CHAPTER 4

IDENTIFYING SOFTWARE QUALITY

FACTORS, SUB-FACTORS AND
METRICS FOR CBSD
 Quality begins on the inside ... and then works its way out.

~ Bob Moawad

IDENTIFYING SOFTWARE QUALITY

FACTORS, SUB-FACTORS AND
METRICS FOR CBSD
The focus of various existing CBSD technologies is to provide a

mechanism that supports the component deployment in a system.

After the analysis of different studies it can be concluded that the

various quality attributes leading to component quality during its

development have not been of the primary interest and have not been

addressed explicitly. Since the particular quality attributes are of

greater importance which may lead to the quality of component during

development, it becomes important to identify the various crucial

quality attributes. The complete advantage of the component based

system approach will be achieved when the functional parts are easier

to use and are able to accurately predict the component quality during

development. However, the analysis of existing research in the area of

software quality of CBSD revealed that despite the development of

various software quality attributes the proper identification of the

factors, sub-factors of quality and their mapping of the design

properties to the software quality attributes from the developer's

perspective is lacking. The various quality factors and sub-factors

were identified which played a vital role in assessing software quality.

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

Moreover, object-oriented software metrics were identified which are

quantified to measure quality of software. Thus, a critical step in

understanding the nature of software quality during the development

of the component is to characterise the strength of various quality

attributes. To achieve this step common and significant quality factors

from the literature survey were identified which are discussed as

follows:

4.1 Identifying Software Quality Factors

It is difficult and in some cases impossible to directly measure

quality factors. In fact, most of the metrics defined by McCall Quality

Model can be measured only subjectively. The metrics can be used in

the form of a checklist and may be assigned with grades to measure

quality [36].

Further, both Cavano and McCall, explained the concept by

quoting situations where judgement is subjective such as in daily

events-taste of food, sporting events (gymnastics), talent contests

(dance, singing) etc. Similar situation exists for software quality. To

overcome this problem precise definition of quality of software is

required, along with quantitative measurements of software quality for

objective analysis is a must. A popular phrase by Louis Pasteur sums

it all 'A science is as mature as its measurement tools' [34]. Another

popular phrase 'Measure what is measurable, and make measurable

what is not so' written by Galileo Galilei, the 17th century Italian

physicist, mathematician and astronomer often called as the 'Father

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

of Modern Science' clearly signifies the need of metrics. The quality

factors adopted by various quality models are as follows:

4.1.1 Efficiency

McCall et al. [117] believed that efficiency is the Volume of code or

computer resources (e.g. Time or external storage) needed for a

program so that it can fulfil its function'. The statement is concerned

with the efficient use of computer code to perform processes and the

efficient use of storage resources [57].

While developing software, suitable programming language

should be selected, along with advanced operating system as it

increases the software efficiency, improves system performance and

supports background operations. While designing the software,

techniques to minimise data redundancy and algorithms to optimize

process time should be adopted, for which cohesion, coupling and

normalization factors be considered.

Good programming techniques must be applied such as, top-

down design, sequence, selection and iteration constructs, local

variables with in procedures, good use of parameter passing,

meaningful variable names, proper documentation etc. With the

passage of time hardware resources have improved a lot, but the

expectations also have moved higher. The software requirements have

increased manifolds and efficiency applies to a much broader set of

resources.

Hong Zhu [181] expresses efficiency as 'responsiveness to the

system' i.e. number of events processed in a fixed period of time. Hong

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 Identify^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

Zhu has further divided period of time into three parts. First part, is

handling communication between software components which are

different but collaborate to execute an event. The structure of a

software system evaluates the time needed by the communication

process between components for the amount of communications,

means of communication and interactions between components. A

good design will eradicate unnecessary communication between

components and will have an organized communication among

components. Components comprising of procedure must have a

procedure call for communication purpose as a high-quality design

principle. For components formed from processes, the communication

can be established through messages. The communication speed also

depends upon component distribution on the network. A complex and

widely spread network will logically consume more time for

communication between components in comparison to

communication within the same computer. A good communication will

certainly improve the performance. Second part, a perfect balance of

components being executed in parallel a n d / o r synchronizing the

executions improves the performance levels. A better architectural

design will certainly improve the performance. Third part, the

selection and adoption of the most appropriate algorithm, procedure,

data structures and programming language enhances the

performance. A good detailed design certainly improves the

performance. The efficiency of the system is more or less also affected

by the human-computer interaction process. The user friendly

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Graphical User Interface (GUI) package marginally improves the

performance levels.

The relationship of quality factor 'efficiency' with other factors is

inverse as per Perry's Model. Perry's Model projects three types of

relationship between the quality factors. The direct relationship

depicts that if a software system is good at one attribute, it should

also be good at the other attribute. The neutral relationship portrays

that the two attributes are normally independent of each other. The

inverse relationship represent that if a software system is good at one

attribute, it is not good at the other attribute [129]:

a) Integrity vs. efficiency (inverse): To make the component more

secure, additional code is required, which in turn requires longer

runtime, hence less efficiency.

b) Usability vs. efficiency (inverse): A highly usable component will

contain more code and data, hence less efficient.

c) Correctness vs. efficiency (neutral): A correct code has no relation

with efficiency, as it may still delay or fasten the proceedings.

d) Reliability vs. efficiency (neutral): An accurate solution may or may

not be efficient.

e) Maintainability vs. efficiency (inverse): A well commented code is

huge, well maintained but less efficient.

f) Testability vs. efficiency (inverse): An optimized code is not easy to

test but is efficient.

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g) Flexibility vs. efficiency (inverse): A flexible code is changeable and

adaptable to change, hence require more code, resulting in less

efficiency,

h) Portability vs. efficiency (inverse): To make a component suitable for

various systems, it requires more of code, hence less efficiency,

i) Reusability vs. efficiency (inverse): For a component to be reusable,

it has to be segmented into small sections, each being independent

and having clear boundaries to it, all this requires more code and

results in less efficiency,

j) Interoperability vs. efficiency (inverse): To make a component

converse able with other machine more code is required, hence less

efficiency.

