Manufacturing Processes

Chapter :
Mechanical Properties Of Materials
 Introduction

• Mechanical properties of a material determine its behavior when subjected

to mechanical stress (examples on materials under stress are aluminum
alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the steel in an
automobile axle).

• Mechanical properties include: elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, etc.

• Two opposite objectives for the product in design and manufacturing:

– In design: the objective for the product is to withstand stresses without

significant change in geometry (dependent on elastic modulus and yield stress).

– In manufacturing: the objective is to alter the geometry by applying stresses that

exceed the yield strength of the material.

Note: it is helpful for the manufacturing engineer to appreciate the design

objective and for the designer to be aware of the manufacturing objective.
 Stress-Strain relationships

• There are 3 static stresses to which materials can be subjected

– Tensile stresses: tend to stretch the material

– Compressive stresses: tend to squeeze the material.

– Shear stresses: tend to cause adjacent portions of the material to slide

against one another.

Fig. 3-1: Materials under

static stresses; (a)
Tensile, (b) compressive,
and (c) shear (γ= tan θ).
Dashed lines: shape
before deformation.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Tensile test: most common procedure for studying stress-strain relationships,
particularly for metals.

• In the test, force is applied that pulls the material, tending to elongate it and
reduce its diameter.

• Standards by ASTM specify the preparation of the test specimen and the test
procedure.

Fig. 3-2: Tensile specimen

and setup of the tensile
test. (A 0 & L0: cross
sectional area and length
before test, length is
measured between the
gauge marks (gauge
length)).
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties

Fig. 3-3: Progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load, (2) uniform elongation and
reduction of A0 , (3) Continued elongation, max. load reached, (4) necking begins and load
decreases, (5) fracture, and (6) final length can be measured if pieces are put back together.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• There are two different types of stress-strain curves: (1) Engineering
stress-strain and (2) True stress-strain. The first is more important in
design and the second is more important in manufacturing.

(1) Engineering Stress-Strain: stress and strain defined relative to the

original area and length of the specimen.

– Important in design as the designer assumes that the strains

experienced by any component will NOT significantly change its
shape. The components are designed to withstand the anticipated
stresses encountered in service.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Fig. 3-4 shows an engineering stress-strain
curve for a metallic specimen.

• The engineering stress at any point on the curve

is defined as the force divided by the original
area:

where σe: engineering stress, MPa (n / mm 2), F

= applied force, N, and A0 is the original area of
the specimen, mm 2.

• The engineering strain at any point in the test is

given by:

Fig. 3-4: a typical engineering stress-strain

curve for a metallic specimen.

where e is engineering strain, mm / mm, L = e can be thought of as

length during the elongation at any point, mm, elongation per unit
and L0 is the gauge length, mm.
length.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• The stress-strain relationship in the figure has two regions, elastic and plastic
regions:

(1) In the elastic region: the relationship is linear and the material exhibits elastic
behavior by returning to its original length when the load is released. The
relationship is defined by Hooke’s law:

,where E is modulus of
elasticity (MPa)

– As stress continues to increase, a point Y is reached, this is the point where

material begins to yield and called the yield point or yield strength (end of
elastic region and transition to plastic region). Y is defined as the stress at
0.2% strain offset (Y is not always clear on the figure).
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• The stress-strain relationship in the figure has two regions, elastic and plastic
regions:

(2) In the plastic region: the relationship is no more linear and is no longer
guided by Hooke’s law. Further stressing will lead to further elongation in the
specimen but with faster rate, leading to a dramatic change in the slope.

– Elongation is accompanied by a uniform reduction in A0 so as to maintain a

constant volume.

– Finally, the applied load reaches a max. value. The engineering stress
calculated at this point is called the tensile (or ultimate) tensile strength (TS
or UTS), where TS = Fmax / A0 .

– After crossing the TS point, stress starts to decline where necking occurs;
the specimen during necking starts exhibiting localized elongation. The area
at the necking narrows down significantly until failure occurs. The stress
calculated just before the failure is called fracture stress.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Ductility: the ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture. Ductility is
important in both design and manufacturing. This measure can be taken as either
elongation or reduction in area:

(1) Elongation and defined as:

(2) Area reduction and defined as:

 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• There are two different types of stress-strain curves: (1) Engineering
stress-strain and (2) True stress-strain. The first is more important in
design and the second is more important in manufacturing.

(2) True Stress-Strain: stress and strain defined relative to the

instantaneous (actual) area that becomes increasingly smaller as
the test proceeds.

