INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL

BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
AN EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH
Tenth edition

A. B. (RAMI) SHANI, Ph.D.

Professor of Organizational Behavior and Management

JEAN-FRANCOIS COGET, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior and Management

All of California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo

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 INTRODUCTION
This Instructor’s Resource Guide was written to accompany the ninth edition of “Behavior in
Organization: An Experiential Approach.” As a part of this Instructor’s resource guide we developed two
additional supplements: Test Bank and Power Point Slides. The Web Site that was created for this edition
includes additional optional experiential activities and cases, and four complete advanced modules. This
Manual contains a variety of instructor aids including alternative ideas and plans of sessions’ design,
multiple ways of using activities and cases in the classroom, lecture outlines, notes and resource material,
answers to discussion questions at the end of each module, transparency masters, and test bank.

ABOUT THE TEXTBOOK

General Orientation
The first edition of this book was published 30 years ago. In the early 1970s very few Organization
Behavior text books were published. Only handful of educators recognized the need to teach organization
behavior and management experientially. The original textbook that Jim launched has become a
continuing enterprise, the essence of which was to learn about organizational behavior and management
issues in the context of work in an experiential way – going beyond summarizing and memorizing
existing and growing body of interdisciplinary knowledge. At the most basic level, an organization
behavior approach is used in the design and facilitation of exploration and learning. The current approach
is an attempt to influence behavior and outcomes through the use of design, whether it be architectural,
organization, work, or job design.

The approach that this edition of the book takes is that of Learning-by-Design, Learning-in-Action and
Learning-from-Action. We start by making much of the fact that the word “design” does a lot more than
distinguish between different learning orientations. Rather, it gives it a place in the increasingly
interesting and exciting world of design that is making its way into a wide variety of applications. The
subject of design is now front and center in grand architectural undertakings from the Opera House in
Sydney Australia to the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, Spain to the proposals for a new World Trade
Centre in New York City. Design is the leading edge in dramatic waterfront revitalizations in a number of
major cities in the world, and its popularity is evident in the large number of new television shows
dedicated to house and kitchen design as well as the variety of household design challenge programs.
Design hits the pages of business magazines through the many ergonomic design awards being
acknowledged for exciting new products such as Apple Computers’ iPod or the new Vespa Scooter from
Italy. In the Harvard Business Review’s list of breakthrough ideas for 2004, it is even suggested that a
Masters of Fine Arts degree is the new MBA degree (HBR, 2004) because the skill of design has the
potential to create a significant competitive advantage in the future. At the Politechnico di Milano, the
Masters in Industrial Design has become the center for human and industrial creativity and innovation.

Learning can be viewed as an emergent and systematic inquiry process, embedded in a true partnership
between the instructor and members of a living system, in which behavioral, social, organizational and
management scientific knowledge is integrated with exiting knowledge for the purpose of generating
actionable knowledge. At the most basic level, this approach brings about the challenge of balance and
interdependence between actors, between academic research and actual applications, between knowledge
creation and problem solving and, between inquiry from the inside and inquiry from the outside. It is a
partnership among a variety of individuals forming a “community of inquiry” and is viewed as an
emergent inquiry process that differs from the traditional notion of learning as a closed, linear, and
programmed activity.

The ultimate success of learning and discovery depends on how the different knowledge actor groups or
micro-communities relate through the discovery process. Learning-by-design is viewed as an enabler for
the understanding of the learning process and content since it provides the methods, mechanisms and

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processes for the interactions between the micro communities of knowledge and other relevant
individuals inside and outside the classroom for the purpose of creating new discoveries that can be acted
on.

Our approach to this book, initially launched by Jim 30 years ago, is based on the notion that learning can
be a meaningful experience if one designs for discovery. We have designed a template with large degrees
of freedom for the instructors to craft your own distinct courses such that the course fits the students,
learning context and your style. The instructors are viewed as coaches, managers and designers. Adopting
the particular lens of viewing the act of design as a process of social construction of reality might provide
an alternative path. The ‘imaginary learning designer’ might be all about developing and creating shared
meaning. Surfacing the mental models that people carry (viewed as deeply ingrained assumptions and or
images) of human behavior might provide the arenas for the development of shared meaning that are
likely to result in the creation of actionable knowledge. As such, the instructors are the designers and
managers of the learning processes, the classroom and the learning community.

About this Edition

This 9th edition of the book, like the previous editions, is designed first and foremost to meet needs that
other texts do not satisfy. There are many continuities with the prior editions, but some important changes
freshen and update the text. We have revised the overall design to include 16 core modules in the text and
four advanced modules on the web site. Each module is designed as a stand alone unit such that the
instructor can have more freedom to develop the overall structure of the course. The text is organized in
four major clusters of modules in the book and the fifth, an advanced cluster is on the web site: The
organization behavior context; managing individual processes; managing interpersonal processes;
managing organizational processes, and; managing emerging complex processes. We strived to improve
the balance between theoretical and current scientific knowledge, experiential activities and cases for each
module and cluster of modules. We added three modules in the text, module 3 – “Learning-in-action”,
module 4 – “A Psychodynamics perspective of human behavior” and module 9 – “Mentoring at work”, to
address these important topics. We have merged four modules into two, deleted one module, deleted few
cases and activities, added five new cases and eleven new activities.

The major continuity with previous editions is the basic approach, the aims, the emphasis and the learning
process. As before, the text is intended for use in an experiential learning course for undergraduate or
graduate business administration students in a required organizational behavior core course. Thus the text
provides basic coverage of all the essential OB topics. These topics are often taught solely by lectures and
readings, a cognitive approach primarily emphasizing content. Content-based learning approaches do not
deal adequately with the need for student involvement, nor do they help students acquire behavioral skills
or life-long-learning skills. Behavior in Organizations emphasized involvement exercises to help students
quickly and effectively enter into the process of thinking about behavior, applying concepts, arriving at
new discoveries and developing their own expertise. We have added a new module – “Module 3,
Learning-in-action” that provides an additional anchoring point. Integrating the experiential learning
approach with appreciative inquiry sets the stage for higher level of learning. Lectures and readings are
intended to bolster this process orientation. Many of our colleagues have integrated addition al readings
and cases as they see fit, while using the book as the framing and anchoring. At the graduate level we
usually supplement our book with a book of readings.

Designing the course around experiential learning methods (or what is called by some ‘learning by
doing’) and appreciative inquiry process provide a stimulus for learning, growth, and change by helping
learners focus on their own behaviors and reactions as data to explore. For this very reason, some students
may at first be uncomfortable about encountering experiential methods in a required course. To help
students deal with this challenge, we begin with more structured and less personal activities and introduce
early on the appreciative inquiry orientation. Personal growth and self-understanding activities are
introduced later in the text, after students have had enough experience to become more comfortable with
the approach and each other as a community of learners.

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The learning by doing orientation was retained in this edition. As such the text includes adult education
methods such as team activities, role playing, case studies, simulations and team project activities in the
communities within and outside the university boundaries. The action-oriented exercises provide new
data set that can be explored by the learner, the team and the learning community. When integrated with
the scientific body of knowledge, the sense making process of the data leads to new insights, discoveries
and possibly new experimentation. Thus, the design of the course that combined ‘learning by doing’ and
‘appreciative inquiry’ processes establish the context, the climate and the self-helped competencies for
life long learning.

Human behavior in organizations is both fascinating and critical to understand. It surrounds and concerns
us all, and affects every aspect of our lives. Moreover, it is the heart of effective management. Students
respond with great eagerness to organizational behavior concepts in a properly designed course. Their
enthusiasm offers the quickest route to the working skills they will find essential in the business world.
This text’s main aim is to help our students be the best that they can be as tomorrow’s socially responsible
leaders of organizations.

A course on human behavior in organizations is challenging and rewarding for both participants and
instructor. However, particularly in a required course, both students and instructor can find less
satisfaction and achievement, less relevance and impact than they might like. This text is a response to
the difficulties of presenting material where there is no right answer, where situational contexts matter a
great deal, and where students’ culture may downplay so-called “soft” courses. The secret to success, we
believe, is:

a. in linking and content of the course with the participants’ own experience, highlighting the usefulness
and insight to be gained by applying organization behavior knowledge, and

b. in giving students what they ask for, something practical, something they can use in personal,
interpersonal, and team skills development.

Students readily see that most of our adult lives are lived in organizations, so they are never far from the
subject matter of the course. They quickly see as well that their own experiences provide valid data
against which to test their insights.

This text focuses on student experience in and outside the classroom, drawing upon exercises and
techniques used widely in management development workshops and seminars for practicing managers
and administrators. Indeed, the text itself integrates tightly with experience in the classroom: experience
is the touchstone around which the course revolves. The instructor can make choices around the sequence
and can rotate the sequence as the course progresses. We suggest to start the course with a sequence of
experience first, discussion second, and text assignments third. This sequence provides for maximum
freshness, feedback and reinforcement of the learning and insights of the classroom. As the course
progresses the sequence can be changed such that the students prepare conceptual materials beforehand:
this preparation for the lessons of the experience can often lead to subtle insights that might otherwise be
missed. The sequence issue is addressed in each of the modules throughout the Manual.

Following the feedback that we have received from many colleagues on our 8th edition, this 9th edition of
the book was designed to provide the instructor with maximum flexibility. Each module was developed
as a stand-alone module. This means that the instructor can create his/her own sequence of the topic areas
to be covered. Furthermore, since we view the instructor as the designer, the text provides sufficient
material that can support an experientially-driven course, a case-driven course, a lecture-driven course or
any combination of the three. You will find in the text and the WWW Site 104 creative experiential
activities and 18 cases to choose from. In the book’s WWW Site you will find 4 comprehensive
advanced modules with their own set of possible activities and cases.

From our experience, the material in the book is sufficient for a year long course. We are stressing this
point because we strongly advocate against trying to include every module and every activity in a one
semester or one quarter or one trimester course. You need to make many choices about the modules that

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you are going to cover and about the activities for each session and module. We also developed four
modules as advanced modules that can be found on the WWW Site. You can design a complete course
based only on the first 16 modules. Yet, in our courses we have included a few variations of the advanced
modules. The suggested alternative course outline provides specific examples of how one can design and
organize the course.

We choose a specific sequence of modules that have worked for us and for our students. The text and the
instructor manual are organized accordingly. This Instructor’s Manual is organized in five clusters of
modules: the organization behavior context; managing individual processes; managing interpersonal
processes; managing organizational processes, and; advanced modules – managing emerging complex
processes. The introduction for each cluster provides an overview of the cluster and a short review of the
previous cluster. Each module in the text begins with few alternative activities — exercise or cases —
followed by content input and ends up with few alternative activities that if carried out can provide a
deeper level insight and an opportunity to investigate further the topic covered. We also integrated a few
additional activities in the WWW Site as alternatives and/or supplements to the existing ones.

THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL ORIENTATION

A variety of aids are provided in this manual that support and supplement the pedagogical devices in the
textbook. The aids are designed to improve the quality of the total learning experience and to reduce the
class preparation time. We start with a discussion about the pedagogical orientation and tools for the
course. Next we provide samples of course outlines. The features of this manual that follow, include part
and module overview; learning objectives; module outline; pedagogical teaching notes with a discussion
on the management of each activity and case; alternative mini-lecture outlines; answers to the discussion
questions that appear at the end of the module. Separate website was created for the power point slides
and the test bank.

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 PEDAGOGICAL ORIENTATION AND TOOLS

Purpose
Our aims for the text are twofold: to legitimate the examination and discovery of human processes, group
norms, motivation, communication, and other “intangibles” as prime factors affecting human behavior in
organizations, and thus the manager’s job and the employee’s experience, and; help the learners develop
their own mental models/cognitive analytical maps that will guide assessment and actions in a growing
complex work context. By design, people’s reactions are “data,” as real as machine output, and at least as
important. An important related aim is to provide the conceptual framework for conducting that
exploration in a rigorous, professionally sound manner, with widely recognized, useful theory and
recognizing, simultaneously, that even that theory can be critiqued and will be transcended. The learner
is challenged to develop and refine mental models that are built on experience and theory. We therefore
utilize concepts as means to assess experiences, critique these against the reactions of participants and
refine the individual mental model. We try to avoid doctrinaire commitments to specific theories, aside
from commitment to the experiential learning and appreciative inquiry methods and challenge the learner
to integrate bits and pieces from variety of theories that fit the experience. We don’t claim to have “the
answer,” so much as a way of proceeding that is likely to produce acceptable answers, and means to go
further and deeper level of understanding and discovery.

