Analytic Geometry in

Three Dimensions
11.1 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
11
11.2 Vectors in Space
11.3 The Cross Product of Two Vectors
11.4 Lines and Planes in Space

In Mathematics
A three-dimensional coordinate system is
formed by passing a z-axis perpendicular
to both the x- and y-axes at the origin.
When the concept of vectors is extended to
three-dimensional space, they are denoted
by ordered triples v  v1, v2, v3!.

In Real Life
The concepts discussed in this chapter
have many applications in physics and
engineering. For instance, vectors can
be used to find the angle between two
adjacent sides of a grain elevator chute.
George Ostertag/PhotoLibrary

(See Exercise 62, page 839.)

IN CAREERS
There are many careers that use topics in analytic geometry in three dimensions. Several are listed below.

• Architect • Cyclist
Exercise 77, page 816 Exercises 61 and 62, page 830
• Geographer • Consumer Research Analyst
Exercise 78, page 816 Exercise 61, page 839

809
 810 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11.1 THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

What you should learn
The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
• Plot points in the three-dimensional
coordinate system. Recall that the Cartesian plane is determined by two perpendicular number lines called
• Find distances between points the x-axis and the y-axis. These axes, together with their point of intersection (the
in space and find midpoints of line origin), allow you to develop a two-dimensional coordinate system for identifying
segments joining points in space. points in a plane. To identify a point in space, you must introduce a third dimension to
• Write equations of spheres in the model. The geometry of this three-dimensional model is called solid analytic
standard form and find traces geometry.
of surfaces in space. You can construct a three-dimensional coordinate system by passing a
z-axis perpendicular to both the x- and y-axes at the origin. Figure 11.1 shows the positive
Why you should learn it portion of each coordinate axis. Taken as pairs, the axes determine three coordinate
The three-dimensional coordinate planes: the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane. These three coordinate planes
system can be used to graph equations separate the three-dimensional coordinate system into eight octants. The first octant is
that model surfaces in space, such as the one in which all three coordinates are positive. In this three-dimensional system, a
the spherical shape of Earth, as shown point P in space is determined by an ordered triple x, y, z, where x, y, and z are as
in Exercise 78 on page 816. follows.
x  directed distance from yz-plane to P
y  directed distance from xz-plane to P
z  directed distance from xy-plane to P

z z

yz-plane
e
an
NASA

l (x, y, z)
-p
xz
y y

xy-plane

x x

FIGURE 11.1 FIGURE 11.2

A three-dimensional coordinate system can have either a left-handed or a

right-handed orientation. In this text, you will work exclusively with right-handed
systems, as illustrated in Figure 11.2. In a right-handed system, Octants II, III, and IV
are found by rotating counterclockwise around the positive z-axis. Octant V is vertically
below Octant I. Octants VI, VII, and VIII are then found by rotating counterclockwise
around the negative z-axis. See Figure 11.3.

z z z z z z z z

y y y y y y y y

x x x x x x x x

Octant I Octant II Octant III Octant IV Octant V Octant VI Octant VII Octant VIII
FIGURE 11.3
 Section 11.1 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System 811

z
Example 1 Plotting Points in Space
4
(2, −3, 3)
−4 Plot each point in space.
2 −2 (−2, 6, 2)
−6 a. 2, 3, 3 b. 2, 6, 2 c. 1, 4, 0 d. 2, 2, 3
−2

y
Solution
4 (1, 4, 0) 6 To plot the point 2, 3, 3, notice that x  2, y  3, and z  3. To help
x
visualize the point, locate the point 2, 3 in the xy-plane (denoted by a cross in Figure
11.4). The point 2, 3, 3 lies three units above the cross. The other three points are
(2, 2, −3) also shown in Figure 11.4.
FIGURE 11.4
Now try Exercise 13.

The Distance and Midpoint Formulas

Many of the formulas established for the two-dimensional coordinate system can be
z extended to three dimensions. For example, to find the distance between two points in
space, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem twice, as shown in Figure 11.5. Note that
(x2, y2, z2)
a  x2  x1, b  y2  y1, and c  z2  z1.

Distance Formula in Space

(x1, y1, z1)
y The distance between the points x1, y1, z1 and x 2, y 2, z 2 given by the Distance
a a2 + b2 Formula in Space is
(x2, y1, z1)
b d  x 2  x12   y 2  y12  z 2  z12.
x (x2, y2, z1)

z (x2, y2, z2) Example 2 Finding the Distance Between Two Points in Space

Find the distance between 1, 0, 2 and 2, 4, 3.

d= a2 + b2 + c2
Solution
c
d  x 2  x12   y2  y12  z 2  z12 Distance Formula in Space
(x1, y1, z1) y
 2  12  4  02  3  22 Substitute.

a2 + b2  1  16  25 Simplify.

x (x2, y2, z1)  42 Simplify.

FIGURE 11.5 Now try Exercise 27.

Notice the similarity between the Distance Formulas in the plane and in space. The
Midpoint Formulas in the plane and in space are also similar.

Midpoint Formula in Space

The midpoint of the line segment joining the points x1, y1, z1 and x 2, y 2, z 2
given by the Midpoint Formula in Space is


x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z 2
, , .
2 2 2
812 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Example 3 Using the Midpoint Formula in Space

Find the midpoint of the line segment joining 5, 2, 3 and 0, 4, 4.

Solution
Using the Midpoint Formula in Space, the midpoint is

 
5  0 2  4 3  4 5 7
, ,  , 1,
2 2 2 2 2
as shown in Figure 11.6.

4
Midpoint: (0, 4, 4)
(5
2
, 1, 27 3 )
(5, −2, 3) 2
−3
−4 1 −2
−3
−1
2 2
3 3
4 4 y

x
FIGURE 11.6

Now try Exercise 45.

The Equation of a Sphere

z A sphere with center h, k, j  and radius r is defined as the set of all points x, y, z such
(x , y , z) that the distance between x, y, z and h, k, j  is r, as shown in Figure 11.7. Using the
r
Distance Formula, this condition can be written as
x  h2   y  k2  z  j 2  r.
( h , k , j)
By squaring each side of this equation, you obtain the standard equation of a sphere.
y
Sphere: radius r;
center (h, k, j) Standard Equation of a Sphere
The standard equation of a sphere with center h, k, j  and radius r is given by
x
FIGURE 11.7 x  h2   y  k 2  z  j  2  r 2.

Notice the similarity of this formula to the equation of a circle in the plane.
x  h2   y  k 2  z  j  2  r 2 Equation of sphere in space

x  h   y  k  r
2 2 2
Equation of circle in the plane

As is true with the equation of a circle, the equation of a sphere is simplified when the
center lies at the origin. In this case, the equation is
x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2. Sphere with center at origin
 Section 11.1 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System 813

Example 4 Finding the Equation of a Sphere

Find the standard equation of the sphere with center 2, 4, 3 and radius 3. Does this
sphere intersect the xy-plane?

Solution
x  h2   y  k 2  z  j  2  r 2 Standard equation

x  22   y  42  z  32  32 Substitute.

From the graph shown in Figure 11.8, you can see that the center of the sphere lies three
units above the xy-plane. Because the sphere has a radius of 3, you can conclude that it
does intersect the xy-plane—at the point 2, 4, 0.

5
4
3
(2, 4, 3)
2 r=3
1
y
1 1 3 6 7
2
3 (2, 4, 0)
4
5
x
FIGURE 11.8

Now try Exercise 53.

Example 5 Finding the Center and Radius of a Sphere

Find the center and radius of the sphere given by

x 2  y 2  z 2  2x  4y  6z  8  0.

Solution
z To obtain the standard equation of this sphere, complete the square as follows.

6 x 2  y 2  z 2  2x  4y  6z  8  0
x 2  2x  䊏   y 2  4y  䊏  z 2  6z  䊏  8
(1, − 2, 3) 4
x 2  2x  1   y 2  4y  4  z 2  6z  9  8  1  4  9
r= 6
x  12   y  2 2  z  3 2   6 
3 2

2
−3 −2 So, the center of the sphere is 1, 2, 3, and its radius is 6. See Figure 11.9.
1
−1 Now try Exercise 63.
2 1
3 y
4 Note in Example 5 that the points satisfying the equation of the sphere are
x “surface points,” not “interior points.” In general, the collection of points satisfying an
FIGURE 11.9 equation involving x, y, and z is called a surface in space.
814 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Finding the intersection of a surface with one of the three coordinate planes (or
with a plane parallel to one of the three coordinate planes) helps one visualize the
surface. Such an intersection is called a trace of the surface. For example, the xy-trace
of a surface consists of all points that are common to both the surface and the xy-plane.
Similarly, the xz-trace of a surface consists of all points that are common to both the
surface and the xz-plane.

Example 6 Finding a Trace of a Surface

Sketch the xy-trace of the sphere given by x  32   y  2 2  z  42  52.

Solution
To find the xy-trace of this surface, use the fact that every point in the xy-plane has a
z-coordinate of zero. By substituting z  0 into the original equation, the resulting
equation will represent the intersection of the surface with the xy-plane.
x  32   y  22  z  42  52 Write original equation.
xy-trace:
(x 3) 2 + (y 2) 2 = 3 2
x  3   y  2  0  4 
2 2 2 52 Substitute 0 for z.
z x  32   y  2 2  16  25 Simplify.
2
x  32   y  2 2  9 Subtract 16 from each side.
8 6
10
8 10
x  32   y  2 2  32 Equation of circle
x
12 y
You can see that the xy-trace is a circle of radius 3, as shown in Figure 11.10.
Now try Exercise 71.

Sphere:
(x 3) 2 + (y 2) 2 + (z + 4) 2 = 5 2

FIGURE 11.10

T E C H N O LO G Y
Most three-dimensional graphing utilities and computer algebra systems represent surfaces by sketching several traces of
the surface. The traces are usually taken in equally spaced parallel planes. To graph an equation involving x, y, and z with a
three-dimensional “function grapher,” you must first set the graphing mode to three-dimensional and solve the equation for
z. After entering the equation, you need to specify a rectangular viewing cube (the three-dimensional analog of a viewing
window). For instance, to graph the top half of the sphere from Example 6, solve the equation for z to obtain the solutions
z !4 ± 25 ! "x ! 3#2 ! " y ! 2#2. The equation z !4 " 25 ! "x ! 3#2 ! " y ! 2#2 represents the top half
of the sphere. Enter this equation, as shown in Figure 11.11. Next, use the viewing cube shown in Figure 11.12. Finally, you
can display the graph, as shown in Figure 11.13.

FIGURE 11.11 FIGURE 11.12 FIGURE 11.13

 Section 11.1 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System 815

11.1 EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks.
1. A _______ coordinate system can be formed by passing a z-axis perpendicular to both the x-axis and the
y-axis at the origin.
2. The three coordinate planes of a three-dimensional coordinate system are the _______ , the _______ ,
and the _______ .
3. The coordinate planes of a three-dimensional coordinate system separate the coordinate system into eight _______ .
4. The distance between the points x1, y1, z1 and x 2, y2, z 2  can be found using the _______ _______ in Space.
5. The midpoint of the line segment joining the points x1, y1, z1 and x 2, y2, z 2  given by the Midpoint Formula
in Space is _______ .
6. A _______ is the set of all points x, y, z such that the distance between x, y, z and a fixed point h, k, j is r.
7. A _______ in _______ is the collection of points satisfying an equation involving x, y, and z.
8. The intersection of a surface with one of the three coordinate planes is called a _______ of the surface.

SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS

In Exercises 9 and 10, approximate the coordinates of the In Exercises 21–26, determine the octant(s) in which "x, y, z#
points. is located so that the condition(s) is (are) satisfied.
9. z 10. z 21. x > 0, y < 0, z > 0 22. x < 0, y > 0, z < 0
4
B2
−4
−3
23. z > 0 24. y < 0
3
−2
−4 2 −4 A C 25. xy < 0 26. yz > 0
−3
−2 2
C 3
4 3
x
5 4 y In Exercises 27–36, find the distance between the points.
2
3 −3 −5
x 4 −4 4 y −6 27. 0, 0, 0, 5, 2, 6 28. 1, 0, 0, 7, 0, 4
B A 29. 3, 2, 5, 7, 4, 8 30. 4, 1, 5, 8, 2, 6
In Exercises 11–16, plot each point in the same three- 31. 1, 4, 2, 6, 0, 9
dimensional coordinate system. 32. 1, 1, 7, 2, 3, 7
11. (a) 2, 1, 3 12. (a) 3, 0, 0 33. 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 10 34. 2, 4, 0, 0, 6, 3
(b) 1, 1, 2 (b) 3, 2, 1 35. 6, 9, 1, 2, 1, 5 36. 4, 0, 6, 8, 8, 20
13. (a) 3, 1, 0 14. (a) 0, 4, 3
In Exercises 37– 40, find the lengths of the sides of the right
(b) 4, 2, 2 (b) 4, 0, 4 triangle with the indicated vertices. Show that these lengths
15. (a) 3, 2, 5 16. (a) 5, 2, 2 satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem.
(b) 32, 4, 2 (b) 5, 2, 2 37. 0, 0, 2, 2, 5, 2, 0, 4, 0
38. 2, 1, 2, 4, 4, 1, 2, 5, 0
In Exercises 17–20, find the coordinates of the point.
39. 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 1, 2, 4, 4
17. The point is located three units behind the yz-plane, four
40. 1, 0, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 0, 3
units to the right of the xz-plane, and five units above
the xy-plane.
In Exercises 41– 44, find the lengths of the sides of the triangle
18. The point is located seven units in front of the yz-plane, with the indicated vertices, and determine whether the triangle
two units to the left of the xz-plane, and one unit below is a right triangle, an isosceles triangle, or neither.
the xy-plane.
41. 1, 3, 2, 5, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2
19. The point is located on the x-axis, eight units in front of
the yz-plane. 42. 5, 3, 4, 7, 1, 3, 3, 5, 3
20. The point is located in the yz-plane, one unit to the right 43. 4, 1, 2, 8, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2
of the xz-plane, and six units above the xy-plane. 44. 1, 2, 1, 3, 0, 0, 3, 6, 3
816 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

In Exercises 45–52, find the midpoint of the line segment 76. x 2  y 2  z 2  6y  8z  21  0

joining the points.
77. ARCHITECTURE A spherical building has a diameter
45. 0, 0, 0, 3, 2, 4 of 205 feet. The center of the building is placed at the
46. 1, 5, 1, 2, 2, 2 origin of a three-dimensional coordinate system. What
47. 3, 6, 10, 3, 4, 4 is the equation of the sphere?
48. 1, 5, 3, 3, 7, 1 78. GEOGRAPHY Assume that Earth is a sphere with a
radius of 4000 miles. The center of Earth is placed at the
49. 5, 2, 5, 6, 3, 7
origin of a three-dimensional coordinate system.
50. 0, 2, 5, 4, 2, 7
(a) What is the equation of the sphere?
51. 2, 8, 10, 7, 4, 2
(b) Lines of longitude that run north-south could be
52. 9, 5, 1, 9, 2, 4 represented by what trace(s)? What shape would
each of these traces form?
In Exercises 53–60, find the standard form of the equation of
(c) Lines of latitude that run east-west could be
the sphere with the given characteristics.
represented by what trace(s)? What shape would
53. Center: 3, 2, 4; radius: 4 each of these traces form?
54. Center: 3, 4, 3; radius: 2
55. Center: 5, 0, 2; radius: 6
EXPLORATION
56. Center: 4, 1, 1; radius: 5 TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 79 and 80, determine
57. Center: 3, 7, 5; diameter: 10 whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
58. Center: 0, 5, 9; diameter: 8 79. In the ordered triple x, y, z that represents point P in
59. Endpoints of a diameter: 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6 space, x is the directed distance from the xy-plane to P.
60. Endpoints of a diameter: 1, 0, 0, 0, 5, 0 80. The surface consisting of all points x, y, z in space that
are the same distance r from the point h, j, k has a
In Exercises 61–70, find the center and radius of the sphere. circle as its xy-trace.
61. x 2  y 2  z2  6 x  0 81. THINK ABOUT IT What is the z-coordinate of any
62. x2  y 2  z2  9x  0 point in the xy-plane? What is the y-coordinate of any
63. x 2  y 2  z 2  4x  2y  6z  10  0 point in the xz-plane? What is the x-coordinate of any
64. x 2  y 2  z 2  6x  4y  9  0 point in the yz-plane?
65. x 2  y 2  z 2  4x  8z  19  0
66. x 2  y 2  z 2  8y  6z  13  0 82. CAPSTONE Find the equation of the sphere that has
the points 3, 2, 6 and 1, 4, 2 as endpoints of a
67. 9x 2  9y 2  9z 2  18x  6y  72z  73  0 diameter. Explain how this problem gives you a
68. 2x 2  2y 2  2z 2  2x  6y  4z  5  0 chance to use these formulas: the Distance Formula
69. 9x2  9y 2  9z2  6x  18y  1  0 in Space, the Midpoint Formula in Space, and the
70. 4x2  4y2  4z2  4x  32y  8z  33  0 standard equation of a sphere.

In Exercises 71–74, sketch the graph of the equation and 83. A sphere intersects the yz-plane. Describe the trace.
sketch the specified trace.
84. A plane intersects the xy-plane. Describe the trace.
71. x  12  y 2  z2  36; xz-trace 85. A line segment has x1, y1, z1 as one endpoint and
72. x2   y  32  z2  25; yz-trace xm, ym, zm as its midpoint. Find the other endpoint
73. x  22   y  32  z2  9; yz-trace x 2, y2, z 2 of the line segment in terms of x1, y1,
z1, xm, ym, and zm.
74. x2   y  12  z  12  4; xy-trace
86. Use the result of Exercise 85 to find the coordinates of
In Exercises 75 and 76, use a three-dimensional graphing the endpoint of a line segment if the coordinates of the
utility to graph the sphere. other endpoint and the midpoint are 3, 0, 2 and
5, 8, 7, respectively.
75. x2  y2  z2  6x  8y  10z  46  0
 Section 11.2 Vectors in Space 817

11.2 VECTORS IN SPACE

What you should learn
Vectors in Space
• Find the component forms of the
unit vectors in the same direction of, Physical forces and velocities are not confined to the plane, so it is natural to extend the
the magnitudes of, the dot products concept of vectors from two-dimensional space to three-dimensional space. In space,
of, and the angles between vectors vectors are denoted by ordered triples
in space.
v  v1, v2, v3!. Component form
• Determine whether vectors in space
are parallel or orthogonal. The zero vector is denoted by 0  0, 0, 0!. Using the unit vectors i  1, 0, 0!,
• Use vectors in space to solve real-life j  0, 1, 0!, and k  0, 0, 1! in the direction of the positive z-axis, the standard unit
problems. vector notation for v is
Why you should learn it v  v1i  v2 j  v3k Unit vector form

Vectors in space can be used to as shown in Figure 11.14. If v is represented by the directed line segment from
represent many physical forces, P p1, p2, p3 to Qq1, q2, q3, as shown in Figure 11.15, the component form of v is
such as tension in the cables used produced by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point from the
to support auditorium lights, as corresponding coordinates of the terminal point
shown in Exercise 60 on page 823.
v  v1, v2, v3!  q1  p1, q2  p2, q3  p3!.

z z
Q(q1, q2, q3 )
〈 v1, v2, v3 〉
〈0, 0, 1〉 P( p1, p2, p3 ) v
k j 〈0, 1, 0〉 y
i y
〈1, 0, 0〉

x x
SuperStock

FIGURE 11.14 FIGURE 11.15

Vectors in Space
1. Two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components are equal.
2. The magnitude (or length) of u  u1, u2, u3! is $ u$  u12  u22  u32 .
v
3. A unit vector u in the direction of v is u  , v  0.
$v $
4. The sum of u  u1, u2, u3! and v  v1, v2, v3! is
u  v  u1  v1, u2  v2, u3  v3!. Vector addition

5. The scalar multiple of the real number c and u  u1, u2, u3! is
cu  cu1, cu2, cu3!. Scalar multiplication

6. The dot product of u  u1, u2, u3! and v  v1, v2, v3! is
u v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3. Dot product
818 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Example 1 Finding the Component Form of a Vector

Find the component form and magnitude of the vector v having initial point 3, 4, 2
and terminal point 3, 6, 4. Then find a unit vector in the direction of v.

Solution
The component form of v is
v  3  3, 6  4, 4  2!  0, 2, 2!
which implies that its magnitude is
$v $  02  22  22  8  2 2.
The unit vector in the direction of v is

& ' & '

v 1 1 1 2 2
u  0, 2, 2!  0, ,  0, , .
$v $ 2 2
2 2 2 2
Now try Exercise 9.

Example 2 Finding the Dot Product of Two Vectors

T E C H N O LO G Y
Find the dot product of 0, 3, 2! and 4, 2, 3!.
Some graphing utilities have
the capability to perform vector Solution
operations, such as the dot 0, 3, 2! 4, 2, 3!  04  32  23
product. Consult the user’s guide
for your graphing utility for  0  6  6  12
specific instructions. Note that the dot product of two vectors is a real number, not a vector.
Now try Exercise 31.

As was discussed in Section 6.4, the angle between two nonzero vectors is the
angle !, 0 # ! # , between their respective standard position vectors, as shown in
Figure 11.16. This angle can be found using the dot product. (Note that the angle
between the zero vector and another vector is not defined.)

v−u

u θ
v
Origin
FIGURE 11.16

Angle Between Two Vectors

u v
If ! is the angle between two nonzero vectors u and v, then cos !  .
$ u$ $v $

If the dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero, the angle between the vectors is
90" (recall that cos 90"  0). Such vectors are called orthogonal. For instance, the
standard unit vectors i, j, and k are orthogonal to each other.
 Section 11.2 Vectors in Space 819

Example 3 Finding the Angle Between Two Vectors

z
Find the angle between u  1, 0, 2! and v  3, 1, 0!.
4

3 Solution
u = 〈1, 0, 2〉 2 u v 1, 0, 2! 3, 1, 0! 3
cos !   
$ u$ $v $ $ 1, 0, 2!$ $ 3, 1, 0!$ 50
θ ≈ 64.9°
This implies that the angle between the two vectors is

2 3
2 !  arccos
3 50
4
v = 〈3, 1, 0〉 y
x
4 ( 64.9"
FIGURE 11.17 as shown in Figure 11.17.
Now try Exercise 35.