• The true stress at any point on the curve is defined as the force divided
by the instantaneous area:

where σ: true stress, MPa (n / mm2), F = applied force, N, and A is the

instantaneous area resisting the load, mm2.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Similarly, the true strain is a more realistic assessment of the
instantaneous elongation per unit length of the test specimen.
This is done by dividing the total elongation into small
increments, calculating the engineering strain for each
increment of its starting length, and then adding up the strain
values:

where L is the instantaneous length at any moment during

deformation
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• The elastic region in the true stress-
strain curve is almost similar to that
of the engineering stress-strain curve
(can you guess why). Hence, the
elastic region in the true curve obeys
Hooke’s Law.

• The progressive reduction in area in

the true stress-strain curve is
considered in the plastic region.
Hence, the stress in this region is
higher as compared to that of the
engineering stress-strain curve. Fig. 3-5: a typical true stress-strain curve for
a metallic specimen.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Strain (work) hardening: a property that most
metals exhibits during deformation. It means
that the metal is getting stronger as strain
increases (see true stress-strain curve).

• Strain hardening is important in manufacturing,

especially in metal forming processes.

• With plotting the true stress and true strain of

the plastic region on a log-log scale, the result
would be a linear relationship as in fig. 3-6,
and the relation between true stress and true
strain would then be:
Fig. 3-6: true stress-strain curve plotted on
a log-log scale.
K (strength coefficient) = σ if ε = 1.
n (strain hardening exponent) (slope), and Note: Necking is closely related to
related to a metal’s tendency to work strain hardening.
harden.
• Flow curve equation. It captures a good
approximation of the behavior of metals in the Necking begins when ε = n. A
plastic region, including their capacity for higher n means the metal can
strain hardening be strained further before
necking begins
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Much information about elastic-plastic behavior is provided by the true stress-strain
diagram; as Hooke’s law governs the metal’s behavior in the elastic region and the flow
curve equation determines the behavior in the plastic region. Three basic forms of stress-
strain relationship describe the behavior of nearly all metals:

(a) Perfectly elastic: the material is defined completely by its stiffness indicated by
modulus of elasticity. It fractures before yielding or plastic flow; example of these
materials are ceramics and thermosetting polymers. These materials are bad for
forming.

(b) Elastic and perfectly plastic: as yield stress is reached, the material deforms plastically
at the same stress level. Flow curve in this case K = Y and n = 0. Happens to metals
heated during straining that recrystallization occurs rather than strain hardening. For
Pb, this is the situation at RT as the recrystallization temperature for Pb is below RT.

(c) Elastic and strain hardening: obeys Hooke’s Law in the elastic region, and starts to
flow when Y is reached. Continued deformation requires an ever-increasing stress,
given by flow curve whose K is > Y and n is > 0. Most ductile materials behave this
way when cold-worked.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Tensile properties
• Much information about elastic-plastic behavior is provided by the true
stress-strain diagram; as Hooke’s law governs the metal’s behavior in
the elastic region and the flow curve equation determines the behavior
in the plastic region. Three basic forms of stress-strain relationship
describe the behavior of nearly all metals:

Fig. 3-7: Three categories of stress-strain relationships: (a) perfectly elastic, (b) elastic and perfectly plastic
and (c) elastic and strain hardening.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Compression properties
• Compression test: a test that applies
a load that squeezes a cylindrical
specimen between two platens (see
fig. 3-8). As the specimen is
compressed, its height is reduced
and its cross-sectional area is
increased. The engineering stress is
defined in the same way as in the
tensile test; i.e.,

• The engineering strain is defined as: Fig. 3-8: Compression test: (a) compression force
applied to test specimen in (1) and (2) resulting
change in height; and (b) setup of the test.

where h is the height of the Note that e will have a negative sign,
specimen at any particular moment as the height is decreased during
into the test in mm, and h 0 is the compression. This sign is neglected.
starting height in mm.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Compression properties
• Fig. 3-9 shows an engineering stress-
strain curve. The curve has elastic and
plastic regions as before, but the shape of
the plastic region is different from its
tensile test complement. Reasons:

– Compression causes A to increase,

the load increases more rapidly.

– As the cylindrical specimen is

compressed, friction at the surfaces
in contact with the platens prevent
the cylinder from spreading. Fig. 3-9: Typical engineering stress-
Additional energy is consumed by strain curve for a compression test.
friction during the test, resulting in a
higher applied force.

– This will result in barreling of the

specimen; the middle of the
specimen is permitted to increase in
A much more than at the ends.

– Important compression processes

include forging, rolling and extrusion. Fig. 3-10: Barreling effect. (1)
before and (2) after compression.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Bending & Testing of Brittle Materials
• Bending operations: used to form metal plates and sheets (Fig. 3-11; showing the
setup of the bending test). Bending results in two stress (and strain) components;
tensile in the outer half of the bent section and compressive in the inner half.

• Bending test (also known as flexure test) suits brittle materials that possess
elasticity the best; e.g. ceramics.

• These materials do not respond well to traditional tensile testing because of the
difficulty in preparing the test specimens and possible misalignment of the press jaws
that hold the specimen.