Efficiency has been categorised as resource utilisation and time

used for an activity.

4.1.2 Integrity

McCall et al. [117] defines integrity as the 'extent to which illegal

access to the programs and data of a product can be controlled'.

Pressman [134] gives importance to integrity keeping in view cyber

terrorists, hackers etc. He expressed integrity attribute as a measure

to the system's ability to overcome intentional and accidental attempts

to procure software and data. To measure integrity, two additional

related attributes are exposed, namely threat and security. Threat is

the probability that an attack of a specific type will occur within a

given time. Security is the probability that an attack of a specific type

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will be repelled. Pressman concluded that integrity is definable in a

formula given in equation 4.1:

Integrity = X (l-(threat * (1 - security))) (4.1)

where

Threat is the probability of an attack of a specific type will occur

within a given time.

Security is the probability that the attack of a specific type will be

repelled. Threat and security are summed over each type of attack.

According to Ronan [57] integrity applies control for preventing

inaccurate data entering the system, prevent changes to the software.

French highlighted that it should be insured that all data is

processed, preserved, errors should be detected, corrected and

reprocessed and frauds be prevented and detected. French [59]

further, suggested five different types of control namely Manual

control. Data preparation control. Validation check control, Batch

control and File controls. Ghezzi et al. [64] also supports the above

view by specifying that data should be validated while being input or

updated. Few mechanisms to ensue integrity are: input data types can

be validated, maximum/minimum range values can be imposed,

concurrent access control mechanism can be applied, lost update

problem can be plugged, deadlock problem can be prevented and

read-lock and write-lock system can be used. Minimizing data

redundancy and integrity features from Data Base Management

System should be incorporated. All validation checks at the data input

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stage m u s t be mentioned in r e q u i r e m e n t specification. Similarly safety

specifications m u s t be written in r e q u i r e m e n t specification.

Perry's Model [181] analysis t h e quality, factor 'integrity' in

comparison to other factors in t h e following m a n n e r : -

a) Integrity vs reusability (inverse): Reusable software increase d a t a

security problem.

b) Integrity vs. Usability (direct): A c o m p o n e n t which is suitable,

adoptable a n d learnable will be secure hence integrity being

satisfied.

c) Integrity vs. Interoperability (inverse): The ability to connect to two

different c o m p o n e n t s largely m a k e s t h e c o m p o n e n t vulnerable to

security problems. As the h a n d s h a k e between two c o m p o n e n t s

m a y h a r m a good c o m p o n e n t .

d) Integrity vs. Maintainability, Testability, Flexibility a n d Portability

(neutral): These factors do not affect Integrity a s a portable or u n -

portable c o m p o n e n t m a y not affect integrity. Similar is t h e case

with other factors.

4 . 1 . 3 Reliability

McCall et al. [117] defines reliability a s 'the extent it c a n fulfil its

specific function'. Reliability is t h e ability of a p r o d u c t or c o m p o n e n t

to continue to perform its intended role over a period of time to pre-

defined conditions. At times reliability is m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of the

m e a n time between failures, t h e m e a n time to repair, m e a n time to

recover, t h e probability to failure a n d availability of t h e solution. A

d e p e n d a b l e c o m p o n e n t is reliable.

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Perry's Model [129] establishes the relationship of reliability with

other factors i.e.:-

a) Reliability, vs. Usability, Maintainability, Testability and Flexibility,

(direct): A well maintained, usable, tested software component is

more likely to be Reliable.

b) Reliability vs. Reusability (inverse): Frequent changes cause

reliability to fall.

c) Reliability vs. Efficiency, Integrity, Portability, Interoperability and

(Neutral): All such factors generally do not effect reliability.

The Reliability factor has gained popularity among software users

and developers.

4.1.4 Usability

Usability is an attempt to quantify ease-of-use and can be

measured in terms of suitability, learnability and adaptability. McCall

et al. [117] defines usability, factor as The Cost/effort to learn and

handle a product'. Usability is concerned with software operations and

environment in today's world. The ease with which the software is

used, learned and mastered is given importance for software

operations. Further, screen design, feedbacks, error messages, system

performance, ability to reverse the user's last action etc. lead to

software quality determining phase for the user's view. Similarly, use

of input devices and output devices set the tone for environment. Even

lighting, space, humidity, noise, etc. are part of the desired

environment. In other words, a software component is usable if it

finds humans who use it easily. Usability is subjective in nature. User

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friendliness parameters change from one user to another user. A non

programmer may appreciate the use of menus, while a programmer

may like to type a textual command. Hence, the user interface is an

important criterion of user friendliness [64].

Perry's Model [129] compares Usability, with other factors:

a) Usability vs. Maintainability, Testability, Flexibility, correctness,

(Direct): A tested, well maintained, highly flexible and accurate

software component will be used more, therefore the relation is

direct.

b) Usability, vs. Portability, Reusability, Interoperability (Neutral): An

easy to transfer component, or a component able to communicate

with other machine may or may not affect the frequency of use of

the component, hence a neutral relation exists.

In simple words, usability decides whether the component is

executed, used and appreciated by the user. The usability factor

pertains to the liking of the user.

4.1.5 Correctness

Correctness factor implements the specified user's requirements.

McCall et al. defines it as 'the extent to which a program fulfils its

specification' [117]. Ghezzi et al. [64] believes that correctness is

achieved, if stated functional requirements are met. Further,

correctness can be improved by using standard proven algorithms or

libraries of standard modules. Correctness is established through

testing, program inspection, static program analyzers and verification

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mechanisms. Pressman [134] refers to correctness as the degree to

which software performs its required function.

Perry Model [129] evaluates correctness with other factors to

realize that it has a direct relation with many other factors,

a) Correctness vs. Reliability, Usability, maintainability. Testability,

Flexibility (Direct): All these factors help directly in making the

software component more accurate.

