NGO GOVERNANCE: THE PHILIPPINE CASE

Fernando T. Aldaba
Ateneo de Manila University
[email protected]

Governance has always been a key development issue. In more recent years, various
researchers and policy experts have examined governance as “an exercise of political,
economic and administrative authority to manage a nation’s affairs”(UNDP 1997).
Furthermore, governance transcends the state and includes both the private sector and civil
society. However, most recent studies on governance focus on the public and business
sector examining both sectors from the mirror of transparency, accountability, participation,
efficiency, equity, sustainability, legitimacy and integrity - important characteristics of good
governance.

In the case of the Philippines, current literature on public sector governance have focused on
topics that include decentralization, corruption, fiscal management, and civil society
participation (Abad 1999, Carino 1999, Aldaba 2000). There are also emerging studies on
corporate governance highlighting pressing concerns like ownership and market
concentration, autocratic decision-making processes, and transparency and accountability in
private enterprises (Saldana, 2000, World Bank, 2000). However, literature on the
governance of civil society organizations are relatively scant except for those touching on
sustainability and strategic management (Quizon et al. 1989, Alegre 1996, Aldaba, 2000).

This particular study will examine governance in the NGO sector using a recent survey data
of 762 non-government organizations in the Philippines. While there have been numerous
studies on the nature, scope of operations, and influence of this sector on Philippine society,
there are very few analyses based on quantitative data gathered from the NGO community
Tuano 2001). The data set includes responses on questions relating to legitimacy (i.e.
Securities and Exchange registration), accountability (i.e. financial reporting), sustainability
(e.g. sources of funds), staff size and benefits, etc. Given such data, the paper will analyze
existing management strengths and weaknesses of this sample of Philippine NGOs. In
particular the study will try to verify several hypotheses on NGO governance by reviewing the
results of the survey. A sample of such hypotheses include:
• that most Philippine NGOs are legitimate and recognized by specific government
agencies
• that most Philippine NGOs submit regular financial reports to donors and
concerned government agencies
• that most Philippine NGOs are dependent on foreign funding; however bigger
NGOs are relatively more sustainable
• that most Philippine NGOs operate on meager budgets

In addition the study will also discuss key governance issues in the NGO sector and how
these are addressed by the sector itself and by the government. These issues include
transparency and accountability, financial sustainability, staff turnover and human resource
development. The paper will also suggest ways and means to improve NGO governance.

1
 JAPAN’S NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS AS CHANGE AGENTS:
EXPECTATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS

Takayoshi Amenomori
Nihon Fukishi University
[email protected]

Japan since the 1990s has run into a period of important social change. While
corporate governance and employment practices are changing rapidly in the business
sector, efforts towards structural reform such as the restructuring of the ministries and
decentralization are taking place in the public sector. Towering budgetary deficits of
central and local governments, changing priorities of the people, urge for more
accountable and transparent practices inevitably call for further and more fundamental
governmental reforms, and what is more, a new style of governance(Yamamoto
Tadashi, 1999).

In fields that are closely related to the activities of the nonprofit organizations, like
medical care, education and social service, change is required too and in some
instances can already be observed, in part as a result of efforts of some nonprofit
organizations.

In general, one may say that the nonprofit organizations in Japan are expected to play
an increasingly important role, not only as service providers but also as change agents
(Yamaoka Yoshinori, 1999), (Chikushi Tetsuya and Fukuoka Masayuki, 2000). While
the nonprofit sector remained largely invisible in the 1980s, its present grew rapidly
throughout the 1990s and especially after 1995, when NPOs could demonstrate their
unique role in disaster management.

The question then is: to what extent are the nonprofit organizations meting those
expectations, and what more can be expected from them realistically. In many existing
literature including those mentioned above, nonprofit organizations are highly praised,
but no systematic assessment has been made on what has been achieved and what
not.

Admittedly, it is very difficult if not impossible to estimate the performance of the

nonprofit sector. What criteria should be used, and what measures be applied?

In this study, I will try to make an early estimation by looking at concrete cases of
breakthrough and other important achievements at the central and local level. I will
examine them in fields where NPOs are active, such as care for the elderly and the
handicapped, rights of the minorities, women, environmental issues, regeneration of
cities and remote areas, and education. In other words, I will not try to get some
measurable evidences but will focus on qualitative changes worth noting in each field.
After collecting a number of concrete examples, it may be possible to get at a more
generalized picture of the nonprofit sector.

As information source, I will mainly rely on recent literature and in some cases,
interview.

2
Literature:
Chikushi Tetsuya and Fukuoka Masayuki, Kokokara Nihon wa Yomigaeru (From here
Japan will revive), Nihonkeizai-shinbunsha, 2000

Yamamoto Tadashi (ed.), Deciding the Public Good: Governance and Civil Society in
Japan. Japan Center for International Exchange, 1999

Yamaoka Yoshinori, Jidai ga Ugoku Toki. Shakai henkaku to NPO no Kanousei (When
there is a Breakthrough. Social change and the potential of NPOs). Gyousei, 1999

3
 TOWARD FOREST PEOPLE: LESSONS-LEARNED FROM CIVIL-SOCIETY
MOVEMENT SUPPORTING COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT IN
INDONESIA

Jeffry Anwar
Center for International Forestry Research
[email protected]

Over the last decade forest agencies around the world have sought to restructure
government-civil society relations by decentralizing government decision-making, in
some cases devolving management authority to local-level civil groups toward more
sustainable management of forest. In Indonesia, attempts to transfer the rights to
manage forest to traditional civil society groups have been complicated with ambiguous
attitudes of new-elected government. Under new forestry policy or UU no. 41, 1999
central and provincial governments started to give more space for the traditional civil
society groups or Masyarakat Adat to involve in the management of forest. However,
the trust upon the traditional civil society groups to manage the state forests in the
areas of traditionally defined land or Kawasan Hutan Adat has not been developed.
Instead, under the new decentralization policy, which was just launched in January
2001, heads of district or Bupati-bupati have allowed to subordinate the rights to
access and control forest of the traditional civil society groups. Furthermore, the
Bupati-bupati have re-classified state forest and provide new concession for
commercial uses of forest prioritized to private firms. Those have been done due to the
Bupati’s ambitions to boost self-generated regional income or Pendapatan Asli Daerah
(PAD).

This paper will focus on the struggles and challenges faced by civil society movement
supporting community-based forest management in Indonesia. Two different settings:
repressive and accommodative--representing the state situations during and post
Soeharto regime--are set to explore these following questions:

What would be the characteristics of an adaptive civil society movement?

Which conditions is more accommodating for reviving and recreating
appropriate institution toward community-based forest management?

What could be the lessons learned to scale up the impact of the movement
given the dynamic changes of the movement for supporting community-based
forest management?

Data will be drawn based on serial thematic interviews during my six months
assignments with CIFOR from February to August 2001 to conduct site selection study
in the four provinces: Bengkulu, Riau, Kalbar, Kalsel. Lastly, analyses and
recommendations will be provided to develop further strategic actions to support civil-
society movement supporting community-based management of forest in Indonesia.

4
THIRD SECTOR EDUCATION: BOY SCOUTS' PRIMARY HEALTH CARE PROJECTS
IN BANGLADESH

Soko Aoki
Keio University
[email protected]

This paper proposes a way of education done by third sector organization. At present
time, there are three ways of education: formal, informal, and non-formal. In many
countries, the formal education such as school education has educational limitation like
knowledge oriented education. Education done by third sector is categorized into the
non-formal education. This non-formal education gets much attention because these
third sector organizations can provide children with international, out-door, volunteer,
and real-world's problem oriented experience which formal educator cannot. Therefore,
from educational point of view, education by third sector organization has a strong
point.

As an example of third sector education, this paper introduces Boy Scouts' activity. Boy
Scouts is the educational organization spread all over the world. Boy Scouts of
Nippon(Japan) and Bangladesh Scouts have joint primary health care project named
Bangladesh - Japan Joint ORT(Oral Rehydration Therapy) Project(BJJORTP) for five
years in rural area of Bangladesh. In this project, Japanese youth people and
Bangladesh youth people get together and go around the village of Bangladesh to
enlighten primary health care knowledge especially Oral Rehydration Therapy.
BJJORTP is mainly designed, implemented, and evaluated by both Japanese and
Bangladesh youth people. As a result, this Boy Scouts' project has two distinguished
outputs. One is the result of primary health care enlightenment activity, and the other is
the educational result on youth people who joined the project. Japanese and
Bangladesh youth people who joined this project can acquire the experience of
international volunteer activity, international friIn this paper the education by third sector
organization is introduced. As an example of implementation, the project between Boy
Scouts of Nippon(Japan) and Bangladesh Scouts are introduced. The result of this Boy
Scouts' project is also shown in this paper.

5
 IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF NGO ACTIVITIES IN BANGLADESH: EXPERIENCE
FROM THE FIELD

Afroza Begum
University of Chittagong, Bangladesh
[email protected], [email protected]

In the present world, the NGOs are treated as promoters of alternative development strategies.
The NGO sector is identified as one of the core partners in development management,
especially in the developing countries. In Bangladesh, NGOs have assumed a unique role in
completing the governmental activities in service delivery and have become partners in
development management. NGOs in Bangladesh have achieved recognition as ‘a positive force
in national development’ (Task Force, 1990). The Government of Bangladesh also views the
NGO activities as useful contribution to the national development and welcomes the NGO
activities to supplement and complement government's development programs (GOB, 1997).
NGOs operate in more than 50 per cent of the villages in Bangladesh benefiting over 3.5 million
families (ADAB, 1994). The prime objective of the activities of the NGOs is to mobilize the
beneficiaries into organized structures of voluntary group action for self-reliance as well as self-
development. Every year billions of foreign money are raised and channeled through the NGOs
in Bangladesh. So time has come to have a look on the long run results or impacts of the
activities of the NGOs. Sometimes the NGOs are being forced into making assessment of their
activities because they need evidence to be refunded or attract new fund. It leads to superficial
evaluation exercise (Brette, 1993). In the evaluation process the functionaries of the NGOs are
mainly focused on the immediate results- the outputs of their activities. The long run results- the
impacts of their activities on the lives of beneficiaries always remain neglected. But they have to
give attention on the impacts of their activities. In Bangladesh, some assessment studies of
some particular NGO projects have been conducted in the past by some donor
agencies/countries. Not much academic research has been conducted on the impact of NGO
activities by the target group people in Bangladesh. The present study is an attempt to make a
contribution to this area of research and aims to assess NGO activities by their beneficiaries.

This paper presents the findings of an empirical survey on the impact assessment of NGO
activities in Bangladesh. The assessment is made by the target group people. The analysis is
made from the perspective of the beneficiaries rather than from the perspective of those who
share neither their values nor their lives. In this paper impact is viewed as the long-run social,
economical, political and other changes that have come to the lives of the beneficiaries as a
result of the activities of the NGOs.

This survey was undertaken in three districts Rangpur, Comilla and Chittagong. Combinations of
research methods were followed in this survey. Interviews with the beneficiaries, observation and
focused group discussion were used to collect primary data and information. With a view to
assessing the impacts, the working approaches of different NGOs are also focused by making
informal discussion with the field level functionaries of the concerned NGOs. Interestingly the
study focused that most of the beneficiaries of the different NGOs have identified almost the
same impacts and have made the almost same ranking of the impacts. According to their
assessment the NGO activities have much positive social impacts rather than economic or
political impacts on their lives. The study also focused on some interesting unintended impacts
that have taken place as a result of the activities of the NGOs.

6
 LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THAILAND: TRADITIONAL AND MODERN

Ratana Boonmathya
Khon Kaen University, Thailand
[email protected]

This paper argues that social capital is context-dependent. Trust, extrafamilial network,
and family and kinship support provide a good basis for strengthening community spirit
and cooperation. I aim to consider various forms and aspects of social capital existent
in different fields of social development activity focusing on capacity building of local
organizations in Thailand. I will first analyze positive functions of social capital in both
traditional and modern organizations and their impacts on each other and on capacity
building. Examples of its role in family and kinship support, benefits mediated by
extrafamilial networks, and social sanctions & control will be illustrated. Negative
consequences of the same processes that lead to disparity, exclusions, and conflicts
also deserve equal focus. I will then analyze and provide empirical data pertinent to its
contrary consequences that are largely neglected in contemporary development
discourses in Thailand. Data for writing this paper are mostly based on my
anthropological field work in two villages in the Northeast of Thailand conducted
between 1994 and 1995, my action research with the Khon Kaen Civic Assembly
(KKCA) in Thailand from 1998 to 1999, and my on-going participatory action research
with NGOs and local organizations on community development and empowerment.
Also, I rely on some relevant documents.

7
THE CHALLENGES OF GROWING THE NPO AND VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN JAPAN

Robert O. Bothwell
National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy
[email protected]

RESEARCH ISSUE ADDRESSED: After the Kobe earthquake of 1995 stimulated great
interest in NPO and voluntary organizations in Japan, and the 1998 NPO Law passed
which allows much easier incorporation of NPOs, many NPO leaders, academicians
and others became concerned with how to grow the sector. Establishment of NPO
support centers became a primary means. But many have had other thoughts. The
survey sought to ascertain the full range of other possible approaches to expanding the
sector and to identify the challenges which must be addressed if change is to occur.

METHODOLOGY: The author surveyed 65 NPO leaders, knowledgeable

academicians and journalists, and others concerned with NPOs about the challenges
that must be overcome if the NPO sector is to grow substantially. Twenty-seven survey
contacts were identified through the author's trips to Japan, ARNOVA and ISTR
conferences, then expanded through the snowball method to 65 recommended
contacts nearly all from Japan; 38 (58%) responded via e-mail.

FINDINGS: The study has been completed the challenges facing Japan in growing its
nonprofit sector are many and diverse. A major challenge identified is the authoritarian
government which historically has taken care of communities' social welfare needs.
Related to this challenge, is the sentiment that the government does too much and that
the citizens have become too dependent on the government. Also related is the
authoritarian culture of Japan, which several respondents say the government exploits.
A rather strange finding of the survey is that fewer than one-third of the respondents
mentioned the economic or business sector as having any relevance to the growth of
the NPO and voluntary sector. And even when they do mention it, few express any
imperative connection, either positive or negative.

Another equally interesting finding is that the concept of "democracy" is also connected
to the NPO and voluntary sector by fewer than one-third of the respondents. Most
respondents ignored the connection, making it appear that the development of the
NPO sector is not perceived as a necessary ingredient of greater democracy in Japan,
nor even that democracy itself is a form of government worth improving.

Some respondents see the legitimacy of the NPO sector as a big challenge, and that
this makes building of trust between the sector and citizens difficult. Other respondents
think in these same terms, but focus operationally on the challenges of NPOs making
substantial connections with the public or of recruiting volunteers to expand the sector's
base. Related somewhat to the concept of legitimacy is the challenge of vision for the
NPO sector. Many express concern about the need to create and build a vision for the
sector and how it should fit in with the rest of society, with government and the
economic sector. Establishing or maintaining the independence of the NPO sector
from government is a critical challenge in the minds of some. Government funds may
be necessary for NPOs, but not if the cost is utter dependence.

8
Beyond the challenges of legitimacy, vision and independence -- challenges which
primarily concern NPOs' external relations with government, the business sector and
the public -- are the internal challenges which hamper the growth and development of
the NPO and voluntary sector. These include leadership, organizational capacity,
human resources, planning, management, administrative competence and
collaboration among NPOs. More than half the respondents identify these internal
issues as important challenges in growing the sector. Another major internal challenge
are NPO finances.

Finally, among the many challenges to growing the NPO and voluntary sector,
providing adequate monetary incentives for organization and development of NPOs
through creation and enactment of new tax legislation is cited by several respondents
as necessary.

The findings are rich in deep detail from the survey respondents' own quotations.

9
 EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Maria Cecilia Bulos

Philippine Business for Social Progress
[email protected]

Western literature on business and society points to the growing awareness and
recognition of corporate volunteerism as one of the strategic responses to the
challenge of corporate social responsibility (CSR). Allowing employees to participate in
community work has been found to contribute strategically to companies’ social
responsibility, human resource and other business goals.

Similarly in the Philippines, there was a growing interest among local companies to
make employee involvement a significant part of their CSR efforts. The research study
was undertaken to understand and map the local movement on employee community
involvement. The study defined employee involvement as those activities recognized
by the company where employees volunteer or give of their time, skills and resources to
the service of internal and/or external communities.

Data gathered for the study was a result of a three-month survey research among
member companies of the Philippine Business for Social Progress and the American
Chamber Foundation Inc. A preliminary survey was conducted among 528 companies.
Among those that reported having employee involvement activities, 62 companies
represented by their chief executive officers or human resources head were interviewed
using a standard interview guide.

The study revealed that employee involvement thrives among Philippine companies
regardless of size and sector. These activities come in different forms and were mostly
encouraged by employers. While respondents recognized the benefits that these
activities bring, there were, however, a number of dilemmas and challenges that
confront these companies in undertaking their employee community involvement
activities.

Corporate volunteerism presents a unique opportunity for companies to express their

social responsibility and meet strategic goals. On the other hand, it also presents a
wealth of opportunities for charities and communities. These institutions and
organizations can benefit from the resources employees and companies are most
willing to share-time, talent and treasure.

10
 THE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS FOR VOLUNTEER ORGANIZATIONS TO
CARRY OUT WEB-BASED TRAINING: AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON TAIWANESE
SCOUT VOLUNTEER ORGANIZATIONS

Wen Long Chang, The World Economics Society

[email protected]
Yu Chi Yang, North Star Scout Group
[email protected]

I. Introduction
Theoretical and empirical works generally suggest that if scout volunteer organizations
wish to have better performance in Web-based Training ("WBT" for short) in this paper,
they must understand what are the critical success factors ("CSF" for short) for them
when they are trying to implement WBT in their organizations.

Based on above reasons, this paper attempts to analyze the cognition of scout
volunteer organizations to how the four CSF, the organizational innovation environment
("OIE" for short), self-directed learning, (“SDL” for short) course design strategies,
(“CDSs” for short), and the technology factors, (“TFs” for short) affect the performance
of WBT.

Besides, the current situation and development on WBT for scout volunteer
organizations in Taiwan and what kind of WBT being more feasible for them are also
fully discussed.

ii. Research Objectives

Because of above research background, this research is trying to explore the
following questions and then propose some practical suggestions to scout volunteer
organizations and those people who are interested in this issue:
1.What is the current situation and development of WBT for the scout volunteer
organizations in Taiwan?
2.What are the CSF for scout volunteer organizations when they are trying to
adopt Web-based Training?
3.Based on above discovery, what kind of WBT are fit for scouting volunteer
organizations to adopt?

iii. Methodology
3.1 Sample
For reaching our research goals, research will employ a questionnaire
investigation method to those 120 scout volunteer organizations, which have
successfully implemented WBT and obtain preliminary training performance.

3.2 Research hypotheses

Research categorize the hypotheses into the following five portions:
H1: The OIE positively influence the performance of WBT.
H2: The SDL positively influence the performance of WBT.
H3: The CDSs positively influence the performance of WBT.
H4: The TFs positively influence the performance of WBT.

