decimal 3 places to right)

10 00 mg
(9.56 g) x ( ) = 9560 mg
1g

8.09 mg = _____ g (8.09 mg = 0.00809 g) –decimal 3 places to left)

1g
(8.09 mg) x ( ) = 0.00809 g
1000 mg

9.00 g = _____kg (9.00 g = 0.00900 kg) –decimal 3 places to left)

1 kg
(9.00 g) x ( ) = 0.00900 kg
1000 g

45.0 mL = _____L (45.0 mL = 0.0450 L) –decimal 3 places to left)

1L
(45.0 mL) x ( ) = 0.0450 L
1000 mL

The basic metric units have been divided into even smaller quantities to

satisfy the requirements of increasingly sophisticated technology. For example,

today many medications are administered in very small quantities, one millionth

of a gram or 0.000001 g. The unit ‘microgram’ or μg is used to measure these

small masses. As with other metric prefixes, the ‘μ’ symbol means one millionth

of any unit. For example, 1 μm means 0.000001 m.

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As you read the text, you will notice that, although units such as dm and

cg are defined in the metric system, some of these units are not used very often.

There is no particular reason for this—some units are not convenient because

the quantities they measure are not often used in the laboratory. This text uses

the common units used in everyday chemistry and science—the same units

found in other chemistry texts.

Some metric units used in medicine have slightly different abbreviations.

For example, the abbreviation ‘cc’ is often used in the place of cm 3 (cubic

centimeters). Similarly, the symbol ‘mcg’, is used in medicine to mean

micrograms, μg. You will find that medicine is slowly eliminating the old symbols

of cc and mcg in favor of the more conventional cm3 and μg.

P 1.1 Convert the following quantities to the required equivalent units.

a. 0.0045 kg = ________ g

b. 9.45 mL = ______ cm3

c. 9.023 L = _______ mL

d. 9.0056 mm = _______ m

e. 12.9 g = ________ mg

1.2 ACCURACY AND DEGREE OF PRECISION

The instruments we use to make measurements vary in both their

accuracies and their precisions. Accuracy refers to how ‘good’ a measurement

the instrument can make. Precision, on the other hand, refers to how precisely

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such a measurement is made. It is possible to have a very accurate instrument

that nevertheless makes very imprecise or inconsistent measurements.

Similarly, you can have an instrument that is extremely precise and consistent

but inaccurate (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 The difference between accuracy is illustrated in these four different results of target

shooting. The second and fourth targets demonstrate precise shooting—all the bullets hit the

target in the same place. In the fourth target, the result was also accurate because the shots hit

the center of the target. In the third target we see accurate shooting but not very precise

shooting—the shots more or less hit the center of the target but are fairly scattered. The first

target shows the result of both inaccurate and imprecise shooting.

The smallest increment of measure marked on the instrument determines

its precision and is established by examining the instrument. On the other hand,

we determine the accuracy of an instrument experimentally by using the

instrument to measure a standard quantity. Scientists describe instruments in

terms of their accuracy and precision, two different properties having definite and

different meanings.

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For example, a meter stick is extremely accurate if it has been properly

made in accordance with strict standards of construction. Its length must be

equal to a universal standard. It must be constructed out of material that will not

warp, expand or contract. As you can imagine, some meter sticks are much

more accurate than others, depending upon cost and the care with which they

were made.

The precision of a meter stick or any other instrument depends upon the

size of the smallest increment marked on the instrument. In other words,

precision is determined by how ‘fine’ the markings are on the instrument. The

meter stick generally used in conventional laboratories is marked in increments

of 0.1 cm (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Most laboratory meter sticks are marked in increments of 0.1 cm. The large ‘40’

represents 40 cm, the smaller numbers ’41, 42, and 43 represent 41 cm, 42 cm, and 43 cm.

Between each 1 centimeter increment are ten small lines representing 0.1 centimeter increments.

You determine the accuracy of an instrument by comparing its

measurement with a known standard. If your measurement of the standard

corresponds closely to its given value, then your instrument is accurate. For

example, you might use your meter stick to measure a length known to be

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exactly one meter. The more closely your measurement agrees with the

standard 1 meter length, the more accurate your instrument.

You examine the markings on an instrument to determine its degree of

precision. An instrument’s degree of precision is defined as 1/10 smaller than

the smallest increment marked on the instrument. For example, the meter stick

in Figure 1.4 is marked in 0.1 cm increments and must therefore be read to the

nearest 0.01 cm.

Scientists must make a detailed description of how they standardized an

instrument to establish its accuracy. On the other hand, it is much easier to

describe an instrument’s precision by recording measurements in a standard

manner.

Scientists follow a simple convention to indicate the degree of precision an

instrument. All measurements are recorded to a degree of precision equal to

1/10 smaller than the smallest marking on the instrument. For example, in Figure

1.5 we see three different graduated cylinders. The first cylinder is marked in

increments of 0.1 mL and so reading are always made to the nearest 0.01 mL

when using this cylinder. The second cylinder is marked in 1 mL increments and

so is read to the nearest 0.1 cm. The third cylinder is marked in 10 mL

increments and so is read to the nearest 1 mL.

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Figure 1.5 Each of these cylinders is read to a different degree of precision because each

cylinder is marked differently.

We make measurements to a degree of precision equal to 1/10 the

smallest increment on the instrument for a very simple reason. While we can

divide the distance between the smallest marked increments on any instrument

into 10 equal imaginary divisions, we cannot divide such a distance into 100

equal imaginary divisions. In other words, we can estimate by one-tenths in an

unmarked distance but not by one-hundredths.

Any recorded measurement, then, contains three important pieces of

information—(a) the numerical value of the measurement (b) the units of the

measurement and (c) the degree of precision with which the measurement was

made . A properly recorded degree of precision tells the reader how the

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instrument was marked and is an important piece of information expressed in a

measured value. A properly recorded measurement cannot, however, tell the

reader anything about the accuracy with which the measurement was made.

Scientists place great importance on recording their observations to the

correct degree of precision. For example, if a scientist wants to prove that a

metal bar gets longer when heated, she might compare the bar’s length at room

temperature with its length at several thousand degrees Celsius. If she expects

a 1 meter bar to get 1 mm longer when heated, it is pointless to conduct the

experiment with a meter stick marked in 10 cm increments. She can only guess

to the nearest 1 cm and so a 1 mm (0.1 cm) change in length would be

overlooked in her experiment. Similarly, if she claimed to have observed a

0.1 cm change in length using a meter stick marked in 10 cm increments, others

would want to know how she could have made such an observation. Regardless

of how accurate the meter stick might be, a scientist could not observe such a

small change with an instrument marked in such large increments.

Although we cannot indicate the accuracy of an instrument in a recorded

measurement, we can and must indicate the degree of precision to which the

instrument can measure. We always record a measurement to a degree of

precision that is 1/10 smaller than the smallest increment on the instrument.

Even if a reading falls exactly on a mark, we must indicate an appropriate degree

of precision determined by the smallest increments on the instrument. For

example, a reading that falls exactly on the 5 mL mark of the first cylinder shown

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in Figure 1.5 is recorded as 5.00 mL. The same reading on the second

graduated cylinder is recorded as 5.0 mL and on the third, as 10 mL.

P1.2 What would be the proper measurement if ‘exactly’ 55 mL of water were

placed in the following graduated cylinders?

a. a cylinder marked in 100 mL increments

b. a cylinder marked in 10 mL increments

c. a cylinder marked in 1 mL increments

d. a cylinder marked in 0.1 mL increments

e. a cylinder marked in 0.01 mL increments

P 1.3 What is the smallest increment on instruments that made the following

measurements?

a. 1450 g

b. 1.98 cm

c. 9.00 mL

d. 4567.1 s

e. 0.01 g

1.3 CALCULATIONS WITH MEASURED QUANTITIES—ADDTION AND SUBTRACTION

A measured quantity is different from an ordinary number because the unit

of the measurement is always specified. Furthermore, a measured quantity

indicates the degree of precision with which its measurement was made. For

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example, 11 L is definitely not the same quantity as 11 kg—the first is a measure

of volume and the second, of mass. Similarly, the measurement, 11.00 cm, is

different from 11 cm. The first measurement was made on an instrument marked

to the nearest 0.1 cm while the second was measured with a meter stick marked

in 10 cm increments.

