Instrumnent

Irregular curves

T- square set- square Compass and Divider

Layout of a drawing sheet

Figure 1. A typical layout of a drawing sheet.

Paper size Border size Overall paper size

A0 821×1159 841×1189
A1 574×811 594×841
A2 400×564 420×594
A3 277×390 297×420

Layout of the title box recommended for Engineering Drawing Course

The title box shown in figure 2 can be used for the engineering Drawing Course.
 Figure 2. A typical title box recommended for Engineering students.

Lettering
Lettering is used for writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, scales and other details on a
drawing. Typical lettering features used for engineering drawing is shown in figure 3. The
following rules are to be followed in lettering. The letter sizes generally recommended for
various items are shown in Table 1.

 Essential features of lettering – legibility, uniformity, ease, rapidity, and suitability for
microfilming/photocopying/any other photographic processes
 No ornamental and embellishing style of letter
 Plain letters and numerals which are clearly distinguishable from each other in order to avoid
any confusion even in case of slight mutilations

The Indian standard followed for lettering is BIS: 9609

 Single stroke lettering for use in engineering drawing – width of the stem of the letters and
numerals will be uniformly thick equal to thickness of lines produced by the tip of the pencil.
 Single stroke does not mean – entire letter written without lifting the pencil/pen

Lettering types generally used for creating a drawing are

 Lettering A – Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts

 Lettering B – Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts

Table 2 and Table 3 indicates the specifications for Type A and Type B letters.
 Figure 3. Typical lettering features.

Heights of Letters and Numerals

1. Height of the capital letters is equal to the height of the numerals used in dimensioning
2. Height of letters and numerals – different for different purposes

Table 1 The letter sizes recommended for various items

Table 2. Specifications of A -Type Lettering

Lines
Table 1. Types of letters used in engineering drawing.

Line Strokes

Figure 1. The line strokes for drawing straight and curved lines.
 Conventions used in lines

 International systems of units (SI) – which is based on the meter.

 Millimeter (mm) - The common SI unit of measure on engineering drawing.
 Individual identification of linear units is not required if all dimensions on a drawing are in the
same unit (mm).
 The drawing should contain a note: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM. (Bottom left corner
outside the title box)

Typical figures showing various lines used in the construction of engineering drawing is
shown in figure 2.

Figure 2 Typical figure showing various lines used engineering drawing

A typical use of various lines in an engineering drawing is shown in figure below:

Dimensioning
The size and other details of the object essential for its construction and function, using lines,
numerals, symbols, notes, etc are required to be indicated in a drawing by proper
dimensioning. These dimensions indicated should be those that are essential for the
production, inspection and functioning of the object and should be mistaken as those that are
required to make the drawing of an object. The dimensions are written either above the
dimension lines or inserted at the middle by breaking the dimension lines.

Normally two types of dimensioning system exist. i.e. Aligned system and the unidirectional
system.These are shown in figure 3.

In the aligned system the dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line in such
a way that it may be read from bottom edge or right hand edge of the drawing sheet. The
horizontal and inclined dimension can be read from the bottom where as all the vertical
dimensions can be read from the right hand side of the drawing sheet.
In the unidirectional system, the dimensions are so oriented such that they can be read from
the bottom of the drawing.
 Figure 3. The aligned system and unidirectional system of dimensioning.

Rules to be followed for dimensioning. Refer figure 4.

 Each feature is dimensioned and positioned only once.

 Each feature is dimensioned and positioned where its shape shows.
 Size dimensions – give the size of the component.
 Every solid has three dimensions, each of the geometric shapes making up the object must
have its height, width, and depth indicated in the dimensioning.
 Figure 4. typical dimension lines

Dimensioning consists of the following:

 A thin, solid line that shows the extent and direction of a dimension. Dimension lines are
broken for insertion of the dimension numbers
 Should be placed at least 10 mm away from the outline and all
 other parallel dimensions should be at least 6 mm apart, or more, if space permits

The important elements of dimensioning consists of extension lines, leader line, arrows and
dimensions.

Extension line – a thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension line, indicating which feature
is associated with the dimension. There should be a visible gap of 1.5 mm between the
feature’s corners and the end of the extension line.Figure 5 shows extension lines.
Leader line
A thin, solid line used to indicate the feature with which a dimension, note, or symbol is
associated. Generally this is a straight line drawn at an angle that is neither horizontal nor
vertical. Leader line is terminated with an arrow touching the part or detail. On the end
opposite the arrow, the leader line will have a short, horizontal shoulder. Text is extended
from this shoulder such that the text height is centered with the shoulder line
 Figure 5. showing extension lines

 Arrows – 3 mm wide and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are long - symbols placed at the
end of dimension lines to show the limits of the dimension. Arrows are uniform in size and
style, regardless of the size of the drawing.Various types of arrows used for dimensioning is
shown in figure 6.