By building much experience around teams, we intend to highlight what we take to be a key characteristic
of most organizational life, the need to interact with others to accomplish some goal. Interaction, rather
than independence, is the rule of the organizational world: we stress students’ interactions here. We study
group dynamics, both within the group and between groups, taking classroom experiences as the source
of important data. Thus, we stress the value of introspection, reflection and inquiry on and in one’s own
activities.

A unique feature of this text is its emphasis on integrating experiential exercises and cognitive learning.
To assist this process, much guidance is provided in the introduction, the exercises, and assignments.
This guidance helps make the students, as well as the instructor, aware of the method of learning and its
importance. Before proceeding with this manual, the reader should turn to the Introduction, Modules 2
and 3 of the text, where the learning method and course plans are explained. This manual will provide the
instructor with additional support and information, both on course management and substantive areas.
More specific objectives include the following:

1. Detail the rationale for the learning method and sequencing of modules, materials and activities.

2. Describe the role of the instructor and student in a process course.

3. Provide instructions for the development of the class as a learning community.

4. Provide instructions for classroom management of experiential learning activities, suggesting

approaches for debriefing and connections between activities and course topics.

5. Suggest alternative course plans for using the textbook, and provide examples of course outlines and
assignment schedules.

6. Comment on each module and activity, providing additional instructional material: articles, case
studies, activities, answers to study questions, test questions, references and transparency master.

Rational for the Learning Method

The Experiential Learning Model upon which this text is based leads participants through a sequence of
steps. First, experiences are provided through activities relevant to the topic of study. The activities
generate fresh, genuine data with high face validity for participants. Second, participants discuss the

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experience and their reactions to it. Others’ reactions are as important as one’s own, and, through
questions and discussion, the managerial perspective can be emphasized.

Third, the instructor presents concepts and theory to apply to the experience. This helps place it in
perspective and gain additional insight. As well, because theory and concept are related directly to
experience, the cognitive material gains in credibility and applicability. Fourth, a homework reading
assignment reinforces participant learning. Fifth, students are encouraged to inquire into the data that was
generated through the activity and its meaning. Sixth, the learning is reinforced by application of the
concepts as the course progresses.

This method enhances the participant’s readiness for concepts and theories, and reinforces insight through
learning-by-doing and appreciative inquiry. An even more important outcome is learning at a high level:
learning how to learn from one’s own behavior over time. This lesson is woven throughout the text and
activities, from start to finish. To enhance learning, activities are presented first, before theory or
concept, so that participants experience without preconceived notions of what “should” happen.
Afterwards, theoretical insight can be grounded against the wealth of class experience, rather than being
presented as from on high by authority of the instructor.

Assignments at the end of each module indicate whether or not participants are to read ahead.

For instance, the Leadership Behavior Assessment Activity 8-2 can be completed as homework,
then discussed in triads in the classroom before Module 8 on this subject is assigned. After the
activity has been completed, a lecture on the different leadership school of thoughts is presented
by the instructor. Participants then score their own questionnaires, and discover the models they
drew upon implicitly in completing the questionnaire. Then Module 8 is assigned as homework,
when individuals have both their own reactions and others’ as background data to bring to the text
treatment of leadership concepts. Students can be asked to prepare Activity 8-3 “Donny is My
Leader Case” for class discussion. In class teams can be assigned specific school of leader
thought to analyze the case and present their analysis to the class. This sequencing of the
activities and materials tends to generate freer discussion among participants, highlighting
differences in beliefs and help individuals begin to develop their own mental model or cognitive
map that can guide analysis of different leadership dynamics in a variety of work settings..

An alternative approach to the same exercise, assigning Module 8 as homework first, focuses on
triad analysis of the questionnaire in class. The triads attempt to identify the leadership
alternatives for each topic on the questionnaire. The scoring key is used to assess how well the
triads were able to apply the leadership models. Here, participants drill on applying the models
and gaining facility with operational definitions.

Yet another alternative, for those that like to use case studies as a way to explore behavioral
issues in organizations, is to assign both Module 8 and “Donny is My Leader Case” as
homework. The class discussion based on the case facilitate an in depth exploration of leadership
dynamics. At a certain point during the session you can assign the questionnaire. The discussion
of the results in small groups help triads to apply the leadership models. Integrating both self-
assessment questionnaires with case discussion and mini-lectures provide for a complete learning
module.

This example suggests the flexibility possible for sequencing materials and activities. While we prefer
the “experience first” approach in general, variety in sequencing helps to keep students (and instructors)
fresh. Resequencing the flow of each module enables an instructor to stress conceptual and theoretical
materials, process and content issues to a greater extent, and provide for a dynamic and non-routine
learning process.

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A Generic Guide to Experiential Activities
Three key factors affect sequencing in this book:
1. As noted in the Introduction, we begin with less personal, less intimate experiences in the first few
modules of the book. The greater structure and objectivity of early activities helps participants become
more familiar with experiential methods before turning to topics like personal growth, which might be
considered more threatening and personally revealing. Nevertheless, the emphasis throughout is on
managerially and organizationally relevant approaches, not “amateur shrinkage” or pseudo-psychiatry.
At no time do activities become unduly intrusive or embarrassing.

2. There is a general, logical sequencing of theoretical and conceptual materials, from the contextual
content issues to team to individual and back to organizational processes. However, since modules are
arranged primarily to tap a core of experiences, the sequence of cognitive materials is less tight than
treatment in a comparable content-based text. It is possible to vary this sequence, but care should be
taken to begin with the first activities, especially for participants unfamiliar with experiential methods.

3. Main themes in the text are repeatedly reiterated throughout the course, thus weaving together various
aspects of personality and diversity, leadership, motivation, communications and perception, and small
group concepts and illustrating their operation at the individual, team, interteam, and organizational levels
of behavior. The integration and application of theory and concepts increase as the course progresses,
culminating in a total systems focus. This overall integration maintains emphasis on both the individual
and the organization through the vehicle of the professional manager’s perspective. This perspective,
continually reemphasized through the course, provides a rationale as well as an integrating device for
course content.

Tolerance for Ambiguity

Instructors using and reviewing the textbook have sometimes indicated they would like the course
sequences of topics and learning to be tightly developed sequentially. Students express a similar need,
unless instructors directly address this subject, thus presenting an excellent opportunity for discussing the
topic of tolerance for ambiguity early in the course. Points to make are as follows:

1. You are covering content, learning methods, and building the learning community that is embedded
in appreciative inquiry all at the same time at the beginning of the course. The first priority has to go to
involving the participants in interaction activities at the first class meeting, so students will be
immediately motivated and the mode of active-lecturer/passive-student will be avoided. The subject of
the activity is defining organizational behavior, a topic you could spend several lectures on. To do so
would interfere with developing the learning community. After Activity 1-1, the topic of OB can be
interspersed into the class discussions in the second session when Activity 2-1: Organizational Dialoguing
occurs. Create the teams for the course and go right into the Activity 2-2 (Individual Learning Styles:
Diagnosing and appreciation of Individual Differences) that helps the students appreciate individual
differences and begin the development of an appreciative inquiry process. Next as a homework
assignment assign Activity 2-3 (The Development of Team Name, Logo and Learning Goals). In class let
each team present their name, logo and logic. You can model appreciative inquiry behavior by asking
clarification questions for a deeper level of understanding and move right into Activity 2-5 in class. For
the next session you are moving into the module of leadership. The process described above gets the class
going early with the establishment of the foundation of a learning community that is embedded in teams
and appreciative inquiry into behavioral content and challenges. We found that sharing with the students
the logic of the learning process is helpful.

2. Impress upon the students that much of life is not sequential, it is turbulent. Many of their bosses will
be right-brained and will manage from an intuitive base, which they often cannot, or forget to, explain.
Problem solving can be done from a logical format, but often wallowing around in the middle of the data
brings excellent insights, e.g., brainstorming as one approach to systems analysis.

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3. Lastly, distributed learning, that is, going back over the material after lapsed intervals, can sometimes
bring better retention than mass learning it all at one time. Thus at the end of a part or the beginning of a
new part, make sure to summarize the progression made thus far in the course, such that the students
begin to appreciate the “forest” as a whole. Otherwise, the students will be able to appreciate only the
specific modules or the “trees” and the total picture will escape them.

The Use of Cases and Case Analysis Orientations

Significant amount of materials has been published to date about the pedagogy and the use of case studies
in a classroom environment. Discussing the use of case studies with many colleagues reveals that most of
us develop our own unique orientation. We do not see the need to propose or review the large variety of
case study orientations. Our suggestion is that you continue to refine and develop the orientation that you
have found to be the most useful.

Our own preparation involves thinking through the case, the purpose that we see in using the case and, the
potential learning points that the case can help bring forward. Some thought is devoted the potential class
energy and the energy that that case is likely to generate. Accordingly, some alternative courses of action
for managing the potential class energy are mapped-out. The teaching notes for the cases contained in
each module in this manual should provide you with preview of the cases and some ideas that are likely to
help you prepare the cases for class discussion.

Our approach has been to change the way we use the cases throughout the course:
• At times we use the traditional approach;
• at times we start by asking the few students to role-play individuals that are described in the case;
at times we divide the class into the groups that are identified in the case and ask them to identify
the major problems in the company from their specific perspective, and get representatives into a
fish-bowl to discuss the issues and arrive at a shared problem definition;
• at times we ask the class to be the board of directors that is expected to provide some direction to
the company;
• at times we assigned a specific content area or conceptual framework/model to teams and ask
them to analyze the case through the assigned content;
• at times we divide the class into competing consultants that are trying to get the job and each of
the teams has to prepare a short presentation that incorporates their analysis and proposed
alternative courses of action, and;
• at time we mix two or more of the above alternatives.

The basic “traditional” process that worked for us includes the following: starting with basic discussion
based on the student’s preparation of the case and their responses to the questions at the end of the case;
underpinning the basic assumptions that we make (about the event/situation/the organization/the key
actors); examining the symptoms and causes; identifying the major problem; providing alternative
solutions; cost of benefit analysis of the solutions; recommending a specific solution, and; providing
specific action plan.

At times we use a matrix to integrate the accumulated content knowledge for the analysis in order to help
identify the major problem. The matrix is based on the utilization of the existing body of knowledge to
aid the analysis. We identify with the students the theoretical areas and concepts that seems most relevant
based on the initial reading of the case. Next we create a matrix that includes the following columns: Key
concepts, analysis and, potential problems. Below is a skeleton of the matrix.

POTENTIAL
KEY CONCEPTS DEFINITION ANALYSIS PROBLEMS

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
_.
_.

THE MOST
DOMINANT
PROBLEM

We have found the matrix to serve as a systematic guide for the analysis that fosters the integration of the
reading materials while conducting the case analysis.

Our colleague Thom Sepic proposed the following structured approach that includes a solution matrix:
Identify the position taken (i.e., the person in the case that you are representing as you solve the case —
the president, sales manager or a consultant hired by the president), other key individuals and your
assumptions; list the critical case problems, identify the one you will solve and explain clearly your
choice; list three mutually exclusive and logical solutions, identify three appropriate effectiveness criteria
and assign each specific weight not exceeding 100 for all the criteria together (see the skeleton of the
solution matrix below), examine the solutions against the effectiveness criteria, assign the appropriate
weight, and choose the best solution using the effectiveness weight rational; develop a sound action plan
(be sure to state the objective of the plan in specific terms), identify the responsible persons during each
step of the action plan, and provide a realistic timeline for the completion of each of the step of the action
plan.

EFFECTIVENESS CRITERIA
Employee Product Customer
Solutions Attitudes Quality Satisfaction Competition
(25) (30) (35) (10)
1.

2.

3.

An alternative and more structured approach to case analysis was developed by our colleague Thom
Sepic. Case analysis requires use of certain competencies such as: encouragement of creative
problem-solving; assuming responsibility for thoughts and a willingness to explain their meaning
to the team; recognition of the importance of contradicting thoughts and ambiguity; acceptance
of the innovation process; and finally, being able to see the relationships between unrelated
information and the importance of collaboration to create an excellent final product. The analysis
is evaluated using four cells. The evaluation page below is followed by the instructions to guide
the analysis process.