Parallel Vectors
y
Recall from the definition of scalar multiplication that positive scalar multiples of a
nonzero vector v have the same direction as v, whereas negative multiples have the
u direction opposite that of v. In general, two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if there
is some scalar c such that u  cv. For example, in Figure 11.18, the vectors u, v, and
u = 2v
w = −v w are parallel because u  2v and w  v.

Example 4 Parallel Vectors

v

Vector w has initial point 1, 2, 0 and terminal point 3, 2, 1. Which of the following
x vectors is parallel to w?
w
a. u  4, 8, 2!
FIGURE 11.18 b. v  4, 8, 4!

Solution
Begin by writing w in component form.
w  3  1, 2  2, 1  0!  2, 4, 1!
a. Because
u  4, 8, 2!
 2 2, 4, 1!
 2w
you can conclude that u is parallel to w.
b. In this case, you need to find a scalar c such that

4, 8, 4!  c 2, 4, 1!.
However, equating corresponding components produces c  2 for the first two
components and c  4 for the third. So, the equation has no solution, and the
vectors v and w are not parallel.
Now try Exercise 39.
820 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

You can use vectors to determine whether three points are collinear (lie on the \ \

same line). The points P, Q, and R are collinear if and only if the vectors PQ and PR
are parallel.

Example 5 Using Vectors to Determine Collinear Points

Determine whether the points P2, 1, 4, Q5, 4, 6, and R4, 11, 0 are collinear.

Solution
\ \

The component forms of PQ and PR are

PQ  5  2, 4  1, 6  4!  3, 5, 2!
\

and
PR  4  2, 11  1, 0  4!  6, 10, 4!.
\

\ \

Because PR  2PQ , you can conclude that they are parallel. Therefore, the points P,
Q, and R lie on the same line, as shown in Figure 11.19.

z
PR = 〈−6, −10, − 4〉 PQ = 〈3, 5, 2〉
4 Q(5 , 4, 6)
P(2, −1, 4)
R(− 4, −11, 0)
2

y
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2

FIGURE 11.19

Now try Exercise 47.

Example 6 Finding the Terminal Point of a Vector

The initial point of the vector v  4, 2, 1! is P3, 1, 6. What is the
terminal point of this vector?

Solution
Using the component form of the vector whose initial point is P3, 1, 6 and whose
terminal point is Qq1, q2, q3, you can write
\

PQ  q1  p1, q2  p2, q3  p3!

 q1  3, q2  1, q3  6!  4, 2, 1!.
This implies that q1  3  4, q2  1  2, and q3  6  1. The solutions of these
three equations are q1  7, q2  1, and q3  5. So, the terminal point is Q7, 1, 5.
Now try Exercise 51.
 Section 11.2 Vectors in Space 821

Application
In Section 6.3, you saw how to use vectors to solve an equilibrium problem in a plane.
The next example shows how to use vectors to solve an equilibrium problem in space.

Example 7 Solving an Equilibrium Problem

z A weight of 480 pounds is supported by three ropes. As shown in Figure 11.20, the
3
weight is located at S0, 2, 1. The ropes are tied to the points P2, 0, 0, Q0, 4, 0,
and R2, 0, 0. Find the force (or tension) on each rope.
2 4
3
1 R( 2, 0, 0) Solution
3 z The (downward) force of the weight is represented by the vector
2
1
1
Q(0, 4, 0)
P(2, 0, 0) 1 w  0, 0, 480!.
v 4 y
u 2
3 The force vectors corresponding to the ropes are as follows.
4 3
S(0, 2, 1)
2  0, 0  2, 0  1!
\

x
4 w u  $u$
SP
$ SP $
\  $ u$
3 &
2 2 1
 $u$ ,  ,
3 3 3 '
0  0, 4  2, 0  1!
\

FIGURE 11.20
v  $v $
SQ
$ SQ $
\  $ v$
5
&
 $v $ 0,
2
,
5 5
1
'
2  0, 0  2, 0  1!
\

z  $ z$
SR
$ SR $
\  $ z$
3
2 2 1
 $ z$  ,  ,
3 3 3 & '
For the system to be in equilibrium, it must be true that
u  v  z  w  0 or u  v  z  w.
This yields the following system of linear equations.
2 2
 $ u$  $ z$  000
3 3
2 2 2
 $ u$  $ v$  $ z$  000
3 5 3
1 1 1
 $ u$  $ v$  $ z$  480
3 5 3
Using the techniques demonstrated in Chapter 7, you can find the solution of the
system to be
$u $  360.0
$v $ ( 536.7
$z$  360.0.
So, the rope attached at point P has 360 pounds of tension, the rope attached at point Q
has about 536.7 pounds of tension, and the rope attached at point R has 360 pounds of
tension.
Now try Exercise 59.
822 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11.2 EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks.
1. The _______ vector is denoted by 0  0, 0, 0!.
2. The standard unit vector notation for a vector v is given by _______ .
3. The _______ _______ of a vector v is produced by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point from the
corresponding coordinates of the terminal point.
4. If the dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero, the angle between the vectors is 90" and the vectors
are called _______ .
5. Two nonzero vectors u and v are _______ if there is some scalar c such that u  cv.
\ \

6. The points P, Q, and R are _______ if and only if the vectors PQ and PR are parallel.

SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS

In Exercises 7 and 8, (a) find the component form of the In Exercises 19–28, find the magnitude of v.
vector v and (b) sketch the vector with its initial point at the
19. v  7, 8, 7!
origin.
20. v  2, 0, 5!
7. z 8. z
21. v  1, 2, 4!
4 4 (1, 4, 4)
3 3 22. v  1, 0, 3!
−4 2 −4 2
(2, 0, 1) (0, 3, 2) −3
−2
23. v  i  3j  k
v v 24. v  i  4j  3k
2 2 2 2
3 −3 3 3 −3 3 25. v  4i  3j  7k
x 4 −4 4 y x 4 −4 y
(1, 4, 0) 26. v  2i  j  6k
27. Initial point: 1, 3, 4
In Exercises 9 and 10, (a) write the component form of the
Terminal point: 1, 0, 1
vector v, (b) find the magnitude of v, and (c) find a unit
vector in the direction of v. 28. Initial point: 0, 1, 0
Terminal point: 1, 2, 2
9. Initial point: 6, 4, 2
Terminal point: 1, 1, 3 In Exercises 29 and 30, find a unit vector (a) in the direction
10. Initial point: 7, 3, 5 of u and (b) in the direction opposite of u.
Terminal point: 0, 0, 2 29. u  8i  3j  k
30. u  3i  5j  10k
In Exercises 11–14, sketch each scalar multiple of v.
11. v  1, 1, 3! In Exercises 31–34, find the dot product of u and v.
3
(a) 2v (b) v (c) 2v (d) 0v 31. u  4, 4, 1!
12. v  1, 2, 2! v  2, 5, 8!
(a) v (b) 2v (c) 12 v (d) 25 v 32. u  3, 1, 6!
13. v  2i  2j  k v  4, 10, 1!
(a) 2v (b) v (c) 52v (d) 0v 33. u  2i  5j  3k
14. v  i  2j  k v  9i  3j  k
(a) 4v (b) 2v (c) 21v (d) 0v 34. u  3j  6k
v  6i  4j  2k
In Exercises 15–18, find the vector z, given u
v <
1, !2, !2 , and w > 5, 0, !5 . < > < !1, 3, 2 , >
15. z  u  2v 16. z  7u  v  51w
17. 2z  4u  w 18. u  v  z  0
 Section 11.2 Vectors in Space 823

In Exercises 35–38, find the angle # between the vectors. 59. TENSION The weight of a crate is 500 newtons. Find
the tension in each of the supporting cables shown in the
35. u  0, 2, 2! 36. u  1, 3, 0!
figure.
v  3, 0, 4! v  1, 2, 1!
z
37. u  10i  40j 38. u  8j  20k 45 cm C 70 cm
D
v  3j  8k v  10i  5k B
65 cm 60 cm
y
In Exercises 39–46, determine whether u and v are orthogonal, x
115 cm L
parallel, or neither. A
18 in.
39. u  12, 6, 15! 40. u  1, 3, 1!
v  8, 4, 10! v  2, 1, 5!
41. u  0, 1, 6! 42. u  0, 4, 1! FIGURE FOR 59 FIGURE FOR 60
v  1, 2, 1! v  1, 0, 0! 60. TENSION The lights in an auditorium are 24-pound
3 1 1
43. u  4 i  2 j  2k 44. u  i  2 j  k disks of radius 18 inches. Each disk is supported by
v  4i  10j  k v  8i  4j  8k three equally spaced cables that are L inches long (see
45. u  2 i  3 j  k 46. u  2 i  3 j  k figure).
v  2i  j  k v  i  j  k (a) Write the tension T in each cable as a function of L.
Determine the domain of the function.
In Exercises 47–50, use vectors to determine whether the (b) Use the function from part (a) to complete the table.
points are collinear.
L 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
47. 5, 4, 1, 7, 3, 1, 4, 5, 3
48. 2, 7, 4, 4, 8, 1, 0, 6, 7 T
49. 1, 3, 2, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 1
(c) Use a graphing utility to graph the function in part
50. 0, 4, 4, 1, 5, 6, 2, 6, 7
(a). What are the asymptotes of the graph? Interpret
their meaning in the context of the problem.
In Exercises 51–54, the vector v and its initial point are given.
Find the terminal point. (d) Determine the minimum length of each cable if
a cable can carry a maximum load of 10 pounds.
51. v  2, 4, 7!
Initial point: 1, 5, 0 EXPLORATION
52. v  4, 1, 1!
TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 61 and 62, determine
Initial point: 6, 4, 3
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
53. v  4,
3
2, !  14
Initial point: 2, 1,  23 
61. If the dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero, then
the angle between the vectors is a right angle.
4!
5 1
54. v  2,  2,
62. If AB and AC are parallel vectors, then points A, B, and
Initial point: 3, 2,  2 
1
C are collinear.
55. Determine the values of c such that $cu$  3, where 63. What is known about the nonzero vectors u and v if
u  i  2j  3k. u v < 0? Explain.
56. Determine the values of c such that $cu$  12, where
u  2i  2j  4k.
64. CAPSTONE Consider the two nonzero vectors u and v.
Describe the geometric figure generated by the terminal
In Exercises 57 and 58, write the component form of v.
points of the vectors
57. v lies in the yz-plane, has magnitude 4, and makes an
t v, u  tv, and su  tv
angle of 45" with the positive y-axis.
58. v lies in the xz-plane, has magnitude 10, and makes an where s and t represent real numbers.
angle of 60" with the positive z-axis.
 824 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11.3 THE CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

What you should learn
The Cross Product
• Find cross products of vectors
in space. Many applications in physics, engineering, and geometry involve finding a
• Use geometric properties of cross vector in space that is orthogonal to two given vectors. In this section, you will study
products of vectors in space. a product that will yield such a vector. It is called the cross product, and it is
• Use triple scalar products to conveniently defined and calculated using the standard unit vector form.
find volumes of parallelepipeds.

Why you should learn it Definition of Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
The cross product of two vectors in Let
space has many applications in
u  u1i  u2 j  u3k and v  v1i  v2 j  v3k
physics and engineering. For instance,
in Exercise 61 on page 830, the cross be vectors in space. The cross product of u and v is the vector
product is used to find the torque on
the crank of a bicycle’s brake. u v  u2v3  u3v2i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k.