Figure 6.Various types of arrows used for dimensioning

The specification of dimension lines are shown in figure 7.

 Figure 7 showing the specification of dimension lines.

Dimensioning of angles: The normal convention for dimensioning of angles are illustrated
in figure 8.

Figure 8 conventions used for dimensioning angles.

Few examples during dimensioning of solids are shown below:

 Prism – This is the most common shape and requires three dimensions. Two dimensions
shown on the principal view and the third dimension on the other view.

 Cylinder – Cylinder is the second most common shape. It requires two dimensions: diameter
and length, both shown preferably on the rectangular view.

 Cone – requires two dimensions – diameter of the base and altitude on the same view and
length. Both shown on the rectangular view is preferred.
Geometric Construction

Drawing consists of construction of primitive geometric forms viz. points, lines and planes
that serve a the building blocks for more complicated geometric shapes and defining the
position of object in space.

The use of lines for obtaining the drawing of planes is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 illustrates various planes generally encountered

 Solids are obtained by combination of planes. Plane surfaces of simple solids are shown in
figure 2.

Figure 2 surfaces of few simples solids .

Primitive geometric forms

The shapes of objects are formed from primitive geometric forms . These are

1. Point

1. Line
2. Plane
3. Solid
4. Doubly curved surface and object
5. Warped surface

The basic 2-D geometric primitives, from which other more complex geometric forms are
derived.

 Points,
 Lines,
 Circles, and
 Arcs

Point

A point is a theoretical location that has neither width, height, nor depth and describes exact
location in space. A point is represented in technical drawing as a small cross made of dashes
that are approximately 3 mm long. As shown in figure 4, a point is used to mark the locations
of centers and loci, the intersection ends, middle of entities

Figure 4. shows the various use of points.

Line

A line is a geometric primitive that has length and direction, but no thickness. Lines may be
straight, curved or a combination of these. As shown in figure 5, lines have few important
relationship or conditions, such as parallel, intersecting, and tangent. Lines can be of specific
length or non-specific length. A Ray is a sStraight line that extends to infinity from a specified
point.
 Figure 5. Relationship of one line to another line or arc

Bisecting a line

The procedure of bisecting a given line AB is illustrated in figure 6.

With A as centre and radius equal to higher than half AB, draw two arcs. With B as centre
and with the same radius draw another arc intersecting the preious arcs. The line joining the
intersection points is the perpendicular bisector of the line AB.

Figure 6. Illustrates the method of bisecting a line

 Dividing a line into equal parts

The method of dividing a line MO into equal number of parts is illustrated in figure 7.

 Draw a line MO at any convenient angle (preferably an acute angle) from point M.
 From M and along MO, cut off with a divider equal divisions (say three) of any convenient
length.
 Draw a line joining ON.
 Draw lines parallel to MO through the remaining points on line MO.

The intersection of these lines with line MN will divide the line into (three) equal
parts.

Figure 7. Dividing a line in to equal number of parts.

Planar tangent condition exists when two geometric forms meet at a single point and do not
intersect. This is self explanatory from figure 8.

Figure 8. Illustrates the existence of planar tangent condition.

Locating tangent points on circle and arcs

The method of locating tangent points on circle and arcs as well as thhe common tangent to
two circles are shown in figure 9(a) and (b) .
 Figure 9. Locating the tangent points to arcs or circles.

Drawing an arc tangent to a given point on the line

The steps for drawing the arc tangent to a given point on a line is shown in figure 10.

1. Given line AB and tangent point T. Construct a line perpendicular to line AB and through point
T.
2. Locate the center of the arc by making the radius on the perpendicular line. Put the point of
the compass at the center of the arc, set the compass for the radius of the arc, and draw the
arc which will be tangent to the line through the point T.

Figure 10. Drawing an arc tangent to the a given point on a line.

Drawing an arc, tangent to two lines

The steps used to drawn an arc tangent to two lines is illustrated in figure 11.
Figure 11. illustrates the method of drawing an arc tangent to two lines.
Drawing an arc, tangent to a line and an arc

Figure 12 shows the steps in drawing an arc tangent to a line and an arc that (a) that do not
intersect and (b) that intersect each other.

Figure 12 Drawing an arc tangent to a line and an arc

Construction of Regular Polygon of given length AB

To construct a regular polygon with length of edge AB us shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Construction of a regular polygon with a given length of edge.