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 CASE ANALYSIS GRADING FORM
Case:_________________________ Date:_________________________
Team:________________________ Evaluator:_____________________
1. POSITION TAKEN, OTHER KEY INDIVIDUALS & 2. PROBLEM(S) AND THE CAUSES
ASSUMPTIONS
• Used good assumptions to clarify important issues. •Listed the minor problems/symptoms of the case.
• Identified the person they represented in the case. •Used theories from the text to explain the major
• Presented characteristics of key individuals. problem.
• Introduced additional people not mentioned in the case • Used pages and concepts from the text for each cause of
(especially customers). • the major problem.
• Answered questions using good justification. • Answered questions using good justification.
Total ( 20 points possible) E V G N Total (20 points possible) E V G N
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6
Comments: Comments:

3. SOLUTIONS 4. ACTION PLAN

• Used appropriate “criteria” to evaluate each solution. • Stated the objective of the action plan in specific terms
• Three mutually exclusive solutions stated using course • Listed an adequate number (2) of logical steps to reach
• concepts.(1) • the stated objective.
• Listed the potential risks for the 3 solutions. • Identified an appropriate person for each step.
• Used good justification in each cell of the chosen • Timelines were realistic for the steps.
solution. • Answered questions using good justification
• Answered questions using good justification.
Total (20 points possible) E V G N Total (20 points possible) E V G N
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6
Comments: Comments:

(1) EACH SOLUTION MUST ELIMINATE THE MAJORITY OF YOUR CAUSES SHOWN IN CELL 2
(2) AT LEAST 8 MAJOR STEPS WITH 3 TO 6 SUB-STEPS
OVERALL POINTS___ 20

E= Excellent V=Very Good G=Good N=Needs Improvement

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR CREATING THE INFORMATION FOR EACH OF THE FOUR
CELLS USING THE DONNY IS MY LEADER CASE AS AN ILLUSTRATION
(ACTIVITY 8-3):

CELL ONE—POSITION TAKEN, OTHER KEY INDIVIDUALS, & ASSUMPTIONS.

Assumptions: You should create a set of assumptions regarding the case you will solve, i.e., did
the people in the case have knowledge of the problem, or did any of the individuals in the case
have any political connections with the main person who you think was responsible for the
problem? If we use the Donny is my Leader case, some assumptions might be: Donny is capable
of producing winning teams, I will defend Donny’s actions, and how he coaches his team, and I
respect Donny’s expertise, and have given him frequent approbation (not stated in case)

Person you will represent as you solve the case: You should take the perspective of someone
in the case, or someone you create who has a vested interest in the outcome or solution of your
case, i.e., in the Donny is My Leader case, you might have taken the position of the Director of
Athletics for the University of Toronto. This is your choice, but you cannot be consultants!

Characteristics of people in the case: Everyone will have personality quirks, and certain
behaviors that irritate others in the organization you are evaluating. Talk about any of those
characteristics that could influence your solution.

Additional people not mentioned in the case: If you need to create someone with the skill to
solve the case, then so be it, but describe his or her characteristics and skills so they are seen as
capable of solving the problem, i.e., do you think the Director of Athletics would ask the janitor
to help solve the problem in the Donny case?

CELL TWO—PROBLEMS AND CAUSES.

Listed the minor problems of the case: Any case you attempt to solve will have numerous
small problems, when grouped together may point you towards the major problem in the case.
Do some brainstorming, and after you have developed a list of a dozen small problems, then set
out to determine which ones seem to be linked together in some way. In the Donny case, some
possible minor problems could include: runner satisfaction, appropriate leader behavior, norms
versus group achievement, Donny’s weaknesses may outweigh his strengths, Donny’s leadership
behavior and group outcomes.
The ones you think were part of the major problem should be color coded so we know they led
you to the major problem.

Used theories from the text to explain the major problem: Most cases are placed in chapters
of a textbook because they draw upon the theory of the chapter, or illustrate the theories in the
chapter. When you identify the major problem, be sure to footnote the theory in your
explanation. For example, you might say the major problem in the Donny is my Leader Case is
the poor leadership style of Donny [Shani and Lau (S&L), Pg. XA, Behavior in Organizations
(BIO)].

Used pages and concepts from the text for each cause of the major problem: Under no
circumstances do I want you to solve the problem, rather I want you to eliminate the causes of
the problem, and then the problem will go away. Most problems have causes. Take influenza
for example, one can take antibiotics once you get the flu, but you can eliminate the causes—
poor sleeping habits, poor diet, and not washing your hands often—and you may never get the

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flu in the first place. The same holds true with the cases we solve in class. Each major problem
will have a multiple of causes, which you must identify, and then use theories from the text to
explain what caused the problem, like in the Donny is my Leader case the problem was poor
leadership style. You must ask yourself why someone hasn’t told Donny that he is too tough on
his runners. Some possible causes could include: Donny’s role behavior is inconsistent with the
needs of the situation; Donny is a low LPC leader, and in mod control situations becomes tense
and task focused, causing him to perform poorly (S&L, pg. XY, BIO); and Donny should be
more cognizant of the “task maturity” of his running group (S&L, pg. XX, BIO)

CELL THREE—SOLUTIONS:

Used appropriate criteria to evaluate each solution: It makes no sense to compare possible
solutions without a set of criteria against which each solution will be rated. The problem-solving
matrix has a place at the top of the last four columns to place your criteria, and their importance
weights, which must equal 100 when added together. Some examples of criteria you might
consider are runner turnover, runner satisfaction, and runner performance. Please keep in mind
that the criteria you create should be connected to the problem and the causes.

Three mutually exclusive solutions using course concepts: Be sure to find three solutions,
using concepts from the Shani and Lau text that will eliminate the majority of the causes. If you
list three causes, each solution should eliminate any two of them, but the solution you choose
will probably eliminate all three. After all, why would you choose a solution if it only
eliminated one cause? For example, if you were solving the Donny is my Leader case, you
might list three solutions like, meet with Donny and explain appropriate behaviors for a person
using a “path-goal leadership style” (S&L, pg. XB, BIO); Send Donny to a coaching school that
uses Yukl’s Transformational Leadership Theory (pg. XC, S&L, BIO); and talk to Donny about
being a more “charismatic” leader, and encourage him to use this technique when he coaches his
runners (S&L, pg. XD, BIO).

Listed the potential risks for each solution: On the solution matrix form, be sure to list at least
one possible risk for each solution if they were implemented in the situation you are assessing.
Used good justification in each cell of the chosen solution: When using the solution matrix,
be sure to rate the impact of each solution on each criterion. In other words, you will notice that
each cell has five numerical choices for your use: +2, +1, 0, -1, & -2. If you think that solution
one would have a small positive impact on runner satisfaction (criterion one), you would put a
+1 in the first small cell in the bottom right hand corner of the row associated with solution one,
and column one for runner satisfaction. You must also decide the importance of each of your
criteria, i.e., if you think runner satisfaction is most important to your runner’s performance, you
might give it an importance weight of 40.

Your task with the solution matrix is to ask yourself for each solution what its impact is on each
criterion, i.e., what is the impact of solution one (learning how to use the path-goal leadership
style) on runner satisfaction (criterion one), which I concluded was +1, because if Donny helped
his runners understand how to run better or show them the path to improved performance, they
would begin to see how setting goals and having a plan to reach them results in winning running
meets, and they would be happy.

CELL FOUR—THE ACTION PLAN.

Stated the objective of the action plan in specific terms: You may choose solution one: Donny
needs to understand how to use the path-goal leadership style to produce winning teams. But

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this should not become the objective of the action plan. The objective should be what you are
trying to accomplish in your action plan, which could be to change the runner’s attitudes about
incremental improvement in their running styles.

Listed an adequate number of logical steps to reach the stated objective: When you have to
determine the correct number of steps for an action plan there is no magic number, but very few
objectives can be reached in 3 or 4 steps. I might even go as far as to say that good action plans
not only use major steps, but sub-steps for those major steps. It is essential that you think
strategically about what you are trying to accomplish with an action plan, and allow enough steps
to reach the objective. Also, you must utilize the individuals you discuss in cell one. Why
include someone in a case discussion who has no role in the final action plan? Why waste your
time creating someone who you will not discuss later in the case?

Identified an appropriate person for each step: Please consider the requirements for each step
of your action plan before you designate a person to do this step. In other words, you should
place someone in charge of the step who has the skill to implement it. Again, but not to be
sarcastic, why would you ask a janitor to create a new compensation plan for top management.
That is not to say that the janitorial staff wouldn’t like to get back at the CEO, but there is little
chance they will have any say with regard to how much he or she is paid.

Timelines were realistic: Most students who have not worked in a business organization forget
that while an action plan is implemented, the same employees you have assigned to some step of
the action plan have other work to do. No one will do that work while they are doing the steps
they have been assigned in the action plan, so expand the time that you think is appropriate given
that the assigned employee probably has other tasks to perform as well as the step(s) they were
assigned on the action plan. In other words, be realistic, and allow enough time to implement
each step of the action plan.

Integrating Practical Business Experience

One of the best ways to integrate current issues is via the use of organizational and business publications.
Students are required to read weekly any one of the following publications (that are carried out by most
libraries) Business Week, Fortune. Some of our colleagues require that students subscribe to The Wall
Street Journal. We begin each session with few minutes devoted to students’ reports about an article that
they have read about “the days topic.” In addition, the students have to turn in a one or two page paper
that provides a summary of the article read and analysis of it in the context of the material covered. The
students must attach a copy of the article to their paper. This assignment must be turned in no later than
one session following the discussion of the topic in class.

Amount of Instructional Material Required in Process Courses

Instructors accustomed to content-oriented teaching will find they need less material for classroom
presentation in a process-oriented course such as this one. Because “coverage” is less an issue than
understanding through experiencing and inquiring, participants’ experiences and reactions assume high
importance and take a significant amount of classroom time. Where a lecture course might cover 600 to
800 pages of text plus outside reading and perhaps a term paper, a process-based course stressing
involvement may allot a major portion of time to experiences, activities (both inside and outside the
classroom) and reflection.

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With three modules being the exception – module 4 (psychodynamics perspective on human behavior),
module 5 (motivation), module 8 (leaders and leadership) and, module 13 (organization and work design)
- we have chosen to give priority to learning-to-learn, emphasizing in-depth coverage of a few concepts
and their application to participants’ own experiences, rather than to the exhaustive coverage of large
quantities of theory or content. “Fewer ideas, better understood and personally owned” is our aim, rather
than “many ideas covered superficially.” Our choice is based on recognition of the explosion of learning
and knowledge around us and the brevity of any student’s classroom experience. The manager who can
learn from her or his own experiences to continually retool is far better equipped than a colleague whose
limited fund of knowledge will obsolesce rapidly. We would rather “teach managers to fish” than “feed
them for a day,” to borrow the Chinese aphorism.

This text provides far more material than can be used even in a semester course, however. It concentrates
upon the behavior and experiences of individuals in the classroom, assuming maximum enduring learning
can be gained. This means surveys of theory and conceptual areas have to be brief. We have provided
coverage of the fundamental organizational behavior topics, and, particularly in the context of a closely
woven fabric of ideas, there is abundant concept and theory; however, the question is, how can we best
spend our time in a single course. The ever-expanding OB field would permit numerous courses, but how
to choose what to include in one is a difficult decision. Three criteria you might use in making your
decision: (1) What are my responsibilities to the student in presenting basic ideas in the OB field? (2)
What will make the most interesting and therefore, presumably, the best learning experience? (3) What
do I, the instructor, wish to get out of the class that will excite me and enhance my skills learning?
Perhaps the last should be the first on the assumption that the course you find most exciting will correlate
with high student learning. We provide guidance for use of three plans for the course and suggestions for
alternative use of materials, but after gaining experience with the text you will probably want to mix your
own ingredients. We do recommend, however, that for MBA classes Plan B be used, the outside team
project providing the challenge for their usual high-intensity motivation.

The Role of the Instructor

Because the focus of our approach is participant experience, classroom time is differently spent and the
instructor’s role is shifted from the norms in content-oriented courses. Here, the instructor becomes more
of an ‘imaginary designer’, role model, facilitator, coach, discussion leader, and resource person than a
lecturer. Surfacing the mental models that people carry (viewed as deeply ingrained assumptions and or
images) of organization design might provide the arenas for the development of shared meaning that are
likely to result in the creation of actionable knowledge.

Because discussion is so important, a more socratic method is appropriate. Theory and concept can often
be drawn out of a student discussion, or provided as a means of categorizing and understanding
experience. Short lecturettes, rather than more lengthy formal presentations, are typical. While different
skills are required, there are many rewards for the instructor.

