Calculus for Engineers

Jeff Chak-Fu WONG1

August 2015

1 Copyright c 2015 by Jeff Chak-Fu WONG

2
Contents

Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives 1

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2 Restricting the domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2.1 Two mutually inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
12.2.2 Distinguishing geometrical properties of one-to-one functions . . . . 5
12.2.3 Horizontal-line test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
12.3 Trigonometric functions with restricted domains and their inverses . . . . . 6
12.3.1 Definition of the inverse sine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
12.3.2 Derivative of the inverse sine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
12.4 The inverse cosine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12.4.1 Definition of the inverse cosine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12.4.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cosine function . . . . . . . 15
12.4.3 Important identities involving inverse trigonometric functions . . . 16
12.5 The inverse tangent function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
12.5.1 Definition of the inverse tangent function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
12.5.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse tangent function . . . . . . 20
12.6 Definition of the inverse cotangent function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
12.6.1 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cotangent function . . . . . 23
12.6.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse secant function . . . . . . 28
12.6.3 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cosecant function . . . . . 28
12.7 Important sets of results and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

i
ii CONTENTS
Inverse Trigonometric Functions and
Their Derivatives

12.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we will study the so-called inverse trigonometric functions. Before intro-
ducing the concept of the inverse of a function, we first discuss the concept of a one-to-
one function1 . Functions that always give different outputs for different inputs are called
one-to-one. Since each output of a one-to-one function comes from just one input, any
one-to-one function can be reversed to turn the outputs back into the inputs from which
they came. Thus, a function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one2 . The function
defined by reversing a one-to-one function f (which means that each ordered pair (a, b)
belonging to f , is replaced by a corresponding ordered pair (b, a) in the new function) is
called the inverse of f and denoted by f −1 .
As we shall see below, the six basic trigonometric functions, that is, sin x, cos x, tan x,
cot x, sec x, and cosecx of the real variable x, are defined and studied in this chapter.
Since all these functions are periodic (and hence not one-to-one), none of them has an
inverse. We can however, restrict the domains of these functions in a way to allow for an
inverse.

12.2 Restricting the domain of a function

This following example shows us that by restricting the domain of a function appropriately,
it is possible for a given formula (expression) to define a one-to-one function. This fact is
mainly employed when we consider inverse trigonometric functions.

Example 1 Consider the odd function y = x3 . It gives different output(s) for different
input(s), as shown in Figure 12.1. Hence, it is a one-to-one function.
On the other hand, the even function y = x2 can give the same √ outputs
√ for different
inputs, as shown in Figure 12.2. For example, putting −1, 1, − 3, 3, −4 and 4, we
1
A function y = f (x) is called a one-to-one function if for each y from the range of f there exists
exactly one x in the domain of f which is related to y.
2
Both the statements are identical:
• If a function has an inverse, then it is one-to-one.
• If a function is one-to-one, then it has an inverse.

1
2 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

y 0

−1

−2

−3

−4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 12.1: y = x3 .
√ √
have y = (−1)2 = 12 = 1, y = (− 3)2 = ( 3)2 = 3, y = (−4)2 = 42 = 16, respectively
and etc. Hence this function is not one-to-one because two values of x are related to one
value of y (it seems to be two-to-one instead one-to-one).
6

3
y

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 12.2: y = x2 .

However, if the domain of this function to non-negative numbers is considered, then

the same expression (with restricted domain), that is, y = x2 , x ≥ 0, defines a one-to-one
function, as shown in Figure 12.3.
√
Example 2 Consider√the graph of y = f (x) = x, where x ≤ 0, as shown in Figure 12.4.
The function y = x is defined for all x ≥ 0 and its range is y ≥ 0. For each input x0 ,
√
the function f gives a single output y = x0 (the green line). Since every non-negative
12.2. RESTRICTING THE DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION 3

y
2

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 12.3: y = x2 , x ≥ 0.
3

2.5
√
2 √ y= x
y0 = 3
1.5

√
x0
y

0.5

x0 = 1 y02
−0.5

−1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x

√
Figure 12.4: y = f (x) = x, where x ≤ 0.

y is the image of just one x under this function, we can reverse the construction. That
is, we can start with y ≥ 0 and then go over to the curve and down to x = y 2, on the
x-axis (This is indicated by the red line starting from y0 (on y-axis) and reaching (on to
the x-axis) the point x = y02 .) √
This construction in reverse defines
√ the function g(y) = y 2 , the inverse of f (x) = x.
Thus, the inverse of y = f (x) = x is given by x = g(y) = y 2 (or x = f −1 (y) = y 2 ).
Note 1 Each pair of inverse functions (here, f and g) behave opposite to each other in
the sense that one function undoes (i.e., reverses) what the other does. The algebraic
description of what we see in Figure 12.4 is
√ 
g(f (x)) = ( x)2 = x
√
f (g(y)) = ( y)2 = y
Observe that, in the above equations f is the inverse of g. It must be noted that an
inverse function associates the same pair of elements, as in the original function, but with
the object and the image interchanged. In the inverse notation,
g = f −1 .
4 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

Note 2 Not every function has an inverse, as in the case of y = x2 , x ∈ R.