A measurement of 11.00 cm is a more precise measurement than that of

11 cm but a calculation with these two numbers gives the same numerical

answer. For example, the area of a box 11.00 cm by 11.00 cm is 121 cm 2 as is

the area of a box measured as 11 cm by 11 cm. The question arises—“Should

the answer to these two multiplications be shown in the same way despite the

difference in the degree of precisions with which the measurement were made?”.

There are two rules governing arithmetic with measured numbers. The

first of these rules pertains to addition or subtraction problems and is very logical.

If two measured quantities are added or subtracted, the degree of precision of

the answer can be no greater the degree of precision of the least precise

measurement. For example, if 24.5 cm is added to 1.63 cm, the answer can only

be shown to the nearest 0.1 cm because the first value is no more precise than

the nearest 0.1 cm.

24.5 cm + 1.63 cm = 26.1 cm—not 26.13 cm.

In this example, the 24.5 cm measurement is the ‘weak link’ in the addition

problem and so determines the degree of precision of the answer.

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We must often ‘drop’ some of the digits in an answer obtained from a

calculator and therefore must use a consistent rule for rounding. We round up

the last digit shown in a rounded answer if the digit to its immediate right is 5 or

larger. If the digit to the last shown digit’s right is less than 5, we leave the last

digit as it is.

EX 1.4 Round 45.9345 g to (a) the nearest 10’s of grams (b) the nearest 1’s of

grams (c) the nearest 0.1’s of grams (d) the nearest 0.01’s of grams and (e) the

nearest 0.001’s of grams.

45.9345 g = 50 if rounded to the nearest 10’s

(Note that we must use a place-holding zero to write 50, not 5

= 46 if rounded to the nearest 1’s

= 45.9 if rounded to the nearest 0.1’s

= 45.93 if rounded to the nearest 0.01’s

= 45.935 if rounded to the nearest 0.001’s

Occasionally we cannot tell the degree of precision by reading a

measurement in a scientific paper or report. For example, a measurement of

2000 m might have been made with an instrument that was marked in 10,000 m

increments, 1000 m increments, 100 m increments or 10 m increments. Had the

instrument been marked in 10,000 m increments we might have guessed the

2000 m measurement to be about 2/10 past the zero mark and the first 10,000

mark on the instrument. On the other hand, the instrument might have been

marked in 10 m increments and the measurement might have fallen directly on

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the 10 m mark—thus requiring us to record our measurement the nearest m. A

properly recorded measurement of 2000 m could not, however, have been made

with an instrument marked in 1 m increments. A measurement with an

instrument marked in 1 m increments would have been properly recorded as

2000.0 m if the measurement had fallen directly on the 1 m mark. In this

example the degree of precision of the measurement, 2000 m, is ambiguous and

so we often refer to the zeros in this reading as ‘ambiguous zeros’.

If you cannot determine the degree of precision of a measurement

because of ambiguous zeros, then you cannot use the degree of precision rule to

solve an addition or subtraction problem. In our text, we shall always assume

ambiguous zeros to be place-holding zeros but not indicators of a degree of

precision. Thus we will assume the measurement of 2000 m to have a degree of

precision of the nearest 1000 meters and therefore to have had been made with

an instrument marked in 10,000 m increments. This assumption allows us to

solve problems with place-holding zeros. For example, if we add 2000 m to 1346

m our answer is numerically 3346 but is written to the same degree of precision

as the least precise number, in other words as 3000 m.

Zeros behind the decimal point are not ambiguous. A measurement of

2.00 g must have been made with an instrument that is marked in 0.1 g

increments. A measurement of 5.000 g must have been made with an

instrument marked in 0.01 g increments. Thus adding 3.00 g and 5.000 g gives

the answer to the same degree of precision as the 3.00 g measurement—8.00

grams.

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Sometimes we must remember to use place-holding zeros as ambiguous

zeros when rounding numbers without decimal points. For example, if the

number 34,569 m must be rounded to the nearest 1000’s m, the rounded number

is written as 35,000 m—not 35 m. The three zeros of 35,000 m are important

place-holding zeros that must be shown in the number.

EX 1.5 Perform the following addition and subtraction problems with measured

quantities.

a. 45.16 cm + 12 cm + 5.00 cm = 62.16 cm = 62 cm

(Least degree of precision is 12 cm.)

b. 34.98 g – 19.48 g = 15.50 g

(Both values are measured to the 0.01 g and therefore the answer is shown to 0.01 g.)

c. 329 m + 400 m + 1800 m = 2529 m = 2500 m

(400 m and 1800 m are measured to the nearest 100 m if we assume ambiguous zeros.)

P 1.4 Perform the following addition and subtraction problems with the following

measured quantities. Assume ambiguous, place-holding zeros do not indicate a

degree of precision.

a. 8.45 g + 12 g + 459.01 g = 479.46 =

b. 323.98 g – 221.98 g =

c. 34.986 mL – 21 mL =

d. 34,000 kg + 567 kg =

e. 6.04 m + 91 cm + 45 mm =

f. 6.04 m + 91 cm + 51 mm =

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1.4 CALCULATIONS WITH MEASURED NUMBERS—MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

When measured numbers are multiplied or divided together, we must use

a somewhat arbitrary rule to decide how our answer should appear. We cannot

compare degrees of precision of numbers with different kinds of units—we are

comparing completely different quantities. For example, a length measurement

of 11.00 cm has a degree of precision to the nearest 0.01 cm. An area of

121.00 cm2 has a degree of precision to the nearest 0.01 cm2—not the nearest

0.01 cm. We cannot compare the degree of precision of area to that of the

degree of precision of length. So how can we decide how answers should be

written in multiplication or division problems?

In multiplication or division problems we compare the number of

significant figures in the values given in the problem. Our answer to the

problem is given with the same number of significant figures as the least number

of significant figures in the problem. To use this rule we must define the term

‘significant figure’ and learn how to count them.

A significant figure is defined as a digit in a measured value that signifies

a degree of precision. Non-significant figures are place-holding zeros giving

value to a number but do not indicate its degree of precision. There are several

rules we use to determine the number of significant figures in a measured value,

all of which concern the digit, ‘0’.

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(1) All non-zero digits in a measured value are significant.

Example: 845.95 g has 5 significant figures

(2) All zeros between two nonzero digits (called ‘captured zeros’ are significant.

Example: 9006 kg has 4 significant figures

(3) All ‘trailing’ zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant.

Example: 56.00 mL has 4 significant figures

(4) All ‘leading’ zeros to the right of the decimal point are not significant.

Example: 0.0045 m has 2 significant figures

(5) ‘Trailing’ zeros to the left of the decimal point are ambiguous.

Example: 500 m has an undefined number of significant figures

P 1.5 Determine the number of significant figures in the following measured

values. If you cannot determine the number of significant figures, explain why.

a. 9.0045 m

b. 0.0050 m

c. 800 kg

d. 95,123.9850 mg

e. 0.00005 g

f. 4 m

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Once you have determined the number of significant figures in all of the

values given in a multiplication or division problem, round your answer so that it

has the same number of significant figures as the least number of significant

figures in the problem.

EX 1.6 Perform the following arithmetic with measured numbers, rounding your

answer so that it contains the correct number of significant figures.

(3.48 cm) x (0.45 cm) x (0.09 cm) = 0.14094 = 0.1 cm3

(A 1 significant figure answer based on the 0.09 cm value in the problem.)

23.98 m
= 1.7 m/s
14 s

(A two significant figure answer based on the 14 s value in the problem.)

(56 m) x (121 m) = 6776 m2 = 6800 m2

(A two significant figure answer based on the 56 m. The answer is rounded up from

6776 m2 to 6800 m2 by using two ambiguous zeros as place-holding zeros.)

Notice the difference in the rule for addition/subtraction and that for

multiplication/division. In addition or subtraction we determine the appearance of

the answer based upon degree of precision. In multiplication or division we

determine the appearance of the answer based on the number of significant

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figures. We must always apply one rule or the other, depending upon the kind

of problem we are solving.