11
 H5:The four variables, OIE, SDL, CDSs, and TFs positively influence the
performance of WBT.

3.3 Research framework

According to above research hypotheses, the framework of this research are
depicted as figure 1.

3.4 Questionnaire design

Regarding to the questionnaire’s design, research mainly consult the Chiou’s
(2000) Creative Organizational Climate Inventory Scale (COCIS), the Guglielmino’s
(1977) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), the Chang’s (2001) WBT
Course Design Scale (WBTCDS), Technology Factors Scale (TFS) and Chang's (2001)
Training Performance Evaluation Scale (TPES). Besides, questionnaires are using
Likert’s five-scale evaluation method to test the respondents' recognition to those
questions in questionnaires.

12
 PHILIPPINE COOPERATIVES: THEIR HISTORY, CURRENT STATUS,
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Rogelio Cosio, Iwate University

[email protected]
and Kensaku Kanda, Hirosaki University

This paper contributes to the limited availability of reliable and up-to-date information on
the present status, growth and development of cooperatives in the Philippines from
where new plans, programs and policies can be designed and formulated to strengthen
the cooperatives in the country. Experiences in many developing and developed
nations have proven that one of the most effective strategies to attain economic growth
and equitable distribution of income and wealth is through cooperatives (Rola, 1988).
Thus, the strengthening of the cooperative movement should be a continuous goal of
governments so that the cooperative sector can truly live up to its role as an effective
partner in improving people’s welfare and national development.

Necessary data from the Philippines’ Cooperative Development Authority (CDA) were
analyzed using descriptive statistics and were presented in tables and figures. The
study made use of time-series data to evaluate the growth and development of the
country’s cooperatives. Growth and development indicators that were considered in the
study included the levels of capital build-up, paid-up share capital, product volume
sales, savings generated and contribution to the economy of the cooperative sector.
The paper also presented the weaknesses or limitations of Philippine cooperatives.

Cooperativism has a long history of over a century in the Philippines but the general
impression is that the cooperative movement has yet to take off from its development
stage. Despite this, revitalizing the cooperatives continues to be a primary and urgent
concern of the government in its efforts of breaking the cycle of poverty in the rural
areas. The reduction of poverty is still a big problem in the Philippines and has been
slow compared to the country’s own aspirations. Cooperatives stand as an important
institutional form at the grassroots level by virtue of their numbers and their proven
capability to help raise the quality of life of the poor.

With the exception of the first country’s cooperative organized by the national hero
(Rizal) in the late 1800s, early cooperatives in the Philippines were the product of a
series of government interventions through legislative measures. Since 1915, more
than 20 laws, plus a number of executive and administrative orders, have given more
than 15 government agencies the mandate of developing the cooperatives in the
country. Since 1991, the number of Philippine cooperatives has more than quadrupled
to 56,557 organizations (as of September 30, 2000) with more than seven million
members, P54.7 billion (US$1.2 billion) worth of product volume sales, P5.8 billion
(US$130.98 million) in savings, P5.9 billion (US$133.3 million) capital build-up and P3.3
billion (US$74 million) paid-up share capital.

Despite this growth level of the cooperative sector, its impact as a vehicle for economic
empowerment was, however, not yet widely felt. The government shall sustain its
supportive role of providing technical guidance, financial assistance, market linkage,

13
and other direct development services (such as continued educational efforts to build
trust, leadership, accountability, transparency, improve access to support services and
revitalize member participation) to the cooperatives. The cooperative movement needs
an astute leader who can articulate its plans and objectives. Further, it must have visual
impact projects of monumental proportions that will jolt the people into recognizing its
influence and presence. Moreover, the movement must develop its capability to meet
the competitive challenges of increasing global market liberalization.

14
 “LINGUAPOLITICAL” SITUATION IN AN ERA OF INTERNET CIVIL SOCIETY

Masayuki Deguchi
Graduate University for Advanced Studies (Sokendai)
[email protected]

This paper develops a new concept of “Lingua-politics” in civil society.

The changes delivered by the information-technology (IT) revolution seem certain to

transform civil society. Especially noteworthy is the fact that language is beginning to
divide intellectuals from one another.

Only few years ago, the greatest force dividing peoples was the state. In other words,
national borders were extremely powerful. Geographical factors were also pivotal and,
the Swedish scholar Rudolf Kjellen calls this fact “geopolitics.” The distinction between
continent and ocean is important in geopolitics.

With today's information revolution, however, the meaning of national and geographical
borders has changed greatly. The emphasis is likely to shift rapidly from national
borders to the borders of language that are taking their place-what I call “linguistic
borders”. Peoples have easily come to communicate one another and discuss their own
opinions beyond national boarders. Peoples, however, had been unintentionally divided
into two parts: English-speaking and other languages-speaking intellectuals. When it
comes to information conveyed via the Internet, naturally enough the number of
targets, and even their identity, differs according to the language used.

Just as geopolitics once had great significance for nations, it is highly likely that
linguapolitics will increase its significance for civil society. This paper discusses the
influence of liguapolitics by English and other languages to civil society.

15
 NGO'S INTERVENTION IN DEVELOPMENT
AN ASSESSMENT OF THEIR PERFORMANCE IN NEPAL

Govind Dhakal
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
[email protected]

Failures of the governments and the emergence of market mechanism in the forefront
of development led to the emergence of NGO in the 1970s and 80s. This is because
these organizations aggregate public goods, conserve environment, empower the
powerless and lessen the already existing lengthy work procedures of the bureaucracy.
This is more evident from the point of view that the pluralist sense of social justice has
become the overriding concern of both the Northern and southern NGO's. The
emergence of NGOs is not the question of emergence of alternative actor to the
government in development, but is the question of the formation of social capital to
address the developmental issue of the people from their own participation and from
the resource mobilization of the grass root levels The success of any organization in
the fulfilment of its primary objectives, again, greatly lies in the question of performance
driven organizational change and its implications in the process of development and
the same applies to the NGOs too.

From the various international forums and meets including the last ISTR meet in Dublin,
Ireland have identified those third sectors as NGO, Non-profits, CBOs, People's
Organizations, Civil Societies, Cooperatives, Voluntary Developmental organizations
etc. and Nepal is not an exception where the participation of NGOs is relevant in the
similar form. In addition to the above forms the women's savings and credits groups,
consumer societies, and participatory people's organizations in different areas are
common in Nepal. The proliferation of NGOs in Nepal is found especially after the
restoration of democracy. Now, their number is in between 18 to 20 thousand, but the
active ones are far less. The decentralization Act 1998 and Municipality Act, Village
Development Committee Act and District Development Committee Act have clearly
specified the necessity of making active partnership with the NGO sector in
development.

Despite the government's sincere efforts to make an active partnership of NGO in the
overall process of national development in Nepal, many NGO's have succeeded in their
objectives whereas others remained highly dependent on donors and governmental
funding or some other such supports. Some other NGO are quite successful in the
empowerment of the society and especially to the weaker sections.

The objectives of the this paper is to: identify the level of performance of NGO in Nepal
in general and in the development of partnership in particular, to identify the reasons of
their success and failure in the over all development of Nepal, and, to suggest
appropriate measures to enhance the level and content of their participation.

This research work has reviewed existing literatures for the emergence, growth and the
present status of NGO in Nepal and for the identification of their strength and
weaknesses from the point of view of finance, management, government policies and

16
organization styles. However, to verify the existing situation and focusing on weaker
sections, two NGOs one from central hill and the other from terai have been selected
randomly to examine their functioning. For this purpose PRA, observation, RRA
methods are followed. The findings from the field have been the major point of support
to this paper.

The findings showed that the of the rhetoric of the role of NGO's as a formidable
partner in development, their capability and sustainability as voluntary organization still
remains in doubt in Nepal. The case studies cited here, however, can be an addition to
the theory of success or failure of NGO in development.

17
 NGO-GOVERNMENT PARTNERSHIP FOR IMPROVING LIVELIHOOD IN NEPAL

Tek Nath Dhakal

Tribhuvan University, Nepal
[email protected]

Several reasons are attributed to the emergence of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

since the 1970s. Among them 'market failure' and 'government failure' are considered leading
reasons in European, Asian, African and Latin American countries. Comparative advantage of
NGOs is well-documented in development aid literature. The development role of NGOs was not
visible until the the 1960s. Researchers and policy-makers have started to re-examine
decentralisation and privatisation as alternative vehicles and to consider the NGOs as possible
remedy for the 'crisis of the welfare state'. The growth of NGOs, at least in part, is a reflection of
dissatisfaction with both state and market. On the other hand, the use of NGOs has been
consistent with both the New Right aid policies of governments in the USA and UK and the
'alternative' aid policies of the consciences of the donor community in the Nordic countries and
the Netherlands. (Hulme 1994, 265). Other OECD countries have also from time to time used
NGOs as channels for resource transfer in the form of foreign aid. The restructuring policies of
the World Bank and other influential donor agencies led to a planned reduction of the role of the
state and increased space for Non-Governmental Organisations.

Despite immense role of NGOs, especially for the grassroots upliftment, they are constrained by
miniscale size, restricted impact, distance from policy decisions, professional and technical
limitations, poor co-ordination, and problems of representativeness and accountability.
Therefore, the search for appropriate working relationships between NGOs and the government
has become one of the major policy issues facing both governments and NGOs in Nepal. An
acceptable framework for the relationships, however, remains elusive although its importance is
not debatable.

There are over 100,000 NGOs operating in the South Asian countries of which more than 20,000
national NGOs and around 90 INGOs are working in Nepal. The government of Nepal has taken
the NGOs as development partner for a number of actyivities such as community and rural
development, urban slums improvement, empowerment of women, improvement of
environment, delivery of public health, irrigation, health education in the areas of AIDS and drug
abuse, youth activities and development of moral values.

In this context, this study intends to assess the scope, modalities and constraints of partnership
between NGOs and the government in the improvement of livelihood of the people in Nepal.
The research is based on field survey and interviews with NGOs and government executives
working at the field level as well as review of policies, and other documents which address the
issue of livelihood development in rural Nepal. For this, case studies have been carried out on
the activities of PLAN International (an INGO) including the governmental field offices working in
Markhu Village Development Committee (VDC) of the central Nepal and BASE (a national NGO)
in Hekuli VDC of Mid-western Nepal.

A part of the study briefly reviews the NGOs in Nepal in historical perspective. It also sums up
the shortcomings of the rural development initiatives in Nepal and looks into viable areas of
partnership between the NGOs and the government. The problems facing this sector is also
explored.

18
 ROLE OF VOLUNTEERING SERVICE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIRD SECTOR
AND COMMUNITY: CHALLENGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Ding Yuanzhu
State Development Planning Commission
[email protected]

Goals
This research will focus on: the development of volunteering service in China; the role
of volunteering service in China’s civil society; the policies adopted both by state and
civil society for volunteering service; the evaluation of these policies; the
recommendations for promoting volunteering service in China.

China’s native volunteer activity began at the end of the 1980s. The community service
volunteers established their organizations and were named the association of
community service volunteers. Another volunteer organization was established in
China, which was named China Young Volunteers under the leadership of the Chinese
Communist Youth League, and its organization was named Association of Chinese
Young Volunteer. The Community Service Volunteer and Chinese Young Volunteer
are the two largest and most famous volunteer organizations with most activity in
China. Apart from them, there are a lot of organizations that rely on volunteers to
implement their projects, including China Charity Federation and its local branches,
China Association of Aging Scientists, China Federation of Women etc, all of whom
have their own volunteer activities or volunteer programs. The State Ministry of Foreign
Economic and Trade Cooperation also send volunteers overseas. Now there are more
than 16 million volunteers including community service volunteers, young volunteers,
workers’ union volunteers, women volunteers, scientist volunteers, health care
volunteers, eliminating poverty volunteers, and environmental protection volunteers
who all play a role in China’s human development. More and more visitors from
overseas also participate in the Chinese volunteer activity now.

Problems
Through the analysis, based on the statistical data on national level and field research
in four regions with six different volunteer organizations in China, this paper tries to
explore and evaluate the role of volunteering service in the development of third
sectors and community in China, the difficulties that it is facing and the policy should be
formulated for promoting volunteering service in China, under the circumstance that
China is the process of transition from central economy to market oriented economy,
and from central society to multi-civil society. We also examine the policies that are
being carried out by government as well as voluntary organizations. Finally, a package
of policy recommendation will be put forward to promote the volunteering service in
China.

Methodology and Research Sources

Two methods will be used in this paper:

Statistical data at national level for evaluation of the development of volunteering

service in China. The data was collected during the last two years, on the basis of two

19
research programs. The first is the UNV commissioned research project, Volunteerism
in China (1999), and the second is the Canada International Development Agency
funded research program, the Role of Volunteerism in China Human Development
(2000-2001).

Field research in four regions with six voluntary organizations, including China Young
Volunteers, Beijing-based Friends of Nature in Beijing, Young Volunteers in
Guangzhou, Community Volunteers in Shanghai, Young Volunteers in Shanghai,
Community Volunteers in Tianjin, will explore the problems they are facing and their
policies. The methods used in field research include questionnaire, interview and
workshops.

20
 INDIVIDUAL GIVING AS RATIONAL CHOICE:
A STUDY OF NEW RICH URBAN YOUTH IN INDIA

Yashavantha Dongre
University of Mysore
[email protected]

THE STUDY:
The present study centers around the monetary giving habits among the new rich urban
youth in a major city in India. The primary objective of the study is to focus on the need
to make giving a rational choice. The study also attempts to look at the policy
imperatives related to individual giving. The study is based on the premise that ‘giving
by itself may not serve the purpose unless it is a well directed giving’.

BACKGROUND:
Individual giving or charity is a common feature, among most who can afford, in India.
Traditionally this giving is governed by beliefs and faiths related to religion. The giving
(monetary giving) has been generally in the form of alms to beggars and contributions
to temples. Since ‘DAANA’ (giving) is seen as a way of acquiring PUNYA (right virtue),
which facilitates a better rebirth, or MOKSHA (salvation), the majority Hindu population
is involved in giving through many ways. While this has helped many, it is also true that
such giving habits have indirectly encouraged large-scale beggary. Many times the
giving habits have been grossly irrational, (like that of throwing coins to sacred rivers)
and have not been of help to any body. Hence there is need to make giving a rational
choice.

METHODOLOGY:
The study is empirical in nature. It is based on a survey through structured
questionnaire, of 100 youth comprising of 50 male and 50 female, working in high paid
positions in IT industries in the city of Bangalore. The sample is homogenous in terms
of age, education and income levels. However, they are different in terms of their
caste, religion, region and family background. Various issues related to giving such as
motives, size, nature of giving and areas preferred are examined. However, the focus
is to examine as to how far giving is a conscious choice and in cases where it is not,
how to make it so. The study considers the literature on similar issues, especially the
studies conducted in the USA, Europe, Pakistan and India.

EXPECTED RESULTS:
The study would throw light on the following questions:
1. How far the giving habits of educated, urban youth differ from that of the
general giving habits?
2. What facilitates/prevents making giving a conscious/rational choice?
3. How far the existing state policy/legal setup enables/hinders individual giving?
4. What are the external factors (external to individual) facilitating/hindering
individual giving?
5. How to make giving a rational choice/well directed act?

21
 EFFICIENCY PROBLEMS OF CONCENTRATING INSTITUTIONS

Klaus Draskowitsch
Osaka University
[email protected]

This paper addresses possible advantages and disadvantages mediating organizations

can have for NPOs as well as for business corporations and society. The main focus is
the situation in Japan.

In recent years we could observe a substantial increase in non-profit organizations in

Japan. Together with the rising number of NPOs various associations and other forms
of institutions emerged, whose objects are to combine or represent the interests of
single NPOs. For the purpose of this analysis I will call them concentrating institutions.
They can represent NPOs of specific sectors, natures or geographical regions. On the
other hand, also the parties who normally interact with NPOs (donating companies,
authorities, etc.) can establish such concentrating institutions. In the latter case, an
NPO has to deal with one or few rather than numerous parties during its activities.
Both the establishment and the operation of such a concentrating institution requires
financial and human resources; moreover, it creates an additional organizational layer
that may complicate transaction processes.

In this paper I will analyze from an economic perspective if and under which
circumstances concentrating institutions can actually increase efficiency, deploying
theories of transaction and bargaining costs as well as of the principal - agent problem.

The background for this paper is the field of cultural economics, and one of the
examples I am using is the Japanese Association for Corporate Support of the Arts.

As the mindset of the paper is imbedded in concepts of Pareto efficiency, transaction

costs and principal-agent theories, background literature can be found in the works of
Arrow, Mas-Colell, Peacock, Stiglitz and others. The paper is of descriptive nature,
discussing a model of economic relationship and their possible effects on the players or
on the framework itself. As the research work of Baumol/Bowen in the 1960s
concludes, the performing Arts are in growing need for outside funding. To meet these
financial requirements, cultural organizations can address the state for public funding,
individuals for private funding or companies for corporate funding. In Japan, the latter is
more strongly developed, and the French word Mecenat was incorporated in the
language to give a name to cultural funding activities for other than pure advertising
purposes.

About 10 years ago, the business side established Kigyo Mecenat Kyogikai, the
Association for Corporate Support of the Arts, in order to direct mecenat activities more
efficiently. For the cultural non-profit organizations, this means they have to deal with a
new layer, located between culture and its supporters, but clearly representing the for
profit companies. If time permits, the paper may include a discussion about whether the
influential power of such an organization could lead to a too strong dependence of
cultural organizations on one single institution.

22
 NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS AND KNOWLEDGE-BASED GOVERNANCE:
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND COMMUNITY

Shun’ichi Furukawa
University of Tsukuba
[email protected]

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the NPOs’ involvement in changing nature of
governance, the development of evaluation and performance measurement in Japan,
and to propose the concept of ‘knowledge-based governance’ in community. A
comparative perspective is also sought.

First, the conceptual framework of governance and knowledge-based management in

the public sector is presented, followed by an explanation of knowledge-based
governance (KBG) and its relationship with performance measurement. Second, the
background of evaluation and performance measurement is described. Third, current
practices of KBG are described. Finally, a universal governance model based on these
examples is presented. Knowledge sharing and collaboration are the main factors
constituting new governance.

‘Government Governance’ answers the question of who owns government and of what
kind of accountability should be expected from which government stakeholders.
Japan’s central and local governments are often described as traditionally paying more
attention to interested citizens than other aspects of stakeholders. However, many
people have begun participating in voluntary community activities, including
environmental protection and aiding disaster victims. The power of such volunteers has
expanded remarkably in recent years. They are also interested in monitoring
government from the viewpoint of programs’ mission, and sometimes propose
adequate action for governments to take.

‘Knowledge-based management’ in the public sector is defined as “utilizing

organizational knowledge created by citizens and government in policy development
and service/operational improvement of government.” The new term “knowledge-based
governance (KBG)” combines the concept of ‘knowledge-based management’ in the
public sector with ‘government governance.’ This new concept includes the process
where both citizens and government learn from sharing national/regional/community
goals and targets and identifying the level to be achieved.