Whenever a function

y = f (x) (12.1)

has an inverse, we can write it as

x = f −1 (y) (12.2)

provided (12.1) can be solved for x uniquely.

Both the functions at (12.1) and (12.2), if they are defined, describe one and the same
curve in the xy-plane.

12.2.1 Two mutually inverse functions

The independent variable for the function f is x, while for the function f −1 the indepen-
dent variable is y. If we wish to denote the argument in formula3 (12.2) by x in a single
coordinate system, we get two different graphs which are symmetric about the line y = x.
They represent two mutually inverse functions.
The graphs of the two mutually inverse functions are given in Figure 12.5. The graph
of a function and its inverse are (reflected) symmetric with respect to the line y = x
(gold).

y = g(x) = x2
4
y=x

3.5 √
3
3

2.5

2
√
y = f(x) = x
y

1.5

1 √
3
0.5

−0.5

−1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x

Figure 12.5: Two mutually inverse functions.

3
That is, if we wish to write x = f −1 (y) in the form y = f −1 (x).
12.2. RESTRICTING THE DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION 5

12.2.2 Distinguishing geometrical properties of one-to-one func-

tions
We know that a vertical line can intersect the graph of a function at one point only. For a
one-to-one function, it is also true that a horizontal line can intersect a graph at most one
point. This is the situation for the one-to-one function defined by y = x3 whose graph
appears in Figure 12.6. On the other hand, observe in Figure 12.7 that for the function
defined by y = x2 , which is not one-to-one, any horizontal line above the x-axis intersects
the graph at two points. We have, therefore, the following geometric test for determining
if a function is one-to-one.

1
y

−1

−2

−3

−4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 12.6: y = x3 .

12.2.3 Horizontal-line test

Definition 1 A function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the
graph of a function at most one point.

Note 3 We use the terminology “inverse functions” only when referring to a function
and its inverse.

Note 4 The criterion that a function be one-to-one, in order to have an inverse may be
very hard to apply in a given situation, since it demands that we have complete knowledge
of the graph. A more practical criterion is that a function be strictly monotonic (i.e., either
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing). This is a practical result, because we have an
easy way of deciding if a function f is strictly monotonic. We simply examine the sign of
f ′ (x). If f ′ (x) > 0 the function f is strictly increasing on its domain but if f ′ (x) < 0, f is
strictly decreasing. These results are proved in Chapter 19a. Later on, in Chapter 20, it
6 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

y 2

−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 12.7: y = x2 .

is proved that a strictly monotonic function is one-to-one, showing that all such functions
have inverses.


12.3 Trigonometric functions with restricted domains

and their inverses
We start with the sine function, y = sin x, whose graph appears in Figure 12.8.
1.5
1
0.5
y

0
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi
x (radians)

Figure 12.8: y = sin x, where x ∈ [−2π, 2π].

In Figure 12.9, we observe that the sine function is strictly increasing on the interval
− 21 π
and 12 π.
Consequently, from the horizontal-line test (see Subsection 1), the function f1 , for
which
 
1 1
f1 (x) = sin x, x ∈ − π, π (12.3)
2 2
is one-to-one, and hence it does have an inverse in this interval. The graph  of f1 (x) is
1 1
sketched in Figures 12.9 and 12.10. In Figure 12.10, its domain is − 2 π, 2 π and its range
is [−1, 1]. The inverse of this function is called the inverse sine function.
12.3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH RESTRICTED DOMAINS AND THEIR INVERSES7

1.5

0.5

y
0

−0.5

−1

−1.5
−2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2
x (radians)

Figure 12.9: f1 (x) = sin x (brown), where x ∈ [−π/2, π/2].

1.5

1 •

0.5
y

−0.5

−1•

−1.5
−pi/2 0 pi/2
x (radians)

Figure 12.10: y = f1 (x), where x ∈ [−π/2, π/2] and y ∈ [−1, 1].

12.3.1 Definition of the inverse sine function

Definition 2 The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 , is defined by
 
−1 1 1
y = sin x, if and only if, x = sin y and y ∈ − π, π .
2 2

 1 domain
The  of sin−1 x is the closed interval [−1, 1] and the range is the closed interval
− 2 π, 12 π .

Example 3 Let us illustrate some applications of Definition 2. Here are a list of exam-
ples:


• sin−1 (−1) = − 12 π, because sin − 12 π = −1.

• sin−1 (0) = 0, because sin(0) = 0.

• sin−1 ( 12 ) = 16 π, because sin 16 π = 12 .


• sin−1 ( √12 ) = 14 π, because sin 14 π = √12 .
8 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES
 

• sin−1 − √12 = − 14 π, because sin − 14 π = − √12 .


• sin−1 (1) = 12 π, because sin 1
2
π = 1.

Remark
 1 1 1 In (12.3), the domain of f1 (x) = sin x is restricted to the closed interval
− 2 π, 2 π , so that the function is strictly monotonic and therefore has an inverse function.
However, the sine function on a period of 2π is (strictly) increasing on the other intervals
as well, for example, [− 52 π, − 23 π] and [ 32 π, 52 π], as shown in Figure 12.11. Also, the function
is strictly decreasing on certain closed intervals, in particular the intervals [− 32 π, − 12 π] and
[ 21 π, 32 π], as shown in Figure 12.12. Any one of these intervals could just as well be chosen
for the domain of the function f1 of (12.3). The choice of the interval [− 12 π, 12 π], however,
is customary because it is the largest interval containing the number 0, on which the
function is (strictly) monotonic. 