It is important to note that this definition applies only to three-dimensional vectors. The
cross product is not defined for two-dimensional vectors.
A convenient way to calculate u v is to use the following determinant form with
cofactor expansion. (This 3 3 determinant form is used simply to help remember the
formula for the cross product—it is technically not a determinant because the entries of

the corresponding matrix are not all real numbers.)

i j k
u v  u1 u2 u3 Put u in Row 2.
v1 v2 v3 Put v in Row 3.

David L. Moore/Äisport/Alamy

i j k i j k i j k
¨

 u1 u2 u3 i  u1 u2 u3 j  u1 u2 u3 k
v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3

u2
v2
u3
v3
u
i 1
v1
u3
v3
u
j 1
v1
u2
v2
k

 u2v3  u3v2 i  u1v3  u3v1 j  u1v2  u2v1 k

Note the minus sign in front of the j-component. Recall from Section 8.4 that each of
the three 2 2 determinants can be evaluated by using the following pattern.

a1
a2
b1
b2
 a1b2  a2b1

T E C H N O LO G Y
Some graphing utilities have the capability to perform vector operations, such as
the cross product. Consult the user’s guide for your graphing utility for specific
instructions.
 Section 11.3 The Cross Product of Two Vectors 825

Example 1 Finding Cross Products

Given u  i  2j  k and v  3i  j  2k, find each cross product.

a. u v b. v u c. v v

Solution
i j k
a. u v 1 2 1
3 1 2

2
1
1
2
i
1
3
 4  1i  2  3j  1  6k
1
2
j
1
3
2
1
k

 3i  j  5k
i j k
b. v u 3 1 2
1 2 1

1
2
2
1
i
3
1
 1  4i  3  2j  6  1k
2
1
j
3
1
1
2
k

 3i  j  5k
i j k
c. v v 3 1 2 0
3 1 2
Now try Exercise 25.

The results obtained in Example 1 suggest some interesting algebraic properties of

the cross product. For instance,
u v   v u and v v  0.
These properties, and several others, are summarized in the following list.

Algebraic Properties of the Cross Product

Let u, v, and w be vectors in space and let c be a scalar.
1. u v   v u
2. u v  w  u v  u w
3. c u v  cu vu cv
4. u 00 u0
5. u u0
6. u ! v w  u v ! w

For proofs of the Algebraic Properties of the Cross Product, see Proofs in Mathematics
on page 845.
826 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Geometric Properties of the Cross Product

The first property listed on the preceding page indicates that the cross product is not
commutative. In particular, this property indicates that the vectors u v and v u have
equal lengths but opposite directions. The following list gives some other geometric
properties of the cross product of two vectors.

Geometric Properties of the Cross Product

Let u and v be nonzero vectors in space, and let " be the angle between
u and v.
1. u v is orthogonal to both u and v.
z
2. u v  u v sin "
3. u v  0 if and only if u and v are scalar multiples of each other.
k=i×j 4. u v  area of parallelogram having u and v as adjacent sides.

j
y For proofs of the Geometric Properties of the Cross Product, see Proofs in Mathematics
i on page 846.
xy-plane
Both u v and v u are perpendicular to the plane determined by u and v. One
way to remember the orientations of the vectors u, v, and u v is to compare them with
x the unit vectors i, j, and k  i j, as shown in Figure 11.21. The three vectors u, v,
FIGURE 11.21 and u v form a right-handed system.

Example 2 Using the Cross Product

Find a unit vector that is orthogonal to both

u  3i  4j  k and v  3i  6j.

Solution
(−6, −3, 6)

The cross product u v, as shown in Figure 11.22, is orthogonal to both u and v.

z
i j k
8
u v 3 4 1
6 3 6 0
4  6i  3j  6k
(3, − 4, 1) u×v
2 −6
−4 Because
u −2 (−3, 6, 0)
u v  62  32  62
2 2
x 4 v  81
4
6 y 9
FIGURE 11.22 a unit vector orthogonal to both u and v is
u v 2 1 2
  i  j  k.
u v 3 3 3
Now try Exercise 31.
 Section 11.3 The Cross Product of Two Vectors 827

In Example 2, note that you could have used the cross product v u to form a unit
vector that is orthogonal to both u and v. With that choice, you would have obtained the
negative of the unit vector found in the example.
The fourth geometric property of the cross product states that u v is the area
of the parallelogram that has u and v as adjacent sides. A simple example of this is
given by the unit square with adjacent sides of i and j. Because
i jk
and k  1, it follows that the square has an area of 1. This geometric property of the
cross product is illustrated further in the next example.

Example 3 Geometric Application of the Cross Product

Show that the quadrilateral with vertices at the following points is a parallelogram.
Then find the area of the parallelogram. Is the parallelogram a rectangle?
A5, 2, 0, B2, 6, 1, C2, 4, 7, D5, 0, 6

Solution
z
From Figure 11.23 you can see that the sides of the quadrilateral correspond to the
8
following four vectors.
\

6 AB  3i  4j  k
\ \

D (5, 0, 6) 4 C (2, 4, 7) CD  3i  4j  k  AB

\

AD  0i  2j  6k
\ \

CB  0i  2j  6k  AD
B (2, 6, 1) \ \ \ \ \

Because CD  AB and CB  AD , you can conclude that AB is parallel to

\ \ \

6 CD and AD is parallel to CB . It follows that the quadrilateral is a parallelogram with

8 \ \

A (5, 2, 0) y AB and AD as adjacent sides. Moreover, because

8
x
FIGURE 11.23
i j k
\ \

AB AD  3 4 1  26i  18j  6k
0 2 6
the area of the parallelogram is
\ \

AB AD  262  182  62  1036 ! 32.19.

You can tell whether the parallelogram is a rectangle by finding the angle between the
\ \

vectors AB and AD .
\ \

AB AD
sin "  \ \

AB AD
1036
sin " 
26 40

sin " ! 0.998

" ! arcsin 0.998
" ! 86.4#
Because "  90#, the parallelogram is not a rectangle.
Now try Exercise 43.
828 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

The Triple Scalar Product

For the vectors u, v, and w in space, the dot product of u and v w is called the triple
scalar product of u, v, and w.

The Triple Scalar Product

For u  u 1 i  u 2 j  u 3 k, v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k, and w  w1 i  w2 j  w3 k,

the triple scalar product is given by

v×w u1 u2 u3
u ! v w  v1 v2 v3 .
w1 w2 w3

u
projv×w u  If the vectors u, v, and w do not lie in the same plane, the triple scalar product
w u ! v w can be used to determine the volume of the parallelepiped (a
v
polyhedron, all of whose faces are parallelograms) with u, v, and w as adjacent edges,
Area of base  v w as shown in Figure 11.24.
Volume of parallelepiped  u
! v

w
FIGURE 11.24
Geometric Property of the Triple Scalar Product
The volume V of a parallelepiped with vectors u, v, and w as adjacent edges is
given by

V  u ! v w .

Example 4 Volume by the Triple Scalar Product

z
Find the volume of the parallelepiped having
4 u  3i  5j  k, v  2j  2k, and w  3i  j  k
3
(3, −5, 1) as adjacent edges, as shown in Figure 11.25.
−4 2
u 1 −3
−2 Solution
−1
(3, 1, 1)

The value of the triple scalar product is

w 2
v 3 y 3 5 1
4
u ! v w  0 2 2
6 (0, 2, −2)
x
3 1 1

FIGURE 11.25
2 2 0 2 0 2
3  5 1
1 1 3 1 3 1
 34  56  16
 36.
So, the volume of the parallelepiped is

u ! v

w  36  36.
Now try Exercise 57.
 Section 11.3 The Cross Product of Two Vectors 829

11.3 EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks.
1. To find a vector in space that is orthogonal to two given vectors, find the _______ _______ of the two vectors.
2. u u  _______
3. u v  _______
4. The dot product of u and v w is called the _______ _______ _______ of u, v, and w.

SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS

In Exercises 5–10, find the cross product of the unit vectors In Exercises 37– 42, find the area of the parallelogram that
and sketch the result. has the vectors as adjacent sides.
5. j i 6. i j 37. u  k 38. u  i  2j  2k
7. i k 8. k i vik vik
9. j k 10. k j 39. u  4i  3j  7k
v  2i  4j  6k
In Exercises 11–20, use the vectors u and v to find each
40. u  2i  3j  2k
expression.
v  i  2j  4k
u 3i # j " 4k v 2i " 2j # k
41. u  #4, 4, 6$
11. u v 12. v u v  #0, 4, 6$
13. v v 14. v u u 42. u  #4, 3, 2$
15. 3u v 16. u 2v v  #5, 0, 1$
17. u v 18. 2u v
19. u ! u v 20. v ! v u In Exercises 43– 46, (a) verify that the points are the vertices
of a parallelogram, (b) find its area, and (c) determine
In Exercises 21–30, find u ! v and show that it is orthogonal whether the parallelogram is a rectangle.
to both u and v. 43. A2, 1, 4, B3, 1, 2, C0, 5, 6, D1, 3, 8
21. u  #2, 3, 4$ 22. u  #6, 8, 3$ 44. A1, 1, 1, B2, 3, 4, C6, 5, 2, D7, 7, 5
v  #0, 1, 1$ v  #5, 2, 5$ 45. A3, 2, 1, B2, 2, 3, C3, 5, 2,
23. u  #10, 0, 6$ 24. u  #7, 1, 12$ D2, 5, 4
v  #7, 0, 0$ v  #2, 2, 3$ 46. A2, 1, 1, B2, 3, 1, C2, 4, 1, D2, 6, 1
25. u  6i  2j  k 26. u  i  23 j  52 k
In Exercises 47–50, find the area of the triangle with the
v  i  3j  2k v  21i  34 j  41 k
given vertices. (The area A of the triangle having u and v as
27. u  6k 28. u  31i adjacent sides is given by A 12 u ! v .)
v  i  3j  k v  32 j  9k
47. 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 0, 0
29. u  i  k 30. u  i  2k
48. 1, 4, 3, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0
v  j  2k v  j  k
49. 2, 3, 5, 2, 2, 0, 3, 0, 6
In Exercises 31–36, find a unit vector orthogonal to u and v. 50. 2, 4, 0, 2, 4, 0, 0, 0, 4

31. u  3i  j 32. u  i  2j In Exercises 51–54, find the triple scalar product.

vjk v  i  3k
51. u  #3, 4, 4$, v  #2, 3, 0$, w  #0, 0, 6$
33. u  3i  2j  5k 34. u  7i  14j  5k
52. u  #4, 0, 1$, v  #0, 5, 0$, w  #0, 0, 1$
v  21 i  34 j  10
1
k v  14i  28j  15k
53. u  2i  3j  k, v  i  j, w  4i  3j  k
35. u  i  j  k 36. u  i  2j  2k
54. u  i  4j  7k, v  2i  4k, w  3j  6k
vijk v  2i  j  2k
830 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

In Exercises 55–58, use the triple scalar product to find (a) The magnitude of the torque on the crank is given
the volume of the parallelepiped having adjacent edges u, v, by V F . Using the given information, write the
and w. torque T on the crank as a function of p.
55. u  i  j 56. u  i  j  3k (b) Use the function from part (a) to complete the table.
vjk v  3j  3k
p 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
wik w  3i  3k
z z T