Teaching Rewards for Experiential Course Instructors

Many of us love to lecture and this can interfere with an experiential course. (If this is a problem, you
might teach some courses by the lecture method and some by the experiential.) Skills increase is a major
source of satisfaction; such skills include theory and concept application, discussion, analysis of
perceptual and response differences among participants, and the ability to communicate the grounding of
theory in the reality of participants’ experience. Management skills can improve greatly; by the time you
have developed the learning community and launched teams into actions during the first two weeks, you
realize that you know a good deal about classroom design and management. Learning from students as
they share their perceptions of the activities is another plus, as is learning how their generation views life.
The intensity of student involvement can produce what almost might be called a “transpersonal” energy
transfer for some instructors. Feedback as to where the courses is effective or could be more effective

15
during the course and particularly at the end (Activity 16-6) of the course can provide a feeling of
dynamic shaping of the activities of the course. And this type of course is a natural medium for increased
awareness of one’s own personal and professional goals, needs, and self-renewal.

Length of Sessions
The majority of the activities can be completed in one-hour sessions. However, our experience shows
longer periods are better for process learning. Students seem to relax more in the longer time periods and
learning seems more intense. We usually use two-hour or two and one-half hour sessions. Some of our
best results have been in a three or four-hour afternoon or evening blocks, a Friday morning block — why
not even a Saturday morning? Too long? Management workshops often run day and evening with many
long sessions without complaint from participants or staff. Students, anxious at first, vote
overwhelmingly for the three or four hours at the final critiques of the course.

Course and Classroom Management

Successful process-oriented learning is partly dependent upon course design and classroom management.
Participants should be alerted that they are not to read ahead unless instructed to do so because of the
importance of spontaneous reactions to activities. Sharing the rationale (that their “data” should be saved
from contamination) is usually successful. Making sure that instructions are clear, that everyone
understands and is prepared to begin at the appropriate time, and keeping track of timing are all aspects of
classroom management. We have found that students respond positively to well-structured activities with
clear directions, and thus the first activities in the book are particularly clearly structured. To insure that
all participants are ready to start at the same time, we read the instructions aloud as students follow in
their books — a technique often used in management workshops. This method neatly bypasses the
difficulties of different reading and comprehension speeds, and readers. The oral presentation also seems
more effective in getting questions raised and answered, so that instructions are better understood. Tasks
get started in less time and in a more orderly manner this way than by any other we have found.

Throughout the text, and in this manual, we have worked to provide both structure and assistance on
classroom and course management. Typically, much of this information can be shared with participants.
“Leveling” with participants, to the extent possible without impeding the learning objectives, helps both
instructor and participants to be more aware of the learning process its outcomes and their part in it. As
you will see in the discussion of some of the activities in this Manual, some of the activities have covert
aims.

One of the most important management points is that the attendance of students should be required, if
this is at all possible in your educational setting. It should be made clear to participants at the first
meeting that as primary course learning is focused on classroom interaction, credit is given for attendance
and participation. One method is to set a limit for the number of absences that constitute reduction in
course grade. Another, more positive method is to award points for attendance and participation, so that it
is clear that absences affect the grade. Awarding a percentage of the course grade for participation makes
this explicit. While it is out of fashion to insist upon the traditional educational forms in this manner, the
results are good and student response positive when the rationale is explained. The key point is that the
course experience and participant learning are built around classroom activities — studying alone won’t
do it. Participation in activities requires doing the preparation, being in class on time, and taking part.

Problems can arise from students who do not prepare their outside work (such as a questionnaire) needed
for a class activity; from poor attendance or tardiness; when activities are not controlled with regard to
instructions or timing, so that confusion and lack of understanding make effective participation
impossible. Moving too slowly to maintain interest can also cause difficulties. To avoid these problems,
we establish ground rules early and explicitly, beginning the term with more structure rather than less. It
is much easier to ease up on structure as students show responsibility than it is to tighten up later in the
term. Assigning students to teams also has beneficial results — particularly when it is pointed out that

16
“arbitrary” assignments to teams realistically reflects the work situation, in which individuals’ outcomes
are determined by others. Peer pressure provides significant encouragement for responsible behavior.

Most students enter into the activities without too much hesitation, but having them realize that the
instructor is involved and cares is important. Throughout the course it is important for the instructor to
circulate periodically among the teams during an activity. You will find it interesting to listen-in for a
few seconds at each stop, but the main value is that teams interact more intensely when they are aware of
your interest. Don’t participate in team activities, or answer substantive questions, because teams should
be self-directing and self-managed and their questions are frequently what they should be asking each
other. Of course you do respond to procedural queries. Failure to check on the teams in the described
manner has led an occasional team to cop out.

In summary, for a more successful class experience, set the ground rules at the beginning of the course:

• attendance is required.
• late arrivals interfere with activity setup time.
• full participation of all class members will enhance learning (“Your participation is giving the other
person a chance to learn as well as you.”)

One way to establish the norms of participation is via few structured tools. We have experimented and
used a variety of tools in order to foster participation and active involvement in the learning process.

1. Individual Involvement—Active Participation: Self-Assessment form. We build into the total points
that the student can accumulate during the course 10% of participation. The student is required to turn in
at the end of every class session or once a week or every other week a form in which the student evaluates
his/her own participation. The instructor collects the forms and tallies them up at the end of the course.
See sample form at the end of this introduction.

2. Peer Review—Mid-course Form. The team members are asked to provide feedback to their
teammates about their overall contribution to the team effort up to that point in the course. This is a
feedback from one student to the other without the instructor seeing it. We have experimented with two
kinds of forms: the first is a form that has the name of the team member on the top that passes around the
team and each team member writes down his/her comments and is able to see other’s comments; the
second form is a single person form from the reviewer to the reviewee without other team members
seeing it. Both have worked well for us. Both sample forms can be found at the end of the introduction.

3. Instructors Participation Review Form. This is a letter that we provide every student half way
through the course that sums up our assessment of their participation in the course to date. This letter is a
powerful way to review expectations, get a dialogue going about the importance of active participation
and a mechanism that fosters corrected action and behavior. A sample of the letter can be found at the
end of the introduction.

4. The Team Assessment Profile. Each student must turn this form to the instructor at the end of the
term. This team assessment profile summarizes and assesses the overall contributions of each of the team
members to the team effort throughout the entire course. A sample form can be found at the end of the
introduction.

Rationale for Tight Course Design and Management

Course learning will take place primarily in the classroom with outside preparation and activities
reinforcing the process. You will find that students generally regard the tight management as indicating
the instructor really cares about them and the process, if your manner is supportive and if you explain the
rationale thoroughly.

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Role of the Participant
(See Module 2 of this manual.)

Handling the Occasional Team Deviant

On rare occasion, there may be an individual who does not wish to participate in team activities. In a
required course, this poses an especial difficulty. An uncooperative attitude may indicate feelings of
threat or discomfort in team situations. The majority of the team will begin by encouraging such a
person, but may reject the person if response to encouragement is unfavorable.

Here are some suggestions that have helped:

1. Announce early in the course (ideally, the first day) that, since teamwork is so much a part of the
working world, teamwork will also be an important part of the course. Stress the realistic expectation that
people will work effectively with a variety of others, regardless of feelings of like or dislike.

2. Comment explicitly that sometimes people do find team situations uncomfortable, but that this is
generally overcome naturally as team activities proceed. Stress also, however, that if difficulties do occur
the instructor is available as a resource person to aid individuals and teams. Often coaching and
encouragement, together with team-building assistance, can help people deal with these difficulties. We
have had both individuals and student teams come in for counseling sessions. The nature of the problems
or disputes should determine the type of support needed. Most often, stressing the interests of all in
finding a satisfactory accommodation and providing consultation, along with underscoring the relevance
of team activity to management, does the job.

For extreme cases, an alternative could be set up to allow a student to do extensive independent work in
lieu of team activities. However, since cooperative activity is so central to a business career, we consider
such an arrangement a last alternative. We have never had anyone take us up on the library paper,
incidentally.

However, there have been occasional students who were having serious adjustment problems, and, with
the cooperation of the campus counseling service, they were permitted to complete the course through
weekly tutorial sessions rather than by attending class. Their attendance in class could have been
disturbing both to them and their fellow students.

3. Indicate early on that individuals who do not participate in the activity, engage in horseplay, or
interfere with others will be asked to leave. Although understanding and support of the individual will be
an important consideration, protection of class members who wish to learn must be primary. Too much
support for the noncooperative individual by the instructor can lead to deterioration of the team. It can
also affect the class as a whole, by devaluing the cooperative efforts of others, so early and forthright
action is needed.

4. Teams are asked to be supportive and understanding toward individuals who are uncomfortable in
team activities, and to try to encourage them. Understanding and appreciation of individual differences,
and the development of means to work with these differences, are important managerial skills (and class
objectives).

However, a disruptive or uncooperative group member, or one who does nothing (especially on outside
activities), can be “fired” by the team in extreme situations. Making this option explicit typically helps
team members to take responsibilities seriously. Where someone is in danger of being “fired,” the first
formal disciplinary step should be a discussion among team members; the second, formal notification to
the offender, with the instructor being informed. If this fails to remedy the problem, counseling with the
instructor is appropriate. (Typically, by this stage, the recalcitrant participant is ready for guidance from
the instructor.) A formal procedure is both effective and realistically reflective of the disciplinary
procedures to be found in most organizations, a point not lost on students.

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In short, we advocate (and practice) a professional manager style of high concern both for the goals of the
class and for individuals in it. Toughness is often necessary to achieve this, and it is typically respected
by participants. Conscious awareness of the instructor’s role as model manager, together with explicit
commentary on it, are helpful as well. We have found that a good place to handle this is in the dialoguing
in Activity 2-1. Students often ask what the instructor wants from the course, and what frustrations are
encountered. This is a good opening and it avoids seeming autocratic.

Creating a Supportive Classroom Climate

Tight management of the class can make it seem autocratic unless efforts are made to prevent this.
Genuine interest and supportiveness on the part of the instructor are the keys. Some ways to signal these
attitudes to students include the following. If at all possible, learn students’ names. Requiring a recent
photo and some information—academic major, work experience, interests and the like—as part of
registration procedures can help: a few minutes’ time devoted to making notes on students’ contributions
and connecting these to names and faces goes a long way. Remembering student contributions, and
connecting comments from one student to those of another (“Your comment fits right in with what Chris
was saying a moment ago”) also helps. Other helpful behaviors include: 1) listening carefully and
responding seriously to student questions, sometimes paraphrasing to be sure that you understand; 2)
being approachable before and after class, during office hours or breaks—to chat with students; 3)
handling student input responsively and positively during class discussions, and encouraging students to
listen and respond to one another.

Student responses in discussion are an important aspect of creating classroom climate. If instructor
comments are too judgmental, students quickly dry up, sensing their answers are being handled as right or
wrong test questions. Rather than supplying judgment, the instructor can often lead the student to self-
assessment and self-correction by careful questions about consequences and implications of
recommended actions, for instance. Other students’ responses can also be used to “correct,” thus
validating participants’ teaching responsibilities for one another. This approach is particularly
appropriate for behavioral issues, where the “right” or “wrong” answer depends upon circumstances and
style, not just content.

Achieving Widespread Participant Response in Class Discussion

Most instructor-class discussions are carried on by a few articulate participants who are accustomed to
becoming the stars in the class. These people are important and are needed to give sparkle to the
discussions. However, one of the things we are trying to get across in the course is that individual
effectiveness means that all members of the class should learn to get their share of the air time,
particularly when individuals feel they have something important to say. Wider participation can be
gained by emphasizing this “share of the air time” as a value and norm for teams to develop in completing
the activities. Also, we request that the spokesperson’s role when called for in exercises be rotated so that
each person has the experience of reporting to the class. After the spokesperson has reported, you can
often turn to others in the team and ask if anyone has an additional input. Usually the stars will get in
their views at this point. Also at the end of the team reports, you might—if you have not already done
so—ask to hear from other class members who would like to express their views. You need to get
widespread participation but you want to try to keep starts involved to give vitality to the atmosphere.

Another tactic is to shift location of teams in the room. Team members who are located immediately in
front of the instructor respond more readily than those in the back of the room, so every three weeks or so
bring the rear teams forward and move those in front toward the rear.

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Use Buzz-Sessions during Lectures—On occasion you will have to give a longer lecture. To keep interest
alive, ask a question and give students three minutes to discuss it with two neighbors. Then go around the
room calling upon triads for their input. Widespread participation is assured.