1
y

−1

−3pi −5pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi 5pi/2 3pi
x (radians)

Figure 12.11: y = f1 (x) (purple), where x ∈ [−5π/2, −3π/2] or x ∈ [3π/2, 5π/2].

1
y

−1

−3pi −5pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi 5pi/2 3pi
x (radians)

Figure 12.12: y = f1 (x) (grey), where x ∈ [−3π/2, −π/2] or x ∈ [π/2, 3π/2].

Note 5 The use of the symbol “−1” to represent the inverse sine function makes it
necessary to denote the reciprocal of sin x by (sin x)−1 , to avoid confusion, i.e.,

sin−1 x 6= (sin x)−1 .

A similar convention is applied when using any negative exponent with a trigonometric
1 1
function. For example, 1/(tan x) = = (tan x)−1 , 1/(cos2 x) = = (cos x)−2 ,
tan x cos2 x
and so on. 

Note 6 The terminology arcsine is sometimes used in place of inverse sine, and the
notation arcsine is then used instead of sin−1 x. This notation probably stems from the
fact that, if t = arcsin u, then sin t = u, and t units is the length of the arc on the unit
circle for which the sine is u.
12.3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH RESTRICTED DOMAINS AND THEIR INVERSES9

2pi

3pi/2

pi

y (radians)
pi/2

−pi/2

−pi

−3pi/2
−1 0 1
x
Figure 12.13: y = sin−1 x (orange), where x ∈ [−1, 1].

In this note, we shall be using the symbol “−1” (rather than the word arc) and thus
writing sin−1 x, cos−1 x, and so on (instead of arcsin x, arccos x, etc.). (This symbol is
consistent with the general notation for inverse functions.)


We can sketch the graph of the inverse sine function by locating some points from the
values of sin−1 x such as those given in Table 12.1. The graph appears in Figures 12.13
and 12.14.

√ √
x −1 − 23 − 21 0 1
2 2
3
1
sin x − 12 π
−1
− 13 π − 61 π 0 1
6
π 1
3
π 1
2
π

Table 12.1:

From the definition of the inverse sine function (see Definition 2), we have

sin(sin−1 x) = x for x ∈ [−1, 1]

 
−1 1 1
sin (sin y) = y for y ∈ − π, π
2 2

Caution: Observe that sin(sin−1 x) = x is valid for all real values of x. It must be
noted that sin−1 (sin y) 6= y, if y is not in the interval [− 21 π, 12 π].
10 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

pi/2 •

y (radians)
0

−pi/2
−1.5
•
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
x

Figure 12.14: y = sin−1 x, where x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ [− 12 π, 12 π].

Example 4 Evaluate sin−1 (sin 65 π).

Solution: First we use the fact that

     
5 1 1 1
sin π = sin π − π = sin π = .
6 6 6 2

Applying sin−1 to both sides of the above expression gives

   
−1 5 −1 1
sin sin π = sin .
6 2
   
1 1 −1 1 1
We know that sin π = , so it follows that sin = π. Thus,
6 2 2 6
 
−1 5 1
sin sin π = π.
6 6
   
−1 1 5π 5π 1 1
Note that, sin sin π 6= , since 6∈ − π, π .
6 6 6 2 2
Similarly,  
−1 3 1
sin sin π = π,
4 4
where we have    
−1 3 −1 1 1
sin sin π = sin = π
4 2 4
and
7 1
sin−1 (sin π) = − π,
4 4
12.3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH RESTRICTED DOMAINS AND THEIR INVERSES11

where we have    
−1 7 −1 1 1
sin sin π = sin −√ = − π.
4 2 4


Example 5 Find
  
−1 1
(a) cos sin − ;
2


(b) sin−1 cos 23 π .

Solution:  
1 1
We know that the range of the inverse sine function is − π, π .
2 2
Further,  
−1 1 1
sin − = − π.
2 6

(a)
     √
1 1 3
cos sin−1 − = cos − π = .
2 6 2

(b)    
−1 2 −1 1 1
sin cos π = sin − = − π.
3 2 6

12.3.2 Derivative of the inverse sine function

We now obtain the formula for the derivative of the inverse sine function by applying the
rule that deals with the differentiation of inverse functions4 .