2 (1, 1, 3) 4 62. TORQUE Both the magnitude and direction of the

(0, 1, 1) force on a crankshaft change as the crankshaft rotates.
(1, 0, 1) Use the technique given in Exercise 61 to find the
v u
w w v (0, 3, 3) magnitude of the torque on the crankshaft using the
u (3, 0, 3)
2 y
position and data shown in the figure.
2 y
2 3
2
(1, 1, 0) 3
x x t
6f
57. u  #0, 2, 2$ 58. u  #1, 2, 1$ 0.1
v  #0, 0, 2$ v  #1, 2, 2$ 60° F = 2000 lb
w  #3, 0, 2$ w  #2, 0, 1$ V
z z
(0, 2, 2) (−1, 2, 2)
2 2 EXPLORATION
u v
(3, 0, 2) (2, 0, 1)
y TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 63 and 64, determine
w 2 w whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
v 2 y
2 u 63. The cross product is not defined for vectors in the plane.
3 (0, 0, −2) x
(1, 2, −1) 64. If u and v are vectors in space that are nonzero and
x
nonparallel, then u v  v u.
In Exercises 59 and 60, find the volume of the parallelepiped 65. THINK ABOUT IT Calculate u v and  v u for
with the given vertices. several values of u and v. What do your results imply?
59. A0, 0, 0, B4, 0, 0, C4, 2, 3, D0, 2, 3, Interpret your results geometrically.
E4, 5, 3, F0, 5, 3, G0, 3, 6, H4, 3, 6 66. THINK ABOUT IT If the magnitudes of two vectors
60. A0, 0, 0, B1, 1, 0, C1, 0, 2, D0, 1, 1, are doubled, how will the magnitude of the cross product
of the vectors change?
E2, 1, 2, F1, 1, 3, G1, 2, 1, H2, 2, 3
67. THINK ABOUT IT If you connect the terminal points
61. TORQUE The brakes on a bicycle are applied by of two vectors u and v that have the same initial points,
using a downward force of p pounds on the pedal when a triangle is formed. Is it possible to use the cross product
the six-inch crank makes a 40# angle with the horizontal u v to determine the area of the triangle? Explain.
(see figure). Vectors representing the position of the Verify your conclusion using two vectors from Example 3.
crank and the force are V  2cos 40#j  sin 40#k
1

and F  pk, respectively. 68. CAPSTONE Define the cross product of two vectors
in space, u and v, where u  u1i  u2 j  u3k and
v  v1i  v2 j  v3k. Explain, in your own words,
6 in.
what the cross product u v represents. What does it
V F = p lb mean when u v  0?

40°
69. PROOF Consider the vectors u  #cos $, sin $, 0$
and v  #cos &, sin &, 0$, where $ > &. Find the cross
product of the vectors and use the result to prove the
identity sin$  &  sin $ cos &  cos $ sin &.
 Section 11.4 Lines and Planes in Space 831

11.4 LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE

What you should learn
Lines in Space
• Find parametric and symmetric
equations of lines in space. In the plane, slope is used to determine an equation of a line. In space, it is more
• Find equations of planes in space. convenient to use vectors to determine the equation of a line.
• Sketch planes in space. In Figure 11.26, consider the line L through the point Px1, y1, z1 and parallel to
• Find distances between points and
the vector
planes in space. v  #a, b, c$. Direction vector for L

Why you should learn it z

Equations in three variables can be Q(x, y, z)
used to model real-life data. For L
instance, in Exercise 61 on page 839,
you will determine how changes in P(x1, y1, z1)
the consumption of two types of v = 〈a, b, c〉
beverages affect the consumption of y
a third type of beverage.

PQ = t v

x
FIGURE 11.26

The vector v is the direction vector for the line L, and a, b, and c are the direction
numbers. One way of describing the line L is to say that it consists of all points
Qx, y, z for which the vector PQ is parallel to v. This means that PQ is a scalar
\ \

multiple of v, and you can write PQ  tv, where t is a scalar.

\

PQ  #x  x1, y  y1, z  z1$

 #at, bt, ct$
JG Photography/Alamy

 tv
By equating corresponding components, you can obtain the parametric equations of
a line in space.

Parametric Equations of a Line in Space

A line L parallel to the vector v  #a, b, c$ and passing through the point
Px1, y1, z1 is represented by the parametric equations
x  x1  at, y  y1  bt, and z  z1  ct.

If the direction numbers a, b, and c are all nonzero, you can eliminate the parameter
t to obtain the symmetric equations of a line.
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  Symmetric equations
a b c
832 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

z Example 1 Finding Parametric and Symmetric Equations

6
(1, −2, 4) Find parametric and symmetric equations of the line L that passes through the point
4 1, 2, 4 and is parallel to v  #2, 4, 4$.
2
−4 Solution
−2
To find a set of parametric equations of the line, use the coordinates x1  1, y1  2,
2 and z1  4 and direction numbers a  2, b  4, and c  4 (see Figure 11.27).
4
x 6 L x  1  2t, y  2  4t, z  4  4t Parametric equations
6 y
Because a, b, and c are all nonzero, a set of symmetric equations is
v = 〈2, 4, − 4〉 x1 y2 z4
  . Symmetric equations
2 4 4
FIGURE 11.27 Now try Exercise 5.

Neither the parametric equations nor the symmetric equations of a given line are
unique. For instance, in Example 1, by letting t  1 in the parametric equations you
would obtain the point 3, 2, 0. Using this point with the direction numbers a  2,
b  4, and c  4 produces the parametric equations
x  3  2t, y  2  4t, and z  4t.

Example 2 Parametric and Symmetric Equations of a Line Through

Two Points

Find a set of parametric and symmetric equations of the line that passes through the
points 2, 1, 0 and 1, 3, 5.

Solution
Begin by letting P  2, 1, 0 and Q  1, 3, 5. Then a direction vector for the line
passing through P and Q is
\

v  PQ
 #1  2, 3  1, 5  0$
 #3, 2, 5$
 #a, b, c$.
Using the direction numbers a  3, b  2, and c  5 with the initial point P2, 1, 0,
you can obtain the parametric equations
x  2  3t, y  1  2t, and z  5t. Parametric equations

Because a, b, and c are all nonzero, a set of symmetric equations is

x2 y1 z
  . Symmetric equations
3 2 5
Now try Exercise 11.
 Section 11.4 Lines and Planes in Space 833

To check the answer to Example 2, verify that the two original points lie on the
line. For the point 2, 1, 0, you can substitute in the parametric equations.
x  2  3t y  1  2t z  5t
2  2  3t 1  1  2t 0  5t
0t 0t 0t
Try checking the point 1, 3, 5 on your own. Note that you can also check the
answer using the symmetric equations.

Planes in Space
You have seen how an equation of a line in space can be obtained from a point on the
line and a vector parallel to it. You will now see that an equation of a plane in space can
be obtained from a point in the plane and a vector normal (perpendicular) to the plane.

n ⋅ PQ = 0
Q

x y

FIGURE 11.28

Consider the plane containing the point Px1, y1, z1 having a nonzero normal vector
n  #a, b, c$, as shown in Figure 11.28. This plane consists of all points Qx, y, z for
\

which the vector PQ is orthogonal to n. Using the dot product, you can write
\

n ! PQ  0
\

PQ is orthogonal to n.

#a, b, c$ ! #x  x1, y  y1, z  z1$  0

ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0.
The third equation of the plane is said to be in standard form.

Standard Equation of a Plane in Space

The plane containing the point x1, y1, z1 and having normal vector n  #a, b, c$
can be represented by the standard form of the equation of a plane
ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0.

Regrouping terms yields the general form of the equation of a plane in space
ax  by  cz  d  0. General form of equation of plane

Given the general form of the equation of a plane, it is easy to find a normal vector
to the plane. Use the coefficients of x, y, and z to write n  #a, b, c$.
834 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Example 3 Finding an Equation of a Plane in Three-Space

Find the general form of the equation of the plane passing through the points 2, 1, 1,
0, 4, 1, and 2, 1, 4.
Solution
z
To find the equation of the plane, you need a point in the plane and a vector that is normal
5 (−2, 1, 4) to the plane. There are three choices for the point, but no normal vector is given. To
4 obtain a normal vector, use the cross product of vectors u and v extending from the
3 v point 2, 1, 1 to the points 0, 4, 1 and 2, 1, 4, as shown in Figure 11.29. The
2 component forms of u and v are
u  #0  2, 4  1, 1  1$  #2, 3, 0$
(2, 1, 1)
u (0, 4, 1) v  #2  2, 1  1, 4  1$  #4, 0, 3$
2

3 3
4 and it follows that
x y
i j k
nu v  2 3 0
FIGURE 11.29 4 0 3
 9i  6j  12k
 #a, b, c$
is normal to the given plane. Using the direction numbers for n and the initial point
x1, y1, z1  2, 1, 1, you can determine an equation of the plane to be
ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0
9x  2  6 y  1  12z  1  0 Standard form

9x  6y  12z  36  0
3x  2y  4z  12  0. General form

Check that each of the three points satisfies the equation 3x  2y  4z  12  0.

Now try Exercise 29.

Two distinct planes in three-space either are parallel or intersect in a line. If they
intersect, you can determine the angle " 0 ' " ' 90# between them from the angle
n1 n2
θ between their normal vectors, as shown in Figure 11.30. Specifically, if vectors n1 and
n2 are normal to two intersecting planes, the angle " between the normal vectors is
equal to the angle between the two planes and is given by

cos " 
n1 ! n2
. Angle between two planes
θ n1 n2
Consequently, two planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 are
FIGURE 11.30
1. perpendicular if n1 ! n2  0.
2. parallel if n1 is a scalar multiple of n2.
 Section 11.4 Lines and Planes in Space 835

Example 4 Finding the Line of Intersection of Two Planes

Plane 2 z
θ ≈ 53.55° Find the angle between the two planes given by
Line of 2x  2y  2z  0 Equation for plane 1
Intersection
2x  3y  2z  0 Equation for plane 2
y
and find parametric equations of their line of intersection (see Figure 11.31).

Solution
Plane 1
The normal vectors for the planes are n1  #1, 2, 1$ and n2  #2, 3, 2$.
x Consequently, the angle between the two planes is determined as follows.

cos " 
n1 ! n2

6

6
! 0.59409.
n1 n2 6 17 102
FIGURE 11.31 This implies that the angle between the two planes is " ! 53.55#. You can find the line
of intersection of the two planes by simultaneously solving the two linear equations
representing the planes. One way to do this is to multiply the first equation by 2 and
add the result to the second equation.
x  2y  z  0 2x  4y  2z  0
2x  3y  2z  0 2x  3y  2z  0
4z
2x  7y  4z  0 y
7
Substituting y  4z7 back into one of the original equations, you can
determine that x  z7. Finally, by letting t  z7, you obtain the parametric equations
x  t  x1  at Parametric equation for x

y  4t  y1  bt Parametric equation for y

z  7t  z1  ct. Parametric equation for z

Because x1, y1, z1  0, 0, 0 lies in both planes, you can substitute for x1, y1, and z1
in these parametric equations, which indicates that a  1, b  4, and c  7 are
direction numbers for the line of intersection.
Now try Exercise 47.

