Wood - Hegel's Ethical Thoght
Wood - Hegel's Ethical Thoght
Wood - Hegel's Ethical Thoght
293p.
Introduction
1. Hegel as speculative philosopher
(…)
2. Dialectical logic
“Hegel holds that a thought determination is what it is because it is determined (or limited) in
a definite way. But each such thought has an inherent tendency to push beyond its limit and
turn into its opposite, resulting in a contradiction. This "dialectic" of thought determinations,
as Hegel calls it, is a cause of consternation to the "understanding" - that analytical disposition
of thought which tries to grasp thought determinations in their determinacy, keeping them
clearly and distinctly separated from one another. For the understanding, dialectic is a source
of scandal and paradox, something to avoid at all costs. But the understanding's efforts are to
no avail, because thought itself is dynamic, self-transcending, fundamentally dialectical. Kant
realized that thoughts obey the understanding's rules only so long as they remain within their
proper bounds. Hegel hastens to add that they have an inherent tendency not to remain
confined, a tendency that is as much a part of their nature as the neat analytical definitions
within which the understanding wants to confine them. Dialectical paradoxes cannot be
avoided, done away with, or treated as mere illusions, as the understanding would wish. They
are real, unavoidable, virtually omnipresent.”
Para Hegel, ao invés de suprimir os paradoxos devemos sistematizá-los. Por exemplo, quando
Kant resolve a segunda antinomia (divisibilidade infinita do real no espaço X indivisibilidade
das partes menores) afirmando que a antinomia é aparente (a matéria não é nem
infinitamente divisível, nem composta de simples), Hegel afirma que a matéria é ambos, pois o
pensamento pode legitimamente usar ambos os conceitos para teorizar a matéria. “Hegel
resolves philosophical paradoxes (...) by relying on an idealist or constructivist picture of the
relation of – 2 - theory to reality. If reality is constituted by our thought about it, and that
thought systematically involves contrasting (even contradictory) aspects or moments, then
reality itself must embody the same contradictions.” Recusar essa possibilidade seria limitar o
pensamento a apenas um espaço do que poderia ser por ele abarcado.
“Negative reason is the activity of reason that drives thought determinations beyond
themselves and engenders the contradictions that so plague the understanding; speculation or
positive reason reconciles contradictions in a higher unity, enabling them to be included in a
rational system. In the system of speculative logic, each thought determination leads to
another that opposes it, and that opposition leads in turn to a new determination in which the
opposition is overcome.” - 3
“If an understanding of Hegel's thinking about human selfhood and society refers us to his
metaphysics, it is because the principal aim of Hegel's metaphysics is to address the
predicament of modern humanity in modern society.” – 6
“In contrast with his misestimate of himself as primarily a metaphysician and speculative
logician, Hegel's self-understanding on this point seems to me to contain a good deal of truth,
especially regarding ethical topics. In the area of moral philosophy, Hegel's thought represents
an attempt, in many ways strikingly successful, to remodel classical ethical theory, exhibiting
its fundamental soundness by investing it with the style, and adapting it to the content, of a
modern self-understanding.” – 7
“Few of Hegel's readers today find it natural to adopt rational theodicy as their fundamental
relation to their cultural predicament. Accordingly, they should be more willing than he was to
consider Hegel's conception of the vocation of modern individuals and its fulfillment in the
modern state in their practical meaning – as a project in rational ethics. To read Hegel in this
way is, admittedly, to read him in some measure against his own self-understanding; it is
nevertheless the only way in which most of us, if we are honest with ourselves, can read him
seriously at all.”
“This conception of philosophy rests on a second controversial idea: that although there is
much in the contingent, transitory world of existence and appearance that is not as it ought to
be, nevertheless the inner essence of things, viewed by speculative reason in its necessity, is
inevitably seen to be fully rational and hence spiritually satisfying. Because of this there can be
a genuine "science" of speculative logic, which deals entirely with the "thought
determinations" that constitute the conceptual essence of the world, and display themselves
in external reality. This science is philosophy proper, and its object is solely the "Idea"” - 9
“In some of his early lectures on the Philosophy of Right, prior to its publication in 1820, we get
a very different picture of the political implications of his philosophy from the one given in the
Preface.17 For instance, in 1819, Hegel puts his famous thesis in a slightly different way: "What
is actual becomes rational, and the rational becomes actual" (VPRig 151). Here the relation
between rationality and actuality is a dynamic one, asserting not the rationality of the status
quo but rather the rationality of social change. This harmonizes well with Hegel's sympathy
with the Reform Era, expressing Hegel's confidence that the Prussian state was evolving
toward rationality, becoming more and more like the "actual" or "rational" constitutional
monarchy of the Philosophy of Right. This same optimism is also expressed in a statement of
Hegel's thesis about the rationality of the actual from his Heidelberg lectures of 1817-1818:
"What is rational must happen, since on the whole the constitution is only its development"
(VPRIJ : 157).” - 13
Fichte tem uma posição semelhante ao falar que o sujeito (self) coloca a si mesmo (posits
itself) e que o sujeito (self) é um fazer e não um ser. A percepção de si é uma atividade de
reflexão acerca de outra atividade já dada. Hegel parte da teoria de Fichte: a individualidade
da vontade é resultado da sua atividade de autodeterminação. “But self-concern for Hegel is
always socially and culturally situated. An individual self is an expression of its culture's
historically developed understanding of human nature and its practical possibilities. Self-
concern is universal concern, but it is a socially and historically situated concern”. - 18
2. Spirit
Por isso é que Hegel pode afirmar que as diferentes buscas dos indivíduos podem ser
consideradas como um único grande movimento, uma tendência histórica com inteligibilidade
própria. A esse sujeito coletivo Hegel dá o nome de mente ou espírito (Geist). Toda a
humanidade e cada povo, seus espíritos nacionais, formam esse sujeito. Mente, para Hegel,
porém, não tem o sentido usual cartesiano de local onde pensamentos acontecem
(“nonspatial interior place where imaterial items”), mas o sentido aristotélico de forma ou
organização de um corpo. Ou seja, o comportamento coletivo dos seres humanos poderia ser
lido como algo organizado ou organizacional. – 19
“For Hegel, as for the classical theorists, the human essence or vocation is related closely to
the exercise of our rational powers, both theoretical and practical. Hegel's name for the
human determination, however, is not "happiness" but "freedom" (PR § 4; VG 54/47; VPR 4:
101; EG § 382).” - 20
3. Modern self-understanding
“Like utilitarianism, Hegel's ethical theory tells individuals to devote themselves to the good of
society, not solely to their own private good. But utilitarianism treats the social good as a
simple sum of individual goods; Hegel thinks of it in terms of a certain institutional structure
that is a "universal end," valuable in itself and not merely as a means to the good of
individuals. That is doubtless one reason why Hegel's ethical theory culminates in the
description of a rational social order, and not in an account of the good life for an individual or
a doctrine of duties for the regulation of our private lives.”
Mas a construção desse aparato não é determinada por fins coletivos, mas por uma concepção
moderna sobre o ser humano individualmente considerado. “The rational state is an end in
itself only because the highest stage of individual self-actualization consists in participating in
the state and recognizing it as such an end.” Nesse sentido, o pensamento ético de Hegel está
preocupado com o indivíduo e não com o coletivo. Isso aparece na sua introdução à PR: ser
humano individual como agente racional cuja liberdade deve ser atualizada.
4. Abstract right
“Abstract right is based on a distinctive human self-image: the person, a being capable of
arbitrary free choice (PR § 35,R) and demanding respect for this capacity in the form of an
external sphere within which to exercise it (PR § 41). This makes a person a property owner, a
subject of dominion over part of the external world (PR § 44). (…) A person is therefore a
subject of rights (PR § 36) - the sort of rights that the tradition calls "natural rights" and today
usually go by the name of "human rights."”
O conceito de pessoa nesse sentido surge na Roma imperial, pois na Grécia antiga havia uma
harmonia entre particularidade e universalidade no indivíduo, entre o sentido de si e seu papel
social. A reflexão levou à distanciação entre esses dois momentos, em Roma, e sua ênfase em
direitos inscritos em lei e privilégios individuais. – 22
“In pagan Rome, some had the right of personality, but some were excluded from it by their
status as slaves. Hegel thinks it was Christianity that first laid a foundation for the idea every
individual is a person, and it is only in the modern world that this Christian idea had found its
way systematically into social reality (…) This process of self-knowledge was associated with
the rise of another important modern self-image: the moral subject.” - 23
5. Morality
“Thus morality is concerned not only with my assertion of my right to act freely within a proper
sphere, but also with the worth of my actions as measured by the goodness or badness of my
will (PR §§ 131-133). Moral will is essentially a striving to overcome the gap between the
objective and the subjective, and to give itself a real expression in the objective world (PR §§ 8-
9, 109). Thus morality is inevitably concerned with the scope of my moral responsibility for
what happens in the world (PR §§ 115-120).” – 23
(…)
“The result of this process was a division within the self, an internalization of the outward
servitude, and the emergence of a new kind of self, one that regards itself as free only when it
sees itself as its own master. To this self, liberation consists in bringing the particular self-will
into conformity with the universal. Hegel has a special name for this task of liberation through
a self-discipline: He calls it Bildung - "culture," "education," or (self-)formation. It is out of the
discipline of Bildung that there emerges the true volitional "subject" or moral self (PhG Hf 488-
489; VG 65-66/56-57).
“In morality, the primitive Germanic respect for the integrity of the individual self is preserved,
yet the self is now identified not with its passing fancy or arbitrary self-will, but with the
"universal will" or "will in itself" which it is the task of the subject to actualize (PR § 106, R).