Example 6 Derive

d 1
(sin−1 x) = √ . (12.4)
dx 1 − x2

Solution:
Let y = sin−1 x, which is equivalent to
 
1 1
x = sin y and y ∈ − π, π . (12.5)
2 2
4
If y = f (x) is a derivable function of x such that the inverse function x = f −1 (y) is defined and
dy/dx, dx/dy both exist, then the derivative of the inverse function is given by dx/dy = 1/(dy/dx),
provided dy/dx 6= 0.]
12 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

Differentiating both the sides of (12.5) with respect to y, we obtain

 
dx 1 1
= cos y and y ∈ − π, π . (12.6)
dy 2 2
If y is in [− 21 π, 12 π], then cos y is non-negative.
We know that the derivative of an inverse function is equal to the reciprocal of the
derivative of its given function. Applying (12.6) gives
dy 1 1
= = . (12.7)
dx dx cos y
dy
Here, we have to express the RHS of (12.7) in terms of x. Since, sin y = x, we have5
q √
cos y = ± 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2
Of these two values for cos y, we should take
√
cos y = 1 − x2 , (12.8)
since y lies between − 21 π and 12 π. Thus,
dy d
= (sin−1 x) By y = sin−1 x
dx dx
1
= By (12.8)
cos y
1
=√ .
1 − x2
Thus,
d 1
(sin−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2

Theorem 1 If u is a differentiable function of x, then
d 1 du
(sin−1 u) = √ · By the Chain Rule.
dx 1 − u2 dx
Example 7 Find f ′ (x), if f (x) = sin−1 x4 .
Solution: From Theorem 1, letting u = x4 , one gets
1 d
x4


f ′ (x) = p
1 − (x4 )2 dx
1
=p · 4x3
1 − (x4 )2
4x3
=√ .
1 − x8

5 2 2
A trigonometric identity, sin y + cos y = 1, is used.
12.4. THE INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION 13

12.4 The inverse cosine function

To obtain the inverse cosine function, we perform the same procedure as we did with
the inverse sine function. We restrict the cosine to an interval on which the function is
(strictly) monotonic. We select the interval [0, π] on which the cosine is decreasing, as
shown by the graph of the cosine in Figure 12.15.

1
y

−1

−5pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi 5pi/2

x (radians)
 −5π 
Figure 12.15: y = cos x, where x ∈ 2
, 5π
2
.

Let us consider the function f2 (x) defined by f2 (x) = cos x, x ∈ [0, π]. The graph of
f2 (x) appears in Figure 12.16.
1.5

1•

0.5
y

−0.5

−1 •

−1.5
0 pi/2 pi
x (radians)

Figure 12.16: y = f2 (x) (brown), where x ∈ [0, π] and y ∈ [−1, 1].

The domain of f2 (x) is the closed interval [0, π] and the range is the closed interval
[−1, 1]. Because f2 (x) is continuous and decreasing on its domain, it has an inverse,
which we will now define.

12.4.1 Definition of the inverse cosine function

Definition 3 The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1 , is defined by

y = cos−1 x, if and only if, x = cos y and y ∈ [0, π] .

The domain of cos−1 is the closed interval [−1, 1] and the range is the closed interval [0, π].
14 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

3pi

5pi/2

2pi

y (radians)
3pi/2

pi

pi/2

−pi/2

−pi
−1 0 1
x
Figure 12.17: y = cos−1 x (orange), where x ∈ [−1, 1].

The graph of the inverse cosine function appears in Figures 12.17 and 12.18. From
Definition 3, we have
(
cos(cos−1 x) = x, for x ∈ [−1, 1];
cos−1 (cos y) = y, for y ∈ [0, π].

Note 7 Observe that there is again a restriction on y (with the choice of a specific
interval) in order to have the equality. 

Example 8 Consider
cos−1 (cos y) = y,

because (3/4)π is in [0, π]. We have

 
−1 3 3
cos cos π = π
4 4
 
However, cos−1 (cos 54 π) = cos−1 − √12 = 43 π, and
   
−1 7 −1 1 1
cos cos π = cos √ = π.
4 2 4
12.4. THE INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION 15

•
3

2.5

y (radians)
1.5

0.5

0
0
•
x

Figure 12.18: y = cos−1 x, where x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ [0, π].

12.4.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cosine function

Example 9 Derive
d −1
(cos−1 x) = √ . (12.9)
dx 1 − x2

Solution: Let y = cos−1 x, which is equivalent to

x = cos y and y ∈ [0, π]. (12.10)
Differentiating both sides of (12.10) with respect to y, we have
dx
= − sin y, and y ∈ [0, π]. (12.11)
dy
If y is in [0, π], sin y is non-negative, making the above term on the RHS negative. But,
dy 1 −1
= = . (12.12)
dx dx/dy sin y
Here, we have to write the RHS of (12.12) in terms of x. Since cos y = x, we have
√ √
sin y = ± 1 − cos2 x = ± 1 − x2
√
Of these two values for sin y, we should take sin y = 1 − x2 , since y lies between 0 and
π. Thus
dy d −1 −1
= (cos−1 x) = =√ .
dx dx sin y 1 − x2
The derivative of the inverse cosine becomes
d −1
(cos−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2

16 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

12.4.3 Important identities involving inverse trigonometric func-

tions
The following identities involving inverse trigonometric functions are very important.

Example 10 Show that

1. sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 .

2. tan−1 x + cot−1 x = π2 , x ≥ 0.

3. sec−1 x + cosec−1 x = π2 .