P 1.6 Perform the following multiplication problems, reporting your answer with

the correct number of significant figures.

(a) (56.03 cm) x (1.000 cm) x (3518 cm) =

(b) (56.03 cm) x (1.00 cm) x (3518 cm) =

(c) (56.03 cm) x (1.0 cm) x (3518 cm) =

1.5 THE CALCULATOR AND ARITHMETIC

Arithmetic problems must be entered into the calculator in a particular

way—the way the calculator expects—not necessarily how the problem is written

on paper. For example, the problem ‘8.56 m + 9.347 m + 0.005 m – 5.94 m = ?’

is entered as

Enter 8.56

Enter +

Enter 9.347

Enter +

Enter 0.005

Enter –

Enter 5.94

Enter =

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After the ‘=’ is entered, the answer ’11.972’ appears. You need not enter ‘=’

after each addition or subtraction operation and you need not write down

intermediate results as you are entering the entire problem. Also note that the

calculator does not give the answer to the correct degree of precision—you must

always decide for yourself what the correct degree of precision should be. In this

problem, for example, the answer with the correct degree of precision would be

’11.97 m’.

Entering a division problem requires more care. The calculator expects

that all numbers below a fraction bar (in other words, all divisors) must be

6 x8
preceded by the ‘’ operator. For example, the problem ‘ = ?’ is entered as
3x4

Enter 6

Enter x

Enter 8

Enter 

Enter 3

Enter 

Enter 4

Enter =

The answer, ‘4’ appears. Despite the fact that the divisor contains two terms

multiplied together (‘3 x 4’), the divide key (‘’) is used twice to enter the ‘3’ and

the ‘4’. You do not enter this problem as ‘6’; ‘x’; ‘8’; ‘’; ‘3’; ‘x’; ‘4’; ‘=’. If you do,

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the calculator treats your entry as the problem ‘[(6 x 8) / 3] x 4 and gives you the

answer ‘64’ not ‘4’. The calculator treats all numbers preceded by the

multiplication operator, ‘x’, as numbers above a fraction bar and all numbers

preceded by the division operator, ‘’ as below the fraction bar.

EX 1.7 Use your calculator to calculate the answer to the problem.

4.95x3.52
(a) = 90.06512974
5.69x0.034

Enter 4.95

Enter x

Enter 3.52

Enter 

Enter 5.69

Enter 

Enter 0.034

Enter =

97
(b) = 4.435299497
45x90x12x0.00045

Enter 97

Enter 

Enter 45

Enter 

Enter 90

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Enter 

Enter 12

Enter 

Enter 0.00045

Enter 

Enter =

(Note that significant figure rules are not applied in these two problems because the given

values are not measured—they have no units.)

P 1.7 Perform the following multiplication and division problems with the

following measured quantities. You cannot determine the number of significant

figures in a number with ambiguous zeros and so there is no one correct answer

for problems with ambiguous zeros.

a. (7.34 cm) x (0.0045 cm) x (124 cm) = ______cm3

45.9 g
b. = _____g/mL
1.4 mL

145 mg
c. = ______mg/cm3
0.01 cm 3

d. 8.95 m x 200 m = ______m2

e. (13.98 cm) x (12.00 mm) = _______cm2

If both addition/subtraction and multiplication/division operations are in the

same problem, you apply each rule separately and in the order required to solve

the problem.

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EX 1.7

(34.9 cm + 21 cm) x (45.9 cm) = (56 cm) x (45.9 cm) = 2600 cm 2

(The addition problem inside the parenthesis is first rounded to the least degree of

precision before the multiplication is performed.)

Applying the two different rules sequentially often requires rounding

intermediate answers before the final answer is obtained. Sometimes, different

people might round at different times during the solution of a problem—the

difference in two different answers is not large enough to be significant. You

must, however, be certain that your final answer is written to the correct degree

of precision and with the correct number of significant figures.

You must also take care when entering a problem with mixed operations

into the calculator. The problem above must be entered as

Enter 34.9

Enter +

Enter 21

Enter =

55.9 (round to 56 based on degree of precision)

Enter x

Enter 45.9

Enter =

2570.4

The calculated answer is rounded to 2600 cm2. You must use the ‘=’ symbol

after performing the addition part of the problem. Entering the ‘=’ sets the

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addition (‘34.9 + 21’) off from the multiplication by 45.9. If you fail to enter the

equal sign after entering the addition, you have actually entered the problem

‘34.9 + (21 x 45.9)’, giving you the answer ‘998.8’.

EX 1.8 Write the answer correctly for the following problems.

41.4 g
a. = 4.4 g/mL
9.4 mL

b. (2500 m + 675 m + 9.00 m) x (34.9 m) = (3200 m) x (34.9 m) = 110,000 m 2

(Two significant figures based on the 3200 m.)

c. (8.453 cm) x 14 cm = 120 cm2

d. 12.000 cm x (14.30 cm + 115.00 cm) = 12.000 cm x (129.30 cm) =

1551.6 cm2

(Five significant figures because the addition part of the problem gave a five significant

figure result.)

e. 892.95 g – 891.85 g = 1.10 g

P 1.8 Write the answer correctly for the following problems.

45.95 g − 44.85 g
a. =
55.61 mL − 45.61 mL

b. (45.900 cm2) x (9.00 cm) =

c. (3.14 cm) x (0.45 cm) x (1.67 cm) =

d. 6700 m + 800 m + 12.95 m =

e. 4.9054 kg + 45.8 g + 1326.9 mg =

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You must always consider three important features of any measured

value—its units, its degree of precision, and its number of significant figures.

Ignoring the units leads to serious errors because an answer must have sensible

units. For example, in P 1.7 (e) you found that you cannot add kg to g to mg and

expect to calculate a meaningful answer—kilograms cannot be added to grams

or milligrams. In P 1.7 (d) you found that the degree of precision determined the

appearance of your answer because this problem involved addition. In P 1.7 (a)

you had to consider both the addition/subtraction and multiplication/division rules

because both kinds of operations were used to obtain the final answer. You will

be able to properly perform arithmetic with measured values provided you always

keep in mind the three important qualities of all measured numbers—units,

degree of precision, and number of significant figures.

1.6 EXACT NUMBERS ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY FROM MEASURED NUMBERS

The addition/subtraction and multiplication/division rules we have

examined are used for measured values—not ‘exact’ numbers. Exact numbers

or quantities are obtained without the use of an instrument. For example, 5

apples are exactly 5 apples. There is no question of the degree of precision with

which this quantity was determined. Exact numbers do not have a particular

degree of precision or number of significant figures—they are exact. Therefore,

the presence of an exact value in an arithmetic problem does not affect either the

degree of precision or the number of significant figures in the answer.

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Typical examples of exact values are (1) counted values such as 5 apples,

(2) numbers without units (for example the number 8) (3) conversion definitions

such as 10 mm / 1 cm and (4) mathematical constants such as π.

EX 1.9 Write the correct answer for the following problems, showing the correct

degree of precision and/or the correct number of significant figures in the answer.

Exact values in either an addition/subtraction or multiplication/division problem do

not affect the appearance of the answer.

42.9 g
a. (5 apples) x ( ) = 215 g apples
apple

b. (45.0 cm)(12.5 cm) x 4 = 2250 cm2

45.95 g
c. = 21 g/cm3
(12.3 cm )(0.45 cm )(0.40 cm )

d. π x (1.20 cm)2 = 4.52 cm2 (π = 3.141592654…)

e. (1.24 cm)(10 mm / 1 cm) = 12.4 mm

1.7 CONVERSION RATIOS AND THE FACTOR LABEL METHOD

Moving the decimal point to the right or left accomplishes the conversion

between units within the metric system. This method works because the metric

system is based on our decimal system. For example, converting between m,

cm and mm is most easily accomplished by moving the decimal point the

required number of places.

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8.456 m = 845.6 cm = 8456 mm

We can also use conversion ratios to perform these calculations in a

problem solving technique called the ‘factor label method’. A conversion ratio is

1m
ratio of equivalent quantities—for example, . A conversion ratio converts a
100cm

given value expressed in one set of units to an equivalent value expressed in a

different set of units.