Individual freedom is valued because it is required for this task, and not merely out of primitive
Germanic stubbornness. This is the moral way of thinking, which has come to be an important
part of modern culture and common sense, and distinguishes modernity decisively from earlier
stages of the human spirit.” - 25
“What is most basic or primitive to a self, its first need, is love, "spirit's feeling of its own
unity." It finds its ethical place in the family, where one has "the self-consciousness of [one's]
individuality in this unity as an essentiality in and for itself, so that in it one is not a person for
oneself but a member" (PR § 158). Hegel thinks that family life satisfies a fundamental human
need for love or unity with others at the level of feeling.”
“it is a serious distortion of Hegel's meaning to think that the good of individuals is supposed
to be swallowed up in, or sacrificed to, some quite different end. Hegel maintains that the
modern state works only because the universal life of the state provides for the subjective
freedom and particular happiness of its members. The "rationality" of the modern state
consists in the "thoroughgoing unity of universality and individuality" (PR § 257R). "The
principle of modern states has this tremendous strength and depth, that it lets the principle of
subjectivity complete itself in the independent extreme of personal particularity, and
simultaneously brings it back to substantial unity" (PR § 260).
“Hegel rejects the common view that patriotism is the readiness to make sacrifices for the sake
of one's country. He insists that it is rather "the disposition that habitually knows the
community as the substantial foundation and end in the usual conditions and relationships of
life" (PR § 268R). Far from being a disposition to sacrifice oneself for the state, patriotism is
closely allied to "trust," the sense that one's own particular self-interest is "contained and
preserved in another's: whereby this other is immediately no other for me, and in this
consciousness I am free" (PR § 268).
“Hegel does hold that all particular interests must give way to the universal interest of the
state in time of war (PR §§ 323-325). But he does so precisely because he takes war to be the
extreme case in which the universal interest can (for once) be clearly distinguished from the
particular. The state has "stability" only insofar as the universal end is "identical" with
particular ends (PR § 265A); war strengthens the state only in the sense that it poses a threat
to its stability, and a healthy state grows stronger for overcoming the threat.” – 28
“The state is an institution in which human beings make rational collective decisions about the
form of their life together. In the family, such decisions are very limited, not only in scope but
also through the fact that the family is held together by feelings of love rather than by rational
thought. In civil society, the common mode of life is the result of rational choices, but of
isolated individual choices and not collective ones. For this reason, civil society can be
apprehended as a rational form of social life only from the higher standpoint of the state, and
Hegel describes the rationality of civil society as an illusion or "show" (Schein) (PR § 189).”
Família depende economicamente da vida da sociedade civil e família e sociedade civil
dependem e estão subordinadas ao Estado. Já o Estado é soberano e não depende de nada
maior. – 29
“States are therefore the "material" of world history, the concrete agents of world-historical
development (VG I I I - I 12/93-94). Thus it is through my relation to my state that I as an
individual acquire a genuine and positive relation to the process of world history (PR § 348).”
“Hegel's picture of the state has lost a good deal of its credibility in our century. The political
states we know have long been divided into great world empires; the political processes of
even the most powerful states are at the mercy of multinational corporations and other
geopolitical social and economic influences. State sovereignty is sometimes a just demand,
sometimes an unconvincing ploy (sometimes both at once), sometimes an approximation,
seldom a full reality. If the most powerful states may still claim to be the greatest powers on
earth, even they have credible competitors in the form of international political or religious
movements, as well as drug cartels and other multinational corporations.
“For these reasons, it is only too evident to us that the political state cannot play the role,
whether in the life of the individual or in the collective life of the human race, which Hegel
tried to assign it. But it doesn't follow that we as rational beings don't have the needs that the
Hegelian state was supposed to fulfill. Hegel's theory of the state may still teach us a great deal
about ourselves and our aspirations, even if the lesson cannot have the joyful effect on us
Hegel intended it to have (PR Preface 27).” - 30
8. A self-actualization theory
“Hegel's self-actualization theory represents a distinctive type of ethical theory, different from
both deontological and teleological theories. It begins neither with an imperative, law, or
principle to be followed nor with the idea of an end to be achieved. Its starting point is the
conception of a certain self or identity to be exercised or actualized, to be embodied and
expressed in action. The theory selects the actions to be performed and the ends to be
pursued because they are the actions and ends of that kind of self. In such a theory, laws and
commandments owe their force to the fact that they turn out to be principles which the right
sort of self would follow. Ends owe their desirability to the fact that they turn out to be the
ends which that sort of self would pursue.”
Mas isso não significa que a autoatualização será o fim do indivíduo (self). Na autoatualização,
o indivíduo faz a coisa certa e busca os fins certo, mas o conteúdo da autoatualização não é
discernível dessas ações e fins. “In a theory like Hegel's, "self-actualization" is not to begin with
an end with a specifiable content to which such a self directs its efforts. From one point of
view, self-actualization is simply a by-product of acting in certain ways, following certain
principles and successfully pursuing other ends.” – 31
9. Historicized naturalism
“Hegel's theory, in contrast, might be called a dialectical or historicized naturalism. It views the
human nature to be actualized as a historical product, the result of a dialectical process of
experience involving the acquisition of self-knowledge, the struggle to actualize the self, and
an interaction between these activities, which modifies the self that is known and actualized.
Historicized naturalism provides for a variable and malleable notion of the human good in a
way that classical naturalism does not.” – 33
“Historicized naturalism does face a problem of indeterminacy when it comes to the good of
future generations, which classical naturalism does not. Some things about people's needs and
the conditions of their self-actualization will, no doubt, remain the same; and some changes
might even be predictable. Yet if human self-understanding is always growing, and if the action
based on it is always modifying and deepening the nature of human beings, then the
historicized naturalist must confess that our present self-conception is inadequate, in ways we
can never hope to repair, for deciding the good of future human beings.
“Hegel is clearly aware of this limitation, and resigned to it. That is why he tells us that every
individual is a child of his own time, which he can no more overleap than he can jump over
Rhodes; that the Owl of Minerva begins its flight only at dusk (PR Preface 25-26).” - 34
2 Freedom
1. Hegel and freedom
Liberdade, na matriz liberal, em geral significa uma esfera de privacidade na qual o indivíduo
pode fazer como quiser. Ter liberdade significaria estabelecer limites à interferência legítima
nos indivíduos. Hegel também defende a existência de limites ao poder estatal. Critica a
concepção de Fichte de um controle mais rigoroso pelo Estado. Por exemplo, forças policiais
não poderiam entrar em residências privadas sem ordem especial para tal.
Mas sua visão sobre a liberdade não é liberal. Defende uma dose de paternalismo estatal para
proteger as pessoas em ruína econômica. Que os limites de interferência não se aplicam em
tempos de guerra. Mas a principal diferença está no que fato de que, apesar de afirmar a
existência de limites à interferência estatal, Hegel não especifica esses limites e tampouco
compartilha o medo liberal de que seria necessário guardar a esfera privada constantemente
contra o Estado. “In Hegel's view, the whole strength of the modern state lies in the fact that
its unity depends on its preservation of subjective freedom (PR § 260). Why should we fear
that the state will want to undermine its own foundation?” - 36
[nota 4: “It is not clear whether Hegel means to say only that (1) we are able to act
against any of our desires, however powerful; or whether he means to make the even
stronger claim that (2) we are capable of acting against all our desires at once -in
effect, that we are capable of acting in a way prompted by none of our desires and
against which all our desires speak. In favor of (1) is the fact that Hegel insists (PR § 5)
that the power of abstraction is incapable of any positive action; in order to do anything,
he holds, the will must particularize itself (PR § 6), and this apparently means bringing
into play at least one of its particular desires. But in favor of (2) is Hegel's apparent
belief that there is such a thing as "negative freedom," which attempts to actualize the self
as nothing but the power of abstraction. Hegel plainly regards negative freedom as irrational
and wholly destructive, but if he thinks it is possible at all, that would seem to imply a kind of
action that defies all particular desires at once.” - p. 264]
Outra ainda é a noção de liberdade negativa: “a particular (misguided) sort of action. It is the
practice of those who regard all forms of "particularity" (such as determinate desires, traits, or
social roles) as alien to their true selfhood, and who therefore "flee from every content as a
restriction." Hegel perceives such an irrational flight in the religious world, where Oriental
mystics seek liberation by emptying their minds of all content and activity. He sees it also in
the social world, where French revolutionaries failed because they identified freedom with the
destruction of every "particularization of organizations and individuals" (PR § 5R).”
Para o que geralmente usamos o termo liberdade negativa, Hegel usa termos como liberdade
pessoal (em referência à esfera do direito abstrato), civil ou burguesa (em relação à esfera da
sociedade civil).
“The kind of freedom Hegel discusses most often in the Philosophy of Right is "subjective
freedom." This term alludes indirectly to noninterference, but what it directly refers to is a
kind of action, one that is reflective, conscious, explicitly chosen by the agent, as opposed to
actions performed unthinkingly, habitually, or from coercion (PR §§ 185R, 228R, 258R, 270R,
273R, 274, 301, 316; cf. PR §§ 132, 138, 140R). Subjective freedom also includes actions that
satisfy the agent's particular needs or interests, especially the agent's reflective interest in
seeing our chosen plans and projects carried successfully to completion (PR §§ 121, i85R,A,
258R, 299R).” - 38
4. Freedom as a good
“One idea behind Hegel's revision of the idea of freedom is that properly speaking, freedom
must be something good. The reasoning is simple. Hegel thinks that the primary human good
consists in an actuality, more specifically, in absolute freedom. Freedom as possibility is good
chiefly or even solely because it is a necessary condition for absolute freedom. If freedom is a
good, then naturally the name "freedom" belongs more properly to what is good in itself than
it does to something whose goodness consists in being a necessary condition for what is good
in itself” - 40
6. Absolute self-activity
Para Hegel, autossuficiência significa que a vontade não tem nada externo como seu conteúdo,
objeto ou fim. A vontade livre que quer/deseja a vontade livre. “This conception of freedom
surely must strike many of us as hopelessly extravagant and metaphysical. But in the age of
German idealism, its social and political significance was vivid and immediate. It was a
philosophical expression of the bourgeoisie's struggle against feudal economic and political
forms, and the Enlightenment's demand that we should think for ourselves, in defiance of the
"positivity" of traditional morality and religious authority. The modern spirit, according to
Hegel, is one that claims "an absolute title for subjective self-consciousness to know within
itself and from itself what duty and right is, and to recognize nothing except what it knows as
the good" (PR § 137R).” - 43
“It expresses the sense that we are still in need of a radical liberation whose content cannot
become clear to us until we have been liberated; at the same time, it suggests a radically open
future which frightens those who imagine the ways in which the uncompromising demand for
freedom may go disastrously astray.”