In establishing knowledge-based governance, it is imperative to introduce a tool called

“knowledge-ware,” that derives knowledge from the people concerned, accumulates it,
and is founded upon a system of hardware and software. Performance measurement
is one of the optimum tools that meet the requirements.

A key distinguishing feature of “knowledge-based performance management” is

attaching great importance to the concrete identification of goals, clearly worded
objectives prior to establishing performance indicators. To identify concrete goals,
citizens must thoroughly discuss the policy structure.

23
One of the remarkable changes in introducing ‘Knowledge-based Performance
Management’ is that both the results and process of performance review, as well as the
criteria for deciding priorities, are disclosed to citizens in a transparent manner. This
management has the unique feature of incorporating processes of learning and
knowledge sharing in setting the goals of policy, program, and project.
KBG supported by an effective performance measurement/management system, is
now transforming the existing organizational structure of local government as well as
the orientation and behavior of its staff. Performance measurement in Japan is a
relatively new term. Recently, however, performance measurement in the form of
‘evaluation’ has emerged as an effective tool for administrative reform. Embodied in the
new national laws, it is now receiving much attention.

Knowledge is a key component as a competitive resource leading to continuous

innovations. The cases in Japan demonstrate that a knowledge-based strategy is also
effective in the public sector. The new mode of governance, KBG, will reshape the
policy arena for the public sector in Japan. It entails knowledge sharing and
collaboration. The local government is in a better position to adapt itself to KBG.
Citizens’ involvement at the local level enhances more effective performance
measurement. NPOs’ role is surely becoming significant in this regard.

24
 CHANGING FACE OF GIVING
NGOS ACCESSING INDIVIDUAL GIVING IN THE CYBERSPACE

Swapan Garain
S.P. Jain Institute of Management and Research, India
[email protected]

Individual giving, all over the world including in Asian countries, is experiencing the
global phenomenal changes in information explosion, technological revolution and
alternative methods of raising resources by NGOs. Fundraising and communication,
together constituted an integrated area that has been subjected to a great deal of
changes in the last few decades. NGOs, particularly in Asia, are often found to be
behind times when it concerns the use of technology to transform the way they raise
money. At times the NGOs need to be pushed by the stake holders like individual
donors, grant-makers, members and other constituents for taking advantages of
opportunities like use of technology for fundraising.

In Asia, it is the issue of changing individual donor profile and the tool availability that
must be addressed. The fundraiser’s capacity, to articulate and passionately say the
story of the NGO’s efforts to benefit a significant cause of the society, convinces a
prospect with personal motivation to make a contribution to it. It is like an investment
decision of a prospect and the soliciting NGO must use most effective ways to convince
a potential donor to invest in the NGO’s cause. Technology is a vehicle that is being
increasingly used appropriately for building an effective partnership between the
fundraiser and the prospect/donor. Personalizing the approach is core of any effort for
fundraising. Opportunity must be tailor-made for trustees, alumni, community,
members, beneficiaries, and so forth. All individuals, including the donors like to be
treated differently.

The research on use of internet finds that both the existing as well as potential
donors are using internet in increasing numbers. Internet demographics states that
largely the youthful and monied audience is there in the internet. The upcoming
internet users are likely to be more philanthropic friendly and may probably be the
fundraisers’ prospective target. In this age of global village, it has the potential to
put a NGO foremost in the minds of every internet user in the world. For the grant
writers, it links to valuable resources to explore and write grant proposals.

Significance of web presence for a NGO in Asia increases phenomenally, as increasing

number of people surf the web and use the internet. Potential that the cyberspace
offers is one thing, the capacity and actual use of it by the NGO is another. While the
cyberspace has increased phenomenally in volume and range of resources, its use in
the NGO sector is known a little. While occasional news-clipping refers to some
cyberspace space success stories of some NGO, the researchers are yet to find cyber
fundraising as a critical area to study. This study makes an effort to explore the
individual giving as a fundraising activity of the NGOs in the cyberspace.

The study explored the following research questions :

25
♦ What are the current fund raising methods used by NGOs targeting individual giving
that can help explore further the area of cyber fundraising?
♦ Are the NGOs using fundraising software and what are the purpose for which it is
being used ?
♦ How is the experience of NGOs in using the various cyber fundraising methods?
♦ What is the potential for cyber fundraising replacing conventional methods?

The study focused on NGO-cyberspace interface and experience of NGOs in raising

money from individuals in the cyberspace. A number of experts and volunteers helped
designing the tools for data collection, designing and hosting web based response
page, and feedback. A total of 316 respondents from NGOs voluntarily took part in the
survey. Since the study was entirely carried out in cyberspace, the respondents came
from all over the world.

In conclusion, it may be stated that cyberspace fundraising from individuals, particularly

in Asian countries will not replace all other conventional methods of fundraising, neither
it will bring instant rewards. One can comfortably say that with changing times and
emerging technological revolution, cyberspace fundraising has opened new frontiers
that no fundraiser can ignore. The fast changing prospect profile will require the NGO
fundraisers everywhere to move to the cyberspace for reaching out to this segment for
building a donor community in the near future. It has the potential to be become a very
effective tool for communication and fundraising.

26
THE ROLE OF VOLUNTEERING IN BUILDING STRONGER COMMUNITIES - A CASE
STUDY OF MONGOLIA

Hari Goyal
Asia Pacific Socio-Economic Research Institute, New Delhi
[email protected]

1. Mongolia, on the eve of transition to market economy, faced a major problem of

the absence of a communicative international language, lack of adequate trained
management personnel and shortage of appropriate skills and technologies.
Moreover, macro-economic stabilisation measures and structural changes during
the transition period brought unprecedented social problems such as
unemployment, poverty, domestic violence, street children and discrimination
against women. The on-set of transition period made a huge demand on the
voluntary sector.

2. A major developmental issue on the eve of transition was how to increase quickly
the availability of properly trained personnel so that they could cope with the new
complexities of the development process. This task of capacity building was
undertaken by international experts appointed by international organisations. The
strategy adopted was restructuring and strengthening existing institutions and
constructing new ones. Now a large number of volunteers from various countries
are engaged in supporting and transfer of knowledge, skills and services in
management, education, health care, nurses training, environment, bio-diversity
conservation, public transport development, small and medium business
development, behavioral sciences and ICT.

3. Imparting knowledge of English language to young Mongolians was started in

1990. English language teachers from many countries offered their services as
United Nations Volunteers. A large number of English language teachers
belonging to Peace Corps and Voluntary Services Overseas landed in Mongolia
to teach English language to young students as well to impart training to
teachers.

4. Mongolia, since 1990, has a strong force of United Nations volunteers, volunteers
from foreign country based voluntary organisations and volunteers from the
National Third Sector engaged in building a strong community. Currently 16
national and 7 international UNVs are working in the country on projects related
to bio-diversity, conservation of wildlife, new technologies with most efficient and
reduced used of energy in building new houses, health, fight against HIV-AIDS,
journalism and poverty alleviation. About 300 volunteers of foreign based
organisations like JOVC, Australian Volunteers, Peace Corps, VSO, Save
Children Fund, Korean Youth, Peace Winds are busy in investing in people and
sharing their knowledge and expertise with Mongolians.

5. Passage of the Law on Non-Governmental Organisations in January 1997

brought a 'NGO Boom'. At present there are about 2,500 NGOs are registered
with the Ministry of Justice. Of course, hardly 10 per cent are active in the fields of

27
 public health, education, distance learning, community development, poverty
alleviation, human rights, violence against women, political, civil and social issues,
and information technology.

6. The main objective of the Study was to assess the health of voluntary sector in
the country and its contribution to the strengthening of the Mongolia's social
fabric. Another objective was to assess the achievement of all the four objectives
the IYV. (Purpose of the Study was to evaluate the voluntary organisations
activities and inform the policy makers about their changed role. Study conducted
in March 2001 was carried out through collaborative consultations. Micro-level
investigations were conducted through a pre-structured questionnaire.)

7. The country has favorable and supportive legal framework for the growth of civil
society organisations. Mongolia has achieved international recognition as a
country where the transfer of knowledge is extremely effective. Contribution of the
volunteers of UNV, foreign country based CSOs and National NGOs was roughly
estimated at 1,500000 hours per year. Most of the volunteers stated that they
enjoyed helping others, felt obliged to help the less fortunate and it increased
their knowledge and experience Besides this managed volunteering, there are
unmanaged groups of volunteers who offered their spontaneous and sporadic
help to the victims of Zuud (severe winter) of 1999-2000 & 2000-2001, which
killed more than 3 million cattle heads. Red Cross volunteers played a significant
role in the Zuud. Extent of this volunteerism could not be quantified but was
equally significant in building a strong community.

8. For the achievements of all the four objectives of the International Year of
Volunteers, role of the Government and the media in promoting volunteerism, the
results were not very encouraging.

28
 KEY STRATEGIC HR ISSUES IN THE THIRD SECTOR:
THE AUSTRALIAN EXPERIENCE

Jenny Green
University of Technology, Sydney
[email protected]

Recent research (see Dovey, Green and McQueen, 2001) indicates relatively profound
changes in the human resource arena of the Third Sector over the past five years. In
particular, the management of organisational performance in a changing funding
environment brought about by globalisation (see Lyons, 2001) appears to be increasing
in priority as a strategic issue faced by Australian Third Sector organisations. Linked to
this issue, is the emergence of a global knowledge economy (see Burton-Jones, 1999)
that has profound implications for innovatory practices in Third Sector organisations
and, by implication, the development and management of their human resources.

The paper analyses thirty-nine work-based projects completed for the subject Human
Resources in the Third Sector by students enrolled in the Master of Management
(Community Management) at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS). The task
requires students (who are experienced managers in Australian Third Sector
organisations) to identify a key strategic human resource issue in their organisations
and, over a period of three months, implement a project aimed at addressing this issue.

The analysis of these reports will explore the human resource issues identified by these
managers as key problems/challenges in their current operational context. Furthermore,
the analysis will attempt to identify the major organisational and sector obstacles to the
resolution of these problems, that the managers encountered in their attempt to
address them through the work-based project.

The paper concludes with a discussion of possible strategic action that Third Sector
organisations can take in their attempts to manage their human resources appropriately
and effectively in the current global economic environment.

References
Burton-Jones, A. 1999, Knowledge Capitalism. Oxford, Oxford University Press

Dovey, Green and McQueen. ‘Partnerships in Education: Networks in Community’.

Teaching in Higher Education, 2001, 6 (3)

Lyons, M. 2001, Third Sector. Sydney, Allen & Unwin

29
 ROLE OF NGOS AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT: A CASE FROM BANGLADESH

Sadeka Halim
Asia Pacific Socio-Economic Research Institute, Dhaka
[email protected]

Bangladeshi NGOs are regarded as a distinctive "third sector" that works for the rural
and urban poor. Internationally too, NGOs have been recognised as a force for change,
such as at the 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. In Beijing, it was
reiterated that greater emphasis should be given to poverty alleviation and
empowerment rather than on economic growth. NGOs in Bangladesh thus have come
to be regarded as the best actors to integrate women (the poorest of the poor) in
development activities, especially because of their wide experience in delivering social
welfare and other services to disadvantaged groups.

This paper assesses the social forestry (SF) programmes undertaken by the
Government of Bangladesh (GOB) in collaboration with a particular NGO, Proshika,
which simultaneously promotes rural development and seeks to improve the status of
women. This assessment is based upon an examination of SF programmes in two
villages within Bangladesh, its impact upon women, and the consideration of the
broader question of the nature of incorporation of women into development activities.

Social forestry (SF) is a developmental approach towards the management of forest

resources that attempts to reconcile a range of ecological, commercial and social
objectives. Its emergence within Bangladesh in the last decade signals a recognition of
the failure of development programmes imposed by government directives and of the
need for forests to support increasingly impoverished local populations through the
forest-dwellers' active participation. SF in Bangladesh has been planned and
implemented through the combined efforts of the GOB, international aid donors and
multilateral lending agencies (especially the Asian Development Bank or "ADB"), and
NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations).

The inclusion of NGOs in this coalition led to an explicit commitment towards

recognizing the role of women in such projects based upon the assumption that the
participation of women in such programmes will empower them. However, the forestry
programmes - which will be discussed in this paper - show that the relationship
between the implementing authorities and the women participants was quite poor, as
can be concluded from the following discussion.

Field research in some of the concerned areas clearly indicates that while framing the
necessary policy guidelines, the GOB and ADB made no serious attempts to involve
the rural women - who were most affected by deforestation - in a substantive manner.
The forestry policies, which have effectively promoted monoculture and commercial
plantations, have failed to address women's various needs and even led to the
destruction of their natural resource base, especially the forests of heterogeneous
stand. Moreover, in this regard NGOs as the "third sector" in Bangladesh also did little
to halt monoculture and resist the industry-oriented and state-centric forestry policies
that effectively disregarded the wants and needs of the rural poor. On the contrary,
some NGOs have collaborated with the government to promote commercial forestry

30
policies that have either adversely affected women and female children at worst, or not
contributed substantially to decreasing their workload and income generating
potentials, at best.

Methodology
* Participant observation and case studies conducted in two villages where
government-implemented forestry programmes were implemented in collaboration with
an NGO (the research was conducted over a year);

* Methods: Critical analysis of data sources or evidence.

* Analysis of the various discourses, which constitute the inquiry.
* Interpretive methods and critical reflection.

31
 SOCIAL CAPITAL, LOCAL ORGANISATIONS, AND CAPACITY BUILDING:
LESSONS FROM BANGLADESH

Samiul Hasan
University of Technology, Sydney
[email protected]

Introduction
The developing country government’s efforts in devising sustainable development
strategies, in the past, did not focus on capability building or enablement in achieving
the ‘goals’. These governments saw ‘development’, as a quantifiable target focussing
on ‘growth’, and not on ‘process’ that can ensure better use of the limited ‘resource’ to
achieve the ‘goals’ of ‘development’, and expand the government’s capability. Due to
the lack of a ‘process’ in achieving the developmental goals, many governments in the
developing countries failed to achieve the ‘figures’.

Bangladesh, a big village with (some urban structures and) major differences among
people in the quality of life and access to the limited resources available, also have the
same problem. The Bangladesh constitution promises “a radical transformation in the
rural areas…. to remove disparity in the standards of living between the urban and the
rural areas” (Article 16). In the absence of an effective process the State has not been
very successful in doing good to this promise. In the face of the government’s not-so-
impressive efforts in rural transformation, many civil society organisations (popularly
called non-profit and voluntary organizations) have been vigorously pursuing strategies
in the country, within their limited means, in fulfilling some of the constitutional
promises. These social organizations constitute social capital and facilitate the
"achievement of goals that could not be achieved in the absence or could be achieved
only at a higher cost" (Coleman, 1990), because social capital consists of networks and
norms that enable participants to act together effectively to achieve a certain objective
(Putnam, 1993).

The paper aims at analysing the social capital existent in local organisations in
Bangladesh.

The work is based on both primary and secondary sources including publications of the
concerned organisations, and field visits by, personal communications of the different
stakeholders with, and direct observation of, the author.

32
 A STUDY OF THE ROLE OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS TO THE CREATION OF
THE EMPLOYMENT - A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE UK AND JAPAN

Atsuko Hattori
The Softnomics Center, Japan
[email protected]

Obviously, the era of centralising government is moving to the decentralisation of power

worldwide as government recognises its limitations. Through the process, we
recognised the nonprofits sector had the crucial role potentially to tackle the social
problem on behalf of the citizens in the UK and Japan. Yet, the majority of the sector
consists of the small and medium sized community based organisations and the sector
needs more power. In order to do so, the active community and citizenship should be
promoted in Japan.

The purpose of the paper is to consider how the civic engagement to the community
should be encouraged and who should support it. The paper focuses on the influence
of the social entrepreneur and analyses whether they can give impact to change the
community and whether they can create the employment. The ‘social entrepreneurs’
are the people who use the knowledge and experience of business to struggle social
problems and add a new value to the community. The definition will be described in
detail in the paper.

In this paper, firstly, the social background about the phenomena of community
regeneration in the UK and Japan is overviewed. Secondly, the actors who contribute
toward the active community are described. Although the private, public and nonprofits
sector have been involved in the community activities, it is important to make the citizen
to recognise that it is them who are effectively engaged in those activities. The
analysis of the role of the social entrepreneur shows that they contribute to raise the
awareness of the citizen, particularly those who belong to the business and the local
authority.

Thirdly, the influence of the social entrepreneur is considered in terms of the creation
of the employment. Here, the New Deal, the employment policy in the UK, is
mentioned. The healthy living centres have contributed to the solution of the
unemployed in the community. On the other hand, in Japan, the government launched
a package of emergency measures in 1999 , which is similar to the New Deal.
However, there is little achievement yet. Recently, the unemployment rate is getting up
seriously. The problem in supporting human resources has appeared through the
comparison of the employment policy in the UK and Japan.

The dialogue with the social entrepreneur between the UK and Japan has been
conducted several times this year in order to research 1) the definition, 2) the
significance and its role, 3) the relation with the nonprofits and business, and 4)the way
to network the social entrepreneur. The outcome of the dialogue is summarized in the
paper.

33
 HOW SHOULD THE NPO-GOVERNMENT RELATIONSHIP BE? :
THE ROLE OF NPOS IN JAPAN'S EMPLOYMENT POLICIES

Takashi Hattori
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Government of Japan
[email protected]

How should the NPO-Government relationship be? I will address this question of “public
policy” by examining the unemployment problem in Japan and its governmental policies
towards the problem. In the 1990s, after the burst of its bubble economy, Japan faced
its long recession and that was the time a number of non-profit organizations (NPOs)
emerged. NPOs are expected to take its role of absorbing labor forces in Japan. Since
the 1998 Law to Promote Specified Nonprofit Activities was enacted, the Japanese
government has been struggling to find how to approach NPOs in its public policy
domains. Should government support activities of NPOs? What kind of partnership
should be created between the two?

This paper will first clarify the shift of governmental perception of the role of NPOs in
Japanese economy by looking at governmental documents and reports. A special
attention will be put upon their approaches to NPOs in terms of governmental vs. non-
governmental and for-profit vs. not-for-profit.

Then, this paper will provide some background information on policy reforms of
employment policies in Japan. As a safety net, so-called “employment insurance” is the
basic tool to deal with the unemployment. In addition, various subsidies are provided to
meet the needs for employers and workers. The treatments of NPOs in these measures
will be examined.

Furthermore, to fuel its economy, the Japanese government has produced economic
policy packages. To create temporary jobs for the unemployed, the Urgent Local
Employment Grant was built in 1999. The Grant became the first employment measure
that directly dealt with NPOs in its scheme. Providing the actual data on its conditions
to the present, this paper will analyze possibilities of such measures for NPOs.

By examining Japan’s employment policies towards NPOs, we may draw some insights
for better understanding of what government should and should not do. As a case
study of Japan’s employment issue, this policy analysis attempts to reinforce our
perspective to the classical yet unsolved question of the NPO-government relationship.