EX 1.10 Write several conversion ratios between m and cm and m and mm.

Use the appropriate conversion ratio to convert 8.456 m to the equivalent number

of centimeters and millimeters.

100 cm = 1m and 1000 mm = 1 m

The following conversion ratios can be written from the given equalities.

1m 100cm 1m 1000mm
or or
100cm 1m 1000mm 1m

Two of these conversion ratios convert the given meters to either cm or mm.

100 cm
(8.456 m) x ( ) = 845.6 cm
1m

and

1000mm
(8.456 m) x ( ) = 8456 mm
1m

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Notice that the given units (m) appear below the fraction bar (as a

‘denominator’) in the ratio while the new units (cm or mm) appear above the

fraction bar as a ‘numerator’ in the conversion ratio. The given units cancel the

same units appearing below the fraction bar, leaving the new units in the answer.

If, on the other hand, a given value were given in centimeters or

millimeters, the conversion ratio between meters and centimeters or between

meters and millimeters are used ‘upside down’. We do this in order to cancel the

given units, replacing them with the desired units.

EX 1.11

a. Convert 412.9 cm to the equivalent number of meters.

1m
(412.9 cm) x ( ) = 4.129 m
100 cm

b . Convert 412.9 mm to the equivalent number of meters.

1m
(412.9 mm) x ( ) = 0.4129 m
1000 mm

Since the ‘100’ appears below the fraction bar in EX 1.11a, we divide the

‘412.9’ by 100. We never have to try to puzzle out whether or not a particular

conversion requires multiplication or division—the units in the given value and

the conversion ratio ‘tell’ us which arithmetic operation is necessary to obtain the

correct answer.

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Many students prefer using the factor label method for metric system

conversion problems because the units always determine the direction the

decimal point must move in order to give the correct answer. After experience,

students see that moving the decimal point is faster and easier than the factor

label method. You will see, however, that more complicated conversion

problems must be solved using the factor label method. For example, you

cannot move the decimal point to convert 75 yd to the equivalent number of feet.

Table 1.2 lists some important relationships between units of the English

system. Note that, unlike the metric system, there is no particular logic to the

relationships in the English system.

EX 1.12

a. Use the information given in Table 1.2 to write two conversion ratios between

feet and yards.

1 yd = 3 ft

1 yd 3 ft
or
3 ft 1 yd

b. Use the appropriate conversion ratio you wrote in (a) to convert 75 yards to

the equivalent number of feet.

3 ft
(75 yd) x ( ) = 225 feet
1 yd

c. Convert 118 feet to the equivalent number of yards.

1 yd
(118 feet) x ( ) = 39.3 yd
3 ft

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Table 1.2

Important conversions within the English system.

Length

12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)

3 feet = 1 yard (yd)

1760 yards = 1 mile (mi)

5280 feet = 1 mile

Mass

16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)

Volume

2 cups (cups) = 1 pint (pt)

2 pints (pt) = 1 quart (qt)

4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal)

Table 1.3 lists important relationships between the metric and English

systems. As you expect, there is no particular logic in the relationships between

these two unrelated systems. Also note that these conversion ratios are

measured quantities—not definitions.

We use a string of conversion ratios to solve more complicated conversion

problems. For example, we use several ratios derived from Tables 1.2 and 1.3 to

convert 8.95 yd into the equivalent number of centimeters (EX 1.13).

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TABLE 1.3

Conversions between the metric and English systems of measurement.

Length

2.54 cm = 1 in

1 km = 0.621 mi

Mass

1 kg = 2.20 lb

454 g = 1 lb

28.4 g = 1 oz

Volume

946 mL = 1 qt

1 L = 1.06 qt

EX 1.13

a. Use information from Tables 1.2 and 1.3 to write conversion ratios between

feet and yards, inches and feet, and centimeters and inches.

3 ft = 1 yd 12 in = 1 ft 2.54 cm = 1 in

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b. Use the appropriate conversion ratios from (a) to convert 8.95 yards into the

equivalent number of centimeters.

3 ft 12 in 2.54 cm
(8.95 yd) x ( )x( )x( ) = 818 cm
1 yd 1 ft 12 in

Each set of new units determines the way in which the next conversion

ratio will be used. In EX 1.13, yards are converted to feet, feet to inches and,

finally, inches to centimeters. Having set up the conversion ratios so the units

properly cancel, we see our required answer appears in the desired units of cm.

Any conversion problem can be solved in this way, regardless of how

complicated it might be. Once each conversion ratio has been written in a way

that cancels units properly, the proper arithmetic (multiplication or division) has

been firmly established.

Length conversion ratios can be converted to area conversion ratios by

100 cm
squaring the conversion ratio. For example, the conversion ratio ‘ ’ can be
1m

squared to give a new conversion ratio between cm 2 and m2. Squaring this

conversion ratio is equivalent to using the conversion ratio twice.

EX 1.14

a. Write a conversion ratio between square centimeters (cm 2) and square meters

(m2).

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100 cm 2 100 cm 100 cm 10, 000 cm 2

( ) =( )x( )=
1m 1m 1m 1 m2

b. Use the conversion ratio in (a) to convert 23.4 m2 to the equivalent number of

cm2.

10, 000 cm 2
(23.4 m2) x ( ) = 234,000 cm2
1 m2

or

100 cm 100 cm
(23.4 m2) x ( )x( ) = 234,000 cm2
1m 1m

The same strategy is used to convert linear conversion ratios to volume

conversion ratios. The important point to remember is that you must convert

from one kind of unit to the same kind of unit. You can never convert from m to

cm2 or cm3 to m because distance and area or volume and distance are not the

same kind of measurement and there is therefore no equivalence between them.

P 1.9 Solve the following conversion problems using information given in Tables

1.2 and 1.3. Note that the conversion ratios within the English or within the

metric system are exact because they are defined. Those between the English

and metric system, on the other hand, are measured values.

a. 9.45 qt = _____ L

b. 95.4 mL = _____ pt

c. 8.45 m = _____ in

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d. 9.56 kg = ____ lb

e. 89.6 oz = _____ kg

f. 34 cm2 = _____ m2

g. 34 ft2 = _____ yd2

h. 2.5 in3 = ____ cm3

The factor label method can be used to convert from one kind of

measurement to a completely different kind of measurement. In fact, many

people do this when expressing the distance between two cities. Rather than

saying one city is 180 miles from another, drivers often say one city is 3 hours

from another. We are making an important assumption. We assume we are

driving 60 miles per hour—a common speed for highway driving. We are using

speed as a conversion ratio between distance and time.

1 hour
(180 miles) x ( ) = 3 hours
60 miles

Although we always express a speed as ‘miles per hour’, in other words,

miles hours
‘ ’, we could just as easily express a speed as . Converting 180 miles
hour mile

hours
to the equivalent time requires that we write .
miles

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As with English and metric conversions, we can string several conversion

ratios together to convert a given value to a completely different kind of value.

The pattern is always the same—units are systematically converted to new units

by using conversion ratios written with the given units below the fraction bar (the

denominator) and a new set of units above the fraction bar (the numerator). The

following example applies the factor label method to a problem commonly

encountered in medicine.

EX 1.15 A patient requires a drug that calls for a dose of 250 mg per 50 kg

of body weight. The patient weighs 215 lbs. What dose should the patient

receive?

Useful conversion ratios: 2.20 kg / 1 lb

250 mg medication
50 kg body weight

1 kg 250 mg medication
(215 lbs weight) x ( )x( ) = 489 mg medication
2.20 lbs 50 kg body weight

You must write proper conversion ratios from the information given in the

problem. Be sure to include all units in your conversion ratios. You then apply

these conversion ratios in an order that systematically changes a given set of

units to the set of units required by the answer. In EX 1.15 you first convert from

body weight (given as lbs) to body weight in kg. The body weight in kg is then

converted to ‘mg of medication’ from the conversion ratio given in the problem.