“Freedom is always Beisichselbstsein in einem Andern, "being with oneself in an other." This is
the way "being with oneself" gives expression to Hegel's new conception of the relation
between self and other, and so to his reconceptualization of absolute self-activity. It also
entails that absolute freedom is not merely a state of – 45 - the self or its action, but also
involves a relation between the self and its circumstances.”
“Hegel's spirit is a model of human agency. According to it, the agent creates or "posits" an
external "object." This object is not merely the external shadow of an internal intention that
was fully actual and self-complete within itself, but something through which I discover myself.
A spiritual being actualizes itself only through the process of producing or "positing" such
objects and then "mediating" this otherness with the self that posited it. I learn what I am
through the interpretation, by myself and by others, of what I have done. As a spiritual being, I
do not exist fully and actually except through these contrary and complementary movements
of "becoming other" and "mediating otherness," that is, through the activities of self-
expression and self-interpretation. – 46
“Freedom for Hegel is a relational property. It involves a self, an object (in the widest sense of
that term), and a rational project of the self. Any object, simply as object, is an "other" to the
self whose object it is. But because a self is actual by identifying itself with a set of rational
projects involving objects, the otherness of an object can be overcome when the object is
integrated into the self's rational projects. A self is with itself or free in an objectwith respect
to a rational project if that object belongs to that project, becoming a part of that self.” - 47
9. Freedom in my determinations
“A choice is absolutely free only when I am "with myself" in it. This requires that it be
specifically characteristic of me, integrated reflectively into my other choices, and standing in a
rational relation to my desires, traits, projects, and my total situation. I am free or "with
myself" in my "contents" or "determinations" - my desires and my choices — when they
harmonize with the practical system constituting my self-identity as an agent - with the
"rational system of volitional determination" which I am (PR § 19).” - 49
“Of course, Hegel does not think that we are free only in doing our duties. Unlike Fichte, he
does not maintain fanatically that even our bodily survival should have "no other purpose than
to live and to be an effective tool for the promotion of the end of reason" (SL 268/284). He
insists that subjective freedom and particular self-satisfaction are the foundation of morality,
and that ethical duties liberate us only because we fulfill our particularity through them (PR §§
121-124, 152-154, 162,R, 185-189, 260; cf. EG § 475). By the same token, it is clearly not
Hegel's view that we could be "liberated" by being compelled to perform our duties (whether
through police power or, more subtly, through social pressure). We are with ourselves in our
duties only if we have rational knowledge of or insight into the worth of what we do (PR § 132,
R); the chief avowed purpose of the Philosophy of Right is to provide this knowledge (PR
Preface 13).
“Finally, duty does not liberate us unless it is true that we actualize ourselves through fulfilling
our duties. Duty is liberation only because fulfilling duty is a "coming to the essence, to the
truth of the will" (VPRj: 490; cf. PR §§ 24, 149A). Our best reason for resisting Hegel's assertion
that "duty liberates" is a healthy skepticism concerning Hegel's view that the fulfillment of our
duties in a modern social order really contributes to a concretely free and rational life.” - 51
“The other Hegelian reply to such liberal arguments is that they beg the question in supposing
that freedom, properly speaking, is a different good from self-actualization. Hegel's theory
identifies freedom as the Bestimmung of human beings, the essence of the self to be
actualized.” - 52
3 Happiness
1. Happiness: ancient and modern
“Classical ethics thereby takes two other things for granted as well: first, the objectivity of
happiness; second, the egoistic orientation of ethics. Both have been brought into question by
modern ethical thought.” - 53
“It still makes sense to distinguish happiness from of freedom, and to treat freedom as the
prior good, because the desire for happiness is only one side of freedom. Happiness or
individual well-being is the whole of satisfaction relating to only some of our desires: those
arising from our immediate natural drives and belonging to the will's "particularity" (PR §§
122-125). The Philosophy of Right describes a whole system of rational volition.” - 71
9. Right in general
“The aim of the Philosophy of Right is to develop the Idea of right, that is, to expound the
concept of right and present its full actualization (PR § 1). In Hegel's vocabulary, "right" is a
technical term, whose broadest meaning is explained as follows: "Right is: that existence which
is in any way an existence of the free will" (PR § 29). "Existence" (Dasein) here means
something objective, something "immediately external" to the will (PR § 26). Thus in Hegel's
technical usage "right" refers to a thing or object, something that – 71 - counts as other than
the will. But it is an other in which the free will is with itself. A right is a thing in which the free
will has successfully actualized itself or accomplished its ends. "Right" means "freedom
objectified," or (as Hegel also puts it) "freedom as Idea" (PR § 29).” - 72
10. Hegel's institutionalism
(…)
Para Fichte, em uma primeira análise temos um self que se define através de sua atividade.
Agindo sobre os objetos externos do mundo, ele altera o mundo, tornando-se consciente da
atividade e o próprio objeto. A autopercepção passa por uma percepção da passagem do
tempo. Isso coloca um problema, pois seria sempre necessário pressupor um objeto anterior
para o self e uma autopercepção prévia, se houvesse sempre uma relação de dependência
entre a autopercepção e os objetos externos. Fichte introduz um objetivo diferente através do
qual a atividade de self já se combina com uma limitação da própria atividade em um
momento temporal singular. - 78 – Esse objeto precisa ser um ser consciente capaz de ação
livre a de manifestar-se de acordo com um conceito, caso contrário não conseguiria produzir
esse tipo de cognição. Ou seja, temos que, para a realização de um ser autoconsciente,
pressupomos um outro ser autoconsciente. Esses dois devem estar em uma relação de efeito
recíproco e a essa relação Fichte dá o nome de “reconhecimento” (Anerkennung), uma
característica própria da humanidade. - 79
Isso é possível quando se designa uma esfera externa limitada para cada um na qual a pessoa
pode agir livremente – esfera essa que é mutuamente reconhecida entre os membros da
humanidade. Inicialmente essa esfera é o próprio corpo, mas é estendida para abarcar o
campo de escolhas livros do ser racional. Isso se dá principalmente através de um tipo de
contrato específico, a propriedade.
Hegel, de certa forma, tenta resolver esse problema na teoria de Fichte. Para Hegel, o
reconhecimento não é uma condição transcendental para a possibilidade de autoconsciência,
mas um processo e um processo que tem relações com a História. Esse reconhecimento dos
indivíduos como pessoas com direitos abstratos seria um produto da sociedade moderna, algo
que não existia nas sociedades pré-modernas. Essa transformação implicaria em um
conhecimento mais profundo da natureza humana. - 83
Esse desejo se satisfaz na “nothingness” desse objeto ou outro, que é sempre um objeto/outro
no mundo externo e nunca um estado mental subjetivo. A certeza de si apenas é alcançável
através de algo externo. – 84 – Algo cuja independência é negada através do uso ou do
consumo, como quando como uma fruta, ou através da conformação da coisa. Em linhas
gerais, quando a coisa é integrada aos meus planos e projetos como objeto a serviço desses.
Entretanto, se esses objetos se limitam a serem objetos não-humanos, a satisfação é apenas
momentânea e secundária, pois eles não confirmam uma concepção que tenho de mim, mas
apenas deixam-se fazer nada através do exercício da minha vontade sobre eles. Essa
satsifação apenas é possível quando o desejo de certeza de si vem de fora de si. Quando o
objeto se torna outros indivíduos (“another self”). “It is only in relation to another free self
that I can be truly free, "with myself in another" as regards my self-certainty. Thus the full
actualization of spirit is possible only through the relation between selves that recognize each
other.” - 85
8. Universal self-consciousness
A lição da relação entre mestre e escravo é que o reconhecimento pelo domínio é sempre um
fracasso, pois exige o impossível, que o outro seja livre e independente (caso contrário seu
reconhecimento não vale (quase) nada) e, ao mesmo tempo, abra mão da sua liberdade e
independência no ato de reconhecer a outrem. O problema é que o mestre busca
autossuficiente através do reconhecimento (apenas) de si. A solução é uma autoconsciência
universal. Com isso, Hegel resolve o problema de Fichte da reciprocidade. Essa autoconsciência
universal, porém, não é o reconhecimento mútuo, mas a substância da vida ética. - 89
“Hegel's conclusion is virtually identical to Fichte's, but his route to the conclusion is very
different. It is not a transcendental argument from the conditions for self-consciousness, but
an argument about the conditions under which human beings can gain a sense of freedom and
self-worth through their relations with others.” – 91 – “We might say that the argument
presupposes that if a certain self-conception enables the self to achieve its basic desires, that is
a sign that this self-conception is correct. But since having a certain self-conception is part of
what makes a self what it is, it might be more accurate to put it another way: A self actualizes
itself when it makes itself into what it needs to be in order to satisfy its desire for self-
certainty. It turns out that in order to do this, a self must become a free person, through
participating in a community of recognition or universal self-consciousness, and becoming
aware of itself as a free person. When it has done this, its conception of itself as a free person
will be correct, and constitute knowledge of itself.” - 92
Para Hegel, temos um dever positivo de afirmar nossa personalidade através dessa esfera, o
que é feito através da propriedade (“property ownership”, inclui posse e afins, não é
propriedade no sentido técnico jurídico). Através do direito de propriedade, temos a pessoa,
pois é através dele que a personalidade tem uma esfera externa suficiente para exercitar sua
liberdade abstrata. A propriedade da pessoa é a parte do mundo externo sobre a qual recai a
esfera de escolha arbitrária daquela pessoa. Uma coisa é algo diferente do espírito livre, é algo
sem direito, sem fim, sem destino, que não servir aos seres racionais.