 Draw a line of length AB. With A as centre and radius AB, draw a semicircle.
 With the divider, divide the semicircle into the number of sides (example of number of side 7
is shown in figure 1) of the polygon.
 Draw a line joining A with the second division-point 2.
 The perpendicular bisectors of A2 and AB meet at O. Draw a circle with centre O and radius
OA.
 With length A2, mark points F, E, D & C on the circumferences starting from 2 (Inscribe circle
method)
 With centre B and radius AB draw an arc cutting the line A6 produced at C. Repeat this for
other points D, E & F (Arc method)

General method of drawing any polygon

A more general method of drawing any polygon with a given length of edge is shown in
figure 2.

 Draw AB = given length of polygon

 At B, Draw BP perpendicular & = AB
 Draw Straight line AP
 With center B and radius AB, draw arc AP.
 The perpendicular bisector of AB meets the line AP and arc AP in 4 and 6 respectively.
 Draw circles with centers as 4, 5,&6 and radii as 4B, 5B, & 6B and inscribe a square,
pentagon, & hexagon in the respective circles.
 Mark point 7, 8, etc with 6-7,7-8,etc. = 4-5 to get the centers of circles of heptagon and
octagon, etc.
 Figure 2 Drawing any polygon with a given length of edge

Inscribe a circle inside a regular polygon

The method of inscribing a circle inside a regular polygon is illustrated in figure 3.

1. Bisect any two adjacent internal angles of the polygon.

2. From the intersection of these lines, draw a perpendicular to any one side of the polygon (say
OP).
3. With OP as radius, draw the circle with O as cente
 Figure 3 Inscribing a circle inside a regular polygon

To draw a circle to touch a given line, and a given circle at a given point on it.

The method is illustrated in figure 5.

 Given: Line AB, circle with centre C and point P on the circle.
 From P, draw a tangent to the circle intersecting AB at D.
 Draw bisector of angle PDB to intersect the line through C and P at O.
 With center O and radius OP, draw the required circle.

Figure 5. shows the method of drawing a circle to touch a given line and a given circle at a
particular point.
 Scales

There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (eg. Aero
planes, rockets, etc) Some are vey small ( wrist watch, MEMs components)
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some objects can
be drawn to their actual size. The proportion by which the drawing of aan object is enlarged
or reduced is called the scale of the drawing.

Definition
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.

 Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing.
 It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. e.g. Buildings,
 Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
 Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at

o Full size
o Reduced size
o Enlarged size

BIS Recommended Scales are shown in table 1.

Table 1. The common scales recommended.

Intermediate scales can be used in exceptional cases where recommended scales can not be
applied for functional reasons.

Types of Scale :-
Engineers Scale : The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual
dimension of the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).
 Graphical Scale: Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the shrinkage of the
engineer’s scale when the drawing becomes old.

Conic

Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.

 Fixed point is called Focus

 Fixed line is called Directrix

This is illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2. illustrates the directrices and foci of a conic curve.

When eccentricity
< 1 Ellipse
=1 Parabola
>1 Hyperbola

eg. when e=1/2, the curve is an Ellipse, when e=1, it is a parabola and when e=2, it is a
hyperbola. Figure 3 shows the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola.
Parabola:

Tangent Method

This method can be used when the base and the axis, or base and the inclinations of
tangents at open ends of the parabola with the base are given. The method is shown in
figure 5.

This method can be used when the base and the axis, or base and the inclinations of
tangents at open ends of the parabola with the base are given. The method is shown in
figure 5.
Draw the line AB representing the base of the parabola.
Draw the Axis EF representing the height of the parabola.
Produce EF to O such that EF = OF
Join OA and OB
Divide OA and OB in to the same number of parts say 8
Mark the division points as shown
Draw lines joining 1 to 1’, 2 to 2’, 3 to 3’, etc.
Draw a curve starting from A and tangent to the lines 1-1’, 2-2’, 3-3’, etc, which is the
required parabola.
 Figure 5. Tangent method of drawing a parabola.

Theory of Projections

Projection theory

All projection theory are based on two variables:

 Line of sight
 Plane of projection.

Plane of Projection

Figure 1 : A simple Projection system

 Projection Methods

Two projection methods used are:

 Perspective and
 Parallel

Figure 3. A schematic representation of a Perspective projection

In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and is schematically represented in figure.
4. The observer is assumed to be stationed at infinite distance from the object.

Figure 4. A schematic representation of a Parallel projection

Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the plane of projection is

perpendicular to the parallel line of sight. Orthographic projection technique can produce
either pictorial drawings that show all three dimensions of an object in one view or multi-
views that show only two dimensions of an object in a single view. These views are shown in
figure 5.