Fig. 3-11: Bending test setup and specimen: (1) initial loading, and (2) highly stressed and strained specimen
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Bending & Testing of Brittle Materials
• Specimen’s cross-section is rectangular, positioned between supports and load is
applied at its center (three-point bending test).

• The specimen bends elastically during the test until immediately before fracture (no
plastic region).

• Strength value derived from this test is called Transverse Rupture Strength (TRS):

where TRS is in MPa, F: the applied load at fracture in N, L: the length between
supports and b and t are dimensions of the cross-section in mm (Fig. 3-11)

• Flexure test can be utilized for nonbrittle materials such as thermoplastic polymers.
These materials deform rather fracture, so TRS cannot be determined. Instead,
either of the two measures are used: (1) the load recorded at a given level of
deflection, or (2) the deflection observed at a given load.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Shear properties
• Shear: involves the application of stresses on
opposite directions on either side of an element
to deflect it.

• Shear stress is defined as:

where τ: shear stress, MPa (n / mm 2), F =

applied force, N, and A is the area over which Fig. 3-12: Shear (a) stress and (b) strain.
force is applied, mm2.

• Shear strain can be defined as:

where γ is shear strain, mm / mm, δ = the

deflection of the element, mm, and L0 is the
orthogonal distance over which the deflection
occurs, mm.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Shear properties
• Shear stresses and strains are commonly tested
in a torsion test.

• In torsion test: a thin-walled tubular specimen is

subjected to a torque. As torque is increased, a
tube deflects by twisting (shear strain for this
geometry).

Fig. 3-13: Torsion test setup.

where T : is the applied torque (N-mm), R =
radius of the tube measured to the neutral axis
of the wall (mm), and t = wall thickness (mm).

• Shear strain :

where α is the angular deflection, radians, and

L is the gauge length in mm.
 Stress-Strain relationships;
Shear properties
• A typical shear stress-strain curve is shown in
Fig. 3-14.

• In the elastic region:

where G: is the Shear modulus or shear

modulus of elasticity (MPa)

• G is related to E by the equation:

Fig. 3-14: A typical shear stress-strain curve

where E is the conventional elastic modulus. from a torsion test.

• In the plastic region: S can be estimated from tensile test data

The material strain hardens to cause the
applied torque to continue to increase until
fracture.
Engineering and true stress-
Shear strength is the stress at fracture (S). strain curves for shear are similar.
Shear examples in industry: Guess why?
blanking, punching & machining
 Hardness

• Hardness: is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized

plastic deformation (permanent indentation).

• High hardness: material is resistant to scratching and wear.

• Mohs scale (qualitative): ranges from 1 on the soft end for talc to
10 for diamond.

• There is a good correlation between the material’s hardness and

its strength.
 Hardness

• Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other

mechanical test for several reasons:

– They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need to

be prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.

– The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor

excessively deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation.

– Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data,

such as tensile strength
 Hardness
Rockwell Hardness Tests
• The most common method used to measure hardness because they are so
simple to perform and require no special skills.

• Several indenters (steel ball, conical diamond), several loads can be utilized.
Thus, suitable for almost all metal alloys, including polymers.

• Indenter (1.6 or 3.2 mm in diameter) is pressed into the specimen. Load starts at
10 kg to seat the indenter in the material, and then increased up to 150 kg. The
indenter penetrates into the material. The distance penetrated (d) is converted to
Rockwell hardness by the testing machine.

Fig. 3-15: Rockwell hardness testing technique.

 Hardness
Brinell Hardness Tests
• In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter (10 mm
in diameter) is forced into the surface of the metal to be tested.

• Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg.

• The load is then divided into the indentation area to get Brinell Hardness number.

Side view Top view

Fig. 3-15: Brinell hardness testing technique.

 Hardness
Vickers Hardness Test
• Uses a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter (10 mm in diameter).

• Impressions made by this indenter are geometrically similar regardless of load.

• Value of load applied depends on the material’s hardness.

• Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1
and 1000 g.

Side view Top view

Fig. 3-16: Vickers hardness testing technique.

 Hardness
Knoop Hardness Test
• Uses a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter with length to width ratio of 7:1.

• Applied loads are the smallest comparing to Rockwell, Brinell and Vickers
hardness.

Side view Top view

Fig. 3-17: Vickers hardness testing technique.

 Hardness of Various Materials
• Metals: For most metals, hardness is closely related to strength.

• Hardness is a form of compression, so one would expect a good correlation between

hardness and strength properties determined in a compression test.

• Compression and tensile tests are nearly the same, so the correlation with tensile properties
would also be acceptable.