A coisa é apropriada através do uso (PR59R), consumindo a coisa e mostrar sua natureza
“selfless” (PR59). São primariamente os objetos naturais, pois são imediatos. O que não é, em
princípio, imediato, pode tornar-se imediato através da ação do espírito, reduzindo “what is
inner to immediacy and externality” (PR43R). Com isso, coisas como habilidades mentais,
conhecimentos e artes podem ser tratadas como coisas e vendidas e compradas. Porém,
Hegel alerta que isso não pode incluir pessoas, nem mesmo crianças (PR3R, 43R, 175, 175R).
Isso é feito através da educação [Bildung] (PR43R, 57, 57R), que é a capacidade de subordinar
– 96 - o particular ao universal (PR20, PhG488), ou seja, a capacidade que nos permite entrar
em reconhecimento mútuo com outras pessoas. A dialética do reconhecimento estabelece as
condições através das quais os indivíduos tomam posse de si. É importante notar, porém, que,
para Hegel, do ponto de vista dos outros, que já sou uma pessoa. Há uma pressuposição de
que os outros são pessoas, mesmo que aquela pessoa ainda não tenha se educado a esse
ponto (PR48). Uma implicação, por exemplo, é que devemos tratar crianças, pessoas com
complicações mentais e, de forma geral, todos que não tomaram posse de seus corpos e
mentes como pessoas. - 97
Em outro contexto, Hegel argumenta que a moralidade não pode ser objeto da lei positiva
(PR213). – 99 – Isso pode ser interpretado de duas formas: não deve haver essa legislação, pois
é errado que a lei positiva invada o que é particular e subjetivo; não é possível que haja essa
legislação, pois, a moralidade pertence a um aspecto da personalidade inacessível à coerção
legal. O segundo sentido é claramente falso, ainda que existam limitações até onde o Estado
consegue ir nessa sua tentativa. A primeira opção, por outro lado, não resolve o que é que
seria subjetivo ou particular demais, ou o suficiente, para ser objeto da lei positiva e porque
seria errado fazê-lo. O mesmo problema se repete nessa questão da (in)alienabilidade dos
direitos à personalidade. Melhor teria sido se Hegel tivesse mantida a mesma teoria de “self-
ownership” para todos os casos, vendo todos esses elementos como objetos externos. Por
exemplo, o direito à consciência moral ou religiosa seria “right to form our thoughts and
feelings and express them through words and actions without harassment or fear of reprisal”.
[nota 12: Apenas existe esse ‘direito superior’ do Esado quando temos um Estado racional, ou
seja, um “a human community structured in certain determinate ways which ensure that
the values and interests involved in a modern rational self-understanding are protected
and actualized”. Em um Estado moderno, isso inclui, necessariamente, tratar seus membros
como pessoas, respeitando e protegendo os direitos abstratos. O Estado que falha nessa
proteção ou mesmo os viola diretamente, não é um Estado, mas despotismo (PR270R). Hegel
fala em direitos “within the state” ao invés de direitos “against the state” (PR261R). Ou seja, o
que para nós são direitos contra o Estado, para Hegel são parte do Estado enquanto
instituição. – 269]
Apesar do direito abstrato à vida não incluir o direito à subsistência, mas apenas o direito de
não ser morto (PR49R), Hegel afirma que, quando o que está em risco “is a person’s particular
interests as a whole, in the form of personal existence or life”, a vida prevalece sobre os
direitos de propriedade de outrem. Hegel usa o termo tradicional “direito de necessidade”
[Notrecht, ius necessitatis] (PR127). – 102
“As far as I know, he is completely silent on the question of what we should do when we are
confronted with an unjust law which the authorities expect us to obey. It would be consistent
with his views to adopt a policy of absolute obedience even to unjust laws, on the ground that
by and large the state and the legal system are rational and so we should avoid doing anything
that might tend to undermine them. (Of course, this argument tends to lose its force in
proportion to the number and gravity of the injustices with which we are dealing.) Such a
policy, however, is neither articulated by Hegel nor required by any of his views. On the other
hand, it is positively inconsistent with Hegel's explicit account of legal obligation to maintain
that we are obligated by right to obey unjust laws.”
“More generally, Hegel's position seems to be that the conception of individuals as persons
provides modern society with an ethical spirit, with which the letter of positive law can either
harmonize or clash (VPRig: 175). Obviously what some people want at this point is something
more than an "ethical spirit" with which to compare the letter of the law; they want a rational
decision procedure that settles disputes about which laws are just and unjust, and provides us
with a systematic justification for judgments about this in particular cases. It seems to be
Hegel's position, however, that they won't get what they want;- 105 - questions of this kind
must be considered in their particular historical and social context, and it is competent
legislators and jurists who are most likely to give wise and reasoned answers to them. Such
answers can always be subjected to rational scrutiny, and sometimes we can see them to be
the wrong answers; but no general theory will help us to do any better”. - 106
7. Private property
“Hegel himself introduces one significant restriction on private property with his doctrine that
the partners in a marriage are not individual persons but together constitute a single person
(PR §§, 158, 168). He thinks that the resources of a nuclear family are held by its members in
common.” (PR171) O administrator normal é o pai, mas ele não tem um direito maior ou
privado sobre os bens acima dos outros membros da família, logo há limites sobre como pode
dispor do patrimônio na ocasião da sua morte (PR179R, 180R).
A esfera do direito abstrato não gera nenhuma implicação quanto aos diferentes montantes de
propriedade entre as pessoas, mas as esferas da moralidade e vida ética podem trazem
considerações para eventuais problemas. – 106 – Riqueza e pobreza são questão de
moralidade e sociedade civil. Não de direito abstrato (PR46R). A única consideração que Hegel
faz é que, mesmo na esfera do direito abstrato, a igualdade de que todas as pessoas possam
possuir alguma propriedade (PR49A), mas não é claro como isso deriva do restante da sua
teoria sobre direito abstrato. “But it is difficult to see how Hegel's theory could provide any
reason for insisting that each person must own some property, that is not also a reason for
insisting that each person own enough property (and the right sort of property) to guarantee
an external sphere of freedom sufficient to fulfill the individual's free personality. (…) To
defend the centrality of the institution of private property in actualizing the abstract rights of
persons, Hegel needs to show that in its actual consequences this institution is compatible with
a social order in which the status of a free person is not a mere sham for many members of
society.”
“What is fundamental to Hegel's conception of abstract right is the insistence that social
arrangements should make ample provision for this side of human self-actualization.” - 107
6 Punishment
1. Retributivism
Hegel é adepto de uma teoria retributiva da punição, no sentido que ele rejeita todas as
teorias que tentam justificar a punição por algum “bem” que ele traria. O que é importa é que
crime seja cancelado e não eu um mal seja produzido. Nesse sentido, ele concorda com Kant e
se afasta de Fichte. Sua teoria da punição pertence à esfera do direito abstrato, pois o crime é
uma violação (“wrong”) do direito abstrato (PR81). O crime é um ato de coerção que viola a
vontade livre na sua existência externa (PR92) e o faz intencionalmente e sabendo que o faz
(PR95). Tem uma existência externa, positiva, mas, em si, é uma nulidade, algo nulo [nichtig]
(PR97). O que é nulo “within itself” pede pela sua própria anulação na forma da justiça
[Gerechitkeit] (PR101). Se isso é feito por uma pessoa privada, temos a vingança, que é
vingança apenas no conteúdo, pois, na forma, é uma nova violação do direito (PR102).
“From the standpoint of the wrongdoer who suffers the just revenge, the private act of
vengeance is just. But if the avenger is only a private person, from the avenger's standpoint
the act of vengeance is merely a new crime, which calls for its own annulment. Hence Hegel
argues that revenge leads naturally to an endless series of wrongs, perpetuating itself from
generation to generation (PR § 102). Final justice can be done only when crime is annulled not
by a private will but by the universal will, the public authority of the state, in the form of the
court of justice (PR §§ 219—220). Only this authoritative annulment of crime is ‘punishment’
strictly so-called (PR § 103).” Mas isso não muda o fato que a punição, em si, é uma violação
do direito abstrato do criminoso, se pensada de forma isolada e mesmo que em resposta a um
crime. – 109 – O desafio da teoria de Hegel é mostrar como é justificável que o Estado faça
algo que, se não fosse pelo cometimento do crime, o Estado jamais teria o direito de fazer. -
110
Mas isso não parece uma teoria da retribuição, pois a afirmação do direito parece mais a
promoção de um bem, o reconhecimento público da validade do direito, do que uma
retribuição. Afinal, qual seria o sentido disso senão por um motivo consequencialista de
prevenção de crimes futuros? Além disso, essa construção parece mais explicar por que o
Estado reprova o crime e menos justificar o que a punição faz. – 110 – “It is one thing to say
that people are entitled to freedom of speech or proprietorship over parts of the earth, even
that they are entitled to having their freedom or property protected by the state. It is another
thing to say that they are entitled to have these things protected in a certain way, by the
state's inflicting evil on those who interfere with freedom or property.” - 111
Nulidade também se liga à ideia de Hegel que o crime é uma espécie de aparência [ Schein],
pois é a existência externa de algo que vai contra seu conceito. A punição manifestaria a
nulidade do crime ao afirmar o direito, portanto ao revelar que, na verdade, o crime era
aparência (PR82). – 112 – O que tampouco justifica a punição.