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Sometimes two conversion ratios are multiplied together to give an answer

which itself is a conversion ratio. For example, if we are driving 45 miles per

hour and know that our automobile gets 20 miles / gallon of gas, we can multiply

two conversion ratios to determine how many gallons of gas we are using per

hour.

45 miles 1 gallon gas 2.3 gallons gas

( )( )=
1 hour 20 miles 1 hour

Anytime you are asked to calculate a ratio for an answer, you will be multiplying

two given conversion ratios together, leaving different sets of units above and

below the fraction bar.

P 1.10 Solve the following word problems using the factor label method.

a. A patient requires 25 mg of antibiotic 4 times a day. The medication is

administered as 10 mg tablets. How many tablets per day must this patient

take?

b. A patient is put on an IV solution that passes 100 mL of IV solution every 4

hours to the patient. The IV bag contains 500 mL of solution. How often must

the bag be changed?

c. A patient requires 175 mg per 25 kg body weight of a medication every 6

hours. The medication is administered as 150 mg tablets. How many tablets

must a 150 lb patient take at each administration? How many tablets must this

patient take each day?

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Conversion ratios are often used in cooking. You can derive conversion

ratios obtained from a recipe (EX 1.16a). These conversion ratios can be used

to calculate the quantity of each ingredient required to double or triple the recipe

(EX 1.16b). You can also derive other conversion ratios from the recipe allowing

you to calculate the quantity of one ingredient that must be added to a second

ingredient to proper follow the recipe (EX 1.16c).

EX 1.16

a. Write conversion ratios from the following pancake recipe. To make 12

pancakes mix 2 cups of flour, 0.5 cups of milk, 4 tsp cooking oil and 1 tsp of

baking powder.

2 cups flour 2 cups flour 1 tsp baking powder

or or or
0.5 cups milk 12 pancakes 12 pancakes

4 tsp oil
2 cups flour

There are other conversion ratios possible in this recipe, relating the quantities of various

ingredients in the recipe to one another. Additionally, any given conversion ratio can be

written ‘upside down’.

b. Calculate the quantity of each ingredient required to make 36 pancakes.

2 cups flour
(36 pancakes) x ( ) = 6 cups flour
12 pancakes

0.5 cups milk

(36 pancakes) x ( ) = 1.5 cups milk
12 pancakes

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4 tsp oil
(36 pancakes) x ( ) = 12 tsp oil
12 pancakes

1 tsp baking powder

(36 pancakes) x ( ) = 3 tsp baking powder
12 pancakes

c. Use the appropriate conversion ratio to calculate how many teaspoons of

cooking oil should be added to 7.5 cups of flour to properly prepare these

pancakes.

4 tsp oil
(7.5 cups flour) x ( ) = 15 tsp cooking oil
2 cups flour

The factor label method requires no intuitive feel for solving any kind of

problem. You solve the problem by focusing your attention on the given units

and the units found in available conversion ratios. You always select a

conversion ratio with the units of the given quantity below the fraction bar (in the

denominator) and the units for your answer above the fraction bar (in the

numerator). The units of the given quantity cancel those in the denominator of

the conversion ratio, leaving the desired units as an answer. Units in cooking, as

well as in chemistry, must include the name of the substance to which the units

refer. For example a conversion ratio ‘2 cups / 12’ is not useful but the ratio ‘2

cups flour / 12 pancakes’ is very useful.

Chemistry, in many respects, is similar to cooking. As you will see as we

progress through the text, chemists have ‘recipes’ in the form of balanced

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chemical equations that tell them how to prepare various substances. Sometimes

the chemical formula of a compound is converted to a simple recipe. For

example, if you wanted to prepare 180.0 g of glucose, a simple sugar, from its

constituent elements, the ‘recipe’ calls for 72.0 g of carbon (C), 12.0 g of

hydrogen (H) and 96.0 g of oxygen (O). A number of useful conversion ratios

can be written from this recipe for glucose. Three are given in EX 1.17, but you

should be able to write a number of other conversion ratios.

EX 1.17

a. Write several conversion ratios from a recipe for making glucose. 180.0 g of

glucose contains 72.0 g C, 96.0 g O, and 12.0 g H.

72.0 g C 96.0 g O 180.0 g glu cos e

or or
180.0 g glu cos e 72.0 g C 12.0 g H

b. How many grams of glucose can be prepared from 76.0 g H?

180.0 g glu cos e

(76.0 g H) x ( ) = 1140 g glucose
12.0 g H

c. How many grams of O must be added to 812 g C to prepare glucose?

96.0 g O
(812 g C) x ( ) = 1080 g O
72.0 g C

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d. How many grams of H must be added to 9.0 g O to prepare glucose?

12.0 g H
(9.0 g O) x ( ) = 1.1 g H
96.0 g O

Notice that any calculation converting the quantity of one ingredient to

another ingredient must assume that enough of all other ingredients are used

when preparing the product. For example in EX 1.17d, we assume that the

proper quantity of carbon is added to the oxygen and hydrogen to prepare the

glucose. The calculation in EX 1.17d only converts the quantity of oxygen to the

quantity of hydrogen required to combine with the given quantity of oxygen. We

calculate the required quantity of carbon in a separate calculation using either the

originally given 9.0 g O or the calculated 1.1 g H. The slight difference in the two

answers occurs because of rounding—this difference is in the ‘estimated’ degree

of precision of the answer and is therefore not significant.

72.0 g C
(9.0 g O) x ( ) = 6.8 g C or
96.0 g O

72.0 g C
(1.1 g H) x ( ) = 6.6 g C
12.0 g H

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P 1.11 Organisms convert glucose to a compound composed of C, H and O

called pyruvic acid during a metabolic process called ‘glycolysis’. 8.8 g of

pyruvic acid is composed of 3.6 g C, 0.40 g H and 4.8 g O.

a. Write 2 conversion ratios between C and pyruvic acid.

b. Write 4 other conversion ratios given to you by the composition of pyruvic

acid.

c. How many grams of H are needed to combine with 89.0 g of oxygen to

prepare pyruvic acid?

d. How many grams of pyruvic acid can be made from 812 g of C?

e. How many grams of C, H and O are in 57 g of pyruvic acid?

f. How many pounds of C are in 6.9 pounds of pyruvic acid?

1.8 WORKING WITH LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS—SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

As you continue your study of chemistry you will find that many given

quantities are very large or very small numbers. For example, you expect atoms

to have a small mass because atoms are extremely small. On the other hand,

you expect a small quantity of substance to be composed of an extraordinarily

large number of atoms. We need a special way to express these very large or

small quantities.

Scientists express very large or small quantities in scientific notation. A

number written in scientific notation has the same value as the number written in

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decimal notation. We are writing the same number in a slightly different way but

not changing its value.

Scientific notation expresses a number as two parts—‘non-exponential’

and ‘exponential’. All numbers in scientific notation are composed of a ‘non-

exponential’ part multiplied times a power of ten (the ‘exponential’ part). For

example, the number ‘500’ can be also written as ‘5 x 100’ or ‘5 x 10 2’.

Writing ‘5 x 102’ as a number in scientific notation saves space. In this example,

the ‘5’ is the non-exponential part of the number and the 102 is the exponential

part. We save even more space if a number such as 400,000 is written as 4 x

105. In fact, writing a number like 300,000,000,000,000,000 becomes very

lengthy and awkward and yet is easily expressed as 3 x 1017.

A number in scientific notation always has one non-zero digit of the

number to the left of a decimal point. Any other digits must appear to the right of

the decimal point. We do not, however, want to change the value of a number

written in decimal form when we convert it to scientific notation. We use an

appropriate power of ten to keep the scientific number the same value as the

decimal number. This is why 500 can be written as 5 x 102. We moved the

decimal point in 500, 2 places to the left, effectively dividing the number 500 by

100 to give 5. Therefore we must re-multiply 5 by 100 (or 102) to keep the value

of the number unchanged.

500 = 5 x 100 = 5 x 102

Each time a decimal point is moved one place to the left, we have divided

the number by 10. Therefore we must re-multiply the new number by 10 to keep

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its value the same. In other words, each time we move a decimal point one

place to the left as we convert a decimal number to a scientific number, we must

add one more power of ten to the number written in scientific notation (Table

1.4).