Note that the direction numbers in Example 4 can also be obtained from the cross

product of the two normal vectors as follows.

i j k
n1 n2  1 2 1
2 3 2



2
3
 i  4j  7k
1
2

i
1
2
1
2
j
1
2
2
3
k

This means that the line of intersection of the two planes is parallel to the cross product
of their normal vectors.
836 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

Sketching Planes in Space

As discussed in Section 11.1, if a plane in space intersects one of the coordinate planes,
the line of intersection is called the trace of the given plane in the coordinate plane. To
T E C H N O LO G Y sketch a plane in space, it is helpful to find its points of intersection with the coordinate
Most three-dimensional graphing axes and its traces in the coordinate planes. For example, consider the plane
utilities and computer algebra 3x  2y  4z  12. Equation of plane
systems can graph a plane in
space. Consult the user’s guide You can find the xy-trace by letting z  0 and sketching the line
for your utility for specific 3x  2y  12 xy-trace
instructions.
in the xy-plane. This line intersects the x-axis at 4, 0, 0 and the y-axis at 0, 6, 0. In
Figure 11.32, this process is continued by finding the yz-trace and the xz-trace and then
shading the triangular region lying in the first octant.

z z z

6 6 6
4 4 (0, 0, 3) 4 (0, 0, 3)
2 2
(0, 6, 0) (0, 6, 0)
(4, 0, 0) (4, 0, 0)
(4, 0, 0) 2 2 (0, 6, 0) 2 2 2 2

x 6 6 y x 6 6 y x 6 6 y

(a) xy-trace % z 0&: (b) yz-trace %x 0&: (c) xz-trace % y 0&:

3x " 2y 12 2y " 4z 12 3x " 4z 12
FIGURE 11.32

z If the equation of a plane has a missing variable, such as 2x  z  1, the plane

must be parallel to the axis represented by the missing variable, as shown in Figure
(0, 0, 1) 11.33. If two variables are missing from the equation of a plane, then it is parallel to
the coordinate plane represented by the missing variables, as shown in Figure 11.34.

z z z

(0, 0, − dc )
y
( 12 , 0, 0)
Plane: 2x + z = 1
x
x y x y x y
Plane is parallel to y-axis (− da , 0, 0) (0, − db , 0)
FIGURE 11.33
(a) Plane ax " d 0 (b) Plane by " d 0 (c) Plane cz " d 0
is parallel to yz-plane. is parallel to xz-plane. is parallel to xy-plane.
FIGURE 11.34
 Section 11.4 Lines and Planes in Space 837

Distance Between a Point and a Plane

The distance D between a point Q and a plane is the length of the shortest line segment
n connecting Q to the plane, as shown in Figure 11.35. If P is any point in the plane, you
Q \

can find this distance by projecting the vector PQ onto the normal vector n. The length
of this projection is the desired distance.
D

projn PQ Distance Between a Point and a Plane

P The distance between a plane and a point Q (not in the plane) is
\

D  projn PQ

PQ ! n

D  projn PQ 
n
FIGURE 11.35
where P is a point in the plane and n is normal to the plane.

To find a point in the plane given by ax  by  cz  d  0, where a  0, let

y  0 and z  0. Then, from the equation ax  d  0, you can conclude that the point
da, 0, 0 lies in the plane.

Example 5 Finding the Distance Between a Point and a Plane

Find the distance between the point Q1, 5, 4 and the plane 3x  y  2z  6.

Solution
You know that n  #3, 1, 2$ is normal to the given plane. To find a point in the plane,
let y  0 and z  0, and obtain the point P2, 0, 0. The vector from P to Q is
\

PQ  #1  2, 5  0, 4  0$
 #1, 5, 4$.
The formula for the distance between a point and a plane produces

PQ ! n

D
n


#1, 5, 4$ ! #3, 1, 2$

9  1  4


3  5  8

14

16
 .
14

Now try Exercise 59.

The choice of the point P in Example 5 is arbitrary. Try choosing a different point
to verify that you obtain the same distance.
838 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11.4 EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks.
1. The _______ vector for a line L is given by v  _______ .
2. The _______ _______ of a line in space are given by x  x1  at, y  y1  bt, and z  z1  ct.
3. If the direction numbers a, b, and c of the vector v  #a, b, c$ are all nonzero, you can eliminate the
parameter to obtain the _______ _______ of a line.
4. A vector that is perpendicular to a plane is called _______ .

SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS

In Exercises 5–10, find a set of (a) parametric equations and In Exercises 27–30, find the general form of the equation of
(b) symmetric equations for the line through the point and the plane passing through the three points.
parallel to the specified vector or line. (For each line, write
27. 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3
the direction numbers as integers.)
28. 4, 1, 3, 2, 5, 1, 1, 2, 1
Point Parallel to
29. 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 1, 0
5. 0, 0, 0 v  #1, 2, 3$
30. 5, 1, 4, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 3
6. 3, 5, 1 v  #3, 7, 10$
7. 4, 1, 0 4
v  21 i  3 j  k In Exercises 31–36, find the general form of the equation of
8. 2, 0, 3 v  2i  4j  2k the plane with the given characteristics.
9. 2, 3, 5 x  5  2t, y  7  3t, z  2  t 31. Passes through 2, 5, 3 and is parallel to the xz-plane
10. 1, 0, 1 x  3  3t, y  5  2t, z  7  t 32. Passes through 1, 2, 3 and is parallel to the yz-plane
33. Passes through 0, 2, 4 and 1, 2, 0 and is perpen-
In Exercises 11–18, find (a) a set of parametric equations and dicular to the yz-plane
(b) if possible, a set of symmetric equations of the line that
34. Passes through 1, 2, 4 and 4, 0, 1 and is perpen-
passes through the given points. (For each line, write the
dicular to the xz-plane
direction numbers as integers.)
35. Passes through 2, 2, 1 and 1, 1, 1 and is perpen-
11. 2, 0, 2, 1, 4, 3 12. 2, 3, 0, 10, 8, 12 dicular to 2x  3y  z  3
13. 3, 8, 15, 1, 2, 16 14. 2, 3, 1, 1, 5, 3 36. Passes through 1, 2, 0 and 1, 1, 2 and is perpen-
15. 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 5 16. 2, 1, 5, 2, 1, 3 dicular to 2x  3y  z  6
17.  12, 2, 12 , 1, 21, 0 18.  23, 32, 2, 3, 5, 4
In Exercises 37– 40, determine whether the planes are
In Exercises 19 and 20, sketch a graph of the line. parallel, orthogonal, or neither. If they are neither parallel
nor orthogonal, find the angle of intersection.
19. x  2t, y  2  t, 20. x  5  2t, y  1  t,
1 37. 5x  3y  z  4 38. 3x  y  4z  3
z1 2t z  5  12t
x  4y  7z  1 9x  3y  12z  4
In Exercises 21–26, find the general form of the equation of 39. 2x  y  8z  11 40. 5x  25y  5z  1
the plane passing through the point and perpendicular to the 4x  y  8z  10 5x  25y  5z  3
specified vector or line.
In Exercises 41–46, find a set of parametric equations of the
Point Perpendicular to
line. (There are many correct answers.)
21. 2, 1, 2 ni
41. Passes through 2, 3, 4 and is parallel to the xz-plane
22. 1, 0, 3 nk
and the yz-plane
23. 5, 6, 3 n  2i  j  2k
42. Passes through 4, 5, 2 and is parallel to the xy-plane
24. 0, 0, 0 n  3j  5k and the yz-plane
25. 2, 0, 0 x  3  t, y  2  2t, z  4  t 43. Passes through 2, 3, 4 and is perpendicular to
26. 0, 0, 6 x  1  t, y  2  t, z  4  2t 3x  2y  z  6
 Section 11.4 Lines and Planes in Space 839

44. Passes through 4, 5, 2 and is perpendicular to (c) According to this model, any increases or decreases
x  2y  z  5 in consumption of two types of beverages will have
45. Passes through 5, 3, 4 and is parallel to what effect on the consumption of the third type of
v  2, 1, 3! beverage?
46. Passes through 1, 4, 3 and is parallel to 62. MECHANICAL DESIGN A chute at the top of a grain
v  5i  j elevator of a combine funnels the grain into a bin, as
shown in the figure. Find the angle between two
In Exercises 47–50, (a) find the angle between the two planes adjacent sides.
and (b) find parametric equations of their line of intersection. T (−1, −1, 8)
z

47. 3x  4y  5z  6 48. x  3y  z  2
x y z2 2x  5z  3  0 R (7, 7, 8)
49. x  y  z  0 50. 2x  4y  2z  1
2x  5y  z  1 3x  6y  3z  10 S (0, 0, 0)
P (6, 0, 0) y
In Exercises 51–56, plot the intercepts and sketch a graph of
x
the plane. Q (6, 6, 0)

51. x  2y  3z  6 52. 2x  y  4z  4
EXPLORATION
53. x  2y  4 54. y  z  5
55. 3x  2y  z  6 56. x  3z  6 TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 63 and 64, determine
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
In Exercises 57–60, find the distance between the point and
63. Every two lines in space are either intersecting or parallel.
the plane.
64. Two nonparallel planes in space will always intersect.
57. 0, 0, 0 58. 3, 2, 1
8x  4y  z  8 x  y  2z  4 65. The direction numbers of two distinct lines in space
are 10, 18, 20, and 15, 27, 30. What is the
59. 4, 2, 2 60. 1, 2, 5
relationship between the lines? Explain.
2x  y  z  4 2x  3y  z  12
66. Consider the following four planes.
61. DATA ANALYSIS: BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION The 2x  3y  z  2
table shows the per capita consumption (in gallons) of 4x  6y  2z  5
different types of beverages sold by a company from
2x  3y  z  2
2006 through 2010. Consumption of energy drinks, soft
6x  9y  3z  11
drinks, and bottled water are represented by the
variables x, y, and z, respectively. What are the normal vectors for each plane? What can
you say about the relative positions of these planes in
space?
Year x y z
67. (a) Describe and find an equation for the surface
2006 2.3 3.4 3.9 generated by all points x, y, z that are two units
2007 2.2 3.2 3.8 from the point 4, 1, 1.
2008 2.0 3.1 3.5 (b) Describe and find an equation for the surface
2009 1.9 3.0 3.4 generated by all points x, y, z that are two units
2010 1.8 2.9 3.3 from the plane 4x  3y  z  10.