Por último, Hegel fala em nulidade não do crime, mas da vontade do criminoso. Sua
manifestação é contraditória consigo mesmo (PR92). Ao querer a violação do direito da vítima,
a vontade do criminoso também quereria a violação do seu próprio direito, o que é feito
através a punição. Isso parece de acordo com a afirmativa de Hegel de que a punição é um
direito do criminoso, pois é algo querido por ele, uma lei que ele reconhece para si mesmo
(PR100) – a lei, ou o direito, de violar a liberdade. – 113 – Nesse sentido, Hegel concorda com
Beccaria que o criminoso deve consentir para ser punido, mas, para Hegel, seu próprio ato
seria esse consentimento (PR100A). Hegel até insiste que esse é um consentimento expresso e
não tácito (VPR4:291). - 114
4. Consenting to be punished
Em Beccaria, o contrato social é um consentimento prévio a uma punição possível futura. Em
Hegel, o cometimento do crime atualiza uma lei que permite que outros violem meu direito na
mesma medida em que meu crime violou o direito da vítima. Considerando a natureza mútua
e recíproca que Hegel atribui à construção da esfera externa de atuação, o argumento seria
que “by invading another's sphere of freedom I declare by my action that I no longer recognize
that right as inviolable. My declaration applies most directly not to the other's right (since the
other has not joined in the declaration), but rather to my own right. In effect, my crime is an
act of consent to someone else's invasion of my own sphere of freedom to the same extent
that I have invaded the sphere of my victim.” Como a vítima não renunciou, e ninguém mais o
fez, na prática, apenas o criminoso realizou esse renúncia. (PR100) – 114 – Ou seja, a lei
enunciada é válida apenas o agente da sua enunciação, o criminoso. Por isso o vontade
criminosa é autodestrutiva, pois o único direito a que essa vontade renuncia é ao seu próprio. -
115
5. The incompleteness of Hegel's theory
Um primeiro problema da teoria de Hegel é que ela apenas funciona se criminoso e vítima
considerarem a si próprios e mutuamente como pessoas com direitos abstratos. Entretanto, o
próprio Hegel reconhece que a sociedade moderna cria uma classe de pessoas sem direitos ou
deveres, o populacho (“rabble”, PR244). Se elas estão fora deste sistema de reconhecimento
mútuo – 115 -, a teoria de Hegel nada nos diz sobre o que fazer quando elas violam direitos de
outros.
Uma teoria retributiva deve responder duas perguntas: qual o fundamento para a punição de
um criminoso; quando a razão positiva para que o Estado efetivamente imponha uma punição.
Hegel responde a primeira pergunta e parece querer responder a segunda da mesma forma,
como realização da vontade racional do criminoso. A teoria de Hegel explica por que não é,
exatamente, uma violação de direito a punição do criminoso, mas não quais as razões positivas
para a punição. Por exemplo, não é claro que o Estado falha em honrar a vontade do criminoso
se optar por não puni-lo. – 116 – Consentir com algo não é o mesmo que exigi-lo.
“Hegel might try to obtain a retributivist justification for punishing from his other claim, that
punishment is required because it is ‘in itself just’ owing to the fact that the criminal act is ‘null
within itself.’ But I have confessed defeat in the attempt to render that claim defensible (or
even fully intelligible). My conclusion must be that nothing defensible in Hegel's theory of
punishment is capable of providing a retributivist reason why criminals should actually be
punished.” Parece que a teoria de Hegel precisaria ser complementada por consideração não-
retributivas para justificar a necessidade da punição ou sua utilidade, que é o mesmo nesse
caso. - 116
Hegel expressamente quer incluir todos esses como crimes submetidos ao mesmo tratamento
(PR95R), mas não é claro como sua teoria da punição construída no direito abstrato se aplica a
esses, pois não há a violação da esfera de direito abstrato que havia justificado a punição
antes. “Hegel the renowned statist seems to have no justification for punishing crimes against
the state.” – 118 – Em tese, Hegel poderia argumentar que indiretamente essas leis protegem
os dirietos individuais, pois garantem a propósito básico da lei, mas Hegel não emprega essa
estratégia. Além disso, a teoria de Hegel explica porque devemos ter leis contra a violação de
direitos das pessoas, mas não por que a violação desses direitos é punível apenas quando
assume a forma de violação à lei.
Nos escritos de Jena, Hegel chega a esboçar uma teoria alternativa na qual o crime seria a
violação da vontade universal da comunidade (JR244/130-131). Essa é, na verdade, uma teoria
retributiva e que nem mesmo é desenvolvida por Hegel. Não justifica a punição. Não explica
quando o “universal” tem direito de “cancelar” o “individual”. “It is the greatest strength of his
mature theory of punishment that it addresses itself to the problem of showing how the state
may punish a criminal without violating the criminal's right. Hegel simply has no theory that
solves this problem and also justifies the punishment of everything he regards as a crime.” -
119
Esse valor é função das necessidades e expectativas das pessoas. Varia com o tempo e o local.
A lei criminal é assunto para o legislador positivo e não para a reflexão filosófica abstrata
(PR96A, 218). Isso pode parecer estranho, pois uma teoria retributiva estaria permitindo que
questões consequencialistas determinassem a punição. Entretanto, se, seguindo a parte 5
desse capítulo, entendemos que a teoria de Hegel visa apenas estabelecer um limite ao direito
de punir do Estado, isso não seria um problema, ainda que não deixe de ser uma versão
bastante modificada do que se pensa por retributivismo. De qualquer forma, a noção de valor
empregada por Hegel parece insuficiente. Valor seria uma função da necessidade satisfeita
pela coisa. – 120 – No caso de um crime que invade minha personalidade, essa noção não
parece fazer sentido. - 121
“On the other hand, if the death penalty is illegitimate because the right not to be killed is
immune to forfeiture, then we ought also to ask whether I can alienate or forfeit my liberty for
the whole of my life. Free status is explicitly included among inalienable rights (PR § 66). Hegel
regards the alienation of one's free activity for the whole future as impermissible, since it is
equivalent to the alienation of one's free status (PR § 67). From this it follows that life
imprisonment is just as illegitimate a punishment as death. Hegel himself appears to endorse
this argument at least in his lectures”. (VPR17:56)
5. Subjectivity
A moralidade é um ponto de vista limitado, mas não falso. Entretanto, nesse período a
moralidade ainda não cumpre nenhum papel positivo. Isso muda conforme Hegel desenvolve
uma teoria sobre a sociedade civil.
Hegel também inclui no “propósito” aquilo que não se sabia, mas que pertenciam à natureza
da própria ação (PR118R). Essa “natureza” é aquilo que apreendemos através da reflexão
racional sobre a coisa e suas conexões com outras coisas (EL23 3). Hegel fala em dolus directus e
dolus indirectus (VPR4:326; EG5054).
Hegel também fala da “intenção” [Absicht], que é a essência subjetiva da ação que explica por
que o agente fez aquilo (PR121A). É como o agente quer que sua ação seja caracterizada ou
sua razão interna. – 141 – Hegel fala em um “direito da intenção”, que significa que um ato
apenas pode ser imputado se o agente entende essa descrição. Por isso, uma criança muito
pequena para entender o conceito de propriedade não pode ser imputado por um roubo.
Além disso, significa que o agente tem o direito que sua ação seja considerada a luz dessa
intenção.
“As in the case of an act's purpose, however, when we judge an act's intention we must take
into account that a responsible agent is a thinker who must understand the nature of the
action. Hence the right of intention is not a right to accept responsibility for an action only in
terms of some preferred description. I must also accept responsibility for what I do under
those descriptions that, as a rational agent, I ought to have known.” Ou seja, ao “direito de
intenção” corresponde um “direito da objetividade da ação” (PR120). Não basta considerar as
descrições que o agente desejou. Devemos considerar também as descrições que ele sabia ou
deveria saber. - 142
3. The good
O bem é a finalidade da moralidade (PR129). – 144 – No sujeito moral, temos a união entre
universal e particular, dando origem à individualidade (PR7). Ou seja, é através da
autorrealização (“self-actualization”) da razão no mundo se dá apenas através de sujeitos
humanos autoconscientes. Em um momento posterior, isso vai significar devotar-se a fins
superiores à minha satisfação individual, ao Estado (PR258). Mas esses fins ainda seriam parte
do bem, pois não deixaram de ser fins racionais estabelecidos por sujeitos morais em busca do
bem. Além disso, a substância desses fins superiores será o direito e o bem-estar dos
indivíduos (PR265A).
(…)
“Kantians may object that abstracting from self-satisfaction with respect to motivation is not
the same thing as ignoring the existence of these desires or trying to extirpate them - a course
to which Kant is opposed every bit as much as Hegel (R 57/50). The morally relevant question
is only whether our action is motivated by the desire for that benefit or by the thought of duty.
If Hegel is correct, though, then this is not a morally relevant question at all; it may not even be
a meaningful question. In practice, Kant's criterion of moral worth estranges moral worth from
self-satisfaction. It encourages us to think that we cannot esteem ourselves unless we act from
an outlandish supernatural motive which no one ever really has.” - 172
10 Conscience
1. The role of conscience in Hegelian ethics
Há uma diferença relevante entre PR e PhG. No primeiro, o vazio da moralidade leva à vida
ética. No segundo, há uma resposta dentro do ponto de vista moral, a consciência. O ponto de
vista da consciência é uma ética situacional. Ela escolha uma ação por ser boa em alguns
sentidos, mas pode ser má em outros. Há sempre um elemento inevitável de arbitrariedade.