TABLE 1.4

Decimal equivalents of powers of ten for numbers greater than 1

Decimal Exponential English name

1,000,000,000 1 x 109 one billion

100,000,000 1 x 108 one hundred million

10,000,000 1 x 107 ten million

1,000,000 1 x 106 one million

100,000 1 x 105 one hundred thousand

10,000 1 x 104 ten thousand

1,000 1 x 103 one thousand

100 1 x 102 one hundred

10 1 x 101 ten

1 1 x 100 one

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TABLE 1.5

Decimal equivalents of powers of ten for numbers less than 1

Decimal Exponential English name

0.000000001 1 x 10-9 one billionth

0.00000001 1 x 10-8 one hundred millionth

0.0000001 1 x 10-7 one ten millionth

0.000001 1 x 10-6 one millionth

0.00001 1 x 10-5 one hundred thousandth

0.0001 1 x 10-4 one ten thousandth

0.001 1 x 10-3 one thousandth

0.01 1 x 10-2 one hundredth

0.1 1 x 10-1 one tenth

1 1 x 100 one

We also write very small numbers in scientific notation. In this case we

must move the decimal point to the right so we can show one non-zero digit to

the left of the decimal point. By moving the decimal point to the right, we have

multiplied the original number by the same power of ten as the number of places

we moved the decimal point to the right. Therefore, we must divide this new

result by an equal power of ten so the value of the scientific number remains the

same as the original number. Table 1.5 lists the exponential equivalent of

dividing by powers of ten. For example, 0.0003 is the same as

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3 x 0.0001 or 3 x 10-4. Notice that the number ‘3 x 10-4’ is not a negative

number—it is a positive number less than 1 (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Scientific numbers with exponents less than one are greater than zero but smaller than

1.

EX 1.18 Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

a. 895,000 = 8.95 x 105 (written as a three significant figure number)

b. 9,000,400,000 = 9.0004 x 109 (written as a five significant figure number)

c. 0.00000567 = 5.67 x 10-6

d. 0.0010008 = 1.0008 x 10-3

e. 0.005000 = 5.000 x 10-3

(Trailing zeros are retained—5.000 x 10-3 is a four significant figure number.)

Notice that significant zeros are always retained when writing numbers in

scientific notation. Thus in EX 1.18e we retain the three trailing zeros in the

number ‘0.0005000’. Non-significant zeros (such as in EX 18.a) are not included

in the scientific number.

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Writing numbers in scientific notation eliminates the ambiguity that arises

from trailing zeros to the left of the decimal point. For example, consider the

measured value, 895,000m. If this measurement had been considered a value

with a degree of precision to the nearest 1’s place, the ambiguous zeros are

retained in the scientific number as trailing zeros to the right of the decimal. We

write 8.95000 x 105 to show this number with a degree precision to the nearest

1’s place. Other degrees of precision can be shown in a similar manner.

EX 1.19 Write the value, 895,000 m, in scientific notation as a 6, 5, 4, or 3

significant figure value.

895,000 m = 8.95000 x 105 m (degree of precision to the 1’s—a 6 significant figure number)

895,000 m = 8.9500 x 105 m (degree of precision to the 10’s—a 5 significant figure number)

895,000 m = 8.950 x 105 m (degree of precision to the 100’s—a 4 significant figure number)

895,000 m = 8.95 x 105 m (degree of precision to the 1000’s—a 3 significant figure number)

We reverse the reverse the process when writing numbers in scientific

notation as decimal numbers. For scientific numbers with positive numbers in

the exponent of the exponential part of the number, we move the decimal point

as many places to the right as the number in the exponent. Each time we move

a decimal point one place to the right, we are multiplying the number by ten and

therefore must reduce the exponential part of the number by one power of ten.

4.5 x 103 = 4500 (decimal three places to the right)

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8.945 x 102 = 894.5 (decimal two places to the right)

For scientific numbers with negative numbers as exponents, we move the

decimal point the same number of places as the number in the exponent to the

left. Each time we move a decimal point one place to the left we are dividing the

number by ten and therefore must increase the exponential part of the number of

one.

4.5 x 10-4 = 0.00045 (decimal 4 places to the left)

9.000 x 10-2 = 0.09000 (decimal 2 places to left—retain significant zeros)

EX 1.20 Write the following numbers in decimal notation.

a. 5.67 x 106 = 5,670,000

b. 9.56 x 10-5 = 0.0000956

c. 4.560 x 10-3 = 0.004560

d. 9.0000 x 103 = 9000.0

e. 4.500 x 106 = 4,500,000

Notice that in EX 1.20a we have introduced ambiguous zeros in the

decimal number that were not necessary in the scientific number. The

ambiguous zeros in the decimal number are necessary as place-holding zeros

and cannot be avoided. 5.67 x 106 is clearly a number written to the nearest

10,000’s but this fact cannot be expressed in the decimal number, 5,670,000.

Example 20e presents a similar problem.

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P 1.12 Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

a. 90.004

b. 456,000

c. 1,200,000.450

d. 0.0000567

e. 0.100000

P 1.13 Write the following numbers in decimal notation.

a. 9.23 x 104

b. 7.84 x 10-3

c. 9.000 x 10-2

d. 4.59345 x 103

e. 6.7 x 100

1.9 THE CALCULATOR AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

You must enter scientific numbers into the calculator in a particular way.

As with arithmetic operations, you enter numbers according to the rules of the

calculator—not necessarily according to way they are written on paper. Scientific

numbers are entered into the calculator using the ‘exp’ or ‘ee’ key. Do not enter

a scientific number using ‘x 10’ even though we often write the number that way.

For example, the number 5.94 x 103 is entered as

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Enter 5.94

Enter exp

Enter 3

If you enter the number as ‘5.94’; ‘x’; ‘10’; ‘exp’; ‘3’ you have actually entered the

number 5.94 x 104, a number 10 times larger than you intended.

When you enter the ‘exp’ or ‘ee’ key, two zeros light up on the far right

hand side of the calculator display. The exponent of the exponential part of the

scientific number appears in this position. For example, when you entered ‘exp’

after entering ‘5.94’, the zeros appeared in the far right hand part of the display.

After entering ‘3’, the two zeros changed to ‘03’. At this point your display reads

‘5.94 03’, meaning 5.94 x 103 . Some individuals write scientific numbers as

the calculator displays them—in this example, ‘5.94 E03’.

Use the key marked (+/-) [on some calculators marked as (-)] when

entering scientific numbers with negative exponents. Do not use the ‘-‘ arithmetic

key. For example, you enter the number ‘8.52 x 10-4’ as

Enter 8.52

Enter exp

Enter (+/-)

Enter 4

You should see ‘8.52 – 04’ in your calculator display. You use the (+/-) key to

convert a positive number into a negative number. For example, to enter the

number ‘– 5.69 x 10-2’ into your calculator you enter

Enter (+/-)

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Enter 5.69

Enter exp

Enter (+/-)

Enter 2

You should see ‘– 5.69 – 02’ in your calculator display.

The following examples (EX 1.21) summarize the rules for entering

scientific numbers into your calculator. Enter these numbers and look to see that

the way you have entered them agrees with the text.

EX 1.21 Enter the following numbers properly in your calculator.

8.4520 x 107 ‘8.4520’; ‘exp’; ‘7’

8.000 x 10-5 ‘8.000’; ‘exp’; ‘(+/-)’; ‘5’

(You need not enter the three zeros after the 8.)

– 3.45 x 1013 ‘(+/-)’; ‘3.45’; ‘exp’; ‘13’

75.93 x 10-5 ’75.93’; ‘exp’; ‘(+/-)’; ‘5’

(You need not have a number in strict scientific notation in order to enter it.)

8.934 x 10-22 ‘8.934’; ‘exp’; ‘(+/-)’; ‘22’

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We perform arithmetic operations with numbers in scientific notation in the

same way as we perform these operations with decimal numbers. We can mix

numbers in scientific notation with others in decimal notation in the same

problem, entering these numbers as they appear in the problem. The

addition/subtraction and multiplication/division rules for arithmetic with measured

numbers are followed in the same way for scientific numbers as for decimal

numbers (EX 1.22).