• Brinell hardness exhibits a close correlation with TS (MPa) for steels, and the formula is:
 Hardness of Various Materials
• Ceramics: Brinell hardness is not appropriate for ceramics as they are
usually harder than the Brinell hardness indenter.

• Instead, Vickers and Koop hardness tests are used to test ceramics.

Approximate Knoop Hardness (100 g load)

for Seven Ceramic Materials.
 Hardness of Various Materials
• Polymers: Softer than metals and ceramics, and most hardness tests
are conducted by penetration techniques similar to those described for
metals. Rockwell and Brinell tests are frequently used for polymers.
 Effect of Temperature on
Properties
• Temperature has a significant effect on nearly all
properties of materials.

• Important in design: a designer need to know how

the material properties at the operating
temperatures during service.

• Important in manufacturing: a manufacturer need

to know how the properties are affected by
temperature during manufacturing.

• Generally speaking, the higher the temperature the

higher the ductility and the lower the strength (better
formability at high temperatures).

Fig. 3-18: Effect of

temp. on strength &
ductility
 Effect of Temperature on
Properties (Hot Hardness)
• Hot hardness: is a property often used to characterize
strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. It is
simply the ability of a material to retain hardness (or resist
softening) at elevated temperatures.

• Usually presented as a plot of hardness versus

temperature.

• In steel: alloying would enhance the hot hardness.

• Ceramics: they show superior properties at elevated

temperatures (that is why they are used as refractory
material).

• Good hot hardness is desirable in tooling materials used in Fig. 3-19: Hardness vs.
manufacturing operations. temperature for various materials.
 Effect of Temperature on
Properties (Recrystallization Temp.)
• Recrystallization: is the process in which new strain-free grains are formed. The temperature at
which this process happens is called the Recrystallization Temperature (~ one half the melting
temperature (0.5 Tmelting)).

• If metals were deformed at room temperature, they would behave in accordance with the flow
curve equation.

• If metals where deformed at high temperatures, say recrystallization temperature, then they
would have an elastic and superplastic behavior (no strain hardening).

• This is due to the formation of new strain-free grains at elevated temperatures.

• Higher strain can be endured at recrystallization temperature. Power spent to carry out
deformation is significantly reduced.

• Metal forming at recrystallization temperature is called Hot Working.

 Fluid Properties
• Unlike solids, fluids flow; they take the shape of the container that
holds them.

• Fluids include liquids and gases.

• Many manufacturing processes are done by converting the

materials from the solid state to the liquid state.

• Examples are: metal casting, glass blowing and polymer molding.

 Fluid Properties
Viscosity
• All fluids can flow. However, the tendency to flow differs for different
fluids.

• Viscosity: is the resistance to flow, that is characteristic of a fluid. It

is the property that determines fluid flow, and a measure of the
internal friction that arises when velocity gradients are present in
the fluid.

• In other words, the more viscous the fluid is, the higher the internal
friction and the greater the resistance to flow.

• Fluidity: is the reciprocal of viscosity; the ease with which a fluid

flows.
 Fluid Properties
Viscosity
• Considering Fig. 3-20, viscosity can be defined more precisely.

• Two plates, one is stationary and the other is moving at velocity ν

(oriented to the x-axis). Plates are separated by a distance d
(oriented to the y-axis). The space between the plates is occupied
by a fluid.

Fig. 3-20: Fluid flow between two

parallel plates. One is stationary
and the other is moving.
 Fluid Properties
Viscosity
• The motion of the upper plate is resisted by force F that results from
shear viscous action. This force can be described as shear stress:

Where τis the shear stress in Pa (N/m2).

• Shear stress is related to the rate of shear, which is defined as the

change in velocity dν relative to the d y:

Where is the shear rate in 1/s; dν is the

incremental change in velocity in m/s; and dy is the
incremental change in distance y in m.
 Fluid Properties
Viscosity
• The shear viscosity is the fluid property that defines the relationship
between F/A and dv/dy:

or where ηis the coefficient of viscosity (Pa-s).

• Rearranging, we get:

• Thus, viscosity of a fluid can be defined as the ratio between shear stress to
shear rate during flow; where shear stress is the frictional force exerted by a
fluid per unit area , and shear rate is the velocity gradient perpendicular to
the flow direction.

• Newton observed that viscosity is a constant property of a given fluid. Such

a fluid is called Newtonian fluid.
 Fluid Properties
Viscosity in Manufacturing
Processes
• In metals: many manufacturing processes require melting the metal;
e.g. welding and casting.

• Success in these operations require low viscosity so that the molten

metal fills the mold cavity or weld seam before solidifying.

• In forming processes, lubricants and coolants are used, and again

the success of these fluids depends to some extent on their viscosity.

• In glasses: they exhibit gradual transition from solid to liquid. They

become less and less viscous with the increase in temperature, until
they can be finally shaped by blowing or molding at around 1100 ºC.