A model for the data is given by 68. CAPSTONE Give the parametric equations and the
1.54x  0.32y  z  1.45. symmetric equations of a line in space. Describe what
is required to find these equations.
(a) Complete a fifth column in the table using the model
to approximate z for the given values of x and y.
(b) Compare the approximations from part (a) with the
actual values of z.
840 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11 CHAPTER SUMMARY
What Did You Learn? Explanation/Examples Review
Exercises
z
Plot points in the three-dimen- 1– 4
sional coordinate system (p. 810). (2, − 4, 3) 4 (−3, 4, 2)
−4
2 −2

−2

6 y
4 (1, 5, 0)
x
(2, 3, − 2)

Find distances between points in The distance between the points x1, y1, z1 and x2, y2, z2 5–14
Section 11.1

space and find midpoints of line given by the Distance Formula in Space is
segments joining points in space
d  x2  x12   y2  y12  z2  z12.
(p. 811).
The midpoint of the line segment joining the points x1, y1, z1
and x2, y2, z2 given by the Midpoint Formula in Space is

x 1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2
2
,
2
,
2
.
Write equations of spheres in Standard Equation of a Sphere 15–26
standard form and find traces of
The standard equation of a sphere with center h, k, j and
surfaces in space (p. 812).
radius r is given by x  h2   y  k2  z  j2  r 2.
Find the component forms of the Vectors in Space 27–36
unit vectors in the same direction
1. Two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding
of, the magnitudes of, the dot
components are equal.
products of, and the angles
between vectors in space (p. 817). 2. Magnitude of u  u1, u2, u3!: "u"  u12  u22  u32
v
3. A unit vector u in the direction of v is u  , v  0.
"v"
4. The sum of u  u1, u2, u3! and v  v1, v2, v3! is
u  v  u1  v1, u2  v2, u3  v3!.
5. The scalar multiple of the real number c and
u  u1, u2, u3! is cu  cu1, cu2, cu3!.
Section 11.2

6. The dot product of u  u1, u2, u3! and v  v1, v2, v3!
is u ! v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3.
Angle Between Two Vectors
If is the angle between two nonzero vectors u and v, then
u!v
cos  .
"u" "v"

Determine whether vectors in Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if there is some 37– 44
space are parallel or orthogonal scalar c such that u  cv.
(p. 819).
Use vectors in space to solve Vectors can be used to solve equilibrium problems in space. 45, 46
real-life problems (p. 821). (See Example 7.)
 Chapter Summary 841

What Did You Learn? Explanation/Examples Review

Exercises
Find cross products of vectors in Definition of Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space 47–50
space (p. 824). Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3k and v  v1i  v2 j  v3k be
vectors in space. The cross product of u and v, u " v, is the
vector u2v3  u3v2i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k.

Use geometric properties of cross Geometric Properties of the Cross Product 51–56
products of vectors in space Let u and v be nonzero vectors in space, and let be the
(p. 826). angle between u and v.
1. u " v is orthogonal to both u and v.
2. "u " v"  "u" "v" sin
Section 11.3

3. u " v  0 if and only if u and v are scalar multiples of

each other.
4. "u " v"  area of parallelogram having u and v as
adjacent sides

Use triple scalar products to find The Triple Scalar Product 57, 58
volumes of parallelepipeds For u  u1i  u2 j  u3k, v  v1i  v2 j  v3k, and

(p. 828). w  w1i  w2 j  w3k, the triple scalar product is given by

u1 u2 u3
u ! v " w  v1 v2 v3 .
w1 w2 w3
Geometric Property of the Triple Scalar Product
The volume V of a parallelepiped with vectors u, v, and w

as adjacent edges is given by V  u ! v " w .

Find parametric and symmetric Parametric Equations of a Line in Space 59–62

equations of lines in space A line L parallel to the vector v  a, b, c! and passing
(p. 831). through the point Px1, y1, z1 is represented by the parametric
equations x  x1  at, y  y1  bt, and z  z1  ct.

Find equations of planes in space Standard Equation of a Plane in Space 63–66

(p. 833). The plane containing the point x1, y1, z1 and having normal
vector n  a, b, c! can be represented by the standard
form of the equation of a plane
ax  x1  b y  y1  cz  z1  0.
Section 11.4

Sketch planes in space (p. 836). See Figure 11.32, which shows how to sketch the plane 67–70
3x  2y  4z  12.

Find distances between points Distance Between a Point and a Plane 71–74
and planes in space (p. 837). The distance between a plane and a point Q (not in the
plane) is
\

D  "projn PQ "

PQ ! n


"n"
where P is a point in the plane and n is normal to the plane.
842 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11 REVIEW EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

11.1 In Exercises 1 and 2, plot each point in the same three- In Exercises 21–24, find the center and radius of the sphere.
dimensional coordinate system. 21. x 2  y 2  z 2  8z  0
1. (a) 5, 1, 2 2. (a) 2, 4, 3 22. x 2  y 2  z 2  4x  6y  4  0
(b) 3, 3, 0 (b) 0, 0, 5 23. x 2  y 2  z2  10x  6y  4z  34  0
24. 2x2  2y2  2z2  2x  2y  2z  1  0
3. Find the coordinates of the point in the xy-plane four
units to the right of the xz-plane and five units behind
In Exercises 25 and 26, sketch the graph of the equation and
the yz-plane.
sketch the specified trace.
4. Find the coordinates of the point located on the y-axis
and seven units to the left of the xz-plane. 25. x2   y  32  z2  16
(a) xz-trace (b) yz-trace
In Exercises 5–8, find the distance between the points. 26. x  22   y  12  z2  9
5. 4, 0, 7, 5, 2, 1 6. 2, 3, 4, 1, 3, 0 (a) xy-trace (b) yz-trace
7. 7, 5, 6, 1, 1, 6 8. 0, 0, 0, 4, 4, 4
11.2 In Exercises 27–30, (a) write the component form of
In Exercises 9 and 10, find the lengths of the sides of the right the vector v, (b) find the magnitude of v, and (c) find a unit
triangle. Show that these lengths satisfy the Pythagorean vector in the direction of v.
Theorem. 27. Initial point: 3, 2, 1
9. z 10. z Terminal point: 4, 4, 0
4
(3, − 2, 0) (0, 0, 4) 28. Initial point: 2, 1, 2
−4 4
2
(0, 3, 2) (4, 3, 2) Terminal point: 3, 2, 3
−2
(4, 5, 5) 29. Initial point: 7, 4, 3
4 2 2
x 4 4 Terminal point: 3, 2, 10
y x 4
−4 y 30. Initial point: 0, 3, 1
(0, 5, − 3)
Terminal point: 5, 8, 6
In Exercises 11–14, find the midpoint of the line segment
In Exercises 31–34, find the dot product of u and v.
joining the points.
31. u  1, 4, 3! 32. u  8, 4, 2!
11. 8, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7
v  0, 6, 5! v  2, 5, 2!
12. 7, 1, 4, 1, 1, 2
33. u  2i  j  k 34. u  2i  j  2k
13. 10, 6, 12, 8, 2, 6
vik v  i  3j  2k
14. 5, 3, 1, 7, 9, 5
In Exercises 35 and 36, find the angle between the vectors.
In Exercises 15–20, find the standard form of the equation of
the sphere with the given characteristics. 35. u  2, 1, 0! 36. u  3, 1, 1!
15. Center: 2, 3, 5; radius: 1 v  1, 2, 1! v  4, 5, 2!
16. Center: 3, 2, 4; radius: 4
In Exercises 37– 40, determine whether u and v are
17. Center: 1, 5, 2; diameter: 12 orthogonal, parallel, or neither.
18. Center: 0, 4, 1; diameter: 15
37. u  39, 12, 21! 38. u  8, 5, 8!
19. Endpoints of a diameter: 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2
v  2, 4, 2!
1
v  26, 8, 14!
20. Endpoints of a diameter: 4, 1, 3, 2, 5, 3
39. u  6i  5j  9k 40. u  3j  2k
v  5i  3j  5k v  12i  18k
 Review Exercises 843

In Exercises 41–44, use vectors to determine whether the 11.4 In Exercises 59–62, find a set of (a) parametric
points are collinear. equations and (b) symmetric equations for the specified line.
41. 6, 3, 1, 5, 8, 3, 7, 2, 5 59. Passes through 1, 3, 5 and 3, 6, 1
42. 5, 2, 0, 2, 6, 1, 2, 4, 7 60. Passes through 0, 10, 3 and 5, 10, 0
43. 5, 4, 7, 8, 5, 5, 11, 6, 3 61. Passes through 0, 0, 0 and is parallel to
44. 3, 4, 1, 1, 6, 9, 5, 3, 6 v  2, 25, 1!
45. TENSION A load of 300 pounds is supported by three 62. Passes through 3, 2, 1 and is parallel to the line given
cables, as shown in the figure. Find the tension in each by x  y  z
of the supporting cables.
In Exercises 63–66, find the general form of the equation of
z
the specified plane.
(−4, −6, 10)
B
(4, −6, 10) (0, 10, 10) 63. Passes through 0, 0, 0, 5, 0, 2, and 2, 3, 8
C A 64. Passes through 1, 3, 4, 4, 2, 2, and 2, 8, 6
65. Passes through 5, 3, 2 and is parallel to the xy-plane
y
O 300 lb 66. Passes through 0, 0, 6 and is perpendicular to the line
x given by x  1  t, y  2  t, and z  4  2t
46. TENSION Determine the tension in each of the In Exercises 67–70, plot the intercepts and sketch a graph of
supporting cables in Exercise 45 if the load is the plane.
200 pounds.
67. 3x  2y  3z  6
11.3 In Exercises 47–50, find u " v. 68. 5x  y  5z  5
47. u  2, 8, 2! 48. u  10, 15, 5! 69. 2x  3z  6
v  1, 1, 1! v  5, 3, 0! 70. 4y  3z  12
49. u  2i  3j  2k 50. u  i  2j  2k
In Exercises 71–74, find the distance between the point and
v  3i  j  2k vi the plane.
In Exercises 51–54, find a unit vector orthogonal to u and v. 71. 1, 2, 3 72. 2, 3, 10
51. u  2i  j  k 52. u  j  4k 2x  y  z  4 x  10y  3z  3
v  i  j  2k v  i  3j 73. 0, 0, 0 74. 0, 0, 0
53. u  3i  2j  5k 54. u  4k 2x  3y  z  12 x  10y  3z  2
v  10i  15j  2k v  i  12k EXPLORATION
In Exercises 55 and 56, verify that the points are the vertices TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 75 and 76, determine
of a parallelogram and find its area. whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
55. 2, 1, 1, 5, 1, 4, 0, 1, 1, 3, 3, 4 75. The cross product is commutative.
56. 0, 4, 0, 1, 4, 1, 0, 6, 0, 1, 6, 1 76. The triple scalar product of three vectors in space is a
scalar.
In Exercises 57 and 58, find the volume of the parallelepiped
with the given vertices.
57. A0, 0, 0, B3, 0, 0, C0, 5, 1, D3, 5, 1, <
and w ! w1, w2, w3 . > < > < >
In Exercises 77 and 78, let u ! u1, u2, u3 , v ! v1, v2, v3 ,

E2, 0, 5, F5, 0, 5, G2, 5, 6, H5, 5, 6 77. Show that u ! v  w  u ! v  u ! w.
58. A0, 0, 0, B2, 0, 0, C2, 4, 0, D0, 4, 0, 78. Show that u " v  w  u " v  u " w.
E0, 0, 6, F2, 0, 6, G2, 4, 6, H0, 4, 6
844 Chapter 11 Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

11 CHAPTER TEST See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Take this test as you would take a test in class. When you are finished, check your work
against the answers given in the back of the book.
1. Plot each point in the same three-dimensional coordinate system.
(a) 3, 7, 2
(b) 2, 2, 1

In Exercises 2–4, use the points A#8, #2, 5$, B#6, 4, #1$, and C##4, 3, 0$, to solve the
problem.
2. Consider the triangle with vertices A, B, and C. Is it a right triangle? Explain.
3. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining points A and B.
4. Find the standard form of the equation of the sphere for which A and B are the
endpoints of a diameter. Sketch the sphere and its xz-trace.