4.1.6 Maintainability

Maintainability refers to the easiness of maintaining a software

system [181]. McCall et al. [117] defines Maintainability as The cost of

localizing and correcting errors'. Software maintenance includes the

modification of the software for correction of errors, called as

corrective maintenance. Besides that maintenance includes

modification of system due to environment change such as upgrade of

the system software, called as adaptive maintenance. Ghezzi et al. [64]

also believes that maintenance is perfective maintenance, it involves

changing the software to improve its quality by adding new functions,

improving the performance of the application, making it easier to use,

etc. Perfective maintenance could be initiated by the customer request

or due to an idea of improvement by the developer. Legacy software

could be another reason of maintainability. Legacy software is

software which already exists and is generally old, developed with

older technology, obsolete language and such software should either

be repaired or evolved. Repairable software allows fixing of defects

whereas evolvable ones allow changes that enable it to satisfy new

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requirements. Earlier maintenance was viewed as bug fixing but later

it is realized that it is more of enhancing the product with features.

There are no specific means of measuring maintainability. Pressman

[134] proposed a simple time oriented metric as 'Mean Time To

Change'. It is the time taken to analyze the change request, design an

appropriate modification, implement the change, test it and distribute

the change to all users. Maintainable programs have a lower Mean

Time To Change.

To ease maintainability phase good practices during development

of software such as use of Data Flow Diagrams, Entity Relationship

Diagrams, comment lines, documentation, meaningful names,

readable code, etc be incorporated. Ronan believes maintainability as

The non-operational costs associated with a product after a

successful user acceptance test' [57].

Perry's Model [129] compares maintainability with other factors

as:

a) Maintainability vs. correctness, usability, testability, flexibility,

portability, reusability, (Direct): Maintained code is one which is

well structured, easy to use, tested, flexible, portable and easy to

reuse.

b) Maintainability vs. efficiency (inverse): Compact and optimized code

is not easy to maintain and test. Well commented code is less

efficient.

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4.1.7 Testability

McCall et al. [117] believes that 'the cost of program testing for

the purpose of safeguarding is that the specific requirements are met'.

Testing is associated with quality factor as a major criterion of quality

[57]. Most of the researchers in the field of testing, have concluded

four stages of testing namely Item testing, Integration testing. System

testing and Acceptance testing. Item testing - tests components

individually. Integration testing-tests components when worked in

environment of modules. System testing-tests the software

(completely), to be sure that it is developed without errors. Acceptance

testing-the customer tests the software, before incorporating it into its

working. A number of testing strategies are employed for testing such

as functional (Black Box), structural (White Box) and residual defect

estimation. Techniques used to implement strategies are top down,

bottom u p and stress testing [20].

Perry's Model [129] compares testing with other factors:

a) Testing vs. correctness, usability, maintainability, flexibility (Direct):

A tested software will be correct, likely to be used, easy to maintain

and even reusable.

b) Testing vs. efficiency (inverse): Compact, optimized code is not easy

to maintain and test, where as well commented code is less

efficient.

4.1.8 Flexibility

McCall et al. [117] defines flexibility as 'the cost of product

modification'. Flexibility is adaptability. In other words it is being able

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to change or reconfigure the user interface to suit user's preferences.

The ability to meet the upcoming requirements of customer, without

much stress is flexible software [57]. Perry's Model projects flexibility

as a factor having most direct relations with other factors [129].

4.1.9 Interoperability

It is 'the cost of connecting two products with one another' as

defined by McCall et ah [117]. Another way of expressing

Interoperability is: A component successfully interacting with other

component [57]. Word processors communicating with spread sheets,

graphics module and much more will deem to be highly interoperable.

In other words, it is the property of how easily a software system can

be used with other software systems. It depends upon the interface

and does not depend on design, algorithm and data structure. An

open system allows different applications, written by different

organizations to interoperate.

Perry's Model projects inverse relation of interoperability with

efficiency and integrity [129].

4.1.10 Reusability

McCall et al. [117] defines re-usability as 'the cost of transferring

a module or program to another application. In simple words, it is the

use of code more than once. A routine performing a job in a specific

module will perform the same job needed in other module too. Thus,

instead of writing the code again it can be reused by passing new

different parameters. Visual Basic, C language and object-oriented

development techniques support re-usability. However, the issue

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related to reusability of code is that such code has to be adaptable

one, generalized one, so that it can be reused in another application.

It takes longer and costlier to develop reusable code. At times, in order

to save and work within budget constraints and schedules, one

ignores the need of developing reusable code. Another critical issue

which is worth considering is that, who owns the copyright and

ownership rights of the reusable code.

Hong Zhu [181] also supports that reusability depends on the

generality of the components in a given application domain and the

extent to which the components are parameterized and configurable.

Architecture design determines the functionality of software system

decomposed into components and their interconnection is known.

Reusability is increasing rapidly in the field of software claimed by

Carlo Ghezzi et al. [64]. Perry model projects reusability's inverse

relation with efficiency, integrity, reliability. Though, reusability has

direct relation with portability, flexibility, testability and

maintainability [129].

4.1.11 Portability

McCall et al. [117] defines it as 'the cost of transferring a product

from its hardware or operational environment to another'. Portability

is defined by Ronan [57] 'as the strategy of writing software to run on

one operating system or hardware configuration while being conscious

of how it might be refined with minimum effort to run on other

operating systems and hardware platforms'. Sommerville [160]

considers portability with reusability such that it is applied across

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different computers and operating systems. Programming languages

are portable between different systems. Hong Zhu [181] advises that

at design level due care should be given to the design of algorithms

and data structures so that portability be achieved. The interface

design related conclusion by Hong Zhu specifies that the independent

environment specific features will make portability easy.

Carlo Ghezzi et al. [64] believe that portability depends upon

operating system in today's world. Perry Model shows portability

having inverse relation with efficiency, because portable software will

have more code, thus less efficient. Portability has direct relation with

maintainability and testability [129].

The quality factors have gained popularity and importance. It is

evident from the studies of various software quality models viz. McCall

Quality Model, Boehm Quality Model, ISO 9126 Quality Model, Gillies

Relational Model and Perry Quality Model that the models propose

same quality factors and further, it is realised that the quality factors

are related to each other. Some quality models have given more

weightage to one factor and the other quality model has paid more

heed to another. The quality factors which are part of all the quality

models, the ones which are well weighted by all the quality models

and are critical for evaluation of software quality are Efficiency,

Maintainability, Portability, Reliability and Usability. These factors are

the evaluators of software quality. But these quality factors are non-

quantifiable.