Timing the Activities

Each activity has a suggested time indicated for individual tasks or for the entire activity. Instructors
should be alert to the need to adapt these to their own time constraints, and aware of the flexibility
possible in an experiential course. While flexibility is possible, it is important not to delete discussion
and “debriefing” time after an activity. It is typically here that the maximum student learning takes place,
so this is a core part of any experiential activity. Ideally, such discussion should take place immediately
after the activity. Where it cannot, it is wise to take two or three minutes to have participants write down
their reactions or responses to two or three key questions for discussion the next time. By getting students
thinking about their reactions, a significant part of the learning can proceed individually, even before
class discussion where a day or two intervenes. It is wise to avoid scheduling several days between an
activity and a discussion (over a holiday or weekend), however.

An activity like “Who Gets the Overtime?” (11-3) ideally needs a one-and-a-half or two-hour block of
time for activity and discussion. (The shorter time cuts back on running time, not by eliminating
discussion.) If the class is being run in one-hour blocks, the role playing can be run in the first meeting,
with time for noting responses briefly. The discussion can be handled in the next meeting. Other means
of tailoring include assigning some portions of exercises as homework, to be completed individually
(such as preparing a case or questionnaire for a subsequent in-class activity). A disadvantage of assigning
portions of the exercises as outside work is that some students may spend a good deal of time, coming to
class very well prepared, while others do not. In-class completion of tasks equalizes the preparation time
and probably encourages wider participation.

Agendas and Reviews

A workshop course of this type can be run in one-hour blocks but any other arrangement from one-and-a-
half to four hours in preferable (see guidance on this page). You will find the class appreciates it when
you list an agenda on the board of what review items, activities, lecturettes, and examinations are to be
covered during the meeting.

Since the team interactions and discussion take up a good deal of the time available, it is a good idea to
review at the beginning of each period what the principal learning points were from the last meeting—
much more so than in a lecture course. For variety, we sometimes use “briefers.” At the beginning of the
course tell them that one of the best communication skills a manager can develop is to be able to
spontaneously summarize what has happened on some activity. For instance, at staff meetings the
director often will ask a manager to “give us just a few words on project X,” and this may be something
the manager has not prepared for. Skilled managers can on these occasions give a concise summary,
almost as if reading from a flip chart, of the status of the activity—good managers are often good briefers.
So we tell the class that one of them will be called upon at the beginning of each meeting to give a
concise summary of the main points covered in the last meeting. Of course, time will be your greatest
concern in covering the course, so you may find doing this only on occasion rather than every time is the
best you can do. But this technique does liven up the class and certainly some arrive better prepared.

Some Thoughts and Tools for Student Testing

The issue of meaningful testing has been a part of academic discussion for many years. On the content
side, the test-bank that was created by our colleague Lee Stepina is a great starting point both for the
multiple choice true and false questions and the easy questions. On the process side of testing we have
been experimenting with multiple methods and would like to encourage you to do the same.

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During the last few years we have built on Larry K. Michaelsen’s work on team learning and the
utilization of a combined individual and team testing procedures: Students seem to learn a significant
amount due to this process; the teams seem to become a more cohesive learning unit; and overall learning
is enhanced.

Larry Michaelsen* advocates the use of 5 to 7 mini-tests at any given course that incorporate the
following sequence: individual test (15-20 multiple choice questions over assigned readings and or
homework-type problems—the instructor scores the test during the group test if possible); group test
(same questions/problems as individual test—immediate feedback by scoring exam or providing prepared
“correct” answers; preparation of written appeals by the team while utilizing open books) and; instructor’s
input—response to the teams appeals. We have found the above process to be a powerful learning tool.

Our continuous experimentation with the Michaelsen’s orientation resulted in some what modified
approach: We use three tests (two based on multiple choice and true false questions and one based on five
open ended questions); follow the cycle of individual test first and team test immediately after the
individual test; instructor’s scoring and item-analysis to be reviewed and discussed in the first part of the
following class session.

Our final test is the paper on team dynamics. As such it is a paper that the students turn-in as a
replacement of an in class final. The paper is discussed at length in Understanding Team Action,
Alternatives 1 and 2 that can be found on the WWW Site.

Selecting a Plan for the Course

Figures 1,2,3 below suggest three alternative course plans that have worked for us. Within each one one
can suggest specific content follow. We provide three options for the first alternative (ONLY) that
follows the module sequence that can be found in the textbook. Within each of the suggested course
outline one can chose an alternative team-based orientation (Plan A, Plan B OR Plan C). Instructors are
encouraged to select one of these, or to design their own for using the text to meet the students’ needs
under the conditions provided in their particular educational setting.

____________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 1: Alternative Course Team-based Design Orientation for Using the Book

Plan A: Complete the assigned activities and readings with classroom discussion.
Plan B: Complete PLAN A and add one major outside-of-class team task project.
Plan C: Complete PLAN A and add additional team activities/tasks (4 to 8 optional activities) for
outside-of-classroom.
____________________________________________________________________________________

You may wish to gain experience with the experiential learning method in the classroom before you have
the students involved in team projects, in which case you may use Plan A. When you are comfortable
with this, you may want to try Plan B which adds a term project requiring the student to observe the
behavior of her/his group in class activities throughout the course. Plan C is the most complex to manage
because of the variety of outside-of-class team activities. Careful sequencing of the outside team
assignments is important to assure meaningful involvement in these course-long activities.

An experiential course achieves best results when it is run like a workshop, as an integrated sequence of
activities from beginning to end. However, some instructors may feel the need for more systematic
cognitive input of a more formal sort, and prefer to allot more time to lectures. You will find a section in

*
A good review of this approach can be found in Larry K. Michaelsen, Team Learning: A
Comprehensive Approach for Harnessing the Power of Small Groups in Higher Education, To Improve
the Academy, (1992) volume 11, pp. 107-122.

21
each of the modules in the Instructor’s Resource Manual that provides outlines for mini lectures. The
endnotes at the end of each module can serve as a source for additional information for lectures.

22
FIGURE 1:
COURSE OUTLINE I: A CONTENT ROADMAP

COURSE CONTENT OVERVIEW

FRAMING THE MANAGING MANAGING MANAGING

ORGANIZATIONAL INDIVIDUAL INTERPERSONAL ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR PROCESSES PROCESSES PROCESS
CONTEXT
1. Organizational Behavior 4.The 9. Mentoring at Work 13. Work and
and Sustainability: An Psychodynamics of Organization Design
Overview Human Behavior 10. Negotiations and
Conflict Management 14. Creativity and
2. Expectations, Learning, 5. Motivation Innovation
and Appreciative Inquiry 11. Work Teams and
6. Perception and Effectiveness 15. Organizational
3. Learning-in-Action Attribution Culture
12. Team Dynamics
7. Communication and Performance 16. Organizational
Change, Development,
8. Leaders and and Learning
Leadership

23
FIGURE 2:
COURSE OUTLINE II: A CONTENT ROADMAP

COURSE CONTENT OVERVIEW

THE MANAGING MANAGING MANAGING

ORGANIZATIONAL INTERPERSONAL INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR PROCESSES PROCESSES PROCESS
CONTEXT
1. Organizational 8. Leadership Dynamics 4. A Psychodynamics 13. Organization and
Behavior and Perspective of Human Work Design
Sustainability: An 9. Mentoring Behavior
Overview 14. Creativity and
11. Work Teams and 5. Motivation Innovation
2. Expectations, Effectiveness
Learning, and 6. Perception and 15. Organizational
Appreciative Inquiry 12. Group Dynamics Attribution Culture
and Performance
3. Learning-in-Action 7. Communication 16. Organizational
10. Conflict Change, Development,
Management and 17W. Stress and the and Learning
Negotiation Management of Stress

24
FIGURE 3:
COURSE OUTLINE III: A CONTENT ROADMAP

COURSE CONTENT OVERVIEW

THE MANAGING MANAGING MANAGING

ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL INTERPERSONAL INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOR PROCESS PROCESSES PROCESSES
CONTEXT
1. Organizational 13. Work and 11. Work Teams and 4. A Psychodynamics
Behavior and Organization Design Effectiveness Perspective of Human
Sustainability: An Behavior
Overview 14. Creativity and 12. Team Dynamics and
Innovation Performance 5. Motivation
2. Expectations,
Learning, and 15. Organizational 10. Negotiation and 6. Perception and
Appreciative Inquiry Culture Conflict Management Attribution

3. Learning-in-Action 19W. Managing 7. Communication

Knowledge
8. Leaders and Management Processes 17W. Stress and the
Leadership Management of Stress
20W. Managing
9. Mentoring Technology 16. Organizational
Change, Development,
and Learning

25
 SAMPLE OF SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINES
(FOLLOWING THE SUGGESTED - COURSE OUTLINE I: A CONTENT ROADMAP - FIGURE 1)

TABLE 1
Course Outline for a Semester Session:
15 weeks, 30 meetings, 90-120 minutes each

ALTERNATIVE
ALTERNATIVE OUTSIDE OF
MODULE CLASSROOM CLASSROOM
WEEK SESSION TOPIC # ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
1 1 Introduction 1 Activity 1-1
2 Expectations and 2 Activity 2-1, 2-3 Activity 1-3W and
Appreciative Inquiry 2-5W
2 3 Learning and 3 Activity 2-2, 2-4, Activity 2-3 and
Learning-in-Action 2-5, 3-2 2-4, 3-3
4 The Psychodynamics 4 Activity 4-1, 4-2 Activity 4-3W, 4-
Perspective of Human 5W, 4-6W
Behavior
3 5 Motivation 5 Activity 5-1, 5-4 Activity 3-6W
6 Motivation (con’t) 5 Activity 5-2, 5-3, Activity 5-3, 5-5W
5-5W
4 7 Perception 6 Activity 6-1, 6-3 Activity 6-2
OR 6-4 OR 6-5W
8 Communication 7 Activity 7-1, 7-2 Activity 7-3W, 7-
4W
5 9 1st MIDTERM EXAM
10 Leaders & Leadership 8 Activity 8-1, 8-2 Activity 8-3, 8-5W
6 11 Leaders & Leadership 8 Activity 8-3 Activity 8-6W,
(con’t)
8-7IM
12 Mentoring 9 Activity 9-1, 9-3, Activity 9-2, 9-3
9-5
7 13 Conflict Management 10 Activity 10-1, 10-2 Activity 10-5
and Negotiation or 10-3 or 10-4
14 Work Teams and 11 Activity 11-1, 11-2 Activity 11-8W
Effectiveness
11 21 Work Teams and 11 Activity 11-3 Activity 11-4
Effectiveness (con’t)
22 Group Dynamics and 12 Activity 12-1, 12-2 Activity 12-6W or
Performance 12-7W
12 23 Group Dynamics and 12 Activity 12-8IM, Activity 12-9IM
Performance (con’t) 19-9IM
24 2nd MIDTERM
EXAM

26
13 25 Organization and 13 Activity 13-1 and Activity 13-2, 13-
Work Design 13-3 4W or 13-5W or
13-6W
26 Creativity and 14 Activity 14-1, 14-2 Activity 14-3, 14-
Innovation and 14-4 5W, 14-6W
14 27 Organizational Culture 15 Activity 15-1, 15-2, Activity 15-4W,
15-3 15-5W, 15-6W
28 Organizational 16 Activity 16-1 or Activity 16-1
Change 16-2
15 29 Organizational 16 Activity 16-3 or Activity 16-3 or
Change (con’t) 16-7W or 16-8W 16-7W or 16-8W
30 Course Review and Activity 16-4 and Activity 16-5
Feedback 16-6
FINAL EXAM

27
 SAMPLE OF SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINES
(FOLLOWING THE SUGGESTED - COURSE OUTLINE I: A CONTENT ROADMAP - FIGURE 1)