Esse é o sentido positivo da acusação de vazio: como a moralidade não fornece deveres
completamente determinados, a arbitrariedade do sujeito precisa entrar em cena em alguns
momentos. A intuição ou convicção do sujeito particular é a única autoridade responsável por
resolver dilemas morais. - 174
2-7. Fichte's moral epistemology; A problem about moral error and blame; Some
solutions to the problem; Mistaken criticisms of Fries; The emptiness of an ethics of
conviction [vazio]
(…)
“Moral insight or error are "up to us" in the sense that they express what we are as rational
subjects. If we accept (3) in that sense, then it does not conflict with (1) and (2). We are to
blame for violating our conscience because it belongs essentially to our subjectivity; and in
going against it, we perform actions in which our integrity as a subject is not present. We are
also to blame for following erroneous convictions, because these convictions themselves are
defects in us as subjects, and in acting on them we manifest those defects.
“In Hegel's view, Oedipus was not guilty of parricide because he was not cognizant of the fact
that the old man at the crossroads was his father, and so his killing him did not express his
subjectivity in the way it would have if he had been cognizant of that. Sand, however, was
guilty of murder because he was cognizant of the meaning of his act. His conviction that his act
was not wrong represents a moral failure every bit as serious as if he had killed Kotzebue in the
conviction that he was doing wrong.” - 192
A vida ética é uma substância em contraste com a subjetividade, pois é algo firme e sólido no
qual o indivíduo pode se apoiar com a certeza da validade de suas leis (PR146) e, ao mesmo
tempo, a relação do indivíduo com a vida ética é uma relação natural e espontânea, que não
exige, mas não exclui, a reflexão e a consciência do que está em operação. A vida ética não
depende, propriamente, dos indivíduos. – 196 – Os indivíduos são como “acidentes” na/da
vida ética (PR145), mas não podemos esquecer que, para Hegel, a substância só se manifesta
através de seus acidentes – contrariando a metafísica tradicional que afirma a independência
da substância em relação a seus acidentes. “For Hegel, the dependence of substance and
accidents is reciprocal; just as individuals would lack substance without their ethical life, so
ethical life would be nothing actual without the thoughts and actions of individuals.”
A vida ética atualiza a liberdade precisamente por não ser natural, já que os indivíduos estão
conscientes das leis da vida ética. A vida ética impõe livremente sua lei sobre si,
diferentemente da natureza. A vida ética sem reflexão, como mero hábito, encontra-se em sua
forma menos desenvolvida. Por isso eram aqueles que identificam Hegel com o romantismo
tradicionalista hostil à reflexão moral individual. A vida ética é a base para a subjetividade
moral, para a reflexão moral. Sem a vida ética, a subjetividade moral não pode ser
corretamente compreendida. Ao mesmo tempo, o ponto de vista da moralidade é uma forma
(de certa forma) maior que a substância ética, pois a vida ética pode ser irrefletida. Uma morte
moral (PR152A) da vida irrefletida. - 198
5. Ethical individuality
“Hegel is concerned to identify the diversity of social types with the articulation of determinate
socioeconomic roles, positions, or estates (Stände) which constitute the ethical order of civil
society (PR § 202). Hegel stresses the diversity and complementarity of the estates, each with
its own ethical "disposition" or "outlook" (Gesinnung) and way of life.” – 200 – A
individualidade verdadeira não é, portanto, um rompimento com a identidade social, mas a
assunção plena dessa mesma identidade – a autoconsciência. “To be an individual is therefore
always to be something determinate, to have a determinate Stand, a place, standing, or status
in society” (PR270A). Essa identidade social genuína exige uma profissão, os laços sociais
solidários das corporações e o reconhecimento que ali se forja (PR207, 253, 253R). Sem isso, a
sociedade é um mero agregado de indivíduos atomizados (PR256R) – “abstract private persons
whose – 201 – personality has no ethical life.”
“The thrust of Hegel's ethical thought is to value an individuality whose actualization is not a
mere accident because it is socially situated. A human being is truly an individual only if given a
determinate social identity to fulfill. On the other hand, the idea of individuality means so
much to us in modern society because modern society is more completely articulated, because
its system of social roles demands and rewards distinctiveness, diversity, and particularity. In
this way, the reflective individuality of modern society also makes it more ethical - more
organized and articulated – than other social orders, more ethical even than the social order of
ancient Greece.” – 202
6. Romantic pluralism
Recentemente, comunitaristas como Sandel, MacIntyre e Williams mencionam a noção de
Hegel de Sittlichkeit como um antecessor das críticas comunitaristas ao universalismo liberal.
Essa visão pressupõe uma leitura de que, na medida em que o indivíduo baseia o conteúdo de
seus deveres na Sittlichkeit, Hegel defenderia uma forma de relativismo ético. Entretanto, essa
leitura significaria que Sittlichkeit se aplica indiferentemente a qualquer sistema de costumes e
crenças morais de qualquer comunidade. Como se toda ordem social tivesse uma vida ética,
Sittlichkeit, e que todas são igualmente válida e que não poderiam ser comparadas. Os escritos
de período de Jena, incluindo o ensaio sobre direito natural, podem parecer corroborar essa
leitura, já que Hegel fala que cada sociedade possui sua própria geografia, clima e época, e
cada uma atualiza sua ideia a sua maneira (NR522-523, 126-126). – 202 – Mesmo em PR, Hegel
fala que diferentes constituições políticas são melhores para diferentes povos (PR274R). - 203
7. Hegel's universalism
A teoria ética de Hegel é uma teoria de autoatualização. Um processo progressivo através do o
espírito se eleva de concepções menos para mais adequadas. O PR seria o ápice desse
caminho. O parâmetro através do qual diferentes tradições e antigas tradições seriam
analisadas. Por isso Hegel possui uma concepção universalista. Hegel nem mesmo aplica o
termo Sittlichkeit a qualquer sociedade efetivamente existente e mesmo o termo ‘ética”
reserva – 203 – apenas às sociedades que atingiram o nível cultural ao menos da Grécia
clássica ou algo similar.
“Hegel's remark that every people has the constitution appropriate to it must be understood
with this qualification if it is to be consistent with his general position. Indeed, Hegel seems not
to regard peoples who fall outside such traditions as "peoples," properly speaking, at all. Even
their claim on political sovereignty, he maintains, is at most merely "formal" (PR §§ 33i,R,A,
349,R). (…) Hegel's universalism is committed to discovering, comprehending, and developing
whatever cultural tradition has so far achieved the deepest understanding of the nature of
reason and the human spirit's vocation.”
“Hegel sees that the only possible way of really escaping ethnocentrism is gradually, through
the actual self-development of reason, which is always rooted in a determinate cultural
tradition.” – 204 – Isso não afasta possibilidade de erros e sempre estará sujeito a cegueira ou
ignorância parciais, mas uma razão historicamente limitada e culturamente condicionada é a
única que temos. - 205
No período de Jena, Hegel considera a pólis grega a ordem ética perfeita. Roma seria a queda
(Untergang) da substância ética. No tempo moderno, a forma ética do espírito teria se perdido
e a tarefa da consciência seria busca-a. A moralidade moderna seria uma forma distinta da
vida ética grega. “This implies that there must be such a thing as a modern ethical life to be
found at the end of the search, a higher ethical life than the ancient Greek one.” No período de
Jena, Hegel distingue três elementos da sociedade moderna: vida ética (organização social
externa); moralidade (disposição subjetiva e autoconsciência de cada indivíduo como membro
de um estamento social); - 205 - e religião, como a consciência de cada membro da sociedade
como um todo (JR253, 162).
Ainda, Hegel ainda usa o termo ético para se referir à Grécia clássica, mas apenas no seu
sentido subjetiva de disposição ética dos indivíduos. No sentido objetivo, a sociedade moderna
seria mais ética em razão da sua maior articulação. “This leads to a tension in Hegel's
conception of the ethical, because a more articulated ethical order is also one that provides for
greater subjectivity and individuality. In this way, the ethical turns out not to preclude the
development of individuality, but actually requires it (PR § 356).” Por isso, instituições que
suprimir a individualidade não antiéticas, mesmo no mundo antigo (como a escravidão), pois a
ordem ética é aquela que liberta o indivíduo (PR57A, 150R, 175R, 180). - 206
“In practice, Hegel barely even pays lip service to the commonplace notion that different
peoples require different laws and political institutions. The thrust of his theory of ethical life
in the Philosophy of Right is to describe the social system that best actualizes the self-
conception possessed by individuals in modern European (or "Germanic") societies, where
Hegel thinks that the human spirit has reached its most complete development so far.
“Hegel is anticosmopolitan in the sense that he stresses the sovereignty and self-
containedness of the nation state (PR § 331), and the indispensable importance for individual
self-actualization of the individual's devotion to it (PR § 259). But his celebration of a modern,
universal conception of human beings and modern social institutions indicates that he, like the
Enlightenment cosmopolitans, is an apostle of a single modern world culture founded on
universal principles of reason, as opposed to the counter-Enlightenment view which favored a
variety of parochial cultures with foundations in religion or some other traditional authority
(PR § 209R).” - 208
12 Ethical subjectivity
1. The ethical disposition
O lado objetivo da vida ética são as instituições sociais. O lado subjetivo é a disposição ética ou
atitude (Gesinnung). “The ethical attitude is the truest actualization of freedom because in it
individuals are completely "with themselves." Human individuals are products of their social
order. The ethical laws they obey are self-given because the ethical order is fundamentally
identical with the essence of the individual” (PR147)
“The ethical attitude is heir to "love" as Hegel used it in the Frankfurt period, contrasting with
the self-alienated will characteristic of Kantian morality. The ethical attitude includes love,
especially in the context of family relationships (PR § 158), but it is supposed to be present
whenever universal rationality is found in harmony with an agent's particular self-satisfaction
under the auspices of an institution belonging to an ethical whole. Thus the ethical also
includes patriotism (PR § 268R) and Standesehre - the sense of honor that binds us to our
profession and those who share it with us (PR §§ 207, 253).” - 209
2. Ethical duty
Os deveres éticos não são limitações à vontade como na leitura kantiana. Os deveres éticos
são a substância do própria ser (PR148) e tomam a forma de desejos e impulsos que
pertencem à vontade imediata (PR150R), como o amor em relação ao cônjuge e a satisfação
que se obtém do trabalho (PR207, 255). Ou seja, não coisas que que devo fazer, mas coisas
que geralmente faço espontaneamente. “Leaving them undone does not so much offend my
conscience as empty my life of its meaning. Morality takes, as our philosophers say, "the moral
point of view." The point of view of ethical life, however, is nothing distinct from the concrete
individual's total, unified perspective on the world.”