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Selection of the quality factors amongst the list of available factors

were based on the prevailing software quality models. Four software

quality models namely, McCall, Boehm, ISO 9126 and Gillies

Relational model were found as the domain for identifying quality

factors, as most of the studies incorporated these models as part of

their research [44] [10] [83] [42] [147]. The quality attributes identified

within the models from the survey of literature are tabulated in Table

4.1.

TABLE 4.1: QUALITY FACTORS ADDRESSED IN THE QUALITY MODELS

^JiiaKty:^^^^^^ Models McCaU Boehm ISO 9126 Gillies
Factors ~~ __ Relational
Correctness X - - X
Efficiency X X X X
FlexibUity - - - X
Human Engineering - X - -
Integrity X - - X
Interface facility X - - X
Maintainability X X X X
Modifiability - X - -
Portability X X X X
ReliabUity X X X X
Reusability X - - -
TestabUity X X - -
Understand ability - X - X
Usability X X X X

Similar quality factors in the various software quality models

namely, McCall quality model, Boehm quality model, ISO 9126 and

Gillies Relational model are listed and quality factors versus quality

models are tabulated in Table 4.1. The 'X' denotes the quality factor in

the corresponding row is proposed by the quality model mentioned in

the corresponding column e.g. a OC' in 'Human Engineering' row

represents that 'Boehm' quality model recommends Human

Engineering as the quality factor. A '-' signifies that the quality factor

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under consideration is not a part of the corresponding quality model.

It is inferred that the common quality factors prevalent in all

mentioned quality models are: Efficiency, Maintainability, Portability,

Reliability and Usability. These quality factors have emerged as

common quality factors in most of the well known quality studies

[143] [95] [19] [128] [9] and are generally considered as most related to

the quality of the software. The remaining factors are indirectly

integrated within all other models. In the past, software architects

have devised several different models of software qualities. The

selected quality models satisfy the complete taxonomy of software

quality.

4.2 Identifying Software Quality Sub-factors

The above identified software quality factors are non-quantifiable.

Factors, subjective in nature, need to be measured to evaluate the

quality. There is a necessity to break the quality factors into segments

comprising of sub-factors. Software quality sub-factors are the

characteristics that define quality factors. Further, quality factors may

be divided into independent characteristics. The sub-factor

perspective of the software quality is used for proposing the quality

assurance framework. The various sub-factors for above mentioned

quality factors, based on the number of studies, opinion of

researchers in the past and interpretation are discussed below:

4.2.1 Efficiency

Efficiency factor means the product's ability to offer sufficient

efficiency and using reasonable amount of resources when product is

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being used in specified environment. The identified sub-factors of

efficiency are tabulated in Table 4.2 with proper description of each.

TABLE 4.2: EFFICIENCY SUB-FACTORS

s. Sub-factor Description
No.
1. Time Behaviour Product's ability to response time for a
[1841 given throughput.
2. Resource Behaviour Ability to use resource optimally to
[184] complete the task in terms of i.e.
memory, CPU, disk, network usage, etc.
3. Efficiency Maturity to obey standards and
Compliance regulations regarding efficiency issues in
specified environment.
4. Reply time [94] [93] Ability to respond with output.
5. Processing speed Rate at which the data is converted into
[941 [931 information.
6. Execution efficiency Product's run time efficiency of the
[1421 software.
7. Hardware Degree to which the software is
independence [1421 dependent on the underlying hardware.
8. Robust [1151 It is the degree to which an executable
work product continues to function
properly under the abnormal condition
or circumstances.

4.2.2 Maintainability

Maintainability quality factor implies the product ability to be

changeable, maintainable and updatable. Table 4.3 shows the various

identified sub-factors for the maintainability factor along with

description of each sub-factor.

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TABLE 4.3: MAINTAINABILITY SUB-FACTORS

S. No. Sub-factor Description
1. Analyzability [41] The capability of t h e software p r o d u c t to be
diagnosed for deficiencies or c a u s e s of
failures in the software or for the p a r t s to be
modified to be identified.
2. Changeability The capability of t h e software p r o d u c t to
[113] enable a specified modification to be
implemented.
3. Stability The capability of t h e software to minimize
unexpected effects from modifications of the
software.
4. Testability [66] The capability of t h e software p r o d u c t to
enable modified software to be validated.
5. Correct ability The ease with which minor defects c a n be
[142] [113] [43] corrected between major releases while the
application or c o m p o n e n t is in u s e by its
users.
6. Extensibility [66] It is the ease with which a n application or
c o m p o n e n t s c a n be e n h a n c e d in t h e future
to meet t h e c h a n g i n g requirements.
7. Reusability [93] The rate to which the u s e d c o m p o n e n t s of
the p r o d u c t c a n be r e u s e d on a n o t h e r
p r o d u c t or system.
8. Modularity [43] The rate to which the product is build from
[160] s e p a r a t e c o m p o n e n t s so t h a t c h a n g e to one
c o m p o n e n t h a s minimal impact on the other
c o m p o n e n t s of t h e product.
9. Adaptiveness It is the ability of the p r o d u c t to accept the
[142] [43] [113] new environment, new h a r d w a r e , new
[160] [105] [126] operating system, new supporting software.
10. Perfectiveness Ability to perform accurately u n d e r all
[142] [113] [43] circumstances.
11. Preventiveness It is the ability of the p r o d u c t to anticipate
[142] future problems.
12. System age [160] It is the period since the first release of the
[185] product.
13. Understandability The capability of t h e software p r o d u c t to
[114] [106] enable the u s e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h e t h e r the
software is suitable a n d how it c a n be u s e d
for particular t a s k s a n d conditions of u s e .
14. Documentation Provision of p r o g r a m m e r s m a n u a l t h a t
[113] explains implementation of c o m p o n e n t s .
15. Error debugging It is the m e a n t i m e to debug, find a n d fix
[113] errors.
16. Maintainability The rate of how well p r o d u c t a d h e r e s the
Compliance standards and regulations regarding
maintainability.