Solution:

1. Let

sin−1 x = t. (12.13)

Then π 
x = sin t = cos −t .
2
Thus
π
− t = cos−1 x. (12.14)
2
Adding (12.13) and (12.14), we get
π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x = .
2

2. Let

cot−1 x = t. (12.15)

Then π 
x = cot t = tan −t .
2
Thus
π
− t = tan−1 x. (12.16)
2
Adding (12.15) and (12.16), we get
π
tan−1 x + cot−1 x = .
2
12.4. THE INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION 17

3. Let

cosec−1 x = t. (12.17)

Then π 
x = cosect = sec −t .
2
Thus
π
− t = sec−1 x. (12.18)
2
Adding (12.17) and (12.18), we get
π
sec−1 x + cosec−1 x = .
2

Example 11 Using the identity at Example 10(1) above and the result,

d 1
(sin−1 x) = √ ,
dx 1 − x2
show that
d −1
(cos−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2

Solution: Consider the identity

π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x = . (12.19)
2
Differentiating both sides of (12.19) with respect to x, we get,

d d
(sin−1 x) + (cos−1 x) = 0.
dx dx
or
d d d 1
(cos−1 x) = − (sin−1 x) Using (sin−1 x) = √
dx dx dx 1 − x2
−1
=√ .
1 − x2


Theorem 2 If u is a differentiable function of x, then

d −1 du
(cos−1 u) = √ · .
dx 1 − u dx
2
18 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

dy
Example 12 Find if y = cos−1 e4x .
dx
Solution: Given y = cos−1 e4x . From Theorem 2, we obtain

dy −1 d 4x
=p (e )
dx 1 − (e4x )2 dx
−1 d(e4x ) d(4x)
=p
1 − (e4x )2 d(4x) dx
−4e4x
=p
1 − (e4x )2
−4e4x
=√ .
1 − e8x

12.5 The inverse tangent function

To develop the inverse tangent function, observe from the graph in Figure 12.19, that the

tangent function is continuous and ((strictly) increasing on the open interval − 12 π, 12 π .
We restrict the tangent function to this interval, denote it by f3 and define it by f3 (x) =
tan x and − 12 π < x < 21 π.

1
y

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2
x (radians)

Figure 12.19: y = tan x, where x ∈ (−3π/2, −π/2) ∪ (−π/2, π/2) ∪ (π/2, 3π/2).

The domain of f3 (x) is the open interval − 12 π, 12 π
and the range is the set R of
real numbers. The graph of f3 (x), where x ∈ − 12 π, 21 π , is given in Figure 12.20. This
function has an inverse called the inverse tangent function.
12.5. THE INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION 19

y
0

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−pi/2 0 pi/2
x (radians)


Figure 12.20: y = f3 (x) (brown), where x ∈ − 12 π, 12 π .

12.5.1 Definition of the inverse tangent function

Definition 4 The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 , is defined by
1 1
y = tan−1 x, if and only if, x = tan y and − π < y < π.
2 2


The domain of tan−1 is the set R of real numbers and the range is the open interval − 12 π, 21 π .

The graph of the inverse tangent function is shown in Figures 12.21 and 12.22.
From Definition 4, we have

tan(tan−1 x) = x, for x in (−∞, +∞)

 
−1 1
tan−1 (tan y) = y, for y in π, π
2 2

The restrictions on y are discussed through the following examples.

Example 13 Given tan−1 (tan 41 π) = 14 π and tan−1 tan(− 14 π) = − 41 π
However,  
−1 3 1
tan tan π = tan−1 (−1) = − π
4 4
and  
−1 5 1
tan tan π = tan−1 (1) = − π.
4 4
20 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

3pi/2

pi

pi/2
y (radians)

−pi/2

−pi

−3pi/2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x

Figure 12.21: y = tan−1 x, where x ∈ R.

pi/2
y (radians)

−pi/2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x


Figure 12.22: y = tan−1 x, where x ∈ R and y ∈ − 21 π, 12 π .

12.5.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse tangent function

Example 14
d 1
(tan−1 x) = . (12.20)
dx 1 + x2

Solution:Let y = tan−1 x. Then,

 
1 1
x = tan y and y ∈ − π, π . (12.21)
2 2

Differentiating both the sides of (12.21) with respect to y, we obtain

 
dx 2 1 1
= sec y and y ∈ − π, π . (12.22)
dy 2 2

From the identity sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y, and replacing tan y by x, we have

sec2 y = 1 + x2
12.5. THE INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION 21

But
dy 1
=
dx (dx/dy)
or
dy 1
= .
dx 1 + x2
Thus
d 1
(tan−1 x) = .
dx 1 + x2
The domain of the derivative of the inverse tangent function is the set R of real numbers.


Theorem 3 If u is a differentiable function of x, then

d 1 du
(tan−1 u) = · .
dx 1 + u2 dx

1
Example 15 Find f ′ (x), if f (x) = tan−1 .
x+2
Solution: From Theorem 3, we get
 
′ 1 d 1
f (x) = ·
1 + (1/(x + 2) ) dx
2 x+2
or
1 −1
f ′ (x) = ·
1 + (1/(x + 2) ) (x + 2)2
2

−1 −1
= = .
(x + 2)2 + 1 x2 + 4x + 5

Example 16 Differentiate tan−1 log x.