34
 WHEN TRAINERS MEET SUITS, LET'S GO TANGO - THE STORY OF MEINUNG
PEOPLE'S ASSOCIATION

Lu-Yi Hsieh
University of Shu-Te, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
[email protected]

Mei-nung is located in southern part of Taiwan, a traditional Hakka town. Hakka is the
biggest ethnic minority group in Taiwan. Its culture is very different from most
Taiwanese. Mei-nung is proud of the high density population with higher degree and is
well known for its rich historical heritage. It was never expected to be involved in social
movement, but the Mei-nung anti-dam activity brought them into the headlines and has
opened a new page of this peaceful Hakka town.

On December 10, 1992, the first public hearing on the Meinung Dam took place. The
hearing paved the way of the mobilisation and empowerment of local residents and
MPA was taken from afterwards. Although anti-dam movement was the origin of MPA,
it did not confine itself to this issue. MPA sees the dam project as part of Taiwan's
history of industrialisation and urbanisation at the expense of rural area. Therefore,
MPA has made great efforts in empowering rural people to demand their rights and
welfare, which have been neglected for a long time. Furthermore, being a Hakka town,
Mei-nung has experienced the loss of cultural traditions and ethnic identity. How to
revive the Hakka culture is another mission of MPA. In order to fulfill its dream, MPA
has to work with various organisations, including the public sector. After nearly a
decade, MPA has been viewed as a successful case of development of grass-roots
organisations in Taiwan.

Hence, this paper will explore the strategies the MPA adopted when it faced different
sectors: local/central government, local residents/groups and organizations from the
outside world. It is hoped to find out the pattern of MPA's partnership building in order
to have in-depth understanding of how voluntary organisations work together to
achieve the dream of a civil society.

35
 THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SOCIAL ECONOMY CONCEPT IN JAPAN AND
SWEDEN

Alvar Hugosson
The United Graduate School of Iwate University, Japan
[email protected]

Over the past two decades an increased interest is seen in activities generated outside
the traditional private for-profit and public sectors, both of which had shown themselves
unable to meet the needs of their citizens. Third sector, nonprofit sector, NGO sector,
volunteer sector, civil society, and social economy are some of the concepts used for
these activities. In this paper we will focus on the social economy concept. A concept
that originated in France, and was official adopted in the EU in 1989.

In the early 1990s, the social economy concept was introduced into both Japan and
Sweden, two countries that before this time lacked a unifying concept for this sector.
However, as the needs to introduce this concept differed, the discussions around and
understanding of the concept diverged.

On the one hand, Sweden, under the influence from the EU, had to seek a definition
and description based on Swedish circumstances. Even though Sweden was, more or
less, forced to introduce this concept the involvement in the discussions on its definition
by a great number of researchers in various fields, local and regional authorities,
representatives from various organizations, etc., can be seen as the result of a
common understanding that Sweden had to find new ways to preserve the fundamental
ideologies on which the Swedish welfare state is built upon.

On the other hand, in the Japanese case there was no official demand to discuss the
concept. It can be argued that the co-operative crisis that started in the mid-1980s was
the main motive for the research and discussions seen in Japan. In addition, neither the
third sector concept nor the nonprofit sector concept was found to be suitable for
Japanese circumstances. The former as it had come to carry a different meaning in
Japan than that seen in other countries (mainly the U.S. and the U.K.), and the latter as
it excludes co-operatives.

In the first part of this paper a study on how the so-called social economy concept has
developed and been discussed in Sweden over the past ten years will be presented.

With the EU membership the social economy concept became an official concept in
Sweden. However, as the EU had no official definition and often referred social
economy to four corporate and associational forms (co-operatives, mutuals,
associations, and foundations) the Swedish government appointed a working group,
consisting of government officials, researchers, and people active in the various
organizations to identify and define the social economy and its organizations out of a
Swedish context. This led to an official definition of the social economy in a Swedish
context, presented in 1999. However, the discussion on an inclusive concept and its
usefulness has continued in Sweden even after this time.

36
Even though, the role of the social economy as job-creators to deal with the high
unemployment in Sweden and Europe has been highlighted, the activities performed in
the Swedish social economy has not been able to create enough jobs to show that the
social economy is the solution, or an important part of a solution, to these problems.
Neither can it be said to be the sole solution to the gaps left after the declining public
sector when it comes to service production. However, the social economy activities in
Sweden increase the so-called social capital, which in an indirect way positively affect
the local community, both in economic and social aspects, thus enhancing an
entrepreneurial environment. In addition, the role of the social economy organizations
as democracy schools is another function stressed in the Swedish debate.

The second part of this paper, will focus on the Japanese introduction and discussions
on the social economy concept, discussions that mainly are seen in the world of co-
operative research. Accordingly, most of the research on the social economy done in
Japan has focused on countries that has been members of the EU since before 1995,
and on their co-operative organizations. On the other hand, the great Hanshin
earthquake, in 1995, boosted the popular recognition of nonprofit activities in Japan,
which resulted in the enactment of the NPO law, in 1998. With this law, much of the
discussions on the social economy or similar comprehensive concepts in Japan were
replaced by discussions on relations between co-operatives and NPOs.

Our assumption, based on the Swedish case, is that if a definition or conceptualization

process involving a cross-section of Japanese society could be organized as it was in
Sweden, greater insight and recognition, by government officials and by ordinary
citizens of the great variety of forms and methods available to organizations that fall
under the social economy label could result. Improved inter-organizational cooperation
could also result as individuals and groups in different social economy sectors focus on
shared goals and values rather than legal and structural differences. We believe that it
is the inclusive and comprehensive nature of the social economy concept, and the
potential for mobilizing Japan’s vast reserve of volunteer and cooperative energy that
calls for the re-evaluation and reintroduction into intellectual and administrative
discourse in Japan.

37
 THE EXPATRIATE FACTOR IN PHILANTHROPY: THE CASE OF PAKISTAN

Mr. Ali Tauqeer Sheikh, National Program Director, LEAD-Pakistan

Ms. Sehr Hussain-Khaliq, Program Assistant, LEAD-Pakistan
[email protected]

This paper is the result of a year-long research on the non-profit sector in Pakistan. It is
based on a country report on philanthropy, which draws examples from case studies
focusing on the fundraising strategies of 16 non-profit organizations in Pakistan.

As the economic situation in Pakistan deteriorates, a growing number of non-profit

organizations are beginning to tap into a new source of potential donors: expatriate
Pakistanis. The expatriate community, which is concentrated in the United Kingdom,
United States and the Middle East, not only enjoys greater per capita income than their
compatriots in Pakistan, but their donations when converted to Pakistani Rupees, are
further inflated by an increasingly favourable exchange rate.

The proposed paper focuses on the fundraising strategies of four non-profit

organizations that have managed to establish a significant expatriate donor base.
These four organizations have pursued different means for targeting expatriate donors,
including registering as tax-exempt charities abroad, organizing high-profile fundraisers,
and enlisting the support of expatriate organizations such as the Association of
Pakistani Physicians of North America (APPNA).

The non-profit institution chosen enjoy a significant amount of expatriate support. For
example, in 1999-2000, 12% of the Rs. 105.5 million annual revenue of the Layton
Rehmatulla Benevolence Trust (LRBT) was contributed by the Graham Layton's Trust,
a sister organization that supports the work of the LRBT by raising funds in the U.K..
Similarly, the Shaukat Khannum Memorial Hospital (SKMT), which has an annual
expenditure of Rs.400 million, enjoys tremendous support among expatriate Pakistanis.
This popularity can be largely explained by the fact that the founder and chairperson of
SKMT is Mr. Imran Khan, a previous captain of the Pakistan cricket team and a well
known personality in international circles. The SKMT Marketing Department regularly
organizes fundraisers in Dubai, London and U.S.A., and has been quite successful in
raising funds abroad.

The third non-profit organization is The Citizen's Foundation. Committed to offering

quality education to underprivileged children in Pakistan, The Citizen's Foundation like
SKMT and LRBT enjoys tax-exempt status in the U.K. and U.S.A.. Registering as a tax
exempt charity has facilitated expatriate support for The Citizen's Foundation, to the
extent that 10 out of the 24 schools built by the organization in 1999-2000, were
sponsored by expatriate Pakistanis.

No discussion on philanthropy in Pakistan can be complete without the mention of

Abdul Satta Edhi, the founder of the Edhi Foundation, which is the largest most
organized social welfare system in Pakistan. The Edhi Foundation raises funds in 13
different countries around the world. Although the emphasis is on Pakistani donors, the
Foundation covers, nearly 10% of its expenditure through donations from outside the

38
country. However, unlike the organizations mentioned before, the Foundation does not
sponsor any high profile fundraisers to collect donations, but relies on its good name as
a welfare organization conducting relief efforts around the world, to attract donors.

In addition to these four case studies of non-profit organizations within Pakistan, the
proposed paper also discusses U.S. based Pakistani charities like APPNA, United Fund
for Pakistan (UFP) and Development in Literacy (DIL) which have been set-up by
expatriate Pakistanis. While the first four case studies highlight successful methods of
enlisting expatriate support for development initiatives within Pakistan, the analysis on
APPNA, UFP and DIL, offer useful insights into the motivation and criteria for giving
among overseas Pakistanis.

Previous research on philanthropy in Pakistan has ignored the contribution of the

expatriate community. The proposed not only not only emphasizes the tremendous
past and potential future contribution of the expatriate community but also maps
successful fundraising strategies to target expatriate donors.

39
 INCOME GENERATING EFFORTS BY NON-PROFITS –
EXPERIMENT IN HYOGO PREFECTURE

Makokto Imada
Civil Society Research Institute
[email protected]

An earthquake of magnitude 7.2 took place at 5:46:51 on January 17th in Kobe. This
Earthquake killed more 6,430 people. Houses and buildings destroyed were 104,900
and those damaged were 512,846 in Kobe City and nearby areas, mostly in Hyogo
Prefecture. Physical infrastructures, such as water supply, electricity, gas, railways and
roads, were heavily damaged.

This Earthquake gave great impacts on Japanese society. It proved that the voluntary
and non-profit sector is indispensable in Japan. Because local government offices were
destroyed and many local government officials were also victims of the Earthquake,
local governments could not provide enough services to rescue the victims. Many
victims were rescued and taken care of by neighborhood residents and volunteers from
all over Japan, even from abroad. These facts made the Japanese people understand
the importance of community activities and voluntary action.

After the Earthquake, many innovative non-profits are active in Kobe and surrounding
areas hit by the Earthquake. However, it is rather difficult for the non-profits to raise
funds to carry out their activities. Because the Earthquake occurred at the midst of
economic depression, Kobe area is still suffering from the high unemployment rate, and
the financial deficit continues.

Under these circumstances, non-profits are expected to undertake income generating

activities and to offer job opportunities for women, elderly people or unemployed
people, in the community they live in.

I want to introduce and analyze the income generating efforts by voluntary nonprofit
organizations active in Kobe and in the near-by area hit by the Earthquake, and the
policy undertaken by Hyogo Prefecture local government.

Then I will analyze difficulties facing these organizations, and propose some policies
and action plans to solve the problems.

40
 NONPROFIT EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN JAPAN

Noriko Ishikawa, Osaka University, [email protected]

Eiko Ibuki, Nomura Research Institute, [email protected]
Yoichi Tsutsui, Toyama University, [email protected]
Naoto Yamauchi, Osaka University, [email protected]

1. Introduction

In Japan, various types of nonprofit activities have gained a great deal of attention
among citizens, as well as policy makers and practitioners. In this paper we will shed
some lights on the characteristics of Japanese nonprofit education and training
courses.

2. Approaches and Methodology

JANPORA conducted a comprehensive membership survey on nonprofit education and

training courses organized by universities, central and local governments and nonprofit
organizations by themselves. Using these data, we will investigate characteristics of
nonprofit education and training in contemporary Japan.

While there are previous studies on nonprofit (management) education in several

countries (Wish and Mirabella, 1998; Mirabella and Wish, 1999 for the US universities,
O’Neill and Fletcher, 1998, for other countries), this is the first attempt to conduct
surveys on nonprofit research, education and training in Japan.

3. University-based nonprofit education courses

We collected approximately 80 samples, and found the following:

While many subjects related to nonprofits, volunteering and philanthropy are taught
at various college and universities, there are virtually no independent courses on
nonprofits that could offer nonprofit related degrees.

Most courses are designed for undergraduates, only a few courses are designed for
Master and Doctor course students.

Most courses are designed as introductory courses for the students who have
virtually no backgrounds in nonprofit research and education.

Main purpose of the lectures is either acquisition of theoretical and conceptual
knowledge (39%) or acquisition of practical knowledge (42%).

Internet is not used in 70% of the courses. Only 30% of instructors use Internet in
the courses and 36% of instructors plan to use Internet in near future.

Respondents pointed out some difficulties in offering courses, such as lack of
systematically designed programs, lack of communications with community, lack of
networking with other universities, lack of good textbooks, lack of theoretically
sound programs, lack of well organized programs, and lack of financial resources in
managing courses.

41
4. Non-university-based nonprofit training courses

In Japan various practical nonprofit courses are offered by local governments and
regional NPO support centers. We collected some 60 samples and found the following:

While themes of training programs are quite diverse, examples of popular themes
are management, volunteering, civil society, nonprofit organizations in general, legal
and tax systems, community development, and so on.

Over 80 % of the courses are offered for mainly acquisition of practical knowledge,
which is quite different from courses offered by universities

Internet is not used in 83% of the courses. Only 17% of instructors use Internet in
the courses and 25% of instructors plan to use internet in near future.

Respondents pointed out some difficulties in offering the training courses, such as
lack of theoretically sound programs, lack of well-organized programs, and lack of
financial resources in managing courses.

5. Conclusion and policy recommendations

In this paper we found that in Japan 1) there are a lot of nonprofit related courses
offered by universities, and by nonprofit organizations and local governments, 2) most
of university-based courses are introductory and non-degree courses, 3) majority of
non-university-based courses emphasize practical knowledge rather than theoretical
one.

It seems unrealistic to start nonprofit degree courses in Japanese universities within a

few years. Rather it may be more realistic to connect several universities offering
nonprofit related courses using Internet, and set up network oriented degree courses in
nonprofit management education. Also, it may be realistic to combine nonprofit
management courses and management courses for central and local governments, and
establish hybrid type public management courses that offer lectures and seminars for
nonprofit workers and public officials.

References
Wish, Naomi and Roseanne Mirabella, 1998, Curricular variations in nonprofit
management graduate programs, Nonprofit Management and Leadership 9(1).
O’Neill, Michael and K. Fletcher, Nonprofit Management Education & World
Perspectives, Praeger, Westport.
Mirabella, Roseanne and Naomi Wish, 1999, Perceived educational impact of graduate
nonprofit degree programs: Perspectives of multiple stakeholder, Nonprofit
Management and Leadership 9(3).

42
A STUDY OF HOW LOCALISATION OF INTERNATIONAL NGOS CONTRIBUTES TO
DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY FROM RWANDA

Yukiko Ito
Gakushuin Women’s College, Tokyo
[email protected]

Most development aid-oriented international NGOs operating in developing countries

have international staff in management posts while national staff is given very limited
positions and barely participate in initial planning of project activities. Very few
international NGOs plan their activities in view of when and how they terminate their
project activities in the field. Oftentimes, NGOs abruptly cease their activities, leaving
the aid recipient countries little scope for project activities to be fully localised and
sustainable.

Sustainability of development activities has always been one of the main topics in
development discourse. There has also been a shift in development approaches and
methods for interacting, learning, and knowing. Chambers’ argument for the need to
empower local people/beneficiaries in various phases of development activities has
been widely accepted in development discourse. Nevertheless, the concept often
concentrates on the “local population” and overlooks the importance of empowering the
“local staff”.

This weakens Chambers’ and others’ argument because, in most cases, development
requires a long-term commitment to the work on the side of facilitators of development,
namely, staff in government and international agencies and NGOs. Giving more
authority over management of their organizations to the local staff would be much more
beneficial, especially in the case of NGOs, because the local staff has firsthand
knowledge of field activities. Local staff should be included in the fund raising and
planning phases of projects as well as administrating and implementing project
activities. Inexperienced local staff should be trained in management skills by foreign
NGOs, which would enable local staff to carry on projects and see them to their
completions even if NGO foreign management leaves.

The paper will examine how sustainable development can be best achieved in
developing countries through localising management and project activities of
international NGOs while it will argue how and why a concept of participation should be
directed to empower the local staff in project planning, management and
implementation. A case study of a localisation process between a Japanese NGO and
its Rwandan local staff is introduced to analyse the effects and challenges faced in the
process.

43
 FOSTERING SOCIAL CAPITAL IN COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS FOR
IMPROVING THEIR EFFECTIVENESS: EVIDENCE FROM WESTERN INDIA

Nihal C. Jain, Deputy Conservator of Forests, India

[email protected]
Kalpana Jain, B.N. Girls College, Udaipur, India

Collective regulation of resource use and development is the basic aim of the
community-based organizations (CBOs) being promoted for joint management of forest
resources in India. The effective functioning of CBOs depends on social structure of the
community; specially the social and economic homogeneity of users, the existence of
social networks, associations, and trust between households. This is referred to as
social capital (Kahkonen 1999) which is primarily regarded as a set of “horizontal
associations” between people (Putnam 1993; Putnam and Others 1993). Although
based on Coleman (1988), hierarchical associations and drawing on North (1990) and
Olson (1982), other factors of social and political environment have also been
considered as components of social capital, but for the purpose of this paper, primarily
the “horizontal associations” are being considered.

This study pertains to evaluating the effect of the efforts made for fostering greater
social capital in village level community institutions responsible for joint management of
forest resources in South Rajasthan. The forest resources in this region have been
facing severe degradation over last few decades owing to unregulated over-exploitation
or what can be termed as ‘tragedy of commons’. Because of enabling policy changes,
the programme of forming village forest protection and management committees
(VFPMCs) was started in 1991 and these village committees were given the
responsibility of collectively protecting and regulating the use of resources.

The efforts for fostering social capital included sensitising villagers about the need and
rational of collective action, about the value and relevance of ensuring participation of
all the members, about the technical activities necessary for improving the forest
productivity and about the role of voluntary efforts for supporting regeneration process.
Various participatory tools and visualisation techniques were used for this purpose.
This evaluation study was carried out in eight VFPMCs, selected purposively out of
more than hundred VFPMCs, promoted by the Udaipur (Central) division. An evaluation
scale developed by Jain and Jain (1997) was used for this purpose. This scale
considers various community actions and processes that provide an early indication of
the level of community involvement in sustainable forest management.

The evaluation in this study indicated that the fostering efforts, in overall, had
favourable influence on improving the effectiveness of community institutions. This
effect was more pronounced in villages where development investment had continued
in recent years. The declining strength of collective management of resources in
villages where the investment had discontinued was indicative of developing
investment dependence among such villages. This implies that the development
practices and policies need to be so oriented that development does not adversely
affect the social capital. The fostering efforts had more pronounced impact on factors
such as participation of members, especially women, and on protection responsibilities.

44
Similarly, the experience of conflict resolution appeared to enhance the future capability
for resolving conflicts. Based on this evaluation, the action areas for fostering social
capital and sensitising local communities were identified and future strategies were
developed for promoting effectiveness of community institutions.