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4.2.3 Portability

A portability factor means the products ability to be portable from

one environment to another. Table 4.4 highlights the identified sub-

factors for portability with description of all the sub-factors.

TABLE 4.4: PORTABILITY SUB-FACTORS

s. Sub-factor Description
No.
1. Adaptability [1] The capability of the software to be
[135] [120] [24] modified for different specified
environments without applying
actions or means other than those
provided for this purpose for the
software considered.
2. Install ability [1] The capability of the software to be
[135] [24] installed in a specified environment.
3. Coexistence [1] The capability of the software to
[135] coexist with other independent
software in a common environment
sharing common resources.
4. Replace ability [1] The capability of the software to be
[135] [120] [23] [24] used in place of other specified
software in the environment of that
software.
5. Portability The rate of how well product adheres
Compliance the standards and regulations
regarding portability.
6. Conformance [24] It is the rate to which the product
meets the requirement defined in the
SRS and design specification.
7. Reusability [24] It is the ability of the product to be
[57] used more than once and also to be
used in different environments.
8. Transferability [24] It is the effort to transfer the product
from one to another hardware and
also from one to another operating
system.
9. Flexibility [24] It is the products ability to be usable
in all possible conditions for which it
was designed.

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 Identifi/^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

4.2.4 Reliability

Reliability attribute means the rate to which the product or

component executes its functions under stated conditions in specified

period of time. The identified sub-factors of reliability factor are

tabulated in Table 4.5 with appropriate description of each sub-factor.

TABLE 4.5 : RELIABILITY SUB-FACTORS

S. No. Sub-factor Description
1. Maturity [198] The capability of t h e software to avoid failure
a s a result of faults in t h e software.
2. Fault Tolerance The capability of t h e software to m a i n t a i n a
[190] specified level of performance in case of
software faults or of infringement of its
specified interface.
3. Accuracy [142] Precision of c o m p u t a t i o n s a n d o u t p u t .
[26] [54] [5]
4. Completeness Degree to which a full implementation of t h e
[142] [26] [54] required functionalities h a s been achieved.
5. Recoverability The capability of t h e software to reestablish
[66] [192] its level of performance a n d recover t h e d a t a
directly affected in t h e case of a failure.
6. Survivability [66] It is t h e degree to which t h e essential
services c o n t i n u e to be provided in spite of
either accidental or malicious h a r m .
7. Consistency [142] It is t h e u s e of uniform design a n d
[26] [54] [5] implementation t e c h n i q u e s a n d notation
t h r o u g h o u t a project.
8. Simplicity [142] It is t h e e a s e with which t h e software c a n be
[5] understood.
9. Error tolerance It is t h e degree to which a p r o d u c t c o n t i n u e s
[142] [5] to function properly despite t h e p r e s e n c e of
erroneous input.
10. Statistical The portability t h a t t h e software will operate
behaviour a s expected over a specified time interval.
11. Availability [41] The rate to which t h e c o m p o n e n t or system is
operational a n d accessible for u s e w h e n
required.
12. Integrity [26] [54] The rate with which t h e c o m p o n e n t prevents
the u n a u t h o r i z e d modification of or access to
system d a t a .
13. Reliability The rate of how well p r o d u c t a d h e r e s t h e
Compliance standards and regulations regarding
reliability.

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 Identifying Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

4.2.5 Usability

Usability quality factor covers the product's ability to allow

specified users to complete the needed task in defined context of use.

The sub-factors for the usability factor, are listed along with

description of each sub-factor in Table 4.6.

TABLE 4.6: USABILITY SUB-FACTORS

s. Sub-factor Description
No.
1. Understandability The capability of the software
[112] product to enable the user to
understand whether the software is
suitable and how it can be used for
particular tasks and conditions of
use.
2. Learn ability [160] The capability of the software
product to enable the user to learn
its applications.
3. Operability [6] The capability of the software
product to enable the user to
operate and control it.
4. Attractiveness The capability of the software
product to be liked by the user.
5. Ease of Use [114] The rate to which the user finds the
product easy to operate and control.
6. Communicativeness Ease with which inputs and outputs
[6] can be assimilated.
7. User friendly [64] Ease with which the component can
be operated.
8. Accessibility It is the degree to which the user
interface enables users with
common or specified disabilities to
perform their specified task.
9. Customer It is the degree of the user's
satisfaction [61] contentment in the usage of the
component.
10. Documentation It is the availability of manuals and
[112] other supporting documents for
support of the user in its operation
11. Training [6] Ease with which the new users can
use the system.
12. Usability The rate of how well product
Compliance adheres the standards and
regulations regarding usability
issues in specified environment.

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 Identifying Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

It may be concluded that the fundamental, crucial and decisive

quality factors are efficiency, maintainability, portability, reliability

and usability. Corresponding to each quality factor the various

imperative, relevant and key quality sub-factors were engineered

which results in a more complete requirements specification for

evaluating the software quality. The sub-factors were categorized into

a logical understandable hierarchy which is easy to use while

predicting quality. The identified sub-factors are quantifiable in the

sense that: whether training is conducted regarding the use of

software, whether the software responds on encountering an error,

whether the software is workable in diverse operating environments,

whether modules are used in the development of software. The replies

to these queries facilitate in quantification of quality. Identification of

low level sub-factors benefit software developers and academicians for

assessing the precise design requirements during the development

process.

4.3 Identifying Software Quality Metrics

The contribution of metrics to the purpose of software quality is

understood and fully recognized by the software engineering

community in general [134] and particularly emphasized by the

software quality community [55]. Process and product metrics help in

managing activities, such as scheduling, costing, staffing and

controlling. Also, the engineering activities such as analyzing,

designing, coding, documentation and testing are helped by the

software metrics. Since the early days of computer science many

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

a p p r o a c h e s quantifying t h e internal s t r u c t u r e of p r o c e d u r a l software

system have emerged [182]. Some of those traditional metrics c a n still

be u s e d with t h e object-oriented paradigm, especially a t the m e t h o d

level s u c h a s Lines Of Code (LOG) a n d N u m b e r of Methods [2].