Solution:
d
1 d
tan−1 (log x) = · (log x)
dx 1 + (log x) dx
2

1 1
= ·
1 + (log x) x
2

1
= .
x (1 + (log x)2 )


22 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

12.6 Definition of the inverse cotangent function

To define the inverse cotangent function, we use the identity tan−1 x + cot−1 x = π/2, (see
Subsection 10) where x is any real number.

Definition 5 The inverse cotangent function, denoted by cot−1 , is defined by

1
y = cot−1 x = π − tan−1 x where x is any real number. (12.23)
2
The domain of cot−1 is the set R of real numbers and the range is the open interval (0, π).

To see how the range is obtained, we write (12.23) in Definition 5 as

1
tan−1 x = π − cot−1 x. (12.24)
2
We know that,
1 1
− π < tan−1 x < π. (12.25)
2 2
Using (12.24) in (12.25), we get
1 1 1
− π < π − cot−1 x < π.
2 2 2
Subtracting (1/2)π from each part, we get

−π < − cot−1 x < 0.

Now, multiplying each part by −1, we get

π > cot−1 x > 0.

Reversing the direction of inequality signs, we obtain

0 < cot−1 x < π.

The range of the inverse cotangent function is therefore the open interval (0, π).
As compared with Figure 12.23, its graph is sketched in Figure 12.24.

Example 17 Applying Definition 5 gives

1. tan−1 (1) = 41 π.

2. tan−1 (−1) = − 14 π.

3. cot−1 (1) = 12 π − tan−1 (1) = 12 π − 41 π = 14 π.

4. cot−1 (−1) = 21 π − tan−1 (−1) = 12 π − ( −1

4
π) = 34 π.


12.6. DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE COTANGENT FUNCTION 23

y
0

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi
x (radians)

Figure 12.23: y = cot x, where x ∈ (−2π, −π) ∪ (−π, 0) ∪ (0, π) ∪ (π, 2π).

12.6.1 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cotangent func-

tion
Example 18

d 1
(cot−1 x) = − . (12.26)
dx 1 + x2

Solution: From Definition 5, we have

1
cot−1 x = π − tan−1 x. (12.27)
2
Differentiating both sides of (12.27) with respect to x, we get
 
d −1 d 1 −1
cot x = π − tan x .
dx dx 2

Thus,
d 1
(cot−1 x) = − .
dx 1 + x2


Theorem 4 If u is a differentiable function of x, then

d 1 du
(cot−1 u) = − · .
dx 1 + u2 dx

Before we define the inverse secant and the inverse cosecant functions, let us again
look at the graphs of basic trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions.
24 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

2pi

3pi/2

pi
y (radians)
pi/2

−pi/2

−pi

−3pi/2

−2pi
−5 0 5
x
Figure 12.24: y = tan−1 x (orange), where x ∈ R and y ∈ (0, π).

The graphs of six trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 12.25. None of these
functions has an inverse, since a horizontal line y = c may cross each graph at more than
one point.
Now consider the six functions (f1 − f6 ), which its graphs have heavily colored
portions (brown) of the six trigonometric functions in the same graph (Figure 12.25).
(In fact, these portions of the graph define the respective trigonometric functions with
restricted domain.) Each of these graphs represents a new function, which has the same
range as the corresponding trigonometric function, and each new function has an inverse.
We call them the principal branches of the basic trigonometric functions.
By abuse of terminology, the inverses of f1 , f2 , · · · , f6 are called the inverse trigono-
metric functions, so that f1−1 is the inverse sine, denoted by x = sin−1 y, f2−1 is the inverse
cosine, denoted by x = cos−1 y, and so on. Similar notations are used for the remaining
four inverse trigonometric functions. The graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions
as functions of the independent variable x are shown in Figures 12.26 and 12.27, in the
orange colored portions of the functions in the graph.
Note 8 As can be seen from the graph of sec x and cosecx (Figure 12.25), it is impossible
to choose ”branches” of these functions so that the inverse functions become continuous.
The branches of sec−1 x and cosec−1 x (Figure 12.27(c) and (d)) are chosen to make the
formulas for the derivatives of these functions come out nicely, without ambiguity to sign.
Now, the derivatives of sec−1 x and cosec−1 x can easily be found just as we found the
derivatives in other cases.

12.6. DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE COTANGENT FUNCTION 25

1.5

1 1
0.5

y
0
y

−0.5
−1
−1

−1.5 −5pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi 5pi/2
−2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2
x (radians) x (radians)

(a) y = sin(x) (b) y = cos(x)

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
y

0
y

−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3

−4 −4

−5 −5
−3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi
x (radians) x (radians)

(c) y = tan(x) (d) y = cot(x)

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
y

0
y

−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3

−4 −4

−5 −5
−3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 −2pi −3pi/2 −pi −pi/2 0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi
x (radians) x (radians)

(e) y = sec(x) (f) y = cosec(x)

Figure 12.25: Six trigonometric functions with restricted domains.

