The Semantic Web

“The Semantic Web is an extension of the

Introduction to the current web in which information is
given well-defined meaning, better
Semantic Web enabling computers and people to
work in co-operation.“
[Berners-Lee et al, 2001]

Payam Barnaghi

Today’s Web Limitations of the Web Search today

Currently most of the Web content is suitable
The Web search results are high recall,
for human use. low precision.

Typical uses of the Web today are information
Results are highly sensitive to vocabulary.
seeking, publishing, and using, searching for
people and products, shopping, reviewing
Results are single Web pages.
catalogues, etc.
Most of the publishing contents are not

Dynamic pages generated based on information structured to allow logical reasoning and
from databases but without original information query answering.
structure found in databases.

3 4

Today’s Web What is a Web of Data?

Thinking back a bit... 1994

HTML and URIs

Markup language and means

for connecting resources

Below the file level

Stopped at the text level

[Miller 04]
5 6

1
 What is a Web of Data? The Syntactic Web
(continued)
Now

XML, RDF, OWL and URIs

Markup language and means for

connecting resources

Below the file level

Below the text level

At the data level

[Miller 04] [Hendler & Miller 02]

7 8

What is the Problem? i.e. the Syntactic Web is…

Consider a typical web page:

Markup consists of:

rendering information
A place where
(e.g., font size and
colour)
computers do the presentation (easy) and

Hyper-links to related
people do the linking and interpreting (hard).
content

Semantic content is
accessible to humans but
Why not get computers to do more of the
not (easily) to hard work?
computers…

[Davies, 03] [Goble, 03]

9 10

Web 2 Web 2.0 and Folksonomies

It is all about people, collaboration,
media, ...

[The mind-map pictured above constructed by Markus Angermeier, source Wikipedia]

[http://flickr.com/photos/tags/]
11 12

2
 Machine-accessible Content Distinguishing the meaning

The main obstacle to provide better
It is simply difficult for machines to
support to Web users is that, at present , distinguish the meaning of:
the meaning of Web content is not
I am a philosopher.
machine accessible.

Although there are tools to retrieve from
texts, but when it comes to interpreting I am a philosopher, you may think.
sentence and extracting useful Well,…
information for the user, the capabilities
of current software are still very limited.

13 14

How Can the Current Situation be

…Limitations of the Web today
Improved?

An alternative approach is to represent
Web content in a form that is more easily
machine-accessible and to use intelligent
techniques to take advantage of these
presentations.

The Web activities are mostly focus on Machine-to-Human,

and Machine-to-Machine activities are not particularly well
supported by software tools.
[Davies, 03]
15 16

Machine Accessible Meaning

XML
User definable and domain specific markup
name HTML:
<H1>Internet
<H1>Internet and
and World
WorldWide
Wide Web</H1>
Web</H1>
education <UL>
<UL>
<LI>Code:
<LI>Code: G52IWW
G52IWW
<LI>Students:
<LI>Students: Undergraduate
Undergraduate
CV
</UL>
</UL>
work
XML:
<module>
<module>
private <title>Internet
<title>Internet and
and World
WorldWide
Wide Web</title>
Web</title>
<code>G52IWW</code>
<code>G52IWW</code>
<students>Undergraduate</students>
<students>Undergraduate</students>
</module>
</module>
[Davies, 03]
17 18

3
 XML: Document = labeled tree But What about this?
 node = label + contents
<module date=“...”>
<title>...</title> module < name
ναµε >
<lecturer>
<name>...</name> title lecturer students
= <εδυχατιον
<εδυχατιον>
education>
εδυχατιον
<weblink>...</weblink>
</lecturer> name weblink
<students>...</students> < CV
Χς >
</module> <ωορκ
<ωορκ>
work>
ωορκ

 DTD: describe the grammar and structure of

permissible XML trees <πριϖατε>
private >
<πριϖατε
πριϖατε

[Davies, 03]
19 20

XML:
XML limitations for semantic markup

Meaning of XML-Documents is intuitively clear

due to "semantic" Mark-Up
XML representation makes no commitment on:

tags are domain-terms
Domain specific ontological vocabulary

But, computers do not have intuition
Which words shall we use to describe a given set of concepts?

tag-names do not provide semantics for machines.
Ontological modelling primitives

How can we combine these concepts, e.g. “car is a-kind-of (subclass-
of) vehicle”

