Condensed Matter Physics Materials Science Greek Solid Long-Range Order Crystal Glass Glass Transition Gels Thin Films

A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules,
or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that
extends in all directions.[1][2] In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by
their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The
scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of
crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidificationbe
In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous (from the Greek a,

without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range
order that is characteristic of a crystal. In some older books, the term has been used
synonymously with glass. Nowadays, "glassy solid" or "amorphous solid" is considered
to be the overarching concept, and glass the more special case: Glass is an amorphous
solid that exhibits a glass transition.[1]Polymers are often amorphous. Other types of
amorphous solids include gels, thin films, and nanostructured materials such as glass
doors and windows.
Amorphous metals have low toughness, but high strength
Amorphous materials have an internal structure made of interconnected structural

blocks. These blocks can be similar to the basic structural units found in the
corresponding crystalline phase of the same compound.[2] Whether a material
is liquid or solid depends primarily on the connectivity between its elementary building
blocks so that solids are characterized by a high degree of connectivity whereas
structural blocks in fluids have lower connectivity.[3]
In pharmaceutical industry, the amorphous drugs were shown to have higher
bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts due to the high solubility of amorphous
phase. Moreover, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous
form in vivo, and they can decrease each other's bioavailability if administered together.
[4][5]
We often take a lot of things for granted. We just assume that we will get
electric power when we connect a plug to an electrical outlet. The wire
that comprises that outlet is almost always copper, a material that
conducts electricity well. The unique properties of the solid copper allow
electrons to flow freely through the wire and into whatever device we
connect it to. Then we can enjoy music, television, work on the
computer, or whatever other activity we want to undertake.
Classes of Crystalline Solids

Crystalline substances can be described by the types of particles in them
and the types of chemical bonding that takes place between the
particles. There are four types of crystals: (1) ionic, (2) metallic,
(3) covalent network, and (4) molecular. Properties and several
examples of each type are listed in the following table and are described
in the table below.
Ionic crystals -- The ionic crystal structure consists of alternating

positively-charged cations and negatively-charged anions (see figure
below). The ions may either be monatomic or polyatomic. Generally,
ionic crystals form from a combination of Group 1 or 2 metals and Group
16 or 17 nonmetals or nonmetallic polyatomic ions. Ionic crystals are
hard and brittle and have high melting points. Ionic compounds do not
conduct electricity as solids, but do conduct when molten or in aqueous
solution.
Figure 12.7.112.7.1: NaClNaCl crystal.
Metallic crystal -- Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded

by a "sea" of mobile valence electrons (see figure below). These
electrons, also referred to as delocalized electrons, do not belong to any
one atom, but are capable of moving through the entire crystal. As a
result, metals are good conductors of electricity. As seen in the table
above, the melting points of metallic crystals span a wide range.
Figure 12.7.212.7.2: Metallic crystal lattice with free electrons able to move among positive
metal atoms.
Covalent network crystals -- A covalent network crystal consists of

atoms at the lattice points of the crystal, with each atom being covalently
bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms (see figure below). The covalently
bonded network is three-dimensional and contains a very large number
of atoms. Network solids include diamond, quartz, many metalloids, and
oxides of transition metals and metalloids. Network solids are hard and
brittle, with extremely high melting and boiling points. Being composed of
atoms rather than ions, they do not conduct electricity in any state.
Figure 12.7.312.7.3: Diamond is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently

bonded to one another in a repeating three-dimensional pattern. Each carbon atom makes for
single covalent bonds in a tetrahedral geometry.
Molecular crystals -- Molecular crystals typically consist of molecules at

the lattice points of the crystal, held together by relatively weak
intermolecular forces (see figure below). The intermolecular forces may
be dispersion forces in the case of nonpolar crystals, or dipole-dipole
forces in the case of polar crystals. Some molecular crystals, such as
ice, have molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. When one of the
noble gases is cooled and solidified, the lattice points are individual
atoms rather than molecules. In all cases, the intermolecular forces
holding the particles together are far weaker than either ionic or covalent
bonds. As a result, the melting and boiling points of molecular crystals
are much lower. Lacking ions or free electrons, molecular crystals are
poor electrical conductors.
Classify GeGe, RbIRbI, C6(CH3)6C6(CH3)6, and ZnZn as ionic, molecular,
covalent, or metallic solids and arrange them in order of increasing
melting points.
Given: compounds
Asked for: classification and order of melting points
Strategy:
A. Locate the component element(s) in the periodic table. Based on their positions, predict
whether each solid is ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic.
B. Arrange the solids in order of increasing melting points based on your classification,
beginning with molecular solids.
Solution:
A Germanium lies in the p block just under Si, along the diagonal line of
semimetallic elements, which suggests that elemental Ge is likely to
have the same structure as Si (the diamond structure). Thus Ge is
probably a covalent solid.
RbI contains a metal from group 1 and a nonmetal from group 17, so it

is an ionic solid containing Rb+ and I− ions.
The compound C6(CH3)6C6(CH3)6 is a hydrocarbon (hexamethylbenzene),

which consists of isolated molecules that stack to form a molecular
solid with no covalent bonds between them.
Zn is a d-block element, so it is a metallic solid.
B Arranging these substances in order of increasing melting points is

straightforward, with one exception. We expect C6(CH3)6 to have the
lowest melting point and Ge to have the highest melting point, with RbI
somewhere in between. The melting points of metals, however, are
difficult to predict based on the models presented thus far. Because Zn
has a filled valence shell, it should not have a particularly high melting
point, so a reasonable guess is
C6(CH3)6 < Zn ~ RbI < Ge.
The actual melting points are C6(CH3)6, 166°C; Zn, 419°C; RbI, 642°C;
and Ge, 938°C. This agrees with our prediction.
EXERCISE 12.7.112.7.1
Classify CO2, BaBr2, GaAs, and AgZn as ionic, covalent, molecular, or
metallic solids and then arrange them in order of increasing melting
points.
Answer
Summary
Ionic crystals are composed of alternating positive and negative ions.
Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a "sea" of mobile
valence electrons. Covalent crystals are composed of atoms which are
covalently bonded to one another. Molecular crystals are held together
by weak intermolecular forces.

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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules,

In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous (from the Greek a,

Amorphous metals have low toughness, but high strength

Amorphous materials have an internal structure made of interconnected structural

Classes of Crystalline Solids

Ionic crystals -- The ionic crystal structure consists of alternating

Figure 12.7.112.7.1: NaClNaCl crystal.

Metallic crystal -- Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded

Covalent network crystals -- A covalent network crystal consists of

Figure 12.7.312.7.3: Diamond is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently

Molecular crystals -- Molecular crystals typically consist of molecules at

Asked for: classification and order of melting points

RbI contains a metal from group 1 and a nonmetal from group 17, so it

The compound C6(CH3)6C6(CH3)6 is a hydrocarbon (hexamethylbenzene),

Zn is a d-block element, so it is a metallic solid.

B Arranging these substances in order of increasing melting points is

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