26 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

3pi

2pi 5pi/2

3pi/2 2pi
y (radians)

pi 3pi/2
y (radians)

pi/2 • pi •
0 pi/2

−pi/2 • 0 •

−pi −pi/2

−3pi/2 −pi
−1 0 1 −1 0 1
x x
(a) y = sin−1 (x) (b) y = cos−1 (x)

Figure 12.26:
12.6. DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE COTANGENT FUNCTION 27

2pi

3pi/2

3pi/2 pi

y (radians)
pi
pi/2

pi/2
0
y (radians)

0
−pi/2

−pi
−pi/2

−3pi/2
−pi

−2pi
−3pi/2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−5 0 5
x x
(a) y = tan−1 (x) (b) y = cot−1 (x)
2pi

3pi/2

3pi/2 pi

•
y (radians)

pi
pi/2

pi/2
0
y (radians)

0 • −pi/2 •
−pi
−pi/2

−3pi/2
−pi •

−2pi
−3pi/2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−5 0 5
x x
(c) y = sec−1 (x) (d) y = cosec−1 (x)

Figure 12.27:
28 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

12.6.2 Formula for the derivative of the inverse secant function

Example 19

d(sec−1 x) 1
= √ , |x| > 1. (12.28)
dx x x2 − 1

Solution: Let
y = sec−1 x.
Now

x = sec y. (12.29)

Differentiating both sides of (12.29) with respect to y, we get

dx
= sec y · tan y
dy
p
= sec y tan2 y
p
= sec y sec2 y − 1
√
= x x2 − 1.

Now
dy 1 1
= = √ .
dx (dy/dx) x x2 − 1
Thus
d(sec−1 x) 1
= √ , |x| > 1.
dx x x2 − 1


Theorem 5 If y is a differentiable function of x, then

d 1 du
(sec−1 u) = √ · , |u| > 1.
dx u u − 1 dx
2

12.6.3 Formula for the derivative of the inverse cosecant func-

tion
Example 20 Derive

d(cosec−1 x) −1
= √ , |x| > 1. (12.30)
dx x x2 − 1

Solution: Let
y = cosec−1 x.
12.6. DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE COTANGENT FUNCTION 29

Then,

x = cosecy. (12.31)

Differentiating both sides of (12.31) with respect to y, we get,

dx p
= −cosecy · ·y = −cosecy cosec2 y − 1
dy
p
= −cosecy cosec2 y − 1
√
= −x x2 − 1.

Now,
dy 1 −1
= = √ , |x| > .1
dx (dy/dx) x x2 − 1
Thus,
d(cosec−1 x) −1
= √ , |x| > 1.
dx x x2 − 1


Theorem 6 If u is a differentiable function of x, then

d −1 du
(cosec−1 u) = √ · , |u| > 1.
dx u u − 1 dx
2

Table 12.2 summarizes the data that we should remember regarding inverse trigono-
metric functions.

Function Domain Range  Derivative

sin−1 x [−1, 1] − π2 , π2 √ 1
1−x2
cos−1 x [−1, 1] [0, π] √ −1
1−x2
1
tan−1 x x∈R − 2 < y < π2
π
1+x2
−1
cot−1 x x∈R 0<y<π 1+x2
sec−1 x x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 −π ≤ y < − π2 or 0 ≤ y < π √1
2 x x2 −1
cosec−1 x x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 −π < y ≤ − π2 or 0 < y ≤ π √−1
2 x x2 −1

Table 12.2:

Source: Calculus with Analytic Geometry by John B. Fraleigh (p. 263), Addison-Wesley.
From the theorems stated at 1 - 6 above, we know that if u is a function of the
independent variable x, then we may write the formulas for the derivatives of the inverse
trigonometric functions of u, using the chain rule. For example,
d 1 du
sin−1 u = · ,
dx 1 − u dx
2

and so on.
30 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

These results may also be written as

d f ′ (x)
sin−1 [f (x)] = p ,
dx 1 − [f (x)]2

d −f ′ (x)
cos−1 [f (x)] = p ,
dx 1 − [f (x)]2

d f ′ (x)
tan−1 [f (x)] = ,
dx 1 + [f (x)]2

and, so on.
These formulas are primarily important for the evaluation of certain definite integrals.
In fact, this is the main reason for studying the calculus of inverse trigonometric functions.

Note 9 Figures 12.28, 12.29 and 12.30 show the graphical symmetry of trigonometric
functions and their inverse functions.

pi/2
y=x

y = sin−1 x

y = sin x
y

−pi/2
−pi/2 0 pi/2
x

Figure 12.28: Graphs of sin x and sin−1 x.

Note 10 In some textbooks, the inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1 x, is defined
to be the inverse of the restricted secant function:

sec x, x ∈ [0, π/2) ∪ [π, 3π/2) or x ∈ [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π].

Similar cases of the definition of the inverse cosecant function can been found elsewhere.
12.7. IMPORTANT SETS OF RESULTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 31

y=x

y = cos−1 x
pi/2

y = cos x
0

0 pi/2
x

Figure 12.29: Graphs of cos x and cos−1 x.

12.7 Important sets of results and their applications

The following sets of results [Set (1) to Set (5)] connecting trigonometric (circular)
functions and inverse trigonometric functions are useful in simplifying certain inverse
trigonometric functions for computing their derivatives.
In the above results (or formulas) it is assumed that we are dealing with the principal
branch(es) of the functions and their appropriate domain(s). Their applications are given
below:

Set(1)
sin−1 (sin x)) = x
cos−1 (cos x)) = x
tan−1 (tan x)) = x
and so on.