TABLE 2
Course Outline for a Quarter Session:
10 weeks, 20 meetings, 90-120 minutes each
ALTERNATIVE
ALTERNATIVE OUTSIDE OF
MODULE CLASSROOM CLASSROOM
WEEK SESSION TOPIC # ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
1 1 Introduction 1 Activity 1-1
2 Expectations and 2 Activity 2-1, 2-3 Activity 1-3W and
Appreciative Inquiry 2-5W
2 3 Learning and Learning- 3 Activity 2-2, 2-4, Activity 2-3 and
in-Action 2-5, 3-2 2-4, 3-3
4 The Psychodynamics 4 Activity 4-1, 4-2 Activity 4-3W, 4-
Perspective of Human 5W, 4-6W
Behavior
3 5 Motivation 5 Activity 5-1, 5-4 Activity 5-6W or
or 5-2 or 5-3 or 5- 5-3 or 5-5W
5W
6 Perception 6 Activity 6-1, 6-3 Activity 6-2
OR 6-4 OR 6-5W
4 7 Communication 7 Activity 7-1, 7-2 Activity 7-3W, 7-
4W
8 1st MIDTERM EXAM
5 9 Leaders & Leadership 8 Activity 8-1, 8-2, Activity 8-3, 8-5W
8-3 or 8-6W or 8-7IM
10 Mentoring 9 Activity 9-1, 9-3, Activity 9-2, 9-3
9-5
6 11 Conflict Management 10 Activity 10-1, 10- Activity 10-5
and Negotiation 2 or 10-3 or 10-4
12 Work Teams and 11 Activity 11-1, 11- Activity 11-8W
Effectiveness 2
7 13 Work Teams and 11 Activity 11-3 Activity 11-4
Effectiveness (con’t)
14 Group Dynamics and 12 Activity 12-1, 12- Activity 12-6W or
Performance 2 or 12-8IM or 12- 12-7W or 12-9IM
9IM
8 15 2nd MIDTERM EXAM
16 Organization and Work 13 Activity 13-1 and Activity 13-2, 13-
Design 13-3 4W or 13-5W or
13-6W

28
 9 17 Creativity and 14 Activity 14-1, 14- Activity 14-3, 14-
Innovation 2 and 14-4 5W, 14-6W
18 Organizational Culture 15 Activity 15-1, 15- Activity 15-4W,
2, 15-3 15-5W, 15-6W
10 19 Organizational Change 16 Activity 16-1 or Activity 16-1 or
16-2 or 16-3 or 16-3 or 16-7W or
16-7W or 16-8W 16-8W
20 Course Review and
Feedback

FINAL EXAM

29
 SAMPLE OF SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINES
(FOLLOWING THE SUGGESTED - COURSE OUTLINE I: A CONTENT ROADMAP - FIGURE 1)
TABLE 3
Course Outline for a Quarter Session:
10 weeks, 10 meetings, 150-210 minutes each
ALTERNATIVE
ALTERNATIVE OUTSIDE OF
MODULE CLASSROOM CLASSROOM
WEEK SESSION TOPIC # ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
1 1 Introduction, 1-3 Activity 1-1, 2-1, 2-2,
Expectations and 2-3, 3-3
Learning
2 2 Psychodynamics of 4&5 Activity 4-1, 4-2, 5-1, Activity 4-3W, 4-
Human Behavior and 5-3, 5-4 5W, 5-2, 5-5W
Motivation
3 3 Perception and 6&7 Activity 6-1, 6-2, 6-3 Activity 6-5W, 7-
Communication or 6-4, 7-1, 7-2 3W
4 4 Leaders and Leadership 8&9 Activity 8-1or 8-4W, Activity 8-3, 8-6W,
and Mentoring 8-2 or 8-5W, 8-3, 9- 9-2, 9-5
1, 9-4
5 5 MIDTERM EXAM
Work team and 11 Activity 11-1, 11-2 or Activity 11-7W, 11-
Effectiveness 11-5W or 11-6W, 11- 8W
3, 11-4,
6 6 Group Dynamics and 12 & 10 Activity 12-1, 12-2, Activity 12-3, 12-4,
Performance, Conflict 10-1, 10-2 OR 10-3 12-8IM or 12-9IM
Management and OR 10-4, 10-5
Negotiation
7 7 Work and Organization 13 Activity 13-1, 13-2, Activity 13-4W, 13-
Design 13-3 5W, 13-7W or 13-
8W or 13-9W
8 8 Creativity and 14 & 15 14-1 (or 14-2 or 14- Activity 14-5W, 14-
Innovation, 3), 15-1, 15-2, 15-3 6W, 15-4W
Organizational Culture
9 9 Stress and the 17W & Activity 17-1W, 17- Activity 17-4W,
Management of Stress, 18W 2W, 17-3W; 18-1W,
18-3W, 18-5W
and Managing Career 18-2W
Planning and
Development
OR OR
19-1W, 19-2W, 20-
Knowledge 19W &
1W 19-3W, 20-2W
Management Processes 20W
and Managing
Technology
10 10 Organization Change, 16 Activity 16-1 (or 16- 16-1 (or 16-2 or 16-
Development & 2), 16-3, 16-4 and 16- 7W or 16-8W or 16-
Learning 6 9W)

30
FINAL EXAM

31
 Student Name:
Date:

Individual Involvement—Active Participation:

Self-Assessment Form*

The importance of active participation in this course was identified as critical for the learning process.
The grade for this component of the course will be evaluated continually throughout the course. The
instructor will make an assessment on the same items immediately after each class session. In addition,
for each class period, the student will have to provide a self-assessment on a standard form. The student
is to provide a “true” self-assessment, otherwise, the instructor will have to rely more on the instructor’s
assessment than the students. You are being asked to assess the degree of your involvement on the
following dimensions.

1. ___________ I have attended (2 points) the class session/s and felt involved (2 points) in the entire
class session (total 4 points).

2. ___________ My preparation and effort for this class session was thorough (2 points), rushed (1
point), non existent (0 point)—(total of 2 points).

*
This form is a modified version of an instrument that was developed by our colleague Dr. Doug Cerf,
and used with his permission. Our thanks to Doug.

32
33
 MEMO

Date:

To:

From: Professor

Subject: Organization Behavior — Class Participation Review

Class participation is an integral part of the learning scheme for our course. The purpose of this memo is
to give you some feedback on my assessment of your classroom contributions to date.

This tentative assessment is not a final grade on participation. It is offered as a mean to foster learning. If
there are differences between your perception and mine we can talk about it and develop some action
plans for dealing with the issues in a timely manner.

My observations to date leads me to conclude that I would grade your classroom participation at
_______________________.

I would like to note that for me class participation is more than just showing up for class and/or just
talking in class. Sharing your insights into the issues that we discuss, exploring the managerial challenges
faced in the situation, practicing some of the managerial skills learned such as paraphrasing, self-
expression and problem solving skills are all critical to managerial performance and effective learner in
our learning community.

I’ll be glad to address any questions or ideas that you might have about this assessment or about how you
might change it.

34
35
 Peer Review—Mid-Course (Form A)

Name:
Team:

This is an opportunity to provide feedback to your teammates. The instructor will not see this form.
Please write your name and assign a grade to the team member whose name appears above. Provide a
brief review of the person’s contribution to the overall team effort thus far in the course.

Name of Team Member – Rater 1: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 2: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 3: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 4: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 5: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 6: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Team Member – Rater 7: ___________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

36
37
 Peer Review—Mid-Course (Form B)

Reviewer’s Name:
Team Name:

This is an opportunity to provide feedback to your teammates. The instructor will not see this form.
Please write your name and assign a grade to the team member whose name appears above. Provide a
brief review of the person’s contribution to the overall team effort thus far in the course.

Name of Team Member reviewed: . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

38
39
 Group Assessment Profile

Student Name:
Team Name:

Please list the name of each member of your team, write a brief review of their overall contributions to the
team and their attendance at group meetings. Give them a score 0 (F) to 4 (A) in the space provided.
Your name should be the last on the list.

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _________________________________________________________________ . Grade: _____

Comments: __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

40
41
Date: ________________
To: OB Class

From: Shani

Subject: Performance Appraisal Exercise

For this exercise, you will be asked to appraise the performance of each of the other members
of your team. During the second class session you have identified team goals and required
behaviors (Activity 2-5). See the attached copy. This is an opportunity to assess individual
performance on each of the goals and provide each other with performance feedback. If you are
writing a team term paper about the team’s dynamics and performance, this activity is likely to
be beneficial for the individual reflective part on the Team Term Project.

Using the matrix below, please copy the specific behaviors that you have listed on your team’s
list (Behaviors necessary for Goal Achievement) in the first column. Next write the name of the
different team members at the top of the next 5 columns. Using the five point scale
(1=unsatisfactory; 2=needs improvement; 3=fair; 4=good; 5=excellent) assess the overall
performance of each individual in your team. After individuals have prepared the performance
evaluation, the reviews will then occur in the normal team rooms.

The purpose of this exercise is to give you some practice in giving and receiving feedback on
performance. We have discussed how important feedback is to improving both performance
and interpersonal relationships. One of the stated goals of the course is to improve individuals’
effectiveness in a team setting and this exercise is an attempt to do that.

Behaviors Team Team Team Team Team

Necessary for member member member member member
Goal name:____ name:____ name:____ name:____ name:____
Achievement _________ ________ _________ _________ _________
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

42
43
PART ONE
THE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR CONTEXT: A SUSTAINABILITY-
BASED PERSPECTIVE

The information in the Introduction and Modules One through Three of the text should be used to
insure that the learners understand the context of behavioral issues in organizations and become
active participants in the learning community. Part One is designed to yield an integrated
understanding of the following:

a. How the learning community is developed by using some organizational behavior concepts
from group dynamics.

b. The course learning objectives and course design.

c. The boundaries of the organizational behavior field and concepts.

d. The evolving nature of the workplace.

e. The role that expectations, learning and appreciative inquiry play in the emerging work
environment.

f. The learning-in-action course orientation.

The first part of the book is designed to establish the foundations for the course. The integration
of the experiential activities with the cases and the text framework should help the students to
assume an active participation role and inform consumers of their experiences.

61
MODULE 1
Organizational Behavior and Sustainable Work Systems

Module Overview
Organizational behavior concept and topic areas are developed from the class members’ own
work experiences elicited during Activity 1-1. This emphasizes the relevancy of the course to
their work lives. Class members participate in a triad exercise in which each tells of an
experience from his or her work situation. A number of participants then relate their experiences
to the entire class. From these experiences, the professor constructs the topic areas of
organizational behavior for the class to demonstrate that the behavioral study of the course has
immediate relevance to everyone. The perspective of sustainable work system is presented as a
point of departure for our exploration of human behavior. Next, the experiential learning
orientation in this course, the challenge of rationality and irrationality in managing, framework
for the exploration of effectiveness and the systems approach at the workplace is followed by a
brief historical review of the evolution of the organizational behavior field. Activity 1-2 provides
an opportunity for an initial investigation of sustainability and sustainable development and
Activity 1–3W on the book’s website provides an opportunity to explore organization behavior
topics while using the World Wide Web.

Learning Objectives:
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Briefly describe what is meant by the terms organization, sustainable work systems
and, sustainable development
2. Define the field of organizational behavior.
3. Identify and briefly describe the four evolutionary clusters in the development of the
organizational behavior field of study.
4. Briefly describe the systems approach to understanding and effectively managing
people in organizations.
5. Explain the relationship between rationality and irrationality in management.
6. Describe the objectives of the course.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 1–1: Defining Organizational Behavior
Introduction: Sustainability-based Perspective
Organization Behavior: Towards a Definition
A System View of Organizations
What Is an Organization?
Initial Framework of Effectiveness and Sustainability
Rationality in Managing
Organizational Behavior: Historical Evolution
The Prescientific Era
The Classical Era
The Neoclassical Era
The Modern Era
Organizational Behavior: A Working Definition
Objectives of the Course
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 1-2: Initial Exploration of Sustainability and Sustainable Work System (new)

62
Optional Activities on the WWW
Activity 1–3W: Organizational Behavior—WWW Exploration

Additional Alternative Activity in this IM

Activity 1–4IM: The Case of the End of the Class Term Email

This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Session design options
* Activity 1-1
* Activity 1-2
* Activity 1-3W
* A note on defining Organization Behavior
* A Note on Rationality and Management
* A Note on the Historical Evolution of Organization Behavior
* A Note on Sustainable Work Systems, Sustainable Development and Organization Behavior
* Activity 1-4IM
* Comments on Module Study Questions
* A sample handout about course syllabus and requirements

Session Design
After taking roll call and basic introduction we move almost immediately into an introductory
activity. You have few options:

The first option is to start with Activity 1-1. As a five-minute warm-up introduction, you might
want to describe to the participants the difference between process and content learning. Also,
participants may be impressed if you make the following two points:
1. The relationship between instructor and student is different in an experiential course. Rather
than a “fill’er up!” mode with the student the passive receptacle and the instructor the source of
wisdom, in experiential courses learning is far more interactive. Participants’ involvement is at
the heart of the course: participants are responsible for their own investment in the learning
process.
2. The course design, methods, and exercises are those used in management training workshops
in industry and government. They are based on what we know about the way adults learn.