In Exercises 5–9, let u and v be the vectors from A#8, #2, 5$ to B#6, 4, #1$ and from
A to C##4, 3, 0$, respectively.
5. Write u and v in component form.
6. Find (a) u ! v and (b) u " v.
7. Find (a) a unit vector in the direction of u and (b) a unit vector in the direction of v.
8. Find the angle between u and v.
z 9. Find a set of (a) parametric equations and (b) symmetric equations for the line
6 A
through points A and B.
B
4 In Exercises 10–12, determine whether u and v are orthogonal, parallel, or neither.
D
2 C
E 10. u  i  2j  k 11. u  3i  2j  k 12. u  4, 1, 6!
2 2 4 6
F
y v  j  6k vijk v  2, 12, 3!
8 10
4
x H 13. Verify that the points A2, 3, 1, B6, 5, 1, C3, 6, 4, and D7, 2, 2 are the
G vertices of a parallelogram, and find its area.
FIGURE FOR 14 14. Find the volume of the parallelepiped at the left with the given vertices.
A0, 0, 5, B0, 10, 5, C4, 10, 5, D4, 0, 5,
z E0, 1, 0, F0, 11, 0, G4, 11, 0, H4, 1, 0

12 T (2, 2, 12) In Exercises 15 and 16, plot the intercepts and sketch a graph of the plane.
R (8, 8, 12)
15. 3x  6y  2z  18
S (0, 0, 0) 16. 5x  y  2z  10

17. Find the general form of the equation of the plane passing through the points
3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 1, and 1, 1, 2.
y
18. Find the distance between the point 2, 1, 6 and the plane 3x  2y  z  6.
x
P (10, 0, 0)
19. A tractor fuel tank has the shape and dimensions shown in the figure. In fabricating
Q (10, 10, 0) the tank, it is necessary to know the angle between two adjacent sides. Find this
FIGURE FOR 19 angle.
 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
Notation for Dot Algebraic Properties of the Cross Product (p. 825)
and Cross Products Let u, v, and w be vectors in space and let c be a scalar.

The notation for the dot product 1. u " v   v " u 2. u " v  w  u " v  u " w
and the cross product of vectors 3. c u " v  cu " v  u " cv 4. u " 0  0 " u  0
was first introduced by the
American physicist Josiah 5. u " u  0 6. u ! v " w  u " v ! w
Willard Gibbs (1839–1903).
In the early 1880s, Gibbs built
a system to represent physical Proof
quantities called vector analysis. Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3k, v  v1i  v2 j  v3k, w  w1i  w2 j  w3k,
The system was a departure from 0  0i  0j  0k, and let c be a scalar.
William Hamilton’s theory of
quaternions. 1. u " v  u2v3  u3v2 i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k
v " u  v2u3  v3u2 i  v1u3  v3u1j  v1u2  v2u1k
So, this implies u " v   v " u.
2. u " v  w  u2v3  w3  u3v2  w2i  [u1v3  w3 
u3v1  w1 j  u1v2  w2  u2v1  w1 k
 u2v3  u3v2 i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k 
u2w3  u3w2 i  u1w3  u3w1  j  u1w2  u2w1k
 u " v  u " w
3. cu " v  cu2v3  cu3v2 i  cu1v3  cu3v1 j  cu1v2  cu2v1k
 cu2v3  u3v2 i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k
 cu " v
4. u " 0  u2 ! 0  u3 ! 0i  u1 ! 0  u3 ! 0j  u1 ! 0  u2 ! 0k
 0i  0j  0k  0
0 " u  0 ! u3  0 ! u2 i  0 ! u3  0 ! u1 j  0 ! u2  0 ! u1k
 0i  0j  0k  0
So, this implies u " 0  0 " u  0.
5. u " u  u2u3  u3u2 i  u1u3  u3u1j  u1u2  u2u1k  0
u1
6. u ! v " w  v1

u2
v2
u3

v3 and

w1 w2 w3
w1 w2 w3
u " v ! w  w ! u " v  u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
u ! v " w  u1v2w3  w2v3  u2v1w3  w1v3  u3v1w2  w1v2
 u1v2w3  u1w2v3  u2v1w3  u2w1v3  u3v1w2  u3w1v2
 u2w1v3  u3w1v2  u1w2v3  u3v1w2  u1v2w3  u2v1w3
 w1u2v3  u3v2  w2u1v3  u3v1  w3u1v2  u2v1
 u " v ! w

845
 Geometric Properties of the Cross Product (p. 826)
Let u and v be nonzero vectors in space, and let be the angle between
u and v.
1. u " v is orthogonal to both u and v.
2. "u " v"  " u " " v " sin
3. u " v  0 if and only if u and v are scalar multiples of each other.
4. "u " v"  area of parallelogram having u and v as adjacent sides.

Proof
Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3k, v  v1i  v2 j  v3k, and 0  0i  0j  0k.
1. u " v  u2v3  u3v2 i  u1v3  u3v1j  u1v2  u2v1k
u " v ! u  u2v3  u3v2u1  u1v3  u3v1u2  u1v2  u2v1u3
 u1u2v3  u1u3v2  u1u2v3  u2u3v1  u1u3v2  u2u3v1  0
u " v ! v  u2v3  u3v2v1  u1v3  u3v1v2  u1v2  u2v1v3
 u2v1v3  u3v1v2  u1v2v3  u3v1v2  u1v2v3  u2v1v3  0
Because two vectors are orthogonal if their dot product is zero, it follows that u " v
is orthogonal to both u and v.
u!v
2. Note that cos  . So,
"u" "v"
"u" "v" sin  "u" "v" 1  cos2

1  "u"
u ! v 2
 "u" "v"
"v"
2 2

 "u"2 "v"2  u ! v2

 u12  u22  u32v12  v22  v32  u1v1  u2v2  u3v32
 u2v3  u3v22  u1v3  u3v12  u1v2  u2v12  "u " v".
3. If u and v are scalar multiples of each other, then u  cv for some scalar c.
u " v  cv " v  cv " v  c0  0
If u " v  0, then "u" "v" sin  0. (Assume u  0 and v  0.) So, sin  0, and
 0 or  . In either case, because is the angle between the vectors, u and v
are parallel. So, u  cv for some scalar c.
4. The figure at the left is a parallelogram having v and u as adjacent sides. Because
the height of the parallelogram is "v" sin , the area is
v v sin θ Area  baseheight

θ  "u" "v" sin

u  "u " v".

846
PROBLEM SOLVING
This collection of thought-provoking and challenging exercises further explores and
expands upon concepts learned in this chapter.

1. Let u  i  j, v  j  k, and w  au  bv.

(a) Sketch u and v. C
(b) If w  0, show that a and b must both be zero. 18 ft
(c) Find a and b such that w  i  2j  k.
D A
(d) Show that no choice of a and b yields B
6 ft 8 ft
w  i  2j  3k.
10 ft
2. The initial and terminal points of v are x1, y1, z1 and
x, y, z, respectively. Describe the set of all points
x, y, z such that "v"  4. FIGURE FOR 7
3. You are given the component forms of the vectors u and
8. Prove "u " v"  "u" "v" if u and v are orthogonal.
v. Write a program for a graphing utility in which the
output is (a) the component form of u  v, (b) "u  v", 9. Prove u " v " w  u ! wv  u ! vw.
(c) "u", and (d) "v". 10. Prove that the triple scalar product of u, v, and w is

4. Run the program you wrote in Exercise 3 for the vectors given by
u  1, 3, 4! and v  5, 4.5, 6!. u1 u2 u3
5. The vertices of a triangle are given. Determine whether u ! v " w  v1 v2 v3 .
the triangle is an acute triangle, an obtuse triangle, or a w1 w2 w3
right triangle. Explain your reasoning. 11. Prove that the volume V of a parallelepiped with vectors
(a) 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0 u, v, and w as adjacent edges is given by
(b) 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3
(c) 2, 3, 4, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0

V  u ! v " w .

12. In physics, the cross product can be used to measure

(d) 2, 7, 3, 1, 5, 8, 4, 6, 1 torque, or the moment M of a force F about a point P.
6. A television camera weighing 120 pounds is supported If the point of application of the force is Q, the moment
\
by a tripod (see figure). Represent the force exerted on of F about P is given by M  PQ " F. A force of
each leg of the tripod as a vector. 60 pounds acts on the pipe wrench shown in the figure.
z

P (0, 0, 4)
A
Q1(0, −1, 0) Q3 −) 3 1
, ,0
2 2 ) 18 in.
F

30°
y
O
x Q2 ) 3 1
, ,0
2 2 )
(a) Find the magnitude of the moment about O. Use a
7. A precast concrete wall is temporarily kept in its vertical graphing utility to graph the resulting function of .
position by ropes (see figure). Find the total force exerted
(b) Use the result of part (a) to determine the magnitude
on the pin at position A. The tensions in AB and AC are
of the moment when  45$.
420 pounds and 650 pounds, respectively.
(c) Use the result of part (a) to determine the angle
when the magnitude of the moment is maximum. Is
the answer what you expected? Why or why not?

847
13. A force of 200 pounds acts on the bracket shown in the (c) Using the graph from part (b), what can you
figure. conclude about the distance between the insects?
200 lb (d) Using the graph from part (b), determine how close
F the insects get to each other.
B
16. The distance between a point Q and a line in space is
given by
12 in. \

" PQ " u"

D
"u"
15 in. A where u is a direction vector for the line and P is a point
\
on the line. Find the distance between the point and the
(a) Determine the vector AB and the vector F repre- line given by each set of parametric equations.
senting the force. F will be in terms of . (a) 1, 5, 2
(b) Find the magnitude of the moment (torque) about A
\ x  2  4t, y  3, z  1  t
by evaluating "AB " F". Use a graphing utility to
graph the resulting function of for 0$ % % 180$. (b) 1, 2, 4
(c) Use the result of part (b) to determine the magnitude x  2t, y  3  t, z  2  2t
of the moment when  30$. 17. Use the formula given in Exercise 16.
(d) Use the result of part (b) to determine the angle (a) Find the shortest distance between the point
when the magnitude of the moment is maximum. Q2, 0, 0 and the line determined by the points
(e) Use the graph in part (b) to approximate the zero of P10, 0, 1 and P20, 1, 2.
the function. Interpret the meaning of the zero in the (b) Find the shortest distance between the point
context of the problem. Q2, 0, 0 and the line segment joining the points
14. Using vectors, prove the Law of Sines: If a, b, and c are P10, 0, 1 and P20, 1, 2.
three sides of the triangle shown in the figure, then 18. Consider the line given by the parametric equations
sin A sin B sin C 1
  . x  t  3, y  t  1, z  2t  1
"a" "b" "c" 2
and the point 4, 3, s for any real number s.
B (a) Write the distance between the point and the line
c a as a function of s. (Hint: Use the formula given in
Exercise 16.)
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function from
A C part (a). Use the graph to find the value of s such
b that the distance between the point and the line is a
15. Two insects are crawling along different lines in three- minimum.
space. At time t (in minutes), the first insect is at the (c) Use the zoom feature of the graphing utility to zoom
point x, y, z on the line given by out several times on the graph in part (b). Does it
appear that the graph has slant asymptotes? Explain.
x  6  t, y  8  t, z  3  t.
If it appears to have slant asymptotes, find them.
Also, at time t, the second insect is at the point x, y, z
on the line given by
x  1  t, y  2  t, z  2t.
Assume distances are given in inches.
(a) Find the distance between the two insects at time
t  0.
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the distance between
the insects from t  0 to t  10.

848