References

Coleman, J. 1988. Social Capital in Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology
94 (Supplement): S95-S120.

Jain, N.C. and Jain, Kalpana 1997. Evaluating Community Involvement in Forest Protection and
Management. (Unpublished draft: November, 1997). See also Jain, N. C. (as Principal Author)
(1998) Community-managed programs in forestry: A synthesis of good practices. Environment
Sector Management Unit, East Asia Region, The World Bank, Washington, DC 20433 USA.

Jain, N.C. and Jain, Kalpana 2001 Early Indicators of Successful Community Forest
Management: Evidence from Five Indian Rural Communities. Paper communicated to
International Symposium, Rural Community Interaction and Workshop to be held from 8-20 April
2002, Cape Town, South Africa.

Kahkonen, S. 1999 Does Social Capital Matter in Water and Sanitation Delivery?: A Review of
Literature. Social Capital Initiative - Working Paper No. 9. The World Bank, Washington, DC
20433, USA.

North, D. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York:
Cambridge University Press.

Olson, M. 1982. The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social
Rigidities. New Haven: Yale university Press.

Putnam, R. 1993 The Prosperous Community - Social Capital and Public Life. American
Prospect 13 (1): 65-78.

Putnam, R., with R. Leonardi, and R. Nanetti 1993 Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in
Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

45
 WHO INITIATES?: THE GROWTH OF NGO AND ITS HUMAN RESOURCES IN
KOREA

Sangwook Kang
Seoul National University
[email protected]

With the abrupt end of the authoritative regime in 1987 and developments in political
democratization, people's movements began to play an important role in Korean society
and many civic groups emerged. What accounts for a rapid growth of NGO in Korea?
Differently from the voluntary sector in western society with a tradition of fullfledged civil
society, Korean NGOs have been mostly established and fueled by some elite groups
such as social movement activists, intelligent groups. We could call the Korean case
'the Top down Model' contrasting the Western case of 'the Bottom up Model' The
purpose of this study is to analyze the leading human resources and their role in the
growth of NGO and to present further implications in future of Korean NGOs.

Many different theoretical perspectives exist about 'why the NGO?' Supply side theory
of Estell James(1987) shows the role of religion in social service organizations and the
entrepreneurship of individuals and foundations in medical or educational organization.
Resource mobilization theory and Social origin approach of Salamon(1987, 1994,
1995, 1997) indicate various individual and groups such as the wealthy group,
traditional social elite group, the new intelligent group etc. while Social movement
theory exaggerates the role of activists. From those theoretical point of views, we can
clarify the various human resources and polarize them by two types of model - 'Active
civil society' or 'Bottom-up model' and 'Elitist civil society’ or 'Top-down model'. Bottom-
up model is the case fueled by active civil participation, while Top-down model is the
case fueled by some elite groups. The Korean NGOs at their inception during the
1990s showed the typical Top-down model pulled by the activists and some intelligent
groups.

We shall review various theoretical views, the growth of NGO during the 1990s, the
level of civil participation on NGO, leading human resources, and their social
backgrounds. Considering the purpose of this study, the complementary use of
quantitative and qualitative research methods is desirable. However we find difficulty in
obtaining available and reliable quantitative data related to NGOs. Therefore, with this
limitation in mind, we relied on two alternative methodologies, that is interviews and
questionnaire survey. Interviews were carried out with 61 Simin-danche’s, and
questionnaire survey were carried out on 817 samples in Seoul during August in 2000
and analyzed by statistic program.

We could reach two conclusions from the study. Firstly, the main feature of Korean
NGOs’ development is that activists in social movement and elite groups of experts are
the important human resource although the level of civil participation on NGOs is very
low compared with western countries. It is related to the development of advocacy
oriented NGOs rather than the service oriented organization in Western countries.
Secondly, the Top-down model of Korean NGOs, which is contrasting Western case of
Bottom-up model, contributed to the establishment and wide spread of many civic

46
groups at their inception but it resulted in a problem of 'civil movement without civil
participation' at the same time.

47
 SOCIAL CAPITAL AND POVERTY ERADICATION IN MALAYSIA

Mohd Yusof Kasim and Madeline Berma

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
[email protected]

In Malaysia, eradicating poverty and restructuring of society are two fundamental

development challenges. In 1999, about 409,300 (8.1 percent) of total Malaysia’s
population were poor. In fact 71,100 (1.4 percent) people still exist in conditions of
abject poverty. They are classified as the hardcore poor. Most of the poor are
Bumiputera (indigenous community) and live in rural areas. Thus eradicating poverty
(particularly hard-core), narrowing rural-urban socio-economic gap, and increasing the
socio-economic status of the rural communities are some of the key goals of Malaysia’s
development efforts. Rural communities have abundant land and water (physical
capital) and strong social ties (social capital) but they often lack education and skills
(human capital) and organisations to mobilise their natural resources into economic
resources. Also, the poor usually do not have access to institutional sources of
finance. While the literature on poverty has amply demonstrated the importance of
government policies and market forces on poverty alleviation, it has done little to
demonstrate the importance of social capital (trust, social relations, networks) which
allow participation and collective action in meeting poverty alleviation objective in
Malaysia.

This paper attempts to fill this gap and shed some light on the role of social capital in
alleviating poverty in Malaysia.

One of the major poverty alleviation programmes in Malaysia is Amanah Ikhtiar

Malaysia (AIM). It is a group-based micro-finance programme. This paper uses AIM
programme as a case study because its arrangements build on the strength of personal
relationships, trust, group participation and joint liability. AIM provides a fertile ground
for the analysis of the role of social capital in enhancing capacity building for the poor in
Malaysia. This paper also reviews the relationship between social capital and the
performance of AIM as a credit delivery program. It examines the factors that explain
the high repayment rates of AIM programme. The objective is to identify whether the
high repayment rates feature social-capital type characteristics.

48
ACCOUNTABILITY ISSUES ON KOREAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
FOCUSING ON THEIR OPENNESS TO ATTENTIVE CITIZENS
Kim Jungbu,
Seoul National University, Korea
[email protected]

This study focuses on the accountability issues of 10 major Korean non-governmental

organizations(K-NGOs), which have secured their status as indispensable policy
participants. Along with their active role in policy process, K-NGOs are also confronted
by a variety of severe criticisms regarding lack of legitimacy, ethic standards and their
professionalism distant from citizens. Through analyses on their web sites, conventions
and minutes, this paper identifies the source of those criticisms as their low level of
transparency. We find that the information on each of the 10 K-NGOs available on their
web sites is generally not in-depth, and the off-line access to such information is
substantially limited. Especially, the superficial openness to the attentive citizens results
in staff members’ moral hazard and overly autonomous behavior, undermining citizens'
trust in the organizations. Therefore it is suggested that K-NGOs, to address present
criticisms, promote democratization of their decision-making process and thus enhance
responsiveness to citizens.

49
 THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS IN KOREA: SOME EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE

Junki Kim
Seoul National University
[email protected]

New technology is revolutionizing the practice of nonprofit and nongovernmental

activities in Korea, giving rise to new terms such as electronic advocacy, e-
volunteerism, on-line nonprofit activities and so on. Web-based and e-mail based
technology is not only changing the way nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
conduct businesses but also influence the governance structure and accountability of
these organizations to their constituencies. The issue we seek to address in this paper
is how the new information technology is impacting upon the work of nonprofit and
nongovernmental activities in Korea. We examine this in two broad areas: (1) the
influence of new information technology on the way advocacy and service activities
pursued by civil society organizations and other NPOs, (2) the influence on
accountability and transparency of NGO governance. The study is based on a survey
of 1,000 NGOs in Korea, ranging from CSOs to social welfare agencies.

In terms of the first issue, this paper seeks to address how the advocacy activities of
Korean NGOs have altered from the traditional 'off-line' methods which is mostly based
on street activities(off-line) to 'online' advocacy activities. This involves examining what
types of online advocacy techniques are currently pursued by civic groups in Korea in
their pursuance of social and economic justice. In addition, we examine if there are any
particular types of activities/issues that attracted this 'online advocacy' techniques. It is
likely that issues originating from the cyberspace such as 'internet classification' or
'government control of cyberspace' tend to attract more interest among cyberspace
users than more traditional 'off-line' issues. We attempt to find general characteristics
associated with issues that are likely to succeed in online advocacy.

Next issue deals with how the spread of new information technology is impacting the
relationship among NGO leaders, members, expert groups and other constituents.
Although there is a growing concern over the 'digital divide' which is defined as growing
disparities in terms of opportunities for information haves and have-nots, new
technology has nevertheless increased ways in which ordinary citizens can participate
in the activities of NGOs and even governmental decision making process. We seek to
discuss such important issues. Lastly, by analyzing several major NGOs in Korea we
seek to explain variations in the use of online advocacy and service techniques among
them. There may be personnel or funding disparities which led to the adoption of
particular techniques among different organizations and we seek to find them.

50
 THE 921 EARTHQUAKE AND THE PROSPECTS FOR INTEGRATION OF
NONPROFIT SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS TO NATURAL DISASTER
MANAGEMENT IN TAIWAN

Kuan, Yu-Yuan
National Chung-Cheng University
[email protected]

Nonprofit social welfare agencies can play an important role in a natural disaster,
particularly in the initial hours and days. Also, they are prominent in activities of mutual
support and caring for victims in the aftermath of a disaster. Social services in a natural
disaster include emergency assistance to the children, the elderly, women, and the
disabled. In addition, social services also cover emergency counseling, provide the
related information about other relief services in the community. Most importantly, it is
an urgent need to establish the management of overall emergency services, and the
disaster relief voluntary agencies have to be included to the relief networks.

The purpose of this paper is to explore what roles were played by nonprofit social
welfare organizations in the 921 earthquake, and to recommend the ways of integrating
those disaster relief voluntary agencies (DRVAs) to the whole management system
regarding natural disaster (especially earthquake) in Taiwan. The significant
dimensions planned to be observed are as the follows: (1) linkages among DRVAs, an
issue critical to the coordination and effectiveness of the disaster relief system; (2) the
level of volunteerism in DRVAs; (3) DRVAs’ rootedness in the local communities of
Nantou and Taichung Counties, and their different strategies for resource distribution
during the earthquake disaster; and (4) the establishment of the inter-organizational
relief networks between DRVAs and public-sector agencies.

The materials and data used in this paper are from my research project “The Roles and
Functions of Nonprofit Social Service Organizations in Natural Disaster: the Case Study
of the 921 Earthquake” which is supported financially by National Science Council of
the ROC. This research task will be completed in July 2001.

51
 DIASPORA PHILANTHROPY AND GIVING PATTERN OF
INDIAN AMERICANS IN USA

R. Gopa Kumar
Charities Aid Foundation India
[email protected]

In this study an attempt is made to analyse the giving pattern of Indians in USA for the
development activities. A recent study by the author on the International aid to NGOs
by International NGOs shows a declining trend and many international NGOs are
considering India as low priority area. In this background it is realised that there are
several rich Indians in USA and this resource should be tapped for the developmental
purpose for India. This study was conducted during the four months stay of the author
in USA as an International Philanthropy fellow with Johns Hopkins University from
August to December. A primary survey was conducted in USA using questionnaire
method, focus group meeting, and also through emails. Stratified random sampling
technique was used to include various religious groups, different types of professionals,
and also individuals based on their duration of stay. The study compared the giving of
Indians with giving pattern of Jews.

The study highlights that; Christians, give more frequently and higher amount than
Hindus, there is an inverse relationship between duration of stay and giving pattern,
and IT professionals with new found wealth give more compared to other professionals.
On an average most of the respondents gave 3-4 times during a year and the amount
varies from 1000-2000 US$. The study highlighted that if there is a credible
organisation (Preferably 501 c(3)) with online giving facility most of the respondents
are willing to give 3000 - 5000 US$ per year. The study helped to generate a database
of 800 Indian Association in USA and database of prominent Indian American in USA
for future fundraising and cutting edge investment in social sector. The study also
compared the quality of life of Indians in USA using the latest US Census data .

52
 CO-OPERATION IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE:
ITS ROLE IN BUILDING COMMUNITIES

Akira Kurimoto
Consumer Coop Institute of Japan
[email protected]

This paper addresses the health care problems from the user’s viewpoints and
discusses the effectiveness of the co-operative solution by empowering users and
involving communities. It uses the international comparison, statistics and opinion poll.

The Japanese health care system is characterized by the compulsory medical

insurance system, the consumer’s free access and the restricted competition in supply
sides. The universal coverage under the public medical insurance system was
accomplished in 1961. All the nation should be covered by one of 8 public medical care
insurance schemes for workers, farmers, government officers, teachers, etc. The
private medical insurance policies are taking off to supplement the public insurance.
The consumers have free access to health institutions, resulting in the congestion in
some large hospitals. The supply side of medical services ranges from medical
corporations and public institutions, from large hospitals to GPs. They are restricted to
advertise and have weak liaison each other, which sometimes cause the failure in
accepting the emergency patients. The Japanese system is in crisis with rising medical
costs and mismanagement, ignoring user rights to choose and be informed.

Why health co-ops exist against such a background? There are several reasons to
form health co-ops: to fill the gap in the remote area, to secure medical service for
some social strata or to run the medical insurance scheme at the affordable cost.
Neither of these applies to the health co-op in urban areas where the oversupply of
services is generating problems. The motive to organize health co-ops is to create the
co-operative health care to facilitate the users to participate in health
promotion/prevention with assistance by professionals including doctors, nurses and so
on. They also seek to promote the informed consent and bring about the democracy in
medical industry through implementing a charter of patient’s rights.

The health co-ops have grown triple in membership and double in the business in 90s.
They have the dynamics as multi-stakeholder co-ops, involving users and
professionals, healthy people and patients, paid workers and volunteers. Such
composition raises some problems in governing co-ops in both democratic and
effective way. They promoted member participation through undertaking tasks for
member recruitment, share investment, promotion of Han groups and education for
activists. They have carried out massive campaigns for learning and self-check for
health maintenance while strengthening the management for financial health.

They have been pressing governments to improve the social security policy while
seeking partnership with public sector by participating to the comprehensive health plan
in the communities. Although they are making various innovations in promoting public
health, their social roles are yet to be widely recognized by the state.

53
The long-term care insurance system was started in April 2000 to provide social
support for the elderly so that they could maintain their human dignity by choosing care
services that they require. It opened the competition among care service providers
including private and non-profit operators. Many hospitals are rushing to provide the
long-term care services, thus strengthening so-called medico-social care complex. It’s
quite natural for health co-ops to provide long-term care as extension of medical care,
but they seek to create health-medical-welfare networks based on communities where
members live, thus upgrading the overall well-being of communities.

54
 EXPERIENCES OF VOLUNTEERS IN HUMAN SERVICES

Rosemary Leonard
University of Western Sydney
[email protected]

This paper reports the theoretical framework, method and preliminary findings of a
study of women volunteers in human services in Australia. The theoretical framework
integrates four main perspectives on formal volunteering into a two-dimensional model.
The four perspectives are:

1. Research in formal volunteering. This research, which has been developed mainly
in the US, focuses on the free choice nature of voluntary work. No distinction is
made between volunteering in human services versus other areas. Voluntary work
is viewed positively with a range of advantages accruing to the people involved.
2. Social capital. Social capital is a public good. Social capital is the invisible
resource that is created whenever people cooperate (Coleman, 1990, 1988).
Putnam (1993) defines it as “those features of social organisation such as trust,
norms, and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating
coordinated action.” Volunteering in community organisations whether for human
services or for other activities is usually mentioned as a major factor in the accrual
of social capital (Putnam, 1995, 2000) and indeed such participation has been
used as a proxy measure for social capital.
3. Feminist research in voluntary work. Feminists have seen voluntary work as an
extension of women’s relegation to the private sphere and devalued status in
society. However as Baldock (1998) argues their view of voluntary work as part of
the private sphere has been based on their focus on informal volunteering and lack
of recognition of the public nature formal volunteering. Regardless of whether
public or private, volunteer work in human services is clearly gendered and feminist
critiques of the devaluation of women’s work are highly relevant.
4. Labour market research. From this perspective, the focus is on the status of human
service industry. The industry as a whole has a low status with workers receiving
low rates of pay, little job security and few perquisites. In addition, they are often
expected to donate many unpaid hours. Volunteers are then the tail end of a
poorly valued industry.

However, these categories should not be seen as intrinsically incompatible. Just as

Baldock (1998) argues that formal volunteering in human services is on the cusp of the
public/ private divide so it may also be simultaneously positive and negative providing
both opportunities for personal development and exploitation (Baldock and Ungerson,
1991).
Table 1. Conceptualisation of Volunteering in Human Services.

Public Private
Positive Social Capital theory Formal volunteer research
Negative Labour market research Feminist theory

55
The study will conduct focus groups (Stage 1) and individual interviews (Stage 2) with
volunteers, clients and managers of volunteers. It aims to identify the conditions
leading to positive or negative experiences of volunteering and the volunteers
perceptions of recent changes such as the move to greater regulation of volunteers.
The study will still be in progress at the time of the conference but preliminary findings
from Stage 1 will be discussed.

In the context of an Asia Pacific conference the paper also raises questions about the
applicability of the theoretical model to non-western countries. For example, does the
focus on formal volunteering make it less relevant in countries in which most human
service provision is informal? Is the division between public and private a useful one?
It could be argued that, in societies in which human services are provided through the
large, extended family, the family is both public and private. In particular the category
relating to formal volunteering for individual personal fulfilment may not be seen as
relevant.

56
 THIRD SECTOR AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
IN TAIWAN

Kun-Jung Liao
Chung Cheng University
[email protected]

Third sector has been playing an increasingly important role in improving government's
capability in public services. This paper will examine the pattern of collaboration
between third sector and local government engaged in disaster relief and
reconstruction projects following the earthquake of September 21, 1999 in Taiwan
(hereafter 921 Earthquake). The 921 Earthquake killed 2,348 people and injured
1,896, and destroyed 5,789 house and buildings. Government and people in Taiwan
all incurred a great deal of loss and destruction amounting to $1,100 millions. So many
volunteering organizations participated in disaster relief and reconstructing projects

Since the 1990s the role and status of local governments have increased in response
to the decentralization of authority and newly emerging issues of local democracy. As
a result, studies of local authorities and institutions become important.

So much literature discuss the third sector and social services. Few study explores the
role and function of third sector in enhancing capability and efficiency of emergency
management of local government. This paper tries to examine uniqueness,
performance, and interactive problems between volunteering groups and local
government in Taiwan in engaging in emergency management. Particularly, the paper
focuses on investigating how voluntary groups upgrade emergency managerial
capability in this earthquake disaster relief programs.

