Last class we began discussion of pressure in fluids, with pressure

defined as,

F N
p= ; units 1 Pa = 1
A m2

There are a number of other pressure units in common use

having the following equivalence,

= =
1 atm 1.01x10 5
=
Pa 760 Torr 14.7 lb / in 2

We also discussed a pressure gauge based on an evacuated

cylinder & spring arrangement.
A device for measuring atmospheric pressure is the barometer.
This is a close bottomed tube, filled to overflowing with a fluid and
then turned over in an open bath of the same fluid.

Done on the moon which has essentially

no atmosphere, the fluid would just run out vacuum
until h = 0.
On earth where the pressure on the
exterior surface is around 1 atm the fluid
at point x inside the tube has pressure h
equal to po, from the atmospheric po
pressure po outside the tube. x

That means a force up given by solving

F
po = with A the cross-section of the tube.
A
Since the fluid is stationary, there must be an equal but opposite
force down at point x having the same magnitude, but where we
recognize the force as due to the weight of the fluid column,
F mg
p=
o =
A A
m vacuum
But since the density (rho) ρ =
this can be rearranged to V
give,
m = ρV = ρAh, h
which substituted above gives
po
x
F mg ρgAh
p=
o = =
A A A

po = ρgh
 po = ρgh
vacuum

Taking h = 0 as zero pressure (absolute) the height

of the fluid column is proportional to the pressure.
h
Mercury is often used. The height of a po
column of mercury at sea level is on
x
average 760 mm, so you will often hear
atmospheric pressures quoted in mm (or
equivalently Torr) around this value.

Since the density of mercury depends on the temperature, and the

pressure reading depends on density, for accurate readings of
atmospheric pressure this must be corrected for the local
temperature.
HITT

Superman (of course) has

super suction, capable of
pulling an infinite vacuum.

Given an appropriate straw how high

could he suck the fresh water from a
lake?

A) as high as he wants po = 1.01x105 Pa

h
B) 32.0 m

C) 10.3 m

ρ = 1000 kg/m3
 HITT
The barometer also has a vacuum
in the upper part of the tube. Making
that vacuum more perfect changes
the height of the water negligibly.

There we found po = ρgh

so,

po 1.01 × 105 Pa po = 1.01x105 Pa

=
h = = 10.3 m
ρg  kg  m h
 1000 2  9.8 2 
 m  s 

ρ = 1000 kg/m3
The open tube manometer works similarly to measure
the gauge pressure of a gas inside an otherwise closed
tank, that is open to the manometer on one side.
Here

pg = ρgh

Where it measures gauge

pressure (i.e. relative to the atmospheric
pressure) because it is open to the
atmosphere on the end of the tube not
connected to the tank.
 Pascal’s Principle

Consider the circumstance to the right in which

we have a cylinder of cross-section A filled with
fluid. d
p1
The pressure at a depth d below the surface
depends on the depth.

Let’s now add a piston and apply an additional F

force to it. The pressure at depth d increases by
F
∆p = d
A
p2
but that’s true at every point of the fluid.

The pressure change is transmitted throughout the entire fluid.

Such a change in pressure would be transmitted independent of
the source of the pressure change.

For example, if the temperature rises and the fluid expands,

the resulting change in the pressure would occur throughout
the volume of fluid.

This is Pascal’s principle: the change in pressure occurring in an

incompressible fluid, in a closed container, is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
This allows for a hydraulic lever, which consists of different area
pistons/cylinders connected together as shown here.
 
A force F1 is applied at the input piston and the force F2 occurs
at the output piston.

By Pascal’s principle, the change in pressure

is the same everywhere so

F1 F2
∆p= =
A1 A 2
But then,

A2
F2 = F1
A1

So the output force is the input force, times the ratio of the
piston areas.
For round cylinder/pistons:
2
A2 πR  R2 
2
=
F2 = F1 = F1  2
 F1
A1 πR 2
 R1 
1

So if the output cylinder has a 10 cm radius

and the input cylinder a 1 cm radius the
force multiplier is (10/1)2 = 100.

This is how hydraulic lifts

and the brakes in your car
work.

Does this scheme defy

conservation of energy?

(a wise thing to ask when we seem to be getting something

seemingly extraordinary)
If the input piston moves down a distance ∆x1 the volume of fluid it
displaces is ∆V = ∆x1A1. Since the fluid is incompressible this
must be the same volume displaced by the opposing piston so,

∆V =∆x1A1 =∆x 2 A 2
so that,
A1
∆x 2 = ∆x1
A2
This is the inverse ratio of
the force multiplier so the
distance moved by the
output piston is proportionately
smaller than the distance moved
by the input piston.