However, t h e need to quantify t h e distinctive features of object-

oriented p a r a d i g m gave birth, in recent years, to new metric suites.

The core object-oriented features include inheritance, e n c a p s u l a t i o n ,

a b s t r a c t i o n a n d polymorphism. Most of t h e suites a r e yet to be

experimentally validated for object-oriented features. This validation

step u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s of correlation s t u d i e s between internal (design)

and external (attributes) [3]. Software metrics is t h e measuring

property or a t t r i b u t e to m e a s u r e quality of a software object related to

software project of any size. Object-oriented a p p r o a c h is capable of

classifying t h e problem in t e r m s of objects a n d provides p a y b a c k s like

efficiency, maintainability, reliability, portability a n d usability. Object-

oriented metrics are u s e l e s s if they are not m a p p e d to software quality

p a r a m e t e r s . There are n u m e r o u s quality metric s u i t e s available to

predict quality of the software namely CK, MOOD, Lorenz a n d Kidd

a n d Li Suite.

CK suite comprised of six metrics namely. Weighted Methods

per Class (WMC), Response For a Class (RFC), Lack of Cohesion of

Methods (LOOM), Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT), N u m b e r Of Children

(NOC) a n d Coupling Between Object classes (CBO). The metrics

comprised in MOOD metrics are Method Hiding Factor (MHF),

Attribute Hiding Factor (AHF), Method Inheritance Factor (MIF),

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 Identif^g Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

Attribute Inheritance Factor (AIF), Polymorphism Factor (PF) and

Coupling Factor (CF). The Lorenz and Kidd suite had three categories

of metrics namely, Class Size Metrics, Class Inheritance Metrics and

Class Internals Metrics. Each of these groups further contained

metrics which are merely variables for counting. The Class Size

Metrics had metrics each for counting- the Number of Public Methods

(NPM), Number Of Methods (NOM), Number of Public Variables (NPV),

Number of Variables per class (NV), Number of Class Variables (NCV)

and Number of Class Methods (NCM). For the Class Inheritance

Metrics one metrics each for counting- Number of Methods Inherited

(NMI), Number of Methods Overridden (NMO) and Number of New

Methods (NNA) is assigned. The Class Internals Metrics had metrics to

count Average Parameters per Method (APM) and Specialization IndeX

(SIX). The Li suite had six metrics namely, Number of Ancestor

Classes (NAC), Number of Descendent Classes (NDC), Number of Local

Methods (NLM), Class Method Complexity (CMC), Coupling Through

Abstract data (CTA) and Coupling Through Message passing (CTM).

The Lorenz and Kidd suite and Li suite had metrics for totalling

purposes.

Based on the review of the existing software metrics suite, a list of

parameters is defined to accept or discard software metric. Lacking

any of these properties will result in an inapplicable quality metrics.

a) Precisely defined metrics

Ambiguity in metrics definition allows many interpretations for

the same metric. A mathematical formula or a clear explanation of the

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 Identifying Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

method of calculation of the metric should exist. All the CK suite

metrics except one (LCOM) have definite mechanism to compute the

metrics. LCOM had ambiguity in its computing formula [70].

b) Empirically validated software quality metrics

Metrics suites without validation are always in doubt concerning

their correctness. The MOOD metrics suite and CK metrics suite have

been validated in several studies [3] [52] [4] and [18] [37] [140]

respectively. Empirical validations for the Lorenz and Kidd metrics

suite and for Li suite are lacking.

c) Interpretation of metrics

Lord Kevin quoted "The degree to which you can express

something in numbers is the degree to which you really understand it"

is self explanatory to state that numbers do not have a meaning of

their own, till the values are interpreted to make decisions. The Li

suite and Lorenz and Kidd suite face an uphill task, number values

exist but are not able to infer. Each metrics of CK and MOOD have

interpretation for object-oriented characteristics e.g. DIT, MIF and AlF

for inheritance; CBO for coupling; AHF and MHF for data abstraction;

Polymorphism is represented by PF.

d) Relationship between metrics and quality factors

The metrics value should address to the quality factors. An

explicit relationship of increase or decrease in metrics value having

implication on software quality factors should be made. The Lorenz

and Kidd suite and the Li suite are not able to relate the metrics with

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

quality factors. However, the metrics of CK and MOOD have strong

relation.

e) Metrics computable at any stage

At any stage especially at the initial stage or before completion of

the software, values for metrics may be calculated. Mid way

assessment of software metrics certainly helps in improvement of

software quality.

The desirable properties of OOD quality metrics laid the basis for

the identification of the various quality metrics as follows:

a) Weighted Methods per Class (WMC) [108] [74]

WMC is the sum of the complexity of the methods of a class.

• WMC = Number of Methods (NOM), when all method's

complexity are considered unity.

• WMC is a predictor of how much time and effort is required to

develop and to maintain the class.

• The larger NOM the greater the impact on children.

• Classes with large NOM are likely to be more application

specific, limiting the possibility of re-use and making the effort

expended one-shot investment. The value of WMC should be low

for better quality of software.

b) Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT) [162] [37]

The maximum length from the node to the root of the tree

• Higher value of DIT results in the greater NOM which it is likely

to inherit, making it more complex to predict its behaviour

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

• Higher value of DIT results in the potential reuse of inherited

methods

• Small values of DIT in most of the system's classes may be an

indicator that designers are forsaking re-usability for simplicity

of understanding.

• Value of DIT should fall in a range

c) Number of ChUdren (NOC) [37]

• Number of immediate subclasses subordinated to a class in the

class hierarchy

• The greater the NOC is:

• The greater is the re-use

• The greater is the probability of improper abstraction of

the parent class

• The greater the requirement of method's testing in that

class.

• Small values of NOC, may be an indicator of lack of

communication between different class designers.