The structure of paper includes six parts. First, the paper, based on governance theory
enhancing the role and function of third sector and local government, discusses how
local government in Taiwan integrates volunteering groups to reconstruct earthquake-
damaged areas after the 921 Earthquake. The second part will examine the resource
mobilization patterns, organization, structure, and management which nonprofit
organizations (NPOs) demonstrate as they involved in 921 Earthquake in Taiwan.
Thirdly, this paper will evaluate disaster relief performance completed by various NPOs,
and examine fundamental barriers to NGOs' involvement in local public services in
Taiwan. Fourth, the paper will discuss interactive and collaborative patterns between
NGOs and local government in Taiwan in terms of governance theory. Fifth, the paper
will propose effective reform on how to enhance role and function of NPOs in improving
public service delivery capability of local government, particularly, to improve
emergency managerial capability of local government through institution building.
Finally, the paper will demonstrate Taiwan's unique experiences volunteering groups
rendered in 921Earthquake and hopefully can be shared with all volunteering
organizations in the third sector of the Asia Pacific region.

57
 BUILDING EFFECTIVE VOLUNTEER SERVICES IN A NATURE DISASTER: THE
ROLE OF NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS IN COORDINATING RESOURCES

Li-Wen Liu
Tunghai University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
[email protected]

A disaster is often a sudden and dramatic emergency. When it strikes, an affected

community must respond immediately. Although the role of local government in taking
action is important, emergency response also requires the involvement of broad
organizations (Dynes, 1978; Gillespie, 1991; Drabet, 1991). One way to effectively
respond to disasters is that organizations work together to form an emergency service
system (Gillespie, 1991; Lindell et. al., 1996).

Using qualitative methods, this paper describes the outcomes of a pilot study focusing
on nonprofit organizations’ experiences in developing a resource coordination
committee in which schools, public agencies, and nonprofit agencies work
collaboratively toward a shared goal of disaster relief in 9-21 Earthquake of Taiwan. In
terms of data collection, the authors conducted in-depth interviews with those who have
broad knowledge of this committee and its activities, including leaders, social workers,
and volunteers in participating organizations. On-side observations and archival
documents contribute as other data sources.

Findings from this study demonstrated that nonprofit organizations could play important
roles in building effective volunteer services and enhancing the recovery of
communities after the disaster struck. Specifically, social work professionals with
training in interpersonal skills, group work, and interdisciplinary team skills played a vital
role in the development and operation of working teams to disaster relief. Furthermore,
The social work profession’s emphasis on advocacy, and its knowledge about service
delivery systems in both public and private sectors, enables social workers to take a
leading role in facilitating the coordination of services and potentially providing
preventive approaches.

A model is discussed to illustrate the process of collaboration practiced in the

committee by schools, public agencies, nonprofit agencies, and businesses working
together toward disaster relief. The discussion demonstrated the importance of
developing a resource coordination committee for carrying out disaster relief effectively.
It also emphasized the role of nonprofit organizations as leading agency for emergency
services. In addition, it illustrated the importance of communication and coordination
between service providers to ensure the development of comprehensive service plans
that feature joint actions and avoid fragmentation and duplication.

REFERENCE

Drabet, T., & Hoetmer, G. (Eds,). (1991). Emergency management: Principles and
practices for local government. Washington, DC: International Cite Management
Association.

58
Dynes, R. R. (1978). Interorganizational relations in communities. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage publications, Inc.

Gillespie, D. (1991). Coordinating community resources. In T. E. Drabet & G. J.

Hoetmer (Eds.), Emergency management (pp.55-78). Washington, DC: International
City Management Association, Municipal Management Series.

Lindell, M. K., Whitney, D. J., Futch, C. J., & Clause, C. S. (1996). Multi-method
assessment of organizational effectiveness in a local emergency planning committee.
International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(2), 195-220.

59
 ASIAN PHILANTHROPY - A FOUR COUNTRY STUDY

Mark Lyons
University of Technology, Sydney
[email protected]

Asia is the world’s most populous and culturally diverse region. Little is known of
philanthropic practices in Asian countries. While the different world religions that can
be found in Asia all give strong encouragement to philanthropy, the extent to which
philanthropy is practiced has not been systematically studied. This paper reports the
results of surveys of randomly selected middle and upper class urban dwellers (SES
classes A, B and C) in four Asian countries, each with a different dominant religious
culture: India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. As part of a larger study of
household giving organised by the Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium, surveys were
conducted between late 2000 and early 2001 by market research firms (India and the
Philippines) or experienced, university based survey teams (Indonesia and Thailand).
In all cases, a core set of questions was used with each country adding additional
questions to suit local conditions. Data will be reported on the giving rate, average
amounts given by givers and per capita of the sample with the last two presented in
PPP (purchasing power parity). A generosity ratio and an impact ratio have been
developed to aid comparison. The dominant motives for giving and the methods used
to raise funds for nonreligious nonprofit organisations will also be reported. The focus
of the presentation will be on giving to organisations, but data on giving to individuals
will also be reported. The data show remarkably high giving rates (over 90 per cent in
each country). They show that while SES does not affect the giving rate, not
surprisingly, it does impact on the size of giving. The data also show that Thailand has
the most diverse and generous philanthropic culture, followed by the Philippines and
Indonesia with India some way behind, although within these broad generalisations
there are several interesting differences. A brief comparison of these results with data
from two other Asian countries (Korea and Pakistan) and several Northern countries will
also be made. As befits exploratory research of this kind, the paper will be descriptive,
though several tentative generalisations about the determinants of giving will be
proposed.

60
 GOVERNANCE OF CHINESE NGOS: PATTERNS AND PRACTICE

Qiusha Ma
Case Western Reserve University, U.S.A.
[email protected]

One of the most significant consequences of the reforms in China since the 1980s has
been the gradual power shift from the state to society. Realizing its limited capacity for carrying
out all necessary tasks in the economy and providing all necessary social services, the state has
been pushing a “small government, big society” reform strategy for the last two decades. The
rapid increase in the numbers and influence of nongovernmental and nonprofit organizations
(NGOs) is the most convincing evidence of this power shift. In the previous studies of Chinese
NGOs, including my own researches, most attention has been given to official regulations of the
NGOs, the NGOs’ relationship with the state, and NGOs’ autonomous status, which focusing on
the debates that whether the majority of Chinese organizations should be considered as NGOs.
These debates often are inconclusive, since we still know very little about these organizations.

Recognizing this situation, this proposed study will adopt a new approach. Instead of looking at
the relationship of state-NGOs through the government’s regulation or the NGOs’ financial
relations with the government, this paper will focus on the inner structure and governance of
NGOs from the NGOs’ perspective. It will look closely into the NGOs’ managerial structure,
decision-making process, and the leadership selection/ election procedure. I believe that these
factors are the key for us to explain the real nature of Chinese NGOs and why and how they are
different from official organizations. The main argument of the paper is that the Chinese NGOs
enjoy great deal of autonomy in their organizational governance, even though the official
regulatory system indicates otherwise. The NGOs’ relations with the state often serve as
indispensable means of their sustenance.

This paper will try to answer the following questions:

1. What are the most important factors in Chinese NGOs’ self-governance: managerial
structures, resources of funding, decision-making process, and election or selection of
organization leaders?
2. Are there currently different types of structures and managerial patterns of NGOs in China?
If there are different patterns existing, how do they affect those organizations’
accountability, effectiveness and sustainability?
3. How do the political, economic, social and cultural factors impact different types of NGOs in
their management and function?
4. Comparing the governmental organizations, semi-governmental NGOs, and independent
NGOs, what are the most important differences and similarities in their governance? What
are the significances of these differences in NGOs performance and in determining their
autonomous status?

This paper is based on my intensive field works in some important cities in China since 1996,
including Beijing, Shanghai, Wenzhou, Xian, and Dalian. During those trips I have spent over 8
months and interviewed about hundred important Chinese officials in national bureau in charging
of NGO matter, leading NGO activists, and scholars of modern Chinese history and politics. I
have also done an extensive study of English and Chinese documents and literature on current
Chinese nongovernmental sector and on the history of Chinese civil society since the late Qing
Dynasty (the late 19th century).

ENGAGEMENTS IN GOVERNANCE: CIVIL SOCIETY IN THE PHILIPPINES

61
 Francisco Magno
De La Salle University
[email protected]

This paper reports on the findings from a country study that examined the possibilities
and perils arising from third sector or civil society partnerships with government in policy
making, social goods provision, and program implementation. The key question in this
research is to find out how specific engagements of civil society organizations with
public institutions promote accountability, participation, and effectiveness in
governance. This problem could be located within the literature on state-civil society
synergy exemplified in the writings of Peter Evans, John Harriss, Hazel Johnson and
Gordon Wilson, and Mark Robinson and Gordon White.

The case research methodology is used in this paper. Case studies here refer to
particular episodes in which civil society associations encounter and interact with
government institutions and agents. Both national-level and local-level cases were
selected in the research. The cases dealt with civil society engagement in governance
processes surrounding such issues as political decentralization, socialized housing,
poverty reduction, indigenous people’s rights, coastal resource management, clean air
policy making, micro-credit schemes, and local peace zones.

In analyzing the cases, I looked into whether the various encounters produced better
cohesion within and among civil society organizations. I inquired into whether the third
sector acquired new skills, confidence, and organizational capacity through these
engagements. I also assessed whether such encounters broke down the barriers and
created trust between civil society and government. With greater participation of civil
society in government, it is interesting to ask whether this necessarily leads to better
government performance.

This paper aims to show the connections between civil society-government

partnerships and good governance as well as identify the conditions that make these
possible. In this regard, I looked into how such variable as character of civil society
organizations, type of political regime, balance of forces within state and society that
support or oppose reforms, changes in political economy and culture, and the existence
or absence of an enabling policy environment affect the outcomes from civil society-
government encounters.

62
 RURAL VS URBAN VOLUNTEERING: LITERACY PROGRAMS IN INDIA

Subhash Misra
UNICEF, India
[email protected]

The Government of India launched the National Literacy Mission Authority in 1989 in
order to increase the rate of literacy. Since there are over 300 million illiterate persons
in the country, the resources required for imparting literacy to them is immense.
Keeping this in view, the program had to be organised in an efficient way to optimise
resources. The mainstay of the program, therefore, was based on volunteers who
would lend their services free of cost. Through the program, Total Literacy Campaigns
(TLCs) were organized to make every district fully literate in a specified time. Each
volunteer is to teach 10 learners, and there are an estimated 100,000 volunteers.

There are many successes of the program and more than 60 districts have been
declared fully literate. However, these successes have been in rural areas. There has
been no success in urban areas in the over 10 years of the program. To begin with, this
paper will describe the features of the successes of the program in rural districts. It will
examine how the volunteers were organized and managed to make a difference to the
literacy scenario in rural areas. Subsequently, the paper will go on to analyze the
reasons why the program has not been able to eradicate illiteracy from urban areas and
the reasons thereof. It will attempt to find answers in the context of both volunteers and
urban communities: Why volunteerism has not succeeded in the urban context when it
has in the villages of India.

The paper will present a case study of Literacy Campaigns in Delhi. While doing so it
would trace the process of volunteering in education programs. Why volunteers
participate in the program and why do they withdraw before the achievement of
program goals. Alternatively, why their efforts are not sustained in urban areas. The
paper will also present the relationship between volunteers and voluntary organizations
and that of voluntary organizations with the government. In addition, the paper will also
present the participation of some literacy volunteers in other programs. Lastly, it will
attempt to offer an overview of partnerships that can be nurtured through a government
program and how social entrepreneurship works, highlighting how non-profit
volunteering may transform into for-profit volunteering. It is increasingly difficult to get
volunteers who would take up pro bono work in the cities. The situation is more true in
a city like Delhi that has grown by population migrating in search of work.

The methodology for the study is based on empirical research including participant
observation and case study method (the author has been involved with these programs
for over eight years) besides secondary research.

63
 JAPANESE ATTITUDES TO CHARITABLE DONATION
- THE FINANCING OF A BUDDHIST LEPROSARIUM IN THE EARLY 1900S

Trevor William Murphy

Yamanashi Medical University, Japan
[email protected]

BACKGROUND:
There were an estimated 30,000 leprosy sufferers in Japan around 1900, possibly
many more. Japanese government policy to deal with leprosy commenced in 1907;
however, religious-inspired non-governmental (NGO) activity began as early as
1889. There were six private (non-government and non-profit) leprosaria in Japan; five
were established by Christian missionaries and one by a Japanese Buddhist priest.
The lack of Buddhist NGO leprosy relief work may have been due to difficulties with
financing (fund-raising). In contrast, the Christian-run hospitals were able to receive
considerable financial support from outside Japan, from organizations like the British-
based “The Mission to Lepers”.

OBJECTIVES:
In this presentation, I examine the workings and results achieved by “Ju-man-ichi-rin-
ko” (a fund-raising scheme adopted at the Buddhist leprosarium) during the period
1906-1912, and attempt to clarify some Japanese attitudes to charitable giving at the
time.
I go on to look briefly at levels of charitable donation in contemporary Japan (1994)
to assess if there has been any shift in attitude among the Japanese towards the
support of non-governmental activity.

METHOD:
Financing of the Buddhist leprosarium in the early years is not well documented; I make
use of many primary sources (account books, pamphlets that remain at the leprosarium
site) as well as secondary sources (a set of essays, speeches and letters left by the
founder, Tsunawaki Ryumyo, and a brief history of the leprosarium compiled in 1992 by
the founder’s daughter, Tsunawaki Michi).
To clarify current levels of charitable donation in Japan, I draw on established literature,
including the work of Yamauchi Naoto (“The Nonprofit Economy”, Nihon-hyoron-sya,
1997).

RESULTS / DISCUSSION:
The single Buddhist-inspired non-government leprosarium in Japan, Minobu “Jinkyo”
Hospital, was founded on 12 October 1906 by Tsunawaki Ryumyo (1876-1970), a
Japanese priest of the Nichiren sect. He devised a unique method of fund-raising
called “Ju-man-ichi-rin-ko” (elegantly expressed in five Chinese characters). One “rin”
(ichi-rin) was a unit of currency equal to one thousandth of a yen and around 1906
would have represented the price of a cup of Japanese sake (rice wine). The donator
would agree to contribute one “rin” per day for a three year period. The overall aim was
to achieve an organization (ko) comprising one hundred thousand (ju-man) such
donators, although in practice one wealthy subscriber might shoulder the burden of
several persons. “Ju-man-ichi-rin-ko”, reliant on individual private donation, was in fact

64
difficult to sustain, provided only about 10% of hospital income in 1911, and had
become obsolete by the 1920’s. Japanese people at this time were perhaps unfamiliar
with the concept of charitable giving to NGOs and the style of fund-raising to be found
in “Ju-man-ichi-rin-ko” .
The total of “Charitable giving to NGOs” for Japan in 1994 was $6.3 billion (0.1% of
GNP). Of this amount, $1.7 billion (27.4%) was donated by individuals.
For comparison, the total of “Charitable giving to NGOs” for the U.S. in 1994 was
$129.9 billion (1.9% of GDP), with $104.5 billion (80.5%) donated by individuals.
These figures suggest that a custom of charitable giving is not deep-rooted among the
Japanese; this is likely to hinder the development of a truly non-governmental Third
Sector in Japan.

65
Thoby Mutis

66
 NGO AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH MICRO-CREDIT IN
BANGLADESH

Ware Newaz
University of Tampere, Finland
[email protected], [email protected]

During the 1990s, micro-credit program emerged as a mainstream development

intervention for addressing poverty alleviation and women’s empowerment (Dichter,
1999; Wright, 1999; Rahman, 1999; Mayoux, 1998b; Amin et al., 1998; Kabeer, 1998;
Johnson and Roglay, 1997; Hulme and Mosley, 1997; Hashemi et al., 1996). These
programs have become much-favored interventions among international development
agencies, providing a 'new paradigm for thinking about economic and social
development' (Mordouch, 1997 in Rahman, 1999). The emphasis was given in involving
third sector organizations, particularly non-governmental organizations.

Many argue that NGOs have been successful in reaching women, particularly given the
challenging socio-cultural conditions in which the women live. However, in the context
of these interventions being increasingly promoted by international development
agencies, this paper makes an attempt to examine whether NGO's involvement in
micro-credit programs bring about changes in lives of Bangladeshi rural women by
promoting conditions for women to move from positions of marginalization within
gender relations.

Most of the research in micro-credit has so far focused on analyzing the financial
sustainability of programs and the monetary benefits to the borrowers (Furmanand
Paxton, 1999; Wright, 1999; Bennett and Cuevas, 1996), referred to as ‘first-
generation’ issues by Goetz and Sen Gupta (1996). Very few ‘second-generation’
research studies have been carried out to assess the impact of credit on gender
relations at household and community levels (Goetz and Sen Gupta, 1996).

However, a literature review suggests that some studies making positive claims
(Rahman, 1999; Amin et al., 1998; Kabeer, 1998; Osmani, 1998; Schuler et al., 1997;
Hashemi et al., 1996; Pitt and Khandker, 1995) tend to use multi-dimensional indicators
of empowerment, largely derived from the lived experiences of the subjects. This paper
following this trend attempts to provide an insight into how women concerned perceive
and value the change, if any, in their relative position.

The study based on first-hand data gathered during field-work in two remote and
backward districts of Bangladesh where a number of local and national NGOs are
involved with micro-credit programs specially targeting rural women. The most insight in
this study is gained through the eyes of the women borrowers who describe and
explain, based on their perception, the relative changes in their gender relations at
household and community levels. The analysis of the findings relate and analyze their
testimony within a framework involving perceptual, material, relational and cognitive
aspects of lives.

67
 CHARITIES AND JAPANESE COOPERATIVE COMMUITY SYSTEM:
THE PARADOXES OF NEW OPPORTUNITIES

Yoji Nishizutsumi
[email protected]

The Research Problem

This paper argues that the cooperative community system prevalent in Japan, which
has informally met most social needs, has paradoxically prevented a charitable sector
from emerging. This remains the case despite the recent developments in political and
constitutional contexts which have created unmet social needs and provided the sector
with new “opportunities” to grow (C’s, 1998; Dentsu Institute for Human Studies [DIHS],
1996; Imata, K et al, 1998).

Japanese society is sometimes referred to as ‘Japan Inc.’ indicating strong relationship

between government and private sectors in order to attain specific collective goals.
The economic success of Japan is believed to be due to this unique Japanese culture.
However, this very way of life has prevented the development of the charitable sector in
Japan. The Japanese culture has: 1) created self-regulatory problem-solving systems
that eliminated the need for a private charitable organization outside the communities;
2) fostered hierarchical social structures that discourage private charities from
participating in policy-making; and 3) invited heavy government involvement in
charitable operation that discourages charities from having autonomy. In short, there
has been no need for private charities in Japan.

The recent changes in the legal, political and social frameworks, which have overturned
some of the above-mentioned structures, have resulted in a new context and a new
demand for a charitable sector. However, they do not amount to the fundamental
social changes, i.e. unmet social needs ,which paradoxically required a vibrant
charitable sector. Japanese charities face particularly important challenges in recruiting
volunteers and donations from the public at large, and in maintaining a healthy
autonomy. My paper suggests that the current literature on the Japanese charitable
sector that focuses on the political and constitutional aspects of charitable activity in
Japan miss the important socio-cultural perspective which is necessary to understand
the recent changes in Japanese charitable sector and the challenges facing the sector.