EX 1.22 Perform the following arithmetic on your calculator, giving your answer

to the proper degree of precision and with the correct number of significant

figures.

a. 89.9454 x 103 m + 9.0345 x 102 m + 567 m = ? m

Enter 89.9454

Enter exp

Enter 3

Enter +

Enter 9.0345

Enter exp

Enter 2

Enter +

Enter 567

Enter =

89.9454 x 103 m + 9.0345 x 102 m + 567 m = 9.1415850 x 104 m

(9.1416 x 104 m based on the least degree of precision, 1’s, in the number 567.

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b. [(8.45 x 10-3 cm) x (345 cm) x (934 cm] / (3.471 x 102 cm)) x (1.003 x 10-3 cm)=

? cm

Enter 8.45

Enter exp

Enter (+/-)

Enter 3

Enter x

Enter 345

Enter 934

Enter 

Enter 3.471

Enter exp

Enter 2

Enter 

Enter 1.003

Enter exp

Enter (+/-)

Enter 3

Enter =

[(8.45 x 10-3 cm) x (345 cm) x (934 cm)] / (3.471 x 102 cm) x (1.003 x 10-3 cm) =

7.8210873 X 103 cm = 7.82 x 103 cm

(Three significant figures based on the least number of significant figures in the problem.)

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P 1.14 Use your calculator to solve the following problems. Give your answer

with the correct degree of precision or the correct number of significant figures.

a. (89.34 cm + 9.3 x 103 cm) x (43 cm) =

5.693 g − 3.493 g
b. =
(34.01 cm )(0.2100 cm )(1.672 x 10 − 2 cm )

(3.4 x 10 4 )(9.34 x 10 −4 )
c. =
(843 )(9.56 x 10 − 4 )(91 )

d. 45.92 cm + 51.08 cm + 2.100 m =

(45.91 x 103 m)(9.12 x10−4 m)

e. ( ) + 415 m 2 =
8

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Summary

Chemists and other scientists use the metric system for their laboratory

measurements. Table 1.1 lists the important definitions in the metric system that

you should memorize. Scientists do not use the English system (Table 1.2)

although have used the English system in a few conversion problems in this

chapter as examples of the factor label method. Important conversions between

the metric and English systems are given in Table 1.3 and need not be

memorized.

Measured values are always recorded to a degree of precision one tenth

greater than the smallest increment on the measuring device. For example,

measurements made with a meter stick marked in 0.1 cm increments must

always be recorded to the 0.01 cm degree of precision. Measurements made

with a graduated cylinder marked in 10 mL increments must always be recorded

to the nearest 1 mL.

Measured values are also characterized by the number of significant

figures in the number. There are five rules to remember when determining the

number of significant figures in a measured value.

(1) All non-zero numbers are significant.

(2) All ‘captured’ zeros are significant.

(3) All ‘trailing’ zeros to the right of the decimal are significant.

(4) All ‘leading’ zeros to the right of the decimal are not significant.

(5) ‘Trailing’ zeros to the left of the decimal are ambiguous.

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We must know the number of significant figures in a measured value if we are to

multiply and divide measured numbers properly. When measured values are

multiplied or divided together, the answer must be written with the same number

of significant figures as the value in the problem with the least number of

significant figures.

When measured numbers are added or subtracted together, we write the

answer to the same degree of precision as the least precise number in the

problem. If addition/subtraction and multiplication/division operations are mixed

in the same problem, we must apply the appropriate rule to each kind of

operation, round the intermediate answer, and continue with the problem using

the rounded number in the next operation.

Many problems in chemistry can be most easily solved by the use of

conversion ratios in the factor label method of problem solving. Include all units

as you write each conversion ratio. The given units appear below the fraction bar

in the conversion ratio. The new units in the answer appear above the fraction

bar in the conversion ratio.

new units
(given units) x ( ) = new units
given units

NOT

given units ( given units ) 2

(given units) x ( )=
new units new units

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We saw several examples of using strings of conversion ratios to

systematically change a given set of units to a new set of units. Units in the

sequence of conversion ratios are systematically cancelled as we solve the

problem. Again, this method works only if all units are included in all conversion

ratios.

units B units C units D

(given units A) ( )( )( ) = units D
given units A units B units C

Large or small numbers are often written in scientific notation. A number

in scientific notation has a non-exponential and an exponential part of the

number. A negative exponent means the number is less than 1 but greater than

zero. The larger the negative number in the exponent, the smaller the number.

For example, 8.45 x 10-3 is 1000 times larger than 8.45 x 10-6. The arithmetic

rules for measured values written in scientific notation are the same as for

decimal numbers.

You must take care when entering numbers in scientific notation into a

calculator. Scientific numbers are always entered in three steps—‘non-

exponential number’; ‘exp’; ‘exponent’. Do not enter ‘x’: ‘10’ as part of a scientific

number. Use the (+/-) key to convert a positive number to a negative number or

a positive exponent to a negative number—do not use the subtraction operation

key for these purposes.

You must also take care to enter arithmetic problems properly into your

calculator. All divisors (numbers below the fraction bar) are preceded by the

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divide operator (‘’) key. Even when two or more numbers appear below the

fraction bar, each is preceded by the divide operator key. For example,

75 / (5)(8) = ? is entered as ‘75’; ‘’; ‘5’; ‘’; ‘8’; ‘=’ 1.875.

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END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Metric conversions can be made by moving the decimal point

1. Convert the following quantities to the required smaller equivalent units by

moving the decimal point. Check your answer using a conversion ratio.

a. 84.59 m = _______ cm

b. 84.59 m = _______ mm

c. 9.045 g = _______ mg

d. 12.01 kg = ______ g

e. 12.01 kg = ______ mg

2. Convert the following quantities to the required larger equivalent units by

moving the decimal point. Check your answer using a conversion ratio.

a. 8.459 mg = _____ g

b. 3.65 g = _______ kg

c. 9.45 mL = ______ L

d. 1.00 mm = ______ m

e. 12.90 mg = ______ kg

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3. Convert the following quantities to the required units by moving the decimal

point. Check your answer using the factor label method.

a. 894.94 cm = _____ m

b. 912.0 m = ______ cm

c. 451,345 mm = ______ m

d. 95.84 L = ______ mL

e. 451.20 mL = _____ L

4. Convert the following quantities to the required units by moving the decimal

point. Check your answer using the factor label method.

a. 934 kg = ________ mg

b. 143.98 km = ______ cm

c. 945,120 g = ______ kg

d. 9 mg = ______ kg

e. 845 km = ________ cm

Measured quantities have a degree of precision

5. For the following instruments, indicate the degree of precision with which

measurements must be made. The increment described is the smallest marked

increment on the instrument.

a. meter stick marked in 1 cm increments

b. thermometer marked in 0.1 oC increments

c. thermometer marked in 1 oC increment

d. graduated cylinder marked in 10 mL increments

e. graduated cylinder marked in 1 mL increments

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6. Describe the smallest increment marked on the instruments used to record

the following measurements.

a. 12.00 cm

b. 8.45 m

c. 94.8 oC

d. 94.80 oC

e. 8.453 g

7. The following measurements were made with a meter stick marked in 0.1 cm

increments (the usual kind of meter stick found in a laboratory). Correct any

measurements that were recorded incorrectly.

a. 8.00 cm b. 125.95 cm c. 9 cm d. 23.984 cm

e. 9.120 cm f. 3 mm g. 14.6 mm h. 4.89 m

8. Convert the following measurements to the required units, keeping the proper

degree of precision in your answer. Assume ambiguous zeros only to be place-

holding zeros—not indicators of degree of precision.

a. 8.23 cm = ______ m

b. 9.345 kg = ________ g

c. 34.90 mg = ______ g

d. 1.00 mL = ______ L

e. 45,000 cm = _______ m

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9. Check the following conversions for the correct degree of precision in the

answer and correct where necessary.