DTDs or XML Schema specify the structure of
documents, not the meaning of the document contents  requires pre-arranged agreement on vocabulary and
primitives

XML lacks a semantic model
Only feasible for closed collaboration

has only a "surface model”, i.e. tree
agents in a small & stable community

pages on a small & stable intranet
.. not for sharable Web-resources
[Davies, 03]

21 22

Resource Description
XML is a first step
Framework (RDF)

Semantic markup
A standard of W3C

HTML  layout
Relationships between documents

XML  content
Consisting of triples or sentences:

<subject, property, object>

Metadata

<“Mozart”, composed, “The Magic Flute” >

within documents, not across documents

RDFS extends RDF with standard “ontology

prescriptive, not descriptive vocabulary”:

No commitment on vocabulary and modelling
Class, Property
primitives
Type, subClassOf

RDF is the next step
domain, range

[Davies, 03]
23 24

4
 RDF for semantic annotation RDF: Basic Ideas

RDF provides metadata about Web resources

Resources

Object -> Attribute-> Value triples

Every resource has a URI (Universal Resource

It has an XML syntax Identifier)

Chained triples form a graph
A URI can be a URL (a web address) or a some other
http://sepang.nottingham.edu.my/~bpayam/images/payam-barnaghi.png kind of identifier;
has_image
An identifier does not necessarily enable access to a
http://sepang.nottingham.edu.my/~bpayam/#Payam resources
UNiM #Payam
has_email payam@nottingh
We can think of a resources as an object that we
am
want to describe it.
has_owner has_teaching
Books
<rdf:Description rdf:about=“#Payam”>

Person
http://www.nottingham.edu.my/CSIT/G53ELC <has_email>payam@nottingham</has_email>
Places, etc.
</rdf:Description>

25 26

RDF: Basic Ideas RDF: Basic Ideas

Properties
Statements

Properties are special kind of resources;
A statement is an object-attribute-value

Properties describe relations between triple.
resources.
It consists of a resources, a property, and a

For example: “written by”, “composed by”, value.

“title”, “topic”, etc.
http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=10140

Properties in RDF are also identified by URIs.

This provides a global, unique naming #MIT Press

publishedBy
scheme.

27 28

RDF: Example RDF Example

29 Source: http://www.w3.org/TR/swbp-skos-core-guide/ 30

5
 RDF Schema: Basic Ideas What does RDF Schema add?
• Defines vocabulary for RDF

RDF is a universal language that enables • Organizes this vocabulary in a typed hierarchy
users to describe their own vocabularies. • Class, subClassOf, type

But, RDF does not make assumption about • Property, subPropertyOf
any particular domain. • domain, range
Staff

It is up to user to define this in RDF subClassOf
subClassOf
Schema(RDFS)
schema. Lecturer
domain
supervisedBy
range
Research Assistant

type type
supervisedBy
Tom Alan Data(RDF)

[adapted from: Studer et al, 04]

31 32

Querying RDF data Basic Queries

Query Languages such as SPARQL, RQL.
The example provided in RQL.

RDF is a directed, labeled graph data format for
representing information in the Web.

Using select-from-where

Most forms of the query languages contain a set
select specifies the number and order of
of triple patterns. retrieved data.

Triple patterns are like RDF triples except that
from is used to navigate through the data
each of the subject, predicate and object may model.
be a variable.
where imposes constraints on possible
solutions

33 34

Basic Queries: Example Conclusions about RDF(S)

select X,Y
Next step up from plain XML:
From {X} writtenBy {Y}
(small) ontological commitment to modeling
primitives

possible to define vocabulary
X, Y are variables, {X} writtenBy {Y}

However:
represents a resource-property-value

no precisely described meaning
triple

no inference model

[Davies, 03]

35 36

6
 Ontologies Ontologies and Semantic Web

The term ontology is originated from
In general, an ontology describes formally a
domain of discourse.
philosophy. In that context it is used as

An ontology consists of a finite list of terms and
the name of a subfield of philosophy, the relationships between the terms.
namely, the study of the nature of
The terms denote important concepts classes of
existence. objects) of the domain.