Methodology
Literature Review

Bibliography
Barrett, B.F.D. & Therivel, R. (1991) Environmental Policy and Impact Assessment in
Japan. London: Routledge

C’s [Simin katsudo wo sasaeru seido wo tsukuru kai]. (1998). NPO Hojin Handbook
[NPO Corporation Handbook]. Tokyo: C’s

Dentsu Institute for Human Studies [DIHS]. (1996). Minkan hi-eiri soshiki NPO towa
nanika [What is a Nonprofit Organization?]. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun Sha.

68
Hayashi, Y et al (1999). Philanthropy no shiso [Philanthropy]. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai
Hyoron Sha.

Imata, K et al (1998) “Structural Impediments of Japan’s Nonprofit Sector: Overcoming

the Obstacles to Increased Nonprofit Collaboration with Japan” Working Paper.
Oakland; California: Japan-U.S. Community Education and Exchange [JUCEE].

McKean, M. (1981). Environmental protest and citizen politics in Japan. Berkeley:

University of California Press

Nakane, C. (1970). Japanese Society. London: Weidenfield and Nicolson

Tanaka, N. (1998). Volunteer no jidai: NPO ga shakai wo kaeru [Era of Volunteering].

Tokyo: Iwanami Publishing Co.

Upham, F.K. (1987). Law and Social Change in Postwar Japan. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press

69
 STRATEGIES OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY BASED NONPROFIT
ORGANIZATIONS: MULTI-CULTURAL ANALYSIS BETWEEN
JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Arato Okawa
Tama University, Tokyo
[email protected]

Problem
Community based nonprofit organizations have played an important role in building
communities both in Japan and the United States, because they provide services for
citizens that government or business cannot. While the United States has had nonprofit
organizations for over two hundred years, Japan has had the U.S.-model nonprofit
organizations since the "Law to Promote Specified Non-Profit Activities" was enacted in
1998. My question is how community based nonprofit organizations encourage citizen
participation in the two countries that have a different history of nonprofit sector?

Outline
This paper implements cross-cultural analysis based on the two frameworks:
neighborhood characteristics and organization's approaches. There are six types of
Neighborhood: Integral, Parochial, Diffuse, Stepping-stone, Transitory and Anomic
(Warren, Rachelle and Warren, Donald, 1977). I chose “Integral neighborhood” for this
study, which is "a cosmopolitan as well as a local center”. Individuals are in close
contact. They share many concerns. They participate in activities of the larger
community." The Integral Neighborhood is the ideal neighborhood type for citizen
participation as this type's three characteristics are all pluses. There are also three
characteristics of these six types of neighborhood. They are Identity, Interaction and
Linkage. Identity means wholeness incorporating diversity. Interaction means the
degree of People's cohesiveness. Linkage means whether people link with external
neighborhood. I analyzed how organizations strengthen three neighborhood's
characteristics to maximize citizen participation.

In community based nonprofit organizations, there are three approaches: self-help,

technical assistance and conflict (Christenson, James and Robinson, Jerry (Ed.), 1989).
I chose the organizations that adopt self-help approach, based on the premise that
people can, will, and should collaborate to solve community problems. While technical
assistance approach causes communities' dependence on municipal and national
government agencies and discourages broad citizen participation, self-help approach
causes communities' independence of them and encourages broad citizen
participation. While conflict approach requires citizen participation, it emphasizes not
community's sustainability and collaboration with other groups but community's
dramatic change and confrontation between opposing sides.

A case study approach will be utilized. This paper will analyze the two nonprofit
organizations: one in Japan and one in the United States. The Japan's organization will
be a Kobe based organization called Community Support Center Kobe (CS Kobe) and
the United States organization will be a Cleveland, Ohio based organization called
Tremont West Development Corporation (TWDC). CS Kobe is an intermediary,

70
incubator of small grassroots organization. TWDC is a grassroots community
development corporation, which focuses on community organizing, housing and
economic development. I chose two organizations, because after Kobe, Great Hanshin
Earthquake in 1995, and Cleveland, inner-city decay since 1970's, have experienced
community catastrophes, especially economically, both of them have tried to build
stronger communities.

I found that CS Kobe is working together with groups not only within a community but
also outside it in the same ways to promote citizen participation as TWDC does. There
are three reasons for it. First, CS Kobe has learned how to encourage citizen
participation in "Japan-UK Exchange Program on Community Care with Citizens
Participation" from 1997 to 2000. Second, CS Kobe span out from a social service
agency as TWDC did. CS Kobe has been able to utilize the experiences of the parent
organization. Third, many Kobe citizens regarded voluntary organizations as much
more favorably after the devastating earthquake in 1995 prompted million volunteers
into
Kobe to help displaced and injured victims instead of municipal government and
businesses.

References
Christenson, James and Robinson, Jerry (Ed.). (1989). Community development in
perspective. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. Warren, Rachelle and Warren,
Donald (1977). The neighborhood organizer's handbook. Notre Dame, IN, University of
Notre Dame Press.

71
 SOCIAL CAPITAL IN SUSTAINABLE ASIAN DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT:
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Jenny Onyx
University of Technology, Sydney
[email protected]

This paper takes social capital theory as its analytical starting point. However, while
social capital is clearly vital for sustainable economic and social development, it is
inadequate in itself as an explanatory concept. In particular it is essential to locate the
stock of available social capital within the context of other capital resources, and to
identify the interaction of social capital with other forms of capital. Secondly, it is
important to identify the community structures and processes that facilitate the
mobilisation of social capital resources, particularly in terms of civic participation, the
role of third sector organisations, and social entrepreneurship.

Social capital is discussed in terms of its key defining characteristics, including trust,
participation in social networks, norms for collective action, and the importance of social
agency, or proactivity. Social capital can be both cause and effect, so that its use can
also generate effects that further increase its future availability. A key distinction that is
emerging is that between bridging and bonding social capital. Bonding social capital
provides strong social support and sense of identity. Bridging social capital makes links
across networks to access information and resources beyond the immediate group, the
necessary condition for real development.

Social capital is important precisely because of its impact on other aspects of

development. The central concepts of development revolve around the four capitals:
economic capital (financial and physical assets), natural capital, human capital and
social capital. Traditional approaches to development have heavily emphasised the use
of financial capital and the exploitation of natural capital. However, we need to move
away from thinking in insular, discipline specific, or institution specific terms, and move
instead to more multidimensional thinking. If used correctly, the mobilisation of one
form of capital can multiply the effects of another in a positive, or virtuous cycle.
Equally, the misuse, or overuse of one can reduce or destroy another.

One of the primary issues in terms of the economy, the community and sustainability, is
the problem of “the commons”. The commons refer to those resources owned and
freely accessed by a large number of people. The resource is held in common for the
mutual benefit of all. The commons are seen as a “problem” because, theoretically at
least, and often in practice, they are over-used. This is so because it is in the short term
economic interest of every person to maximize their own use of the commons, even
though the consequence is that ultimately the commons cannot be sustained.

However, the tragedy of the commons is not inevitable. Local management of the
commons is appropriate when the commons is local to the community of users, where
there are clear networks of communication, high levels of trust, and the capacity for
local decision making. Rules for collective maintenance and use of the commons must

72
be equitable and enforcable. In short, the sustainable use of the commons for the
benefit of all, depends on high levels of bonding social capital.

Recent attention is turning to the role of social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurs

are people who use the techniques of business to achieve positive social change. The
entrepreneur is willing to take risks, to think creatively, to recognise an opportunity and
organise a collective, co-ordinated response to that opportunity. Social entrepreneurs,
operating within a local community context, are able to mobilize the community to take
the initiative in solving community problems, including the formation of “community
businesses”. They seldom act as isolated individuals, but develop a form of collective,
or dispersed leadership. Once again, the key is in the mobilisation of social capital.

All forms of local and sustainable development involve the generation and mobilisation
of social capital through grass roots, third sector organisations. These may combine
aspects of for-profit (as in community businesses) and government funding. They are
characteristically distinguished from either the market or the state by their concern for
the local management of local resources for the public benefit. They work best with
transparent and inclusive forms of decision making and participatory action.

73
 ROLE OF WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS IN REVITALISING COMMUNITIES:
CASE OF GUJARAT DISASTER

Smita Mishra Panda

Institute of Rural Management, Anand (IRMA), Gujarat
[email protected]

Background
In the wake of the disaster caused by the great earthquake on 26th January 2001, a
number of non-governmental organizations have been actively involved in the relief and
rehabilitation work in different parts of Kutchch district. Women’s organistions such as
Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) and the Kutchch Mahila Vikas
Sangathan (KMVS) are also engaged in relief and rehabilitation. These two NGOs are
well established in Gujarat and have been involved in the upliftment of poor women in
both urban and rural areas. SEWA (started 1974) is well known for its identity as a
trade union and in organizing women working in the informal sector for providing credit
facilities among several other activities, spread in different parts of Gujarat. KMVS
(started 1989) works with rural women in Kutchch region of Gujarat. As women’s
organizations, both concentrate on rehabilitating women and children.

Kutchch being a drought prone area has witnessed a steady erosion of natural
resources. Dependency on land and traditional embroidery are the major sources of
income for the poor rural women in this area. Women’s organizations like SEWA and
KMVS have been facilitating the women artisans to promote and market their products.
The Kutchch society imposes strict social sanctions on women in terms of mobility.
However economic necessity has created some space for women that allow for
negotiation on these social norms and gender relations. Subsequently, along with the
space comes the responsibility and burden of household survival. After the disaster
women have been overburdened on multiple fronts. Loss of livelihood has been
aggravated with destruction of houses, work-sheds and looms, death of spouses,
children and other kin members, and of livestock. Further, the market for traditional
embroidery and handicrafts has declined and women seem to be increasingly
dependent on relief by external agencies to meet their household needs.

Objectives of the study are as follows

1) the approaches and strategies of the NGOs in reviving the livelihood needs of
poor rural women in relief and rehabilitation programmes.
2) the institutional and economic interventions made by the NGOs in ensuring that
the women of rural poor communities are able to sustain their livelihood
activities.

Methodology
Field study in Bhuj rural areas of Kutchch district, that was severely affected by the
earthquake, has been conducted for the study. Participatory approaches have been
used for the study at the community level. SEWA and KMVS have been analysed,
based on the interviews with their key functionaries to understand the style of
functioning and management in disaster situations.

74
 THE EFFECTS OF GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES ON SELF-FINANCING OF
NPOS IN KOREA

Kyungrae Park
Seoul National University
[email protected]

Does government subsidies displace philanthropy, or encourage it? The empirical

studies in the U.S. on the relationship between government subsidies and private
donations to non-profit organizations (NPOs) show that there is far from a consensus
on whether the government subsidies have crowding-out effects that reduce private
donations to NPOs, or crowding-in effects. In Korean context, few students have
undertaken such research because there is not aggregate data on government
subsidies and private donations. There are many arguments that government subsidies
are harmful to independence of nonprofit organizations. But these arguments lack
empirical evidences.

This study gives an empirical proof on the effects of government subsidies on self-
financing of nonprofit organizations, especially Civil Society Organization and quasi-
autonomous NGOs (QUANGOs) in South Korea. This study touches both sides;
quantitative and qualitative. Quantitatively it is measured how much the government
subsidies crowd out or crowd in the self-financing through regression analyses.
Qualitatively it is examined how the government subsidies affect the attitudes of
managers and customers in NPOs.

Samples are selected from civil organizations, and QUANGOs. Civil organizations are
sampled within the restriction that each organization is established prior to 1995 and its
annual budget more than 100 million won. Finally 19 civil organizations and 5
QUANGOs are sampled from population. The period of dataset is from 1993 through
2000, because military regime lost his power in 1993. For qualitative analysis
questionnaire method is employed. About 200 copies of questionnaires are distributed
to managers and customers in NPOs.

Methodologically this study has some differences from the past ones. First, this study
emphasizes qualitative analysis. It means that the intermediate path of effect,
especially leverage effect and signal effect, is handled in detail. Second, the range of
effects includes overall revenues of each organization; revenue from fees and profits
as well as donations. That is because the amount of private donations remains low
level compared to the U.S.

75
 AN ANALYSIS ON THE DETERMINANTS OF VOLUNTEER LABOR
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON VOLUNTEERING BEHAVIOR IN KOREA

Park, Tae-Kyu
Yonsei University
[email protected]

This study is to find the main determinants of charitable contribution of time,

volunteering labor supply behavior in Korea. A recent survey shows that the ratio of
Korean people who make charitable contribution of time is still low by American
standards. Even though, in Korean society, a growing number of people have become
to understand of meaning of volunteering works for enriching their lives and building
civil society. Despite of the growing importance on volunteering, study on volunteer
labor supply has been rare. But, knowledge of the determinants of volunteer work will
allow us to better understand why and in which areas people are making charitable
contribution of time, and how the government’s policy could affect volunteering work of
Korean people. This study is, using the first nation-wide survey on volunteer work, to
(1) estimate the size of volunteer labor supply, (2) look into in what area Korea people
are now providing volunteer work, (3) examine what factors are affecting whether
Korean people are participating in volunteer works, (4) find what factors are affecting
hours of volunteer labor supply among those who are participating in volunteer works.
For theoretical framework, there are three models, depending on motives, explaining
charitable contributions of time: public good model, private consumption model, and
private investment model. This study is to use private consumption model, assuming
that people get satisfaction from their own contributions of time for charitable purposes.
Despite of controversial issues whether the private consumption model is appropriate
for explaining the volunteering labor supply behavior of Korean people, this study is to
find the determinants of volunteering labor supply behavior, depending on the private
consumption model. It is partly because the data do not have enough variables for
testing which model is appropriate and partly because the main purpose of this study is
to make fact findings and to find major determinants of participation of volunteering
works and determinants of hours of volunteering works if participating. Without testing
which one among three models, it is very possible to find determinants of volunteering
labor supply. For empirical works, this study is to use the survey of ‘volunteering works
of 1,533 individuals over 20 years old’ which was conducted on a nation wide in 1999
by the “Volunteer 21”, a Korean NGO with “Gallup Korea,” a professional survey firm.

For the purposes of this study, in addition to the descriptive statistics featuring the
survey results and estimation of volunteer works for the whole population, an economic
model is to be formulated by using the private consumption model. In empirical part,
we use “Tobit model,” for finding determinants of participation of Korean people in
volunteer works, and use “Heckman’s two-step method” for finding determinants of
hours of volunteer labor supply among participants.

76
References:
J. Andreoni, W. Gale, & J. K. Scholz, “Charitable Contributions of time and money,”
working paper, Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin, U.S.A. July 1996.

E. Brown & H. Lankford, “Gifts of Money and Gifts of Time: Estimating the effects of tax
prices and available time,” Journal of Public Economics, 47, 1992, 321-341.

P. L. Menchik & B. A. Weisbrod, “Volunteer Labor Suppy,” Journal of Public

Economics, 32, 1987, 159-183.

V. Smith, M. R. Kehoe, & M.E. Cremer, “The Private Provision of Public Goods:
Altruism and Voluntary Giving,” Journal of Public Economics, 58, 107-126, 1995.

77
 THE ROLE OF PRINT MEDIA IN GENERATING A VOLUNTEER CONSCIOUSNESS

Anthony Rausch
Hirosaki University
[email protected]

Media plays an important role in shaping local consciousness concerning specific

issues and problems. Media studies have identified the need for local media to focus
coverage on local issues having sufficient symbolic capital to unite the fragmented
audiences which characterize contemporary society. In doing so, it has been asserted
that those media, in a sense, produce local identity and contribute to the development
of a local consciousness. This paper explores the role of the local media in the form of
a prefectural-level newspaper, in shaping a volunteer consciousness in a rural
Japanese city over the period from 1993 to 2001.

Using 200 articles selected from a prefectural-level newspaper on the basis of inclusion
of a keyword (volunteer, hoshi, NPO) in the headline or article, the research first
identifies associated terminology (volunteer and social welfare, volunteer and
education, volunteer and . . .), article type (activity report, educational activity, editorial,
. . .), and activity description (who, what, for whom). Using Likert-based responses,
readers assessed the informational value, comprehensibility level, and affective
influence level for each article.

The research also assesses both approaches to using local media by volunteer sector
leadership and their satisfaction with newspaper coverage of volunteerism as well as
considerations used in making decisions on the side of newspaper editors and
reporters in reporting on volunteerism.

The site of the study is Hirosaki City (pop. 180,000), located at the northern end of
Honshu Island in Aomori Prefecture (pop. 1.5 million).

78
 CONNECTING GLOBAL AND LOCAL ACTIVISM: INTERNATIONAL POLITICS,
NGOS AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN JAPAN

Kim Reimann, Harvard University

[email protected]
Richard Forrest, InterAction
[email protected]

Environmental movements in Japan face many political and cultural barriers to

organization and were relatively quiet from the mid 1970s to the late 1980s. Since the
early 1990s, however, Japan has experienced a wave of citizen-led environmental
activism. To understand how environmental activists have recently overcome some of
the domestic barriers to organization, this paper looks at the role of international
institutions in legitimizing and supporting environmental movements at the national
level. Building on the new literature on transnational advocacy networks and
transnational social movements and using the cases of citizen protest campaigns
against the Nagara River Estuary Dam and the Isahaya Bay Land Reclamation Project,
we show how international organizations and international standards were effectively
used by activists to build national networks, gain media attention, establish legitimacy in
the eyes of the public, and call into question state practices that had long excluded
citizens from the policy-making process.

79
 QUANTITATIVE METHOD FOR EVALUATION OF GRASSROOT CO-OPERATIVES
FOR THEIR VIABILITY

C. K. Renukarya
[email protected]

Co-operatives are used as one of the main institutions of change in most of the
developing countries and more so in India. The village level co-operatives have taken
deep roots in Indian economy and are acting as change units for over more than a
century in this country. There is no other decentralized organization, which is catering
to the credit needs of the farmers, in India, as the primary level agricultural credit
societies. Unfortunately, most of these co-operative societies have become weak and
defunct due to hosts of reasons. It is the wish of the government and the people that
the co-operatives should be rejuvenated. The resurrection attempt however, calls for
concerted efforts on the part of all concerned. But the primary need would be one of
identifying the factors, which are affecting the working of the society. This problem
needs to be studied only at the micro-level, as each society is unique in its own way.
For example, some societies are affected, as there are no leaders, some due to
excessive politicization and bureaucratization and some due to absence of member
participation. Once the factors are identified remedy becomes easier as one can
operate on the weak variables of a particular society.

The purpose of this paper is to design a methodology to evaluate the affecting factors
of a weak co-operative society, which is operating at the grassroot level. Number of
studies, individual collective do exist which have investigated into the causes which
have been responsible for making a co-operative society weak. In our own country,
number of committees /commissions have also examined this problem at the behest of
government and have identified the variables responsible for rendering a co-operative
society non-viable. But no attempt has been made to measure these variables in
quantitative terms. Also presently available subject on the matter deals with variables in
isolation and simultaneous handling of variables is not attempted. The present
methodology, discussed in the paper helps to handle any number of explanatory
variables to explain the non-viability of a society. The methodology employed is a
constrained maximization technique using Lagrangian principle. For the sake of
simplicity only three independent variables, namely, Member centrality, Professional
management, and Human resource development are used as key explanatory
variables to maximize the output (viability) of a co-operative society. Also three
constraints, namely the magnitude of government intervention, Bureaucratic
intervention and Corruption are envisaged as the constraints. All the variables are
measured on a scale of 0 to 10. It is purported in the paper that there is absolute need
to measure the viability of a society at the mirolevel, and not in their aggregate as it is
being done now by various studies and the present methodology suits such an
objective.