Não devemos confundir deveres morais com deveres éticos. Os primeiros podem sim ser
percebidos como limitações, pois a moralidade é precisamente o momento abstrato da vida
ética. O que ocorre é que os deveres morais não são o único tipo de deveres. Caso fossem,
todo dever seria uma imposição da razão universal sobre a vontade particular e não
poderíamos razoavelmente esperar que o dever produzisse o bem. Por isso o bem da
moralidade é um “dever ser” e o bem da vida ética é um bem vivo, “self-moving and self-
achieving”. – 210
A vida ética implica um tipo de comprometimento. Uma disposição de deixar de lado o bem-
estar próprio, até certo ponto, por algo mais importante. Não é, porém, um apagamento do
interesse pessoal por um princípio universal moral, como a utilidade. “Our ethical duties are
the demands made on us by other individuals and by institutions through the relationships in
which we stand within a rational society, an ethical order. The Philosophy of Right does not
really try to give us a doctrine of duties, since it attempts no detailed exposition of these
relationships. But it does furnish an outline of the institutions within which these relationships
are to be found, and so it might be seen as giving a sketch of that structure from which a
doctrine of ethical duties can be derived.” - 211
3. Duties of relationships
Deveres éticos são deveres relacionais (“duties of relationships”, Pflichten der Verhältnisse –
PR150). “They arise from specific relationships to other individuals and to social institutions.
Ethical duties have a universal content because I am aware of them as part of an ethical order,
but I perform these duties on the basis of my particular desires and dispositions of character,
not out of impartial benevolence or respect for a universal principle.” – 211
“Hegel thinks that it makes a difference whether I simply perform my DP duties out of habit, or
also reflect rationally on the institutional setting of these duties and whether it can be
vindicated before the bar of reason. He regards it as our "right of insight into the good" that
we should "have insight into an obligation on good grounds" (PR § 132R). Here, too, Hegel
appears closer to Enlightenment universalism than to the brand of contemporary
communitarianism that exalts tradition and ethos at the expense of rational reflection.” - 212
“Virtuous people know and will appropriate actions for good reasons, but their feelings and
inclinations accord with reason, and so right actions also give them subjective satisfaction.
Even for such a person, of course, right action can sometimes be painful, as when duty
requires some personal sacrifice. But such cases will be due only to unfortunate external
circumstances, not to deep conflicts between the demands of duty and the agent's emotional
constitution.”
“Virtue is not, as Kant would have it, our power of constraining ourselves to follow general
principles (TL 404-406/66-68). It is rather the capacity to judge, feel, and act as each unique
situation requires, to the degree that the situation requires. This is why both Hegel and
Aristotle consider virtue to be a "mean." As the fundamental ethical disposition, virtue is
possible because it is the subjective condition of the possibility of an actual ethical order.
Conversely, virtue is made possible by ethical institutions, in which the particular satisfaction
of each subject is in harmony with the universal good (PR § 154).” - 154
A atitude ética possui quatro níveis: experiência imediata da identidade individual com as
normas éticas; sentimentos reflexivos de fé e confiança; intuição (“insight”) do entendimento;
cognição racional e filosófica das normas ética como objetivamente sendo direito.
“The ethical disposition is fundamentally a living awareness of the individual's identity with the
ethical order. This sense of identity can be wholly immediate, taking the form of custom and
habit, or we can reflect on it. But reflection does not destroy what is ethical in the disposition.
On the contrary, Hegel thinks that the better we understand the ethical order, the more
profound will be our appreciation of its rationality.”
“It bears repeating, however, that Hegel does not think that rational reflection inevitably
endorses the existing social order. There are historical periods in which existing society is
"faithless to better wills"; those are times when, in the manner of Socrates and the Stoics,
moral reflection must turn inward and seek there for what outer social reality has lost (PR §
138). Hegel even thinks that reflection inevitably exposes the limitations of every ethical order,
and so tends, in the long run, to undermine both the ethical attitude and the ethical order.” -
218
Em todos os tempos, arte, religião e ciência tem o mesmo objeto, uma mesma verdade
absoluta. O que ocorre é que formas menos desenvolvidas apresentam resultados menos
perfeitos. Uma intuição sensorial mais crua, uma representação do divino menos adequada e
uma não apresentação de partes importantes da verdade da Ideia. Isso poderia nos fazer
pensar que a vida ética teria um desenvolvimento semelhante, mas Hegel faz uma distinção.
“Because ethical life is practical, it involves a separation between the will and its end, whereas
the spheres of absolute spirit deal with a perfection that transcends any such separation.” No
futuro, os objetos da arte, religião e ciência se tornam assunto apenas para historiadores,
perdem seu valor, enquanto as instituições da vida ética continuam válidas, mesmo que,
julgadas por uma perspectiva posterior, sejam vistas como formas de supressão da liberdade.
Isso porque a vida ética é uma tentativa prática de realizar a liberdade e não um enunciado
teórico sobre a liberdade.
“We have seen that slavery, for example, occurs "in the transition of humanity from natural to
ethical conditions" (PR § 57R); it violates the "eternal human rights" of persons, and so it is
absolutely wrong (EG § 433A). But in the ancient world it formed a part of theethical structure
that actualized spirit's freedom to the fullest extent possible at that time. Thus Hegel says that
the ancient institution of slavery, though "wrong," was nevertheless "valid" (PR § 57A).”
“Hegel's ethical theory provides for a rational critique of social institutions in two ways. First,
the Idea or actuality of a system of ethical life may differ from the contingent existence of this
system because the latter belongs to the sphere of contingency, where human wickedness
may pervert and deform it. Second, even the ethical Idea of a society may be seen as defective
when it is viewed from a higher, more developed standpoint. But Hegel does not think that an
institution altogether loses its validity as soon as we find out that it is at odds with what is
rational or right. – 220 - Even when they are seen to be defective, institutions remain a part of
practical life until they are abolished in practice. Defective art, religion, and philosophy, to the
extent that they are seen to be defective, cease to belong to the realm of absolute spirit. But
even a defective ethical life retains its validity until it is abolished in practice and replaced with
something better.”
“The claim of all duties on us depends on the rationality of an actual social order. Yet there is
no social order whose rationality is perfect, permanent, or unconditional. Every system of
ethical life is transitory and conditioned by the extent to which spirit has reached self-
knowledge in that time and place. Consequently, each shape of ethical life necessarily falls
short of actualizing the idea of freedom in all its inexhaustible depth. The claims of the ethical
are therefore always conditional, imperfect, ultimately unsatisfying to our reason. Kant and
Fichte got things backwards when they tried to make morality or ethics the foundation of the
highest things, even of religion and speculative philosophy.” - 221
[nota 2: Não devemos confundir essa ideia de supremacia com supremacia militar ou mesmo
com domínio político sobre outras nações, mas na prevalência do seu princípio ético. Isso não
é algo fabricável pela força militar, política ou econômica. Tampouco significa que há uma
única nação dominante em cada momento histórico. Olhando a divisão de Hegel entre
Oriente, Grécia, Roma e Germânico vemos que apenas no caso de Roma há a prevalência de
uma nação. Em regra, Hegel mostra uma prevalência de um certo tipo de Estado ou de uma
família de Estados que compartilha um mesmo princípio histórico-mundial. É esse o caso do
mundo moderno, pois o mundo germânico é o mundo do domínio nas nações europeias
enquanto família, compartilhando um princípio de legislação, costumes (Sitten) e cultura
(Bildung) – PR339A. - 279]
“Hegel sometimes insists that a nation's time can come but once, and that once the time of its
principle is past, it has no further role to play in world history (PR § 347R; VG 69/60, 180/148).
This suggests that historical development occurs only transiently, through the successive
prominence of a series of different nations or national principles. According to this picture,
each nation embodies a determinate but unchanging principle, and progress consists in the
passing of the torch of civilization successively from one nation (or nation-kind) to another
(e.g., from Persia to the Greek city states to Rome to the "Germanic" nations of modern
Europe).”
Hegel também trata desse declínio da nação de outra forma. Em Lições sobre a Filosofia da
História do Mundo, Hegel afirma que a maturidade da nação corresponde à expressão de seu
princípio nacional em uma constituição política racional – desenvolvimento da autoconsciência
da nação. Esse ápice é também sua queda, pois passa a refletir sobre sua vida ética e deixa de
seguir seus princípios éticos espontaneamente, exigindo motivos racionais para tal. Ao tornar-
se reflexamente consciente desse princípio, a nação torna consciente também de suas
limitações. “In this way, Hegel says, the death of a nation appears not as a merely natural
death, but as a kind of suicide, the "killing of itself by itself" (VG 70/60).” – 222
“Following this picture, history is not merely a series of nations or national principles. It is also
the immanent production of each successive principle out of the one that preceded it. A
national principle is not really overcome from outside, but overcomes itself, by revealing its
own limitations to itself. In other words, history is dialectical.” - 223
“Where Hegel's view is significantly different from utilitarianism, as well as from most other
moral theories, is in the idea that ethical standards generally have only a limited role in
humanity's pursuit of the final goal. For Hegel, the actualization of spirit's freedom sometimes
justifies conduct that directly violates the only applicable ethical standards. This happens in
periods of historical transition, when one ethical order is dying and another is being born.” -
225
“Hegel denies that the "absolute right" of history belongs to just any powerful person, or to
anyone who takes it into his head to oppose the established ethical order. Individuals have the
"absolute right" of world history on their side, he says, "only insofar as their end is in accord
with the end of spirit as it is in and for itself" (VG 98/84), in other words, only insofar as their
deeds really do serve to bring about the further actualization of spirit's freedom. Those of
whom this is not true (even if they think it is) are merely criminals and wrongdoers, who
deserve every just punishment they receive.” – 230
Apenas o ponto de vista do historiador pode trazer essa justificação absoluta. Isso não é algo
que possa ser percebido ou racionalizado pelo agente cometendo o ato, pois o significado
histórico dos feitos do espírito apenas pode ser compreendido a posteriori. O que o agente
pode fazer é apenas comparar suas ações com a ordem ética de sua época, conformando-se a
ela ou violando-a, ajudando-a a realizar sua própria ideia ou não. O direito absoluto da história
mundial nunca está disponível como justificativa para os indivíduos histórico-mundiais. - 231
8. Historical self-opacity
“Thus Hegel's view does justify saying that we cannot undertake radical social change on
ethical grounds. It also denies us a rational comprehension of the social order we are creating.