The second option is to start with the alternative activity 1-4IM - The Case of the End of the
Class Term Email that can be found later on in this module.

Activity 1-1: Defining Organizational Behavior

Most students will not have brought a book to this first session, but the exercise can be run easily
from the directions given by the instructor. The goal here is to go immediately into a student
involvement activity to demonstrate that this is not a lecture course.

Advance preparation: Decide which of the alternatives for Task 1 to use (you will want to
experiment with these in different classes). If you use Alternative 1, student stories will be 90%
negative—they define “human relations” as bad things that happened at work. This alternative
does give you greater opportunities than the other two to list an array of course topics on the
board as they report. Alternatives 2 and 3 are good to use when you assign one to one half the

63
class and the other to the second half. The number of cases of good management practices is a
pleasant contrast to the few of them appearing in Alternative 1.

Classroom management: Good management of the activities should be demonstrated at the

outset, to diminish student fears that they may be wasting their time, or that there is no purpose to
the unusual activities of experiential learning. Read aloud to the class the objectives of this
activity and Task 1. Since many students will not have their books at this time, write the
questions of Task 1 on the board.

While students are jotting down the notes requested on past work experience, put the following
on the board for your explanation of Task 2:

Student First 5 minutes Second 5 minutes Third 5 minutes

A Teller Observer Listener
B Listener Teller Observer
C Observer Listener Teller

When students have completed their notes and you have finished the diagram, have the students
form triads with their neighbors before reading Task 2 aloud, so that the confusion of movement
will be over and they are ready to listen. If there are one or two people left over, assign each to a
triad so their group will work as a foursome and inform these groups that they will have to work a
little faster than the others, and will have two observers instead of one.

After Task 2 has been read aloud, summarize the instructions using the model you have drawn on
the blackboard. It is important to tell the class that you will call out the five-minute intervals so
that each teller will know when the turn is over. If this is not done, some triads will run on
through the entire activity in the first five minutes, while others will expend all their time on one
teller. (An important point, the perceptual variability of time, can be made lightly here, with a
comment like, “You know how time flies when you’re having fun,” or by noting how we’ve all
experienced times when “five minutes” seem endless and others when “five minutes” went by all
too quickly. A little humor, if you are comfortable with it, can help participants become more at
ease with activities, and with analyzing their own behavior. Here as elsewhere, the instructor’s
own experience and self-revelation can model for students and underline the desired classroom
climate—if you are comfortable with sharing your own experiences.)

When the students have completed the activity, give each triad two minutes to select one
participant’s story to be told to the class; have as many of these briefly related as time permits.
Before the first participant begins, ask those reporting not to mention the company in which their
work incident occurred. Some reporters like to expose the poor management practices of a firm
and give a lengthy negative commercial, which tends to detract from what we are attempting to
do in this activity. As participants relate their stories and indicate what it illustrates about human
relations in organizations, list on the board the topical areas of the course into which these
incidents fall: i.e., supervisory style, communications between levels of hierarchy, interface
between minority and nonminority members, group norms, fair treatment, trust and mistrust of
management, frustration at work, motivation (or lack of motivation) to work, clique systems,
decision-making processes, etc. Paraphrasing to check out your summary is helpful.

Conclude this portion of the activity by summarizing the theoretical and conceptual framework
outlined in Module 1 concerning the systems approach to understanding organizational behavior,
including the sub-systems of individual, team, intergroup and total organizational effectiveness.
Add to this the four core concepts of diversity & personality, communications, perception, and
motivation.

64
Figure 1 in the instructor’s manual book (can be found in the introduction) is good for this,
showing topic coverage. If there is insufficient time to go over the course objectives, they can be
discussed at the beginning of the second hour.

If time permits, get student’s reaction to the listener’s role. Was it comfortable? But avoid
detailed discussion at this time, waiting for the modules on diversity & personality, perception,
and communication for a thorough exploration.

However, this is a good time to ask the nature of the triad. Someone will say, “Two against one.”
Point out that it is the most unstable of group structures, almost always breaking down into two
and one, but not necessarily against. Ask how many were aware of the two and one, and most
hands go up. The study of group dynamics and effectiveness will be a major topic/goal area.

Administrative Matters: Conclude this meeting by passing out, (1) a sheet titled “Course
Syllabus and Requirements (sample copy included here) and (2) a class outline and assignment
(such as that of Table I or II or III or IV). A formal assignment sheet helps the students
comprehend the aims of the course and organize their time more effectively. It also furthers the
sense of the professor’s organization and seriousness about an experiential course, and sureness
about what is going on.

At the end of the first session, whether it is a one-, two-, three-, or four-hour block, inform
students that attendance, promptness, and participation are required because the course is based
upon student involvement—what they can contribute as well as what they can learn from others.
It is assumed that the primary learning in this course is based upon classroom involvement. A
positive way of handling attendance is to accumulate student points which contribute to the final
grade. If your educational environment permits, make attendance a requirement, just as it is a
requirement at work, and deduct points from their grade for absences. We have found that if this
is explained thoroughly at the outset of the course, there are few problems. Students just want to
know the ground rules and reasons for them.

New TEXTBOOK Required: Students should be reminded to bring their textbook to every
session, because it is a workbook which will be needed in class. Explain to the students that,
since the learning method is based on their experiences, it is important not to contaminate their
data by creating expectations about the activity ahead of time. Therefore, the book instructs them
at times not to read ahead. The learning method will go through a sequence: experiential activity,
discussion of the activity and input from the professor, a reading assignment from the book to
reinforce and complete the learning. By following this plan unless instructed otherwise,
participants will gain the maximum benefit through spontaneous enjoyment of activities.

Class members will occasionally show up with a used textbook. They will explain to you that
they are not going to look at the completed activities. Tell them that a new textbook is required
because it is a workbook as well as a source book. Having old texts in the class is a definite
interference with the course. Not only do instructors get upset about this but fellow team
members complain that the used textbook owner is turning the team off. Be sure and tell students
your reasons for requiring new textbooks at the end of the first meeting. As long as we do this,
we have had no trouble. (Campus bookstores usually respond well when you advise them that
only new texts are acceptable because of the workbook problem.)

A Note on Defining Organization Behavior

As we all know, this is a difficult and somewhat confusing topic. In addition to what appears in
Module 1, plus the suggested readings that appear as endnotes of the textbook, we give below our
summary with the idea that it adds some viewpoints:

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Organization behavior, to define it most broadly, is the utilization of theory and methods of
academic disciplines for understanding and influencing behavior of people in organizations.
Definitions of organization behavior range widely because the field has evolved with
developments in the social sciences and the teaching of management and human relations courses
in schools of business. One large frame of reference focuses on the differences between
“organizations without people” and “people without organizations.” The former, the realm of
organizational sociology, relates to organizations as systems interacting with their environment,
and the latter, the realm of psychology, relates to human relations in work situations. More recent
approaches have emphasized the need for integrating these two realms to account for the great
variability among people, tasks, and environment. Another point of focus is the macro-micro
perspective. In the macro view the big picture is emphasized, such as the entire organization and
its relationships to the environment. The micro outlook considers smaller units such as the
individual, work groups, or work systems. This text works with the micro initially and moves on
to the macro as the course is completed.

A Note on Rationality and Management

As we attempt to define our field of study, a special comment should be made about rationality.
We display figure 1-1 and ask the students to say a few words about what the figure tries to
capture. We have found this initial inquiry and an attempt to share meaning as a way to begin to
model the appreciative inquiry skills and the power of collective sense making.

A Note on the Historical Evolution of Organization Behavior

This section is intended to provide some grounding in the evolutionary nature of the field. This is
an opportunity for the students to reflect on the roots of management, ways of organizing and
behavior. To date students were exposed to a variety of history related courses and some are
fascinated by a historical perspective. We have found that students begin to appreciate issues and
patterns of management and organizing when put in a historical context. At a different level, a
short review of historical evolution seems to add credibility to the course and its perceived
content and process.

We provide a 15-minute min-lecture based on Figure 1-2. The mini-lecture provides an

opportunity to introduce the system school of thought that guides our organization behavior
framework. We also mention that the system school of thought will be reviewed later on in the
course, possibly in Modules 13, 15 and 16.

A Note on Sustainable Work Systems, Sustainable Development and Organization

Behavior
This section is intended to provide some grounding in the sustaining human development and
growth. We provide a 10-15 minute min-lecture that introduces the sustainability perspective, its
roots and relevance to human behavior. We also mention that this perspective will be one of the
pillars throughout the book. We have found a few ways to trigger or introduce the topic of
sustainable work systems. The first option is to ask the students to complete the following
statement: “For me sustainability means ……” Next we ask individuals to share their responses
and use them as a point of departure to the mini lecture. The second option is to use Activity 1-2
as the point of the departure for the mini lecture. The power point slides provide the foundation
for the mini lecture…

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Activity 1-2: Initial Exploration of Sustainability and Sustainable Work Systems
This activity can be used either as an alternative to Activity 1-1 or as an activity that triggers the
mini lecture on the topic of sustainability and organization behavior. We have found that this
activity fits well in a three or four hour introductory class session, as a continuation to Activity 1-
1. The activity provides another way for classmates to introduce themselves. In a longer time
block, this activity helps establish some basic norms around self-exposure that foster the
development of the learning community. The instructor can serve as a role model by sharing
his/her response to the questions via a specific example.

Activity 1-3W: Organizational Behavior—WWW Exploration

This activity is the first activity in the course that can integrate the overwhelming amount of
information that is available in the WWW sites with the course. The activity can be used as a
homework assignment and can be assigned as an activity to be completed between the first and
second class sessions. The activity provides a way for the students to understand and gain initial
insight into the relevancy of the course material to their career. At times students will ask for a
specific company WWW site. The approach that we found most meaningful is to tell them that
finding a company site is part of the assignment, and learning how to use the WWW search
engine/s is a part of the learning goal. If this issue is raised it gives you, the instructor, an
opportunity to restate the course motto—“teach me to fish and I’ll eat for a lifetime, give me a
fish and I’ll eat for a day.”

If the activity is used as a homework assignment, you can choose to ask the students to turn in
one page that summarizes their findings. Integrating some of the individual learning into the
second class session helps in setting the boundaries for the field and the course, such that it is co-
owned by the students.

Activity 1-4IM The Case of the End of the Class Term Email (Alternative Introductory
Activity)
________________________________________________________________________

Objectives
1) To provide students with an opportunity to voice their perceptions of the challenges and
opportunities associated with working in teams.
2) To highlight the importance of being proactive as a team member in shaping how a team
evolves.
3) To begin a dialogue around how to positively influence a team.

_______________________________________________________________________

Part A: Students should read this hypothetical letter from a student to a professor just after a
university quarter has ended, but before final grades have been posted. One of the course
requirements is team-based. Students are assigned to teams that last throughout the quarter. The
letter below relates to this student’s team.

After reading the letter, students pretend to be the professor who has just received the letter.
Students should take three minutes to craft a response letter to the student. The letter need not be
articulate; the content of the response is the issue at hand.

__________________

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Hi, Dr. _____ ,

Thanks for an amazing quarter.

A few days ago, I heard through the grapevine that two of the teammates are poor students and
have not been solid team players in other university courses. Frankly, I was not surprised to hear
these comments about my project teammates, because they didn’t “carry their weight” this quarter
on my team.

Since a significant portion of our individual grade in this class is determined by team
performance, and since teams are randomly assigned, I find this information troubling. Moreover,
average students in high-performing groups have received better grades than I have because
they’re on better teams. Yet, I shouldered far more work for my team because of my less than
stellar teammates.

I realize that a goal of this class is to learn how to work together in teams, and I take full
responsibility for my team’s work. However, having heard these comments about my teammates,
I cannot help but think that a student’s grade largely depends on the group he or she is assigned
to.

I am hoping you will take my letter into consideration when you are calculating our final grades.

Sincerely,

Student X
__________________________________________________

Part B: The professor should read several of the letters, all of which should remain anonymous.

Part C: Students should gather together in sections of the classroom on the basis of the
following:

Does your letter generally…

a. convey empathy for the student and your intent to consider these circumstances in his
or her final grade?

b. convey a lack of empathy for the student’s situation – his or her team circumstances
will not sway your decision-making?

c. convey ideas other than those in answers a or b?

So, for example, students whose letter reflects (a) should move the back of the room.