Since work is force times distance the same work is done on

both sides & energy is conserved.
U-tubes (determining the density of an immiscible fluid)
Tube cross-sectional area A.
The pressure on the two
sides at the lowest dashed
H-h line must be equal (or the
fluid would move).
H
h pleft = p right
mug mk g
p p po + = po +
A A
mu = mk

ρ u Ah =
ρ k AH
Initially – fluid Add column h of
of known density fluid of unknown H
ρk density ρu ρu = ρk
h
( ρ u > ρ k case)
If ρ u < ρ k
The pressure on the two
sides at the lowest dashed
line must be equal (or the
fluid would move).
h-H pleft = p right
h H mug mk g
po + = po +
A A
mu = mk
p p
ρ u Ah =
ρ k AH

So again,
H
Initially – fluid Add column h of ρu = ρk
of known density fluid of unknown h
ρk density ρu But now H < h.
Archimedes' principle

Consider the pressure on the top and lower faces of the cube of
water labeled C, somewhere in the tall stationary column of
water.

The pressure at the upper face, pt , is due pt

to the mass of the column of water above
C. C
pl
The pressure at the lower face, pl , is due
to the mass of the column above C plus
the mass of C itself.

With mf the mass of the fluid contained area A

in C, we can write that,
mf g
p=l p t +
A
 Or since, p = F
A
Fl Ft m f g
= +
A A A

F=l Ft + m f g Ft
Fl is the force downwards due to C and the
column of water above it but since the water is C
stationary there must be an equal and opposite
force, due to the surrounding water on the Fl mf g
lower face of C upwards.

Hence the net forces acting on C are

Fl − Ft = Ft + m f g − Ft = m f g
Hence we’ve found that the water that surrounds C provides
a buoyant force Fb upwards given by,

Fb = m f g

This net force from the surrounding

water it is actually independent of
what material occupies the volume. C mg
Hence if we replace the cube of
water with a different material Fb= mfg
having a different mass, m, Newton’s
2nd law gives,

Fb − mg =
ma

m f g − mg =
ma
 mf − m
a= g (ignoring hydrodynamic drag)
m
If the material has a smaller mass than
the equal volume of water that it displaced
(meaning that it has a lower density than
water, e.g. Styrofoam) then the acceleration
due to the buoyant force will be positive Styro
foam
mg
(i.e. upwards).
Fb= mfg
If the material has a greater mass than
the equal volume of water that it displaced
(meaning that it has a higher density than
water, e.g. metal) then the acceleration
due to the buoyant force will be negative
(i.e. downwards), but smaller than its free fall
acceleration if only gravity were acting.
Another way to look at this is to to consider the apparent weight of
the object. Suppose the object is placed on a spring scale (in the
fluid). Then

FS + Fb − mg = ma = 0

So the scale reads,

=
FS mg − Fb C

Thus its apparent weight is

the actual weight minus the FB FS mg
buoyant force.

The buoyant force depends only

on the weight of the fluid
displaced, i.e.
Fb = mf g This is Archimedes' principle.
If the buoyant force exactly balances the weight of the object the
apparent weight FS = 0 and the object neither rises nor sinks.
The object is then said to be neutrally buoyant.

FS = mg − FB = 0

This is what permits a submarine to hover

at particular depth. A submarine has
internal ballast tanks that are designed to
be filled with seawater. neutral

To dive a neutrally buoyant submarine

pumps water into these chambers making
the weight of the hull plus the water taken
on greater than the weight of the water
sinks
displaced by the hull (i.e. greater than the
buoyant force).
As the desired depth is approached
this water is blown out, making the
ship neutrally buoyant again.
neutral

To rise again, still more water is

blown out, making the submarine
have an apparent weight that is
negative (Fb > mg). rises

When the ship gets to the surface, it mg

continues to rise until its total weight
equals the weight of the water it
displaces.

mg
This sets the depth at which an object floats, i.e. an object will
sink into a fluid to a level until the weight of the object equals the
weight of fluid displaced.
Example
Floating in the very salt rich (dense) waters of the Dead Sea keeps
about 1/3 of your body above the water line. What is the density of
the water there? Assume your density to be 1 g/cm3.

Let your mass be m,

1/3
FB– mg = 0 2/3
mg
but
FB
FB= mf g , mf = displaced water
so
mf g – mg = 0

mf = m ρfVf = ρV
 mf g – mg = 0

mf = m ρfVf = ρV ρf = density of the seawater

ρ = 1 g/cm3 (your density)

Now the volume of fluid displaced is 2/3 of your volume so,

Vf = 2/3V then,
1/3
ρf 2/3V = ρV
mg 2/3
ρf 2/3 = ρ
FB
ρf = 3/2ρ

ρf = 1.5 g/cm3
HITT
A merry-go-round of radius R has a constant
angular acceleration α.

At the instant shown the net linear acceleration

of the point in red on the rim is:

 A
1) Along vector A R
 
2) Along vector B B
 
3) Between vectors A & B
Since there is an angular acceleration α the red spot has a
linear acceleration tangential to the rim along A that has
magnitude,
a t= Rα
Since the spot is moving on a circular 
path it has a centripetal acceleration B


toward the center of the circle along   A
B of magnitude, A+B

v2 B
ac =
R

with v the linear speed of the spot at

that instant.
 
The answer is the sum of these vectors so between A & B .