But it does not follow from Hegel's view that we cannot undertake radical social change with a
rational knowledge of the fact that we are creating a new and higher social order. We can do
this if we can form a conception of the historical meaning of our actions that is not ethical in
character and not dependent on a determinate conception of the social order we are in the
process of creating.”
“even if Hegel's theory of history is correct and it is impossible to predict the nature of next
ethical order, it still might be possible to identify in the present ethical order the social
problems that the future one will have to solve. It might be possible to say something about
the general character of the coming ethical order (e.g., to say whether it will have to be more
egalitarian or more meritocratic than the present one). It might even be possible to identify
the type of social movement that will bring it into being.” - 233
9. Hegel's amoralism
“Hegel's philosophy of history is not innocuous. It includes a genuine amoralism, though a
restricted and conditioned one. Ethical conduct lacks rational justification, but only in ages of
decadence and historical transition. There is an absolute right to do wrong, but it belongs only
to those whose deeds really do clear the ground for a new order of things. Only someone as
demented as the hero of a Russian novel could think this right is applicable (for example) to
the murders Raskolnikov committed. If Hegel's doctrine frightens us because we think it
justifies indiscriminate wrongdoing, then our fear is based on a simple misunderstanding.” -
235
[nota 6 – Lembrando que, para Hegel, governos municipais e igrejas são também corporações
(PR288, 270R), além das associações profissionais. - 283]
“Hegel's theory of this reconciliation is founded on his idea that a developed ethical order
must be "articulated" (gegliedert) — an organism composed of differentiated social institutions
with complementary functions. (Generally speaking, the substantial principle has its place in
private family life, whereas the reflective principle predominates in the public domains of civil
society and the political state.) Next, Hegel holds that differentiated institutions require a
social differentiation among individuals. Each principle must have its proper representatives
and guardians. Hence even in the ethical order whose distinctive principle is subjective
freedom, there will be many whose character and life-style do not exemplify that principle.” -
244
“Hegel's rational state, in effect, grants subjective freedom only to the male bourgeoisie, at the
expense of women and the rural population. Hegel thinks that this is acceptable because the
substantial disposition of the feminine personality and the naturally servile inclination of the
peasantry guarantee that women and peasants will not miss the subjective freedom of which
they are deprived. We now know Hegel was seriously mistaken about this.” - 245
“This is all the more necessary since in Hegel's view civil society always remains a society, a
"universal family" (PR § 239) that exists for the purpose of satisfying the needs of its members,
including their need for freedom and self-actualization. Each member of civil society has a duty
to work for it, but also a right to a self-fulfilling livelihood earned through labor. It is the state's
– 247 - responsibility to protect that right, a responsibility belonging to the state's "police"11
power (PR § 238,A; VPR4: 609).
“At the same time, Hegel admits that he does not see how this responsibility is to be fulfilled
without contradicting the basic principles of civil society itself. On the one hand, the state
might provide the poor directly with the necessities of life, perhaps through taxes levied on the
rich. That would contradict the principle of civil society that all are to earn their own livelihood
by their own labor. On the other hand, the state might provide the poor with the opportunity
to work. But the original problem that created widespread poverty was that there was an
excess of goods and services in relation to effective demand, and the state's sponsorship of
more labor will only exacerbate that situation.” - 248
5
1831 Lectures, transcribed by D.F. Strauss
“Such tidy resolutions of the problem of poverty certainly are "esoteric," in the sense that they
are never found anywhere in Hegel's own discussions of that problem. Hegel never describes
poverty as an inherent limitation of a finite sphere within his system. His discussion of poverty
does not conclude his treatment of civil society, as wrong concludes the treatment of right, or
evil the treatment of morality. Instead, poverty arises in connection with the state's police
power, which is charged with the task of dealing with poverty, but turns out to be necessarily
incapable of fulfilling its responsibilities”
“This theme in Hegel's philosophy provides no solution to the problem of poverty, because
poverty in civil society is no accident. It is not a result of contingent imperfections that befall a
rational system when it achieves outward existence, or of the arbitrary will of individuals. Part
of the evil of poverty is that it subjects people's lives to contingency, but poverty is not itself a
contingent feature of civil society.” – 249
“This leaves Hegel's position messy, maybe inconsistent. But it is not an implausible
interpretation. Even now, apologists for modern capitalism sometimes realize that poverty is
an unavoidable feature of the system but do not relinquish their basic loyalty to it on that
account. If intelligent people can still take this position even in the late twentieth century, then
surely it must have been possible for Hegel to take it in the 1820s, without the additional 170
years of capitalism staring him in the face.” - 250
“This leads to a deeper separation of the poor from civil society, one of "mind" or "emotion"
(Gemüt): The poor see themselves simultaneously as human beings and as beings deprived of
humanity, as beings whose humanity is constantly violated and degraded by the very society
from which they derive the principle that it should be recognized and respected. They respond
to this treatment with an indignation that is drawn directly from the ethical principles of
modern society, but is also directed back against these principles:” – 251
“Though the rabble mentality is an effect of poverty, Hegel realizes that it can also find its way
into other classes of civil society, most especially the rich: "The rabble is distinct from poverty;
usually it is poor, but there are also rich rabble" (VPR 4: 608). The degraded condition of the
poor puts them at the rich man's disposal. This teaches him as well as them that in – 252 - civil
society there is no such thing as human dignity beyond price, that no one's universal human
rights mean anything when the particular will to violate them has enough wealth at its
disposal.” - 253
10. The class with neither rights nor duties
“Hegel does not approve of the rabble mentality. In his vocabulary, Pöbel is always an epithet
of abuse. But he agrees that the members of civil society have a duty to work for it only to the
extent that they have against it a right to an education and social position enabling them to
find an honorable and self-fulfilling livelihood through their work (PR §§ 239, 238,A). Thus the
condition of the poor in civil society is not merely sad or regrettable, it is a systematic wrong
or injustice: "Against nature no one can assert a right, but within the conditions of society
hardship at once assumes the form of a wrong inflicted on this or that class" (PR § 244A).
“Hegel grants explicitly that the rabble have the rights on which their indignation is based. He
further admits that civil society violates those rights to such an extent that the poor are
deprived of their personhood. Consequently, he regards the indignation that drives the rabble
mentality as quite justified.” - 253
“If the rabble mentality represents such an awareness, then it fits in with Hegel's philosophy of
history in another way as well - with its amoralism. The rabble is seen by Hegel not as the
creator of a new order, but only as the corrupter of the old. Its mentality contains nothing so
respectable as "ideals" of a better world, nor even a "right of revolution" against the old
one.19 It is simply an alienated mentality of envy and hatred, a derisive rejection of all duties
and ethical principles, a contemptuous refusal to recognize anyone's rights, a bitter denial of
all human dignity and self-respect — supported by a cogent rational justification through the
self-destruction of modern ethical principles”
Conclusion
1. Ethics and society
“civil society, and the state - actualize human freedom in the modern world. That attempt
presupposes the possibility that modern society might fail to meet those same critical
standards. In that case, the real import of Hegel's ethical theory would be radical. The
possibility of a radical Hegelian "left" is inherent in Hegel's ethical thought, along with the
possibility of a conservative or apologetic Hegelian "right" and a moderate or reformist
Hegelian "center." The historical Hegel was pretty clearly a "centrist," but to decide in a more
properly philosophical sense which camp has the right to claim "the real Hegel" is to decide
whether modern society really is rational according to the standards of Hegelian ethical
theory.” - 257
2. Hegel as liberal
“Less informed liberal critics rob Haym's position of this subtlety by simply taking for granted
that Hegel is an apologist for reactionary Prussia and ignoring the fact that Hegel's state has a
very liberal look to it.
“Haym's deeper intention was to demonstrate that, despite these appearances, the philosophy
of German idealism is antiliberal in its implications. Haym's argument for this conclusion is
superficial and flawed, but the conclusion itself is essentially correct.” - 258
A liberdade pessoal, subjetiva, tem valor pois serve para a atualização da liberdade absoluta,
que só ocorre quando a vida privada ganha significada em um contexto de vida coletiva,
quando meus fins se elevam aos fins da comunidade. Hegel defende a liberdade individual,
mas, ao mesmo tempo, dá um critério para determinar quando essa liberdade individual
importa.
“His claim is that what has the most value for individuals, what actualizes their freedom most
completely, is the pursuit of a universal or collective end, not the pursuit of their own private
ends as such. If a liberal state is one that has no universal, collective goals but exists only to
serve the particular whims and desires of its individual members, then Hegelian ethical theory
says that the members of a liberal state, for all their personal, subjective, and civil freedoms,
are fundamentally unfree.” - 259