Part D: In groups of three or four, students should reflect upon the following:

a. What is your rationale for your view toward the student’s letter?

b. Write down an analogous (similar) team situation that could occur in a non-academic
setting. For example, what would be a comparable team situation in a corporate setting?

Part E: Groups should report back to the larger group. The professor should write ideas on the
board. The larger group should discuss whether and what the student could have done to prevent
this letter from having been written at the end of the term.

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Study Questions
1. What is meant by the term sustainable development?
Comment: Sustainable development is defined by the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) (1987, p. 8) as “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainable
development is a complex phenomenon and a process that can neither be clearly described nor
simply applied. In a broad sense, within the context of work organizations and organization
behavior, sustainable development refers to the continuous development of individuals, teams and
organizations. The common denominator of the different definitions and interpretations of
sustainable development leads to four distinct features: The first indicates that sustainable
development occurs at several levels, ranging from global to regional to local to organizational to
team and to individual. The second suggests that sustainable development is an intergenerational
phenomenon: It is a process of transference from one generation to another. In other words,
individuals, teams and organizations are able to transfer learning processes and best practices
continuously. The third indicates that sustainable development consists of at least three domains,
social, economic and ecological. Although sustainable development can be defined in terms of
each of these domains alone, the interrelationship between the three domains is what makes the
concept of utmost relevant within the context of human behavior at work. The fourth suggests
that sustainable development is a complex process, phases and activities that centers on
continuous development of human systems.

2. What is meant by the term organization? Illustrate your understanding by applying your
understanding to an organization that you know.
Comment: An organization is viewed as a social entity created for the basic purpose of
accomplishing tasks that individuals cannot accomplish alone. Organizations rely on coordinated
activities and systems to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Thus, an organization requires
agreements among people. The nature and process through which agreements are created will
influence the way the individual and the organization perform. Let me illustrate this point by an
example with an organization in which I am currently employed….

3. What is a “learning community”? In what way did activity 1-1 OR 1-2 contribute to the
development of the classroom learning community?
Comment: This refers to a group of people who come together regularly to learn, based upon
their common interests, values, and purposes. It suggests supportiveness, and implies exchange
of information and views as a primary process of community integration. The members of the
group learn through more effective ways of interacting. The learning community idea will be
developed throughout the sessions of the course covering the first four chapters of the text.
Activity 1-1 illustrated that as individuals we have different work experiences and that one can
learn from others’ experience—the discussion in the trios.

In addition, the integration of participants was started through interaction learning. The purposes
of the course, and climate values of openness, sharing, supportiveness, respect for others’ views,
etc., were demonstrated. The instructor adopted the role of facilitator.

4. What is meant by the “system approach” to studying organizational behavior?

Comment: Organizations can be viewed as systems made up of dynamically interacting
subsystems which are highly interdependent. We focus on the effectiveness of behavior in which
individual, team, intergroup, and total organizational effectiveness are subsystems functioning to

69
make a whole system. To study OB, means studying all of these, how they interact, and how a
change in one affects the others.

5. Why do we emphasize “irrational” as well as rational aspects of behavior?

Comment: Organizations are rational systems and management typically directs people on the
assumption that they will carry out the rational design as instructed. However, the objective
approach is often overshadowed by the subjective in that people respond with emotions, needs,
feelings as well as rationality. When management takes the irrational into consideration, they
may come up with more meaningful—more rational—directions.

6. Review the historical evolution of organizational behavior. Select any two schools of thought
that you feel influenced our understanding of individual behavior the most. Provide your
reasoning for your choice.
Comment: Each one of the schools of thought influenced our understanding of human behavior.
Yet, if we focus on “individual” behavior, the behavioral science school and the sociotechnical
system school seems to have provided the most insight; the behavioral school focused on the
understanding of individual behavior within work groups; the sociotechnical system school
focused on understanding the interplay between individuals, technology and the environment.

7. Review the goals of the course. Select two of these which you feel have the greatest potential
for improving your learning at this time. Name the two and give the reasons.

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 Sample Handout
(You may want to use paragraphs I, II & III, and re-write IV to meet your own
needs)

Course Syllabus and Requirements

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

I. REQUIRED TEXTBOOKS
1) Shani, Chandler, Coget and Lau, Behavior in Organizations: An Experiential Approach,
9th Edition, McGraw Hill Irwin, 2009. (New books are required because the activities
will already have been completed in used books, a disrupting factor in class activities.)

II. OVERVIEW I hear and I forget

I see and I remember
I do and I understand
Confucius

This course is designed to give you, the learner, an opportunity to investigate and experience the
relevancy to management and administration of topics whose basis can be found in the applied
behavioral sciences (psychology, sociology, political science, etc.). In general, this course will
explore the interactions between individuals and the systems in which they live and work.
Individual and group levels of analysis are included in covering such topics as diversity and
personality, perception, communication, motivation, group development and performance, work
design, creativity, innovation, quality, individual effectiveness & development, leadership, and
intergroup behavior. The materials applicable to this subject are too vast and numerous to be
thoroughly covered in one course; therefore, the best we can hope for is to scratch the surface
deep enough so that the student will become motivated to pursue learning in this area on his/her
own.

In addition to conceptual inputs, this course will utilize structured activities, simulations, case
analysis and student’s presentations in order to: a) provide you with the opportunity to actually
experience the behavioral dynamics being studied; and b) the provide situations wherein you can
assess the relevance of the dynamics being studied.

III. COURSE OBJECTIVES

Students will achieve learning as follows:

3.1 Knowledge of behavioral science theory and concepts useful in organizations, with
special emphasis on small group theory.
3.2 Knowledge of methods and techniques that are helpful in developing effectiveness in
individual, teams, and organizations.
3.3 Appreciation of diversity, its dynamics, and its impact on individual, team, and
organizational effectiveness.
3.4 Understanding of how perceptual distortion affects communication, motivation, and
frustration in human organizations
3.5 Understanding of the potential cause-and-effect relationship between diversity,
personality, motivation, perception, communication and the management processes of
work design, creativity, innovation, technology and quality.
3.6 Ability to use team skills, e.g., problem solving, decision making, communications.
(Preparation for team activities in other subsequent courses.)

71
 3.7 Ability to analyze diverse management situations and your own experience while using
course concepts.
3.8 Improved skills in personal goal setting and interpersonal communications.
3.9 Better awareness of your own motivation and responses to frustration; how to enhance
motivation and cope with stress.
3.10 Understanding of the process of change and the management of change in organizations.

Our overall intent is to emphasize skills development, understanding and knowledge that you can
use.

IV. METHODS OF EVALUATING ATTAINMENT OF COURSE OBJECTIVES

a. Attendance Requirement—The basic ground rule for the course is that attendance is
required because this is an involvement learning course: the assumption is that the primary
learning takes place in the classroom and the textbook is only supportive of that process. A
deduction in the final grade will be made for each session missed. (a deduction of 3% will
be made for each two-hour class session missed). When confronted with the choice of
coming to class or participating in another activity, students should make their own decision
rather than ask the instructor permission to be excused.

b. Examinations—Two exams will be given during the course. The exams are integrative in
nature. The material on the exams will come from readings, presentations, group
assignments, lectures and class discussions. The exams will have two components: the first
is the traditional individual exam; the second is a team exam. Immediately following the
individual exam, teams will be given the opportunity to take the same exam together.

c. Group Evaluation—Each team will have to complete a few assignments during the quarter.

d. Individual Journal about the Team’s Activities. Each student is required to keep a detailed
journal of the team’s activities and experiences. Following each activity (whether in class or out
of class activity) you are required to capture the essence of the activity in a separate notebook. In
general, each journal entry should include the following parts: Describing the essence of what
took place (the content); reflection on the team process; an initial list of relevant concepts that
might shade some light on the team process, dynamics and outcomes, and; a personal reflection
of how could you help improve the group’s functioning. The journal will be collected for review
by the instructor twice throughout the course. The complete journal should be turned in at the
beginning of the last class session in the quarter.

e. Individual OR Team Term Paper—A paper about the team’s experience will be due at the
last class session. The assignment will be to apply course concepts to the interactions of your
team. Papers will be graded upon the ability to make an extensive application of concepts
(that is, to show how most course concepts apply) to your group’s interaction and upon
intensive application (that is, to take each concept and analyze its applicability in detail
whenever it can be done). You will have to decide if the paper should be written as a team
project or as an individual assignment. We have used it as a major team project. As such it
was used as a cap stone for the course. We have limited the paper to twenty pages plus
attachments.

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e. Final Course Grades
Two exams:
exam 1: individual 10%
team 5%
exam 2: individual 10%
team 5%
Team tasks 20%
Team Final Paper
(about team dynamics) 30%
Journal about the team’s
experience 5%
Contribution to team’s
performance 5%
Class participation 10%
100%

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MODULE 2
Appreciative Inquiry, Expectations, and Learning

Module Overview
Clarifying expectations, focusing on learning goals and establishing the norms of appreciative
inquiry are the center of this module. A basic problem of organizations arises when two different
elements or individuals are perceiving a situation differently based upon different information
bases or needs. Communication dialoguing is a process for avoiding this, and Activity 2-1 is
offered for instructor and participants to apply to classroom management and relationships. A
“psychological contract” can be evolved from this process. Activity 2-5W provides an
opportunity to actually sign a learning contract between students and instructors. The roles of
expectations and of the adult as a learner are explored. Different schools of thoughts about adult
learning are presented. The rationale for involvement learning is continued, as is the conscious
development of the learning community. Activity 2-3 provides the newly formed teams with
their first task: the opportunity to dialogue and decide on a team name and create a team logo.
Activity 2-2 focuses on diagnosing individual learning style and provides an opportunity to begin
the Appreciative Inquiry process within the learning community. Activity 2-4 provides an
opportunity to begin the cognitive development of critical thinking and reflection.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to

1. Appreciate the process and the importance of developing a “psychological contract.”

2. Explain the importance of managing expectations, dialoguing, and appreciative inquiry.

3. Describe the role of expectations, expectations discrepancies, and self fulfilling prophecies in
organizational settings.

4. Explain the basic assumptions about the adult as a learner.

5. Describe the similarities and differences among cognitive learning, content learning, and
process learning.

6. Appreciate the meaning of a learning community and the roles of the participant and the
instructor in an experiential learning-based course.

Module Outline
MODULE OUTLINE
Premodule Preparation
Activity 2–1: Organizational Dialoguing about Learning, Expectations, and Teams
Introduction
Diversity and Expectations
The Psychological Contract
Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Learning and Expectations
Learning and Self-Learning Competency
The Role of Questions in Learning
Cognitive Development—Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Adult Learner and Experiential Learning
Experiential Learning Process
Rationale for Learning by Involvement Process

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 Process Learning Methods
Appreciative Inquiry and Development of the Learning Community
Appreciative Inquiry
Developing a Learning Community
Summary
Study Questions Endnotes

Activity 2–2: Individual Learning Style: Diagnosis and Appreciation of Individual Differences
Activity 2–3: Group Dialoguing: The Development of a Team Name and Logo
Activity 2–4: Developing a Questioning Mind
Activity 2- 5: Developing Team Contract

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 2–6W: Personal Learning Statement
Activity 2–7W: A Dialogue with a Manager

This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Session design
* The Participant’s Role
* Activity 2-1: Organizational Dialoguing about Learning and Expectations
* Team Formation
* Activity 2-2: Individual Learning Style: Diagnosis and Appreciation of Individual Differences
* Activity 2-3: Group Dialoguing and the Development of Name and Logo
* Activity 2-4: Developing a Questioning Mind
* Activity 2-5: Developing a Team Contract
* Activity 2-6W: Personal Learning Statement
* Activity 2-7W: A Dialogue With A Manager About The Management Of Expectations and
Learning
* Additional Team Activity – Activity 2-8IM: Group Dialoguing about Team Goals and Behavior
* A note on the mini lecture about Expectations
* A note on the mini-lecture about Learning and Learning Styles
* Review of Purpose of Introductory Sessions
* Responses to the Study Questions

Session Design

The second class session is critical in reinforcing the interactive nature of learning in this
course. Beyond a basic review of the first class session, in this second class session one
can model the essence of appreciative inquiry while focusing on two foundation content
areas in the field of organization behavior: expectations and learning. A variety of
choices can be made as far as experiential activities and the mini lectures in terms of
content and sequence. We usually start the session with a quick review of the last session,
spell out the agenda for the session and dive into it…

Introduction to the Session -- The Participant’s Role

At the beginning