The present methodology is expected have universal applicability. It can be used to any
type of co-operative society, to measure its viability. Quantitative analysis of this nature,
is sure to help the existing literature in the area of co-operatives and rural development

80
for identification of weakness of grassroot co-operatives. The remedial measures may
then follow.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOURTH WORLD: ROLE OF THE STATE
AND THIRD SECTOR

Biswajit Sen
[email protected]

In India more than 67.76 million tribals are mainly confined in 25 States and Union
Territories. In the five north-eastern States they are in majority, while in other States
and Union Territories though they are in minority they are substantial in number (about
50 million). In eight States several districts and blocks (administrative units) have been
declared as Scheduled Area keeping in view their concentration (more than 65 per
cent). Some isolated tribal communities (75) are enjoying the status of Primitive Tribal
Groups due to the reason that they have primitive economy, religion, language and are
living in geographical isolation. In the paper the tribal population have been referred as
the people of the Fourth World, being part of the indigenous population confined in
identifiable geographical territories of India (Third World country). There are several
backward and under-privileged communities whose economic and social conditions are
similar to the tribals but they are not confined to any particular territory.

The tribals (Fourth World population) are at various stages of development but more
than 50 percent population is below the poverty line (BPL). In some blocks/clusters 80
percent of them are below the poverty line level. Their literacy status is nearly half
(29.6 percent) of the National average and in some blocks/clusters the percentage of
female literacy is less than five (5) percent. Accordingly, without hesitation it can safely
be concluded that the State (both central and state governments) failed to implement
its policies (protection and promotion of interests of the tribals) and strategies
(concentrated family oriented development) in the right perspective. The analysis of
data/information available in different studies, documents and press reports indicate: (I)
shortage of staff, (ii) de-motivation of officials working at the field level; (iii) rigidity of
rules and regulations; (iv) political interference; (v) non-accountability; and (vi) non-
involvement of the community were primarily responsible for keeping the Fourth World
population less developed, deprived, disadvantaged and exploited.

The Third Sector (NGO) intervention in tackling some of the weaknesses in the State
sector has proved to be successful in many areas and the State (both central and state
governments) have started depending on the Third Sector in some selected fields
(health, education, income generation, cooperation and motivation programs) for the
development of the tribals. The Third Sector, over a period of time is facing some
problems (political interference, bureaucratic intervention, uncertainty of release of
grants, etc.) and started compromising with their ideology and philosophy.

The paper examines the factors responsible for failure of the State (government) to
develop the Fourth World (tribals). The observations made have been duly supported
with relevant data/facts collected from different sources and extensive field work (1998-
2000) undertaken by the author in two tribal blocks of Orissa state, surrounded by tribal
areas of the neighbouring states. The Third Sector is equipped with skill and motivated

81
staff, but may not be allowed to effectively solve the problem; by a section of the local
community (both tribal and non-tribal traders and middlemen), political leaders
(affiliated to both ruling and opposition parties) and a section of officials (ambitious)
who would like to project a section of the population or an area backward to attract
National or International funding so that a portion of it can be siphoned out for personal
or political gains. The dimensions of the conflict and mistrust between the State and
the Third Sector will be discussed keeping in view the fact that the dependence of the
State on the Third Sector has been primarily to avoid responsibility and accountability,
rather than trusteeship and compatibility.

82
 EMPOWERING COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS IN AFFORESTATION
PROGRAMMES: A CASE STUDY

P R Siyag
Forestry Training Institute
[email protected]

This paper relates field experience-in NW Indian district of Bundi-of working with local
communities under the framework of co-management in execution of afforestation
works. The basic philosophy was to ensure greater involvement of the grassroots
institutions-and the people in general-in planning and execution of forestry works so
that the assets created could be sustainable in the long run.

Problem
Past experience over the years suggested that forestry plantations once created were
forgotten for lack of aftercare and protection. The communities for whose benefit these
assets were created were often blissfully unaware of the works and the philosophy
behind these. They were not consulted for site selection, nor was the need for such
works expressed by them in the first place. They probably thought it was some
governmental necessity having nothing much to do with them. As a result, when the
department withdrew-with ceasing of flow of funds-the villagers started grazing in the
areas and the plantations were soon destroyed.

Purpose
The only effective means of ensuring ownership of the works appeared to be
involvement of the beneficiary communities in planning and implementation of these
works. With a view to this possibility, it was decided that heretofore all plantation works
in the district should be executed through the agency of the Village Forest Protection &
Management Committees (VFPMCs). The experiment would bring out whether local
communities can organise themselves and act to successfully reverse degradation of
forests.
The issues that had to be addressed under the new framework of co-management
were: promoting community-based institutions/organisations, management of change in
its various aspects such as attitudinal change of the forest department's employees,
power-sharing, joint work ethos, and technology transfer and capacity building.

Procedure / Methodology
The experimental phase of the new working arrangements envisaged a partnership of
the forest department and the local communities, with clear delineation of roles and
responsibilities. Institutional arrangements made were such that while formulation of the
project and technical supervision would be a responsibility of the departmental
personnel, the VFPMC would primarily handle planning and decision making tasks such
as site selection and choice of species, and also the nitty-gritty of actual execution of
the works such as requisitioning of workers, recording their attendance and disbursing
their wages.

83
Results
The experience gained has proved that co-management is a superior approach in
respect of both the sustainability and the quality of works carried out. The villagers
have been greatly enthused over the new method of working. They feel they didn’t
know earlier that all this was their right-to know what is going on in their village where
workers were engaged by the department for raising plantations, and to be consulted
while deciding a work programme in their own village. They feel what should have
happened long ago has happened now after all. The phenomenon of VFPMCs has
caught on like a contagion. More and more villagers are forming VFPMCs. There’s a
flood of proposals for new plantations to be raised.

Involvement of people has triggered greater interest among communities for protection
and management of their forests. This has improved the prospects of sustainability of
developmental programmes and assets created thereunder. It has improved knowledge
and capability of communities in self-organising and self-help. The role of forest
department personnel has now been elevated to that of facilitators, guides and
supervisors. The capacity of a forester to execute works, for example, has increased
manifold.

84
T.N. Sreedhara

85
 WHICH COUNTS? RELATIONSHIPS OR IDEAS?
A STUDY OF UNIVERSITY FUNDRAISING STRATEGY

Wang, Bing-Jyun, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan

[email protected]
Lin, Chia-Hui, National Chengchi University, Taiwan

Preface
Getting into WTO creates a major impact for Taiwan society. The higher education
sector feels even harsher impact before the official entrance date, because universities
and colleges from Britain, Australia, and the Netherlands are recruiting Taiwanese
students eagerly. Not only the private, but also the national universities in Taiwan feel
the coming intensive competition. Recently, the Government released the regulations
for universities, a lot of technical schools applied for the elevation of the universities
status. After that, the new universities can issue the bachelor diploma, which is
traditionally thought as the necessary stepping-stone for the young people. Nowadays,
universities are racing for good students in Taiwan; however, the race is not very fierce
yet. Soon the game will be totally changed, they will chase for only the eligible students
left to fill the enormous empty space they created during the past 2 decades, since the
foreign universities are joining the race.

Fundraising becomes a necessary activity for every university in Taiwan, no matter

what the base is, public or private, since the Government changed its policy on
supporting the higher educational institutions. The university has to find other supports
to meet its ends. In this research, we would like to build a theoretical model on college
fundraising behavior, based on the idea of non-profit organization management, cause-
related marketing, and relationship marketing. We will use case study method on the
domestic universities for the fundraising activities are still not very popular in the island,
besides the financial data are very limited circulated. In addition, we will also collect
foreign university campaign information (mostly the US data), for they have a long
history of fundraising, and a lot of the best schools are on a private base. We would
like to use these data to verify our theoretical model. Such that to promote a new
fundraising strategy for the universities. Hopefully, this research result will also share
some ideas for the other NPOs.

Research Problems and Methodology

Our research focuses on building an analytic strategic framework for university
fundraising. Using the idea of categorizing the fundraising activities according to its
campaign appeals, be it the relationships or ideas, then trying to determine the different
results among the different strategies, finally, verifying the theoretic model with
secondary data, would be our way of presenting the paper. The research methods
include 3 case studies and a statistical analysis. There will be two private and one
public Taiwanese universities for the case study, and financial data from 60 US
universities for the statistical analysis.

86
 THE ROLE OF NONPROFIT ADVOCACY IN SOCIAL SECURITY POLICY IN
AMERICAN WELFARE STATE: HISTORICAL TRANSITION OF SENIOR RIGHTS
MOVEMENT FROM CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT

Hiromi Mizota (Wimalasiri)

Ritsumeikan University
[email protected]

The American senior rights movement to enact Social Security Act can be said to have occurred
roughly between the early 1920s and the late 1930s.Several organized voluntary associations
began campaigning on behalf of old-age pensions during this period. When Social Security was
enacted in 1935, the United States seemed to be heading toward western welfare states like
England and Sweden.

However, even before that, the US already had formed paternal pension program with
involvement of numerous voluntary sectors following the Civil War in the 19th. In the early 20th
century, women’s movements made possible the enactment such as Mother Pension, which
were programs exclusively for women, although men could not receive any benefit from the
government. While women were successful in organizing groups across class status and
mobilizing them to lobby for the formation of women programs, labor unions, representing male
workers, were not successful in such undertakings. Not only senior advocacy groups but also
these pension advocacy groups played important roles to develop the formation of American
Welfare State.

In 1960s, inspired by Civil Rights Movements achievements, additional rights movements like
feminism movement, environment movement and senior movement exploded with the emerging
advocacy groups as “Advocacy Explosion”. Elderly people formed advocacy groups, so-called
‘Gray Lobby’, which became prominent in the American Welfare State since then. Such senior
advocacy groups made coalitions with labor unions to pass health insurance bills for the elderly
such as Medicare and Medicaid under the Social Security Act. Due to Social Security, the
poverty of the elderly was dramatically reduced in the US.

However, Social Security is a controversial issue as an increased burden of government

spending in 21st century, when baby-boomers will retire. The proportion of government spending
for the elderly is now greater than that for children. Social Security spending is currently the
largest single entitlement program and is expected to reach crisis projections without significant
reform. Advocates of budget tightening insist that government should cut the Social Security
benefit for the elderly, and feel that senior advocacy groups like AARP make such reform
difficult. However, even current Social Security is not enough to cover all the expenses of the
elderly individually. They have to find alternative ways (e.g. employment, bonds, stocks and
savings) to maintain stable life.

This paper is going to discuss the involvement of the voluntary sectors among with other sectors,
over Social Security by reviewing the historical transition, which is helpful to the understanding of
the role of nonprofit advocacy in public policy. The purpose of this paper is to learn history,
leading to a better solution of Social Security policy with the implementation of nonprofit
advocacy groups. Social Security dispute is significant not only for senior advocacy groups, but
for all groups depends upon federal limited budget distributions in an aging society. This
budgetary problem in an aging society is also for any other countries.

87
 THE FUNCTION AND ROLE OF SOCIAL ENTERPRISES IN SUPPLYING SOCIAL
WELFARE SERVICE

Kohei Yamaguchi
Ritsumeikan University
[email protected]

The subject of this paper is to examine what kind of organization action social
enterprises took due to a change of the system about the social-welfare service for
elderly in Japan. In order to analyze the influence of the institutional change as an
outside environment in that case, the examination is advanced on the basis of
Contingency theory. In Contingency theory, the research object has usually been asked
for building the conformity model between an organization and environment in the
compound organization. For example, some researcher have pointed out the existence
of the organization which cannot correspond to change of outside environment (Burns
& Stalker, 1961), combining with environmental complexity and complicating
organization structure (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1969), etc. These arguments have
suggested that consideration of environment is indispensable in management control.

Voluntary Organizations including social enterprises have also faced an extreme

difficulty with independent resources supply, and may be significantly influenced by
environmental change. The supply system of social-welfare service for elderly changed
with introduction of Long-term Care Insurance system in April, 2000. The main changes
are summarized by the following three points; a) Introduction of the privity of contract of
user and supplier, b) Standardization of care act and grant management by Care
Remuneration system, c) Introduction of Care-management process. Usually,
institutional change is caught as a part of outside environment (Duncan, 1972). Even
though the Long-term Care Insurance system is considered, the system change has
affected other components or elements (e.g. customer, competition, technology).

In this paper, in order to prove change of organization action which social enterprises
take before and after introduction of Long-term Care Insurance system, an interview of
the leader of an organization is carried out. Moreover, in order to clarify the point by
which organization action of social enterprises is characterized, the comparison with the
organization of other form (service delivery by government and for-profit organization)
is also investigated. From these investigations, organization action of social enterprises
accompanied by system change of social-welfare service is modeled.

References
Burns,T. & Stalker, G. M. (1961 )The Management of Innovation, London Tavistock
Duncan, R. B. (1972) Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived
Environmental Uncertainty, Administrative Science Quarterly, 21, 313-327
Lawrence, P. R. & Lorsch, J. W. (1969) Organization and Environment, Homewood,
I11: Irwin.
TAO, Masao (1999) Management Control of Voluntary Organization Tokyo Yuhikaku
Thompson, J. D. (1967) Organization in Action, New York : McGraw-Hill
PARTNERSHIP IN COMMUNITY SERVICE: A CASE STUDY

88
 Yang Tuan
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
[email protected]

The community service facilities in China are being managed by the government. The
aim of this paper is to seek an improved way for the community service facilities
through the case study of the Luoshan Civil Community (LCC), Pudong, Shanghai.

To upgrade the efficiency and effectiveness of public services in China, it’s necessary
to cultivate a quasi-market mechanism including: public covenant, selection of public
service projects and reasonable fee collection, supervision and evaluation by the
government.

The author thinks that there is a need to distinguish between the public service sector
and a market industry, and that the new model of LCC: trust by government, operation
by NGOs, and participation by residents is valuable in practice.

The method adopted in this paper is case study and the theory it is based on is Elinor
Ostrom’s analysis theory of the public choice and public service supply (Elinor Ostrom:
Public Goods and Public Choice)

89
 THE FORMATION OF THE NEWLY EMERGING NON-PROFIT SECTOR IN CHINA:
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Zhao Li-Qing
Institute for Strategic Studies
[email protected]

This paper outlines the formation process of China’s newly emerging non-profit sector,
and analyzes the opportunities and challenges it faces.

Since the 1980s, along with the economic reform and opening up to the outside world
in China, about 1 million social associations and institutions have been organized.
Although almost all of them are still directly or indirectly governed by government
agencies due to the regulatory framework in China, an increasing number of
organizations, to different extents, have gradually transformed into a new type of
organization that are non-profit and non-government. Based upon this change, China’s
non-profit sector has gradually formed. Some important incidents in China have
indicated that in recent years.

To grow in the unique context of China, the infant non-profit sector has to resist four
major threats: political pursuit; illegal behavior; corruption; and small-scale peasant
consciousness. Each of those four could deal a deadly blow to the newly emerging
non-profit sector if not checked. Some positive measures are in great demand if the
non-profit sector is going to become strong and enable social organizations to become
real non-profit and non-government, and accordingly to strengthen their capacity
building; to establish some infrastructure for the non-profit sector, and various kinds of
NPO support organizations to undertake such tasks as grantmaking, information
dissemination, coordination, consultation, evaluation, etc; to set up a funding
mechanism with a plural resources including government, corporates, the public,
individuals, and international donors; and to promote the establishment of an enabling
environment and the role of law in treating the non-profit sector in China.

A comprehensive survey and analyzing method is used in this paper. Besides personal
involvement in the concerned events, interviews, case studies, and literature reviews
are also used by the author.

90
 CAN OLYMPICS SPEED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN CHINA?
A CASE STUDY OF UNOFFICIAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS IN BEIJING’S GREEN
OLYMPIC BID

Xiumei Zhao
Tokyo Institute of Technology
[email protected]

In China, besides the social organizations (shehui tuanti, a kind of popular organization)
registered in the Ministry of Civil Affairs or its local departments, there actually exists
another kind of social organization, which doesn’t possess the legal status of “social
organization” while conducting activities in the name of social organization openly. This
paper terms them unofficial social organizations (USOs). USOs usually exist in the
patterns of commercial registered organizations, branch organizations, internal
organizations, and informal organizations, and they are most analogous to Western-
style NGOs.

The relationship between China’s government and USOs is loose and unequal,
because the government is still at the dominant and leading position of the China’s
social structure, and also because USOs are small and not incorporated legally. In
addition, USOs seldom address contentious issues. Thus, the governmental attitude
towards USOs is “keeping one eye open, another closed”. The governmental policy
towards them can be put as “Three Not” policy, that is, “not encouraging, not interfering,
not banning”, but the prerequisite is that the government doesn’t feel USOs dangerous
to its interests.

However, during the Beijing’s Green Olympics Bid (BGOB) campaign, something really
new happened. The government signed “the Green Olympics Action Plan” together with
24 social organizations, including two USOs. The leaders of USOs were appointed as
advisors of Beijing Olympic Bid Committee. And USOs were also co-opted into
“Coordinating Committee”, a special committee of public participation in environmental
protection. Then it raises the questions: did China’s government change its policy
towards USOs? will this speed up Chinese civil society? Mainly based on two USOs,
FON and GVB, this paper tries to explore the answer by analyzing “why the
government co-opted USOs?” and “what USOs can get?”

USOs in environmental area are usually issue-orientated associations, and the

problems USOs aim at are just what the government concerns. Co-opting USOs into
the green Olympic bid campaign can help the government win the bid. However, what
attracts the government more is the symbolic function of USOs. Labeled as China’s
NGOs, USOs represent the public rather than the government, and embody the civic
participation and co-governance rather than government monopoly. With the influence
of globalization, and the global associational revolution, USOs` symbolic value can
improve the international legitimacy of the BGOB campaign.

For USOs, joining the GOB campaign and working with the governmental officials fact
to face, created a great chance to make their voice heard, win the government

91
recognition, enlarge their activity space, be licensed to work with the grassroots
governmental organizations, and help them accumulate their social capital.

In order to meet its own needs, the government sometimes can work together with
USOs in some degree, even in the name of partnership occasionally. However, what
the government pursuits are always the agenda and value designed by itself. In fact,
co-opting USOs into GOB is only one temporary strategy for winning the bid. The
political and social context for USOs does not change basically.

However, as discussed above, USOs gained a lot from joining this campaign, and
working together with the government can help correct some long existing
misunderstanding about civic organizations, such as “non-government” is “anti-
government”, etc. In additional, the formation of coordinating committee advanced
public participation to rational, institutional form. With Beijing winning this bid, all these
positive factors will keep and continue function, which will improve the development of
civil society in China.

92