• Value of NOC should fall in a range

d) Coupling Between Object classes (CBO) [15] [37]

It is a count of the number of other classes to which it is coupled

• Small values of CBO :

• Improve modularity and promote encapsulation

• Indicates independence in the class, making easier its

reuse.

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

• Makes easier to maintain and to test a class.

• The value of CBO should be low

e) Lack of Cohesion in Methods (LCOM) [37]

It measures the dissimilarity of methods in a class via instanced

variables.

• Great values of LCOM:

• Increases complexity

• Does not promotes encapsulation and implies classes

should probably be split into two or more subclasses

• Helps to identified low-quality design

• Value of LCOM should be low

Harrison et al. point out that calculation of Lack of Cohesion in

Methods metric requires careful consideration of the use of variables

in a class and it is possible only for components with a small number

of classes [73].

Also, Graham mentions that the LCOM metric has weaknesses in

the formula and different interpretations of the result lead to vague

outputs [70].

f) Response For a Class (RFC) [74] [15]

• It is the number of methods of the class plus the number of

methods called by any of those methods.

• If a large numbers of methods are invoked from a class (RFC is

high):

• Testing and maintenance of the Class becomes more

complex.
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 Identify^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

• The value of RFC should be low.

g) Method Hiding Factor (MHF) [76]

MHF = 1 - MethodsVisible

where MethodsVisible = sum(MV) / (C-1) / Number of methods

MV = number of other classes where method is visible

C = number of classes

If all methods are private then MHF=100%

A low MHF indicates insufficiently abstracted implementation. A

large proportion of methods are unprotected and the probability of

errors is high.

A high MHF indicates very little functionality. It may also indicate

that the design includes a high proportion of specialised methods that

are not available for reuse.

h) Attribute Hiding Factor (AHF) [76]

These metrics measure how variables and methods are

encapsulated.

Encapsulation^ It denotes the degree to which methods / variables are

hidden and are accessible by other class. Visibility is counted in

respect to other classes. Hiding decreases in the following order:

Private, Protected, Friend, Protected Friend and Public.

AHF = 1 - AttributesVisible

where AttributesVisible = sum.(AV) / (C-1) / Number of attributes

AV = number of other classes where attribute is visible

C = number of classes

If all attributes are private then AHF=100%.

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

• Low MHF/AHF reflects that methods/attributes are unprotected

and probability of error is high.

• High MHF/AHF reflects no reuse, specialized methods and little

functionality.

i) Method Inheritance Factor (MIF) [76]

MIF = inherited methods/total methods available in classes

High MIF denotes lots of inheritance whereas low MIF (0%)

denotes independent class.

j) Attribute Inheritance Factor (AIF) [76]

AIF = inherited attributes/total attributes available in classes

High AIF denotes lots of inheritance whereas low AIF (0%) denotes

independent attribute.

k) Polymorphism Factor (PF or POF)

PF = overrides / sum for each class (new m.ethods * descendants)

Polymorphism: ability to create variable, function or object having

more than one form. In MOODS metric, the sub class (child) can use

(override) the class of its parent. The more it overrides the higher is

the PF.

1) Coupling Factor (CF or COF).

CF = Actual couplings/Maximum, possible couplings

Coupling increases complexity. Coupling reduces encapsulation,

reusability, maintainability and understand-ability.

m) Number of ancestor classes (NAC)

The Number of Ancestor classes (NAC) metric was proposed, as an

alternative to the DIT metric, to measure this attribute of a class. Li

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define the NAC as the total number of ancestor classes from which a

class inherits in the class inheritance hierarchy. The theoretical basis

and viewpoints both are same as the DIT metric. The unit for the NAC

metric is 'class', Li justified that because the attribute that the NAC

metric captures is the number of other classes environments from

which the class inherits. This unit is defined with reference to a

standard which has class inheritance relation in object-oriented

programming.

n) Number of descendent classes (NDC)

The Number of Descendent Classes (NDC) metric is proposed as

an alternative to the NOC metric. It defined as the total number of

descendent classes (subclass) of a class. The theoretical basis and

viewpoints remain the same as NOC. Li reported that the attribute of a

class that the NOC metric captures is the number of classes that may

potentially be influenced by the class because of inheritance relations.

Li claimed that the NDC metric captures the classes attribute better

than NOC.

o) Number of local methods (NLM)

This is one of the metric proposed in Li suite in order to measure

the attributes of a class that WMC metric intends to capture. The

Number of Local Methods metric (NLM) is defined as the number of

the local methods defined in a class which are accessible outside the

class. The theoretical basis and viewpoints are different from the WMC

metric. The theoretical basis describes the attribute of a class that the

NLM metric captures is the local interface of a class. This attribute is

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important for the usage of the class in an object-oriented design

because it indicates the size of a class's local interface through which

other classes can use the class. Li stated three viewpoints for NLM

metric as following:

1. The NLM metric is directly linked to a programmer's comprehension

effort when a class is reused in an OO design. The more local

methods a class has, the more effort is required to comprehend the

class' behaviour.

2. The larger the local interface of a class, the more effort is needed to

design, implement, test and maintain the class.

3. The larger the local interface of a class, the more influence the class

has on its descendent classes.

p) Class Method Complexity (CMC)

The Class Method Complexity (CMC) metric is defined as the

summation of the internal structural complexity of all local methods.

Regardless of whether, they are visible outside the class or not. This

definition is essentially the same as the first definition of the WMC

metric. However, the CMC metric's theoretical basis and viewpoints

are significantly different from WMC metric. The NLM and CMC

metrics are fundamentally different because they capture two

independent attributes of a class. However, there is some commonality

in the viewpoints of the two metrics - they affect the effort required to

design, implement, test and maintain a class.

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

q) Coupling Through Abstract data type (CTA)

The Coupling Through Abstract data type (CTA) is defined as the

total number of classes that are used as abstract data types in the

data-attribute declaration of a class. Two classes are coupled when

one class uses the other class as an abstract data type.

Viewpoints according to Li:

1. A software engineer needs to spend more time in understanding the

interfaces of the used classes in order to create the design for a

high CTA class than a low one.