a. 9.000 g = 0.009 kg

b. 45.0 mg = 0.04500 g

c. 1.01 m = 101 cm

d. 94,503 L = 94,503,000 mL

e. 12 g = 12,000.0 mg

Determining the number of significant figures in a measured quantity

10. Determine the number of significant figures in the following quantities.

a. 8004.0 cm b. 12.000 g c. 123,987 m

d. 0.0045 mm e. 1.000450 m f. 45 g

g. 5,000 m h. 0.001 L i. 12,000 m

11. Round the following measured quantities to the required number of

significant figures.

a. 78.540 m to 2 significant figures

b. 78.540 m to 3 significant figures

c. 78.540 m to 4 significant figures

d. 875,345,000 m to 2 significant figures

e. 875,345,000 m to 4 significant figures

f. 875,345,000 m to 5 significant figures

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g. 0.0004506 m to 3 significant figures

h. 0.0004506 m to 1 significant figure

i. 45.3 m as a 1 significant figure number

The answer to addition and subtraction problems is determined by the

degree of precision

12. Perform the following addition and subtraction problems, giving your answer

to the correct degree of precision.

a. 34.56 cm + 12.00 cm =

b. 9.456 g + 0.1236 g =

c. 10.456 g + 99.324 g =

d. 123.432 g – 123.152 g =

e. 9.456 g + 34 g + 12.00 g =

13. Correct any errors in degree of precision for the following problems. Assume

ambiguous zeros to only be place-holding zeros—not indicators of degree of

precision.

a. 123.45 g + 45 g = 169 g

b. 8.564 m – 3.364 m = 5.20 m

c. 34,000 m + 5,493 m + 12,314 m = 52,000 m

d. 812,324 m + 20,010 m = 83,233 m

e. 845.128 g + 1342.872 g = 2188 g

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The answer to multiplication and division problems is determined by the

number of significant figures

14. Perform the following calculations, giving your answer with the correct

number of significant figures.

a. (9.45 cm) x (0.12 cm) x (12.90 cm) =

89.34 g
b. =
12.0 mL

c. (12.00 m) x (143.2 m) x (45.12 m) =

d. (0.03 cm) x (12.45 cm) x (188.2 cm) =

9.45 kg
e. =
12,001 mL

15. Correct any errors in the following calculations.

a. 85.67 cm x 91 cm = 780 cm2

812 g
b. = 23.88 g/ mL
34 mL

0.034 g
c. = 11 g / mL
0.003 mL

d. (115 cm) x (34 cm) x (19 cm) = 74,290 cm2

e. (100 cm) x (10 cm) x (45 cm) = 45,000 cm3

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16. Perform the following calculations, giving your answer to the correct degree

of precision and/or with the correct number of significant figures.

a. (45.23 cm – 44.21 cm) x (12.34 cm) =

89.458 g − 1.258 g
b. =
72.81 mL

c. (45.00 cm)3 + 12.00 cm3

d. 18.91 cm3 + (2.39 cm) x (2.39 cm) x (2.39 cm) =

e. (12.32 cm – 11.32 cm) x (9.000 cm) =

17. Perform the following calculations, giving your answer to the correct degree

of precision and/or with the correct number of significant figures.

a. 89.45 m + 12 m + 12,000 m =

b. (8 cm) x (34.00 cm) x (12 cm) =

c. 870.99 m x 56.00 m + 123 m2 + 10,000 m2 =

d. 89.23 m x 9.3 m x 0.0003 m =

123.90 g
e. =
45.900 cm 3

Conversion ratios can be used together to solve more complicated

problems

18. Use Table 1.1 to perform the following conversions. Recall that conversion

ratios within the metric system are exact.

a. 23 m = _______ mm

b. 124 kg = _______ mg

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c. 89.3 mL = ______ L

d. 0.0023 L = ______ mL

e. 45.8 cm = ______ km

19. Use Table 1.2 to perform the following conversions. Recall that conversion

ratios within the English system are exact.

a. 9.34 yd = _____ in

b. 12.9 oz = ______ lb

c. 45 cups = _____ gal

d. 12.9 ft = _____ in

e. 8.903 in = _____ yd

20. Use Table 1.3 to perform the following conversions. Recall that conversion

ratios between the metric and English systems are not exact.

a. 78 ft = _____ cm

b. 23. m = ____ in

c. 125 mL = ______ pt

d. 4.56 lb = ______ g

e. 12.9 oz = ______ mg

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21. Use the information provided in Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 to perform the

following conversions. Remember that linear conversion ratios must be squared

or cubed when used to convert areas or volumes.

a. 45.3 cm3 = _____ ft3

b. 8.93 m = _____ in

c. 8.93 m2 = _____ in2

d. 8.93 m3 = _____ in3

e. 34.8 cm3 = _____ L

f. 3 yd3 = _____ L

g. 4.5 g / cm3 = _____ lb / m3

h. 4.5 g / cm3 = _____ lb / yd3

Conversion ratios can be used to solve many ‘word problems’

22. A 4.00 g sample of table salt, sodium chloride, is found to contain 1.57 g of

sodium and 2.43 g of chloride. All sodium chloride has the same ratio of sodium

to chloride because, as you will see in Chapter 2, compounds always have a

unchanging elemental composition. Answer the following questions about

sodium chloride.

a. Write several conversion ratios from the given information about

sodium chloride.

b. How many grams of sodium are in 385 g of sodium chloride?

c. How many grams of chloride are in 385 g of sodium chloride?

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d. How many grams of sodium are combined with 45 g of chloride in

sodium chloride?

e. How many grams of sodium chloride have 154 g of sodium?

f. How many lbs of sodium chloride have 154 lbs of sodium?

23. A standard physiological saline solution is prepared by dissolving 1.8 g

sodium chloride in 198 g of water. Answer the following questions about

standard physiological saline solution.

a. Write two conversion ratios describing the relationship between mass

of salt and water in standard physiological saline solution.

b. How many grams of saline solution are prepared when 1.8 g of sodium

chloride is mixed with 198 g of water?

c. Write two conversion ratios describing the relationship between salt

and saline solution and water and saline solution.

d. How many grams of water are added to 41 g of sodium chloride to

prepare saline solution?

e. How many grams of saline solution can be prepared from 41 g of

sodium chloride?

f. How many grams of salt are in 750 g of saline solution?

g. How many grams of water are in 750 g of saline solution?

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24. A patient weighs 215 lbs. The patient has been given a prescription for

250 mg penicillin per 75 kg body weight to be taken 4 times per day.

a. How many mg of penicillin must this patient take each time?

b. How many g of penicillin does this patient take per day?

c. How many g of penicillin would a patient weighing 150 lb take per day?

25. A patient weighs 175 lbs. The patient has been given a prescription for a

medication for 12.5 mg per 50 kg body weight to be taken 3 times per day.

a. How many mg of this medication must the patient take per day?

b. If the medication is supplied as 10 mg tablets, how many tablets does

the patient take each time?

c. How many tablets does this patient need per week while taking the

medication?

26. One hamburger (weighing ¼ lb) has 29 g fat, 35 g protein, and 28 g

carbohydrate.

a. How many lbs of fat are in 3 hamburgers?

b. How many hamburgers would a person have to eat in order to

consume 0.25 kg of carbohydrate?

c. If a person has consumed 70 g of protein, how many g of fat has he

consumed?

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Writing numbers in scientific notation

27. Write the following decimal numbers in scientific notation.

a. 35,673.8 b. 0.0000450 c. 12.0000

d. 6,983,000.45 e. 0.00000008

28. Write the following scientific numbers in decimal notation.

a. 5.9005 x 105 b. 9.04 x 10-3 c. 4.932 x 102

d. 4.989 x 100 e. 8.000 x 10-4

29. Perform the following arithmetic problems using your calculator. Be sure to

report all answers to the correct degree of precision and with the proper number

of significant figures.

a. (9.34 x 104 m) x (12.6 m) x (5.40 x 105 m) =

b. (8.983 x 10-4 cm) x (9.3 x 10-2 cm) =

4.98 g
c. −2
=
(1.23 x 10 cm )(7.98 x 101 cm )(5 x 10 −3 cm )

d. 1.89 x 103 m + 8 km + 1.90 x 104 m =

e. 34.9100 g – 2.98 x 10-3 g =

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