Set(2)

sin sin−1 x = x
cos (cos−1 x) = x
tan (tan−1 x) = x
and so on.

Example 21 Applications of Set (1) and Set (2) (differentiate (????) with respect to
x, where (????) is taken from Set (1) and Set (2)) present as follows:
Consider
y = sin−1 (sin 3x).
Putting 3x = t, we have
y = sin−1 (sin t) = t
32 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

y=x
y = tan −1
x

pi/2

y = tan x
y

−pi/2

−pi/2 0 pi/2
x

Figure 12.30: Graphs of tan x and tan−1 x.

or putting y = 3x, we have

dy d
= (3x) = 3.
dx dx


Set(3)


sin−1 (cos x) = sin−1 sin π2 − x

= π2 − x
cos−1 (sin x) = cos−1 cos π2 − x

= π2 − x
tan−1 (cot x) = tan−1 tan π2 − x = π2 − x
and so on.

Example 22 Application of Set (3) presents as follows:

Consider
y = sin−1 (cos 5x) .
Then  π  π
y = sin−1 sin − 5x = − 5x.
2 2
Thus,
dy d π 
= − 5x = 0 − 5 = −5.
dx dx 2

Set(4)  
x+y
tan x + tan y = tan
−1 −1 −1

 1 − xy 
x−y
tan−1 x − tan−1 y = tan−1
1 + xy
These results are very useful as can be seen from the solved examples (it is proposed
to prove these results at the end of this chapter).
12.7. IMPORTANT SETS OF RESULTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 33

x+y
Note 11 Note that the expression can be converted to the form tan(p + q) by
1 − xy
x−y
proper substitution and similarly can be converted to the form tan(p − q). Thus,
1 + xy
in any expression of the type tan−1 (f (x)), if it is possible to break up f (x) in any of the
two above forms, then the given function tan−1 (f (x)) can be simplified for the purpose
of the differentiation as will be clear from the following solved examples. 

Applications of Set (4) (differentiate the following with respect to x) present as

follows:

Example 23 Let  
−1 5x
y = tan .
1 − 6x2
Then
 
−1 3x + 2x
y = tan
1 − (3x) · (2x)
= tan (3x) + tan−1 (2x).
−1

Therefore,
dy 1 d 1 d
= · (3x) + · (2x)
dx 1 + (3x) dx
2 1 + (2x) dx
2

3 2
= + .
1 + 9x2 1 + 4x2


Example 24 Let  
−1 sin 7x − cos 7x
y = tan .
sin 7x + cos 7x
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos 7x, we have
 
−1 tan 7x − 1
y = tan
tan 7x + 1
 
−1 tan 7x − 1
= tan
1 + tan 7x
 
−1 tan 7x − tan(π/4)
= tan because tan(π/4) = 1
1 + tan 7x · tan(π/4)
  π 
= tan−1 (tan (7x)) − tan−1 tan
4
π
= 7x − .
4
Thus,
dy
= 7.
dx

34 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

Set(5)

sin−1 x = cosec−1
x1
cos−1 x = sec−1 x1

tan−1 x = cot−1 x1

cot−1 x = tan−1 x1

sec−1 x = cos−1 x1

cosec−1 x = sin−1 x1
Applications of Set (5) (differentiate the following with respect to x) present as
follows:


Example 25 Let y = sin cosec−1 ( x1 ) . Then,

y = sin(sin−1 x)
= x.
Therefore,
dy
= 1.
dx

2



Example 26 Let y = sec cos−1 5x
. Thus,
 
−1 5x 5x
y = sec sec = .
2 2
Thus,
dy 5
= .
dx 2

 
3 − 2 tan x
Example 27 Let y = cot−1 . Note that, using the formula
2 + 3 tan x
1
cot−1 x = tan−1 ( ),
x
we can write,  
2 + 3 tan x
−1
y = tan .
3 − 2 tan x
Observe that the expression on the RHS can be simplified if the denominator is expressed
in the form (1 − k tan x). This can be done by dividing the numerator and denominator
by 3. We then get,
 
−1 (2/3) + tan x
y = tan
1 − (2/3) tan x
   
−1 2 −1 −1 a+b
= tan + tan (tan x) because tan = tan−1 a + tan−1 b
3 1−a·b
 
−1 2
= tan + x.
3
12.7. IMPORTANT SETS OF RESULTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 35

Therefore,
dy
= 0 + 1 = 1.
dx


Note 12 It is normally preferred to express cot−1 x, sec−1 x, and cosec−1 x in the forms
tan−1 t, cos−1 t and sin−1 t, respectively, where t stands for (1/x).
 
5 + 4x
Example 28 Let y = cot −1
. Then
5x − 4
   
−1 5 + 4x −1 5x − 4
cot = tan
5x − 4 5 + 4x

because
1
cot−1 t = tan−1 .
t
Dividing numerator and denominator by 5, we get
 
−1 x − (4/5)
y = tan
1 + (4x/5)
 
−1 x − (4/5)
= tan
1 + x · (4/5)
 
−1 −1 4
= tan x − tan .
5

Therefore,
dy 1 1
= −0 = .
dx 1+x2 1 + x2