Figure 5. Orthographic projections of a solid showing isometric, oblique and multi-view

drawings.

Top View, Front view and Right side view of the object and is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7 showing the Front view, Top View and Side view of an object
Multi-view Projection

In an orthographic projection, the object is oriented in such a way that only two of its
dimensions are shown. The dimensions obtained are the true dimensions of the object .

Frontal plane of projection

Frontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the Front View (FV) of the multi-view
drawing is projected.

Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object.

Horizontal plane of projection

The Top view of an object shows the width and depth dimensions of the object.

Figure 9 illustrates the method of obtaining the Top view of an object.

Profile plane of projection

The right side view of an object shows the depth and the height dimensions. The right side
view is projected onto the profile plane of projection, which is a plane that is parallel to the
right side of the object.

Figure 10 illustrates the method of obtaining the Side View of an object.

Top view is always positioned and aligned with the front view, and side view is always
positioned to the side of the Front view and aligned with the front view. The positions of each
view is shown in figure 11. Depending on whether 1st angle or 3rd angle projection techniques
are used, the top view and Front view will be interchanged. Also the position of the side view
will be either towards the Right or left of the Front view.

Figure 11. Relative positions and alignment of the views in a multi-view drawing.
 Figure 12. Shows the six perpendicular views of an object

The glass box is now slowly unfolded as shown in figure 13. After complete unfolding of the
box on to a single plane, we get the six views of the object in a single plane as shown in
figure 14. The top, front and bottom views are all aligned vertically and share the same width
dimension where as the rear, left side, front and right side views are all aligned horizontally
and share the same height dimension.

Figure 13. Illustration of the views after the box has been partially unfolded.
 Figure 14 shows the views of the object with their relative positions after the box has been
unfolded completely on to a single plane.

Projection Methods

Universally either the 1st angle projection or the third angle projection methods is followed for
obtaining engineering drawings. The principal projection planes and quadrants used to create
drawings are shown in figure 16. The object can be considered to be in any of the four
quadrant.

Figure 16. The principal projection planes and quadrants for creation of drawings.

First Angle Projection

In this the object in assumed to be positioned in the first quadrant and is shown in figure 17
The object is assumed to be positioned in between the projection planes and the observer.
The views are obtained by projecting the images on the respective planes. Note that the right
hand side view is projected on the plane placed at the left of the object. After projecting on
to the respective planes, the bottom plane and left plane is unfolded on to the front view
plane. i.e. the left plane is unfolded towards the left side to obtain the Right hand side view
on the left side of the Front view and aligned with the Front view. The bottom plane is
unfolded towards the bottom to obtain the Top view below the Front view and aligned with
the Front View.

Figure 17. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique.

Third Angle Projection

In the third angle projection method, the object is assumed to be in the third quadrant. i.e.
the object behind vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In this projection technique,
Placing the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and
the object and is shown in figure 18.
 Figure 18. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique

Figure 19 illustrates the difference between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques.
A summary of the difference between 1st and 3rd angle projections is shown if Table 1.

Figure 19 Differentiating between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques.
Symbol of projection

The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw
the two sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal The left view is drawn.

Orthographic Projections

Lines are used to construct a drawing. Various type of lines are used to construct meaningful
drawings. Each line in a drawing is used to convey some specific information. The types of
lines generally used in engineerign drawing is shown in Table-1.

Table -1. Types of lines generally used in drawings

All visible edges are to be represented by visible lines. This includes the boundary of the
object and intersection between two planes. All hidden edges and features should be
represented by dashed lines. Figure 1 shows the orthographic front view (line of sight in the
direction of arrow)of an object. The external boundary of the object is a rectangle and is
shown by visible lines. In Figure-1(a), the step part of the object is hidden and hence shown
as dashed lines while for the position of the object shown in figure-1(b) , the step part is
directly visible and hence shown by the two solid lines.
Figure 1 shows the pictorial view and front view of the object when the middle stepped
region is (a) hidden and (b) visible.

Figure 2 shows the pictorial view and front view of (a) a hollow cylindrical object and (b)
solid cylindrical object.
Figure 3 shows the pictorial view and front view of sectioned part of (a) a hollow cylindrical
object (b) solid cylindrical object and (c) solid cylinder split in to two unequal parts.

Figure 4 shows the centre lines for cylindrical objects

Figure 5. Showing TV, FV and RHSV of an object showing the three types of lines mentioned
above. The pictorial view of the object is shown at the top hight hand side.

Intersecting Lines in Orthographic Projections

The conventions used when different lines intersect is shown in figure - 6(a) & (b).

Figure 6(a): The conventions practiced for intersection lines.

Figure 6(b): The conventions practiced for intersection lines.