For the Semantic Web purpose:
For example, in a university setting, staff
members, students, courses, modules, lecture

“An ontology is an explicit and formal
theatres, and schools are some important
specification of a conceptualisation”. concepts.
(R. Studer)

37 38

Ontologies and Semantic Web

A Sample Ontology
(cont’d) Object
is_a

In the context of the Web, ontologies provide a knows described_in
Person Topic Document
shared understanding of a domain. writes
is_a

Such a shared understanding is necessary to
Student Researcher Semantics F-Logic Ontology
overcome the difference in terminology.
is_a

Ontologies are useful for improving accuracy of Affiliation
subTopicOf similar
PhD
PhDStudent
Doktoral Student PhD Student
Student F-Logic Ontology Rules
Web searches.
instance_of
T described_in
similar D T is_about D

Web searches can exploit Tel Affiliation
Siggi
generalization/specialization information. P writes D is_about T P knows T
+49 721 608 6554 AIFB

• Major Paradigms: Logic Programming, Description Logic

• Standards: RDF(S); OWL [Studer et al, 04]

39 40

Ontology & Annotation Ontologies (OWL)

Ontology cooperate_with
cooperate_with
rdfs:domain
rdfs:range
RDFS is useful, but does not solve all possible
AcademicStaff
AcademicStaff requirements
rdfs:subClassOf rdfs:subClassOf

Complex applications may want more possibilities:
PhD
PhD Student
Student AssProf
AssProf
similarity and/or differences of terms (properties or classes)
instance of
construct classes, not just name them
instance
<swrc:PhD_Student rdf:ID="sha"> <swrc:AssProfof
rdf:ID="sst">
can a program reason about some terms? E.g.:
<swrc:name>Siegfried <swrc:name>Steffen Staab
Handschuh</swrc:name> </swrc:name>

“if «Person» resources «A» and «B» have the same «foaf:email»
Anno- <swrc:cooperate_with rdf:resource = property, then «A» and «B» are identical”
...
tation "http://www.aifb.uni-
</swrc:AssProf>
karlsruhe.de/WBS/sst#sst"/>
etc.
... Cooperate_with
This lead to the development of OWL (Web Ontology
</swrc:PhD_Student>
Links have explicit meanings! Language)
Web
Page

[Studer et al, 04]

source: Introduction to the Semantic Web, Ivan Herman, W3C
URL http://www.aifb.uni-karlsruhe.de/WBS/sha 41 http://www.aifb.uni-karlsruhe.de/WBS/sst 42

7
 Ontology Languages for the Web OWL Language

OWL is based on Description Logics knowledge representation
formalism

RDF Schema is a vocabulary description
OWL (DL) benefits from many years of DL research:
language for describing properties and
Well defined semantics
classes of RDF resources, with a
Formal properties well understood (complexity, decidability)
Known reasoning algorithms
semantics for generalization hierarchies

Implemented systems (highly optimised)

of such properties and classes.
Three species of OWL

OWL is a richer vocabulary description
OWL full is union of OWL syntax and RDF

OWL DL restricted to FOL fragment
language for describing properties and
OWL Lite is “easier to implement” subset of OWL DL
classes.
OWL DL based on SHIQ Description Logic

[Davies, 03]

43 44

Classes in OWL OWL classes can be “enumerated”

The OWL solution, where possible content is

In RDFS, you can subclass existing explicitly listed:
classes… that’s all.

In OWL, you can construct classes from
existing ones:

enumerate its content

through intersection, union, complement

through property restrictions

source: Introduction to the Semantic Web, Ivan Herman, W3C source: Introduction to the Semantic Web, Ivan Herman, W3C
45 46

Why develop an ontology? Ontology and Logic

To make define web resources more precisely and
Reasoning over ontologies
make them more amenable to machine processing
Inferencing capabilities

To make domain assumptions explicit

Easier to change domain assumptions X is author of Y  Y is written by X

Easier to understand and update legacy data

To separate domain knowledge from operational X is supplier to Y; Y is supplier to Z 

knowledge X and Z are part of the same supply chain

Re-use domain and operational knowledge separately
Cars are a kind of vehicle;

A community reference for applications
Vehicles have 2 or more wheels 

To share a consistent understanding of what information Cars have 2 or more wheels
means

[Davies, 03] [Davies, 03]

47 48

8
 Logic and Inference An Inference Example

Logic is the discipline that studies the
principles of reasoning prof(X) → faculty(X)

Formal languages for expressing knowledge faculty(X) → staff(X)

Well-understood formal semantics prof(michael)

Declarative knowledge: we describe what holds We can deduce the following conclusions:
without caring about how it can be deduced

Automated reasoners can deduce (infer) faculty(michael)
conclusions from the given knowledge staff(michael)
prof(X) → staff(X)
source: A Semantic Web Primer, Grigoris Antoniou and Frank van Harmelen, MIT Press source: A Semantic Web Primer, Grigoris Antoniou and Frank van Harmelen, MIT Press

49 50

Semantic Web Vision Semantic Web and AI?