2. For a test engineer, more effort is needed to design test cases and

perform testing for high CTA class than a low one because the

behaviors of the used classes also need to be tested.

3. For a maintenance engineer, it takes more time to understand a

high CTA class than a low one because a high CTA class uses more

class whose behaviors may compliance the class.

r) Coupling Through Message passing (CTM)

The Coupling Through Message passing (CTM) defined as the

number of different messages sent out from a class to other classes

excluding the messages sent to the objects created as local objects in

the local methods of the class. Two classes can be coupled because

one class sends a message to an object of another class, without

involving the two classes through inheritance or abstract data type.

Viewpoints according to Li:

1. A class designer needs to spend more effort in understanding the

services provided by other classes in a high CTM class than in a low

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 Identifying Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

CTM class because the outgoing message are directly related to the

services that other classes provide.

2. A test engineer needs to spend more effort and design more test

cases for high CTM class than for a low CTM class because a high

CTM value means more other classes' methods are involved in the

logical paths of the class.

3. For a maintenance engineer, the higher the CTM metric value, the

more specific methods in other classes the engineer needs to

understand in order to diagnose and fix problems, or to perform

other types of maintenance.

These entire metrics suites are confined to the family of object-

oriented approach having inter-relations with other metric suites.

The software metrics are identified on the basis of the desirable

properties of the metrics [18] [3] [63] [12] [173]. The metrics were

identified from the suites of CK and MOOD. The results of assessing

the software metrics against the software quality desirable properties

are summarized in Table 4.7.

The Table 4.7 is structured with property versus software quality

metrics. The first column comprises of a set of software metrics. The

desirable properties are mentioned in top row. The "Yes" denotes that

the metric satisfies the desirable property, on the other hand a "No"

represents that the metric does not satisfy the desirable property. It is

clearly depicted on the basis of desirable properties that the Lorenz

and Kidd metrics suite is unfit for evaluation of software quality.

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 Identifying Software Quality F a c t o r s , S u b - F a c t o r s A n d Metrics For C B S D

TABLE 4.7: ASSESSMENT OF METRICS AGAINST THE DESIRABLE

PROPERTIES
^^operty Precise Empirical Interpretation Relationship Computable
Defined Validation of Metrics between at any
Metrics Metrics and Stage
Metrics \ , Factors
MHF Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
AHF Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
MIF Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
AIF Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
PF Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
CF Yes Yes No No No
WMC Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
RFC Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
LCOM No No Yes No No
DIT Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
NOC Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
CBO Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Class Size Yes No No No Yes
Metrics
Class Yes No No No Yes
Inheritan
ce Metrics
Class Yes No No No Yes
Internals
Metrics
NAC Yes No No No Yes
NDC Yes No No No Yes
NLM Yes No No No Yes
CMC Yes No No No Yes
CTA Yes No No No Yes
CTM Yes No No No Yes

Similarly, the metrics associated with Li suite failed to evaluate

quality. Both Lorenz and Kidd metrics suite and Li metrics suite have

not been validated in existing studies and are statistical measures for

software in terms of counting: the number of methods / variables

under various categories. Chidamber et al. commented that the

metrics used in Li and Henry suite are that of CK suite and the

metrics explained additional variance in maintenance effort beyond

that explained by traditional size metrics, implying that CK Metrics

suite is better and is best suited [37]. Similarly, Varvana observed that

Li suite had weaknesses of the nature that 'redundant or needless

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

variables' were piled up in the suite. Also, the suite does not cater to

the 'full model' of software development [170]. Mark et al. have

recorded that Li suite 'does not define evaluation functions' and

further that the Li suite is 'subsequent modification' of CK suite [91].

Also, LCOM and CF have failed, in evaluation of the metric, for

evaluation of quality as presented.

Harrison et al. [73] criticised Lorenz and Kidd metric suite that

the suggested metrics are not useful because 'only a limited insight

into the architecture of the system under investigation is given'. Neal

[124] pointed out that Lorenz and Kidd metric suite only used

heuristics to validate the metrics. Harrison et al. [75] are of the

opinion that the Chidamber and Kemerer's metrics suite seems useful

to designers and developers of systems, giving them an evaluation of

the system at the class level, while the MOOD metrics could be of use

to project managers as the metrics operate at a system level. Other

object-oriented metrics are derived from the CK suite of object-

oriented metrics namely Lorenz and Kidd, Harrison, Counsell and

Nithi suite and Whitmire.

Marco et al. [145] had highlighted that CK metrics suite is the

most referenced metrics suite. Numerous studies have stated that CK

metrics suite and MOOD metrics suite comprise of the most

comprehensive set of metrics [144] [150]. Nevertheless, the majority of

metrics proposed in CK suite namely WMC, RFC, DIT, NOC and CBO

are acceptable, class based, binding scope of metrics and validate

quality. Similarly, the MOOD suite metrics are acceptable, well

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 Identi^ing Software Quality Factors, Sub-Factors And Metrics For CBSD

defined, project level based, computable and provide evidence of

evaluating quality. The acceptable MOOD metrics are MHF, AHF, MIF,

AIF and PF. The accepted CK and MOOD metrics combine to form a

group of ten metrics capable of assessing object-oriented

characteristics.

The various identified software quality metrics are presented in

Table 4.8:

TABLE 4.8: IDENTIFIED SOFTWARE QUALITY METRICS

S. No. Quality Metrics
1. Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT)
2. Weighted Methods per Class (WMC)
3. Number of Children (NOC)
4. Coupling Between Object Classes (CBO)
5. Response For a Class (RFC)
6. Method Hiding Factor (MHF)
7. Attribute Hiding Factor (AHF)
8. Method Inheritance Factor (MIF)
9. Attribute Inheritance Factor (AIF)
10. Polymorphism Factor (PF)

The first five quality metrics mentioned in the Table 4.8 are

associated with CK suite and the remaining metrics pertain to MOOD

metrics suite.

It may be concluded from the analysis that the identified ten

software quality metrics pertain to object-oriented characteristics, are

recognised in studies, are related to the identified quality factors and

are measurable.

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