No human-level intelligence claims
Machine-processable, global

As with today’s WWW
Web standards:

large, inconsistent, distributed
 Assigning unambiguous

Requirements
names (URI)

scalable, robust, decentralised
 Expressing data, including

tolerant, mediated
metadata (RDF)

Semantic Web will make extensive use of current AI,
 Capturing ontologies (OWL)

any advancement in AI will lead to a better Semantic Web
 Query, rules,

Current AI is already sufficient to go towards realizing the
transformations, semantic web vision
deployment, application
As with WWW, Semantic Web will (need to) adapt fast
spaces, logic, proofs, trust
(in progress)
[Source: Emerging Web Technologies to
Watch, Steve Bratt, W3C]
[Davies, 03]

51 52

Semantic Web & Knowledge

Management

Organising knowledge in conceptual
spaces according to its meaning.

Enabling automated tools to check for Semantic Web Services
inconsistencies and extracting new
knowledge.

Replacing query-based search with query
answering.

Defining who may view certain parts of
information

53

9
 Web Services Web Services

Web Services provide data and services to other
loosely coupled, reusable components
applications.

encapsulate discrete functionality

Thee applications access Web Services via
standard Web Formats (HTTP, HTML, XML, and
distributed
SOAP), with no need to know how the Web
Service itself is implemented.
programmatically accessible over

You can imagine a web service like a remote standard internet protocols
procedure call (RPC) which it returns a
add new level of functionality on top of
message in an XML format. the current web
[Stollberg et al., 05]

55 56

The Promise of Web Services Deficiencies of WS Technology

Current technologies allow usage of Web Services

but:

only syntactical information descriptions

syntactic support for discovery, composition and execution
=> Web Service usability, usage, and integration needs to be
inspected manually

no semantically marked up content / services

no support for the Semantic Web

=> current Web Service Technology Stack failed to

realize the promise of Web Services

[Stollberg et al., 05] [Stollberg et al., 05]

57 58

Semantic Web Services Semantic Web Services

Semantic Web Technology
define exhaustive description frameworks for
• allow machine supported data interpretation describing Web Services and related aspects
• ontologies as data model
(Web Service Description Ontologies)
+

support ontologies as underlying data model to
Web Service Technology allow machine supported data interpretation
automated discovery, selection, composition,
and web-based execution of services
(Semantic Web aspect)

define semantically driven technologies for
=> Semantic Web Services as integrated solution for automation of the Web Service usage process
realizing the vision of the next generation of the Web (Web Service aspect)
[Stollberg et al., 05]

59 60

10
 Acknowledgements Suggested Readings

Some of the slides are adapted from the following resources:
A Semantic Web Primer, Grigoris Antoniou and Frank

Semantic Web, John Davies, Next Generation Web Research, BT.
van Harmelen, ISBN 0-262-01210-3, 2004, the MIT

A Short Semantic Web Tutorial, Andreas Hotho & York Sure,
Knowledge Management Group, Institute AIFB, University of Karlsruhe.
press.

Semantic Web and Ontology Management, Rudi Studer, York Sure,
W3C Semantic Web
Christoph Tempich, Peter Haase,Institute AIFB, University of
Karlsruhe.
http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/

A Semantic Web Primer, Grigoris Antoniou and Frank van Harmelen,
The Semantic Web Community Portal,
ISBN 0-262-01210-3, 2004, the MIT press. http://www.semanticweb.org

The Semantic Web: A Web of Machine Processible Data, Eric Miller,
W3C Semantic Web Activity Lead, 2004.

Stollberg et al, Semantic Web Services Tutorial, 5th International
Conference on Web Engineering (ICWE 2005), Sydney, Australia.

Introduction to the Semantic Web, Ivan Herman, W3C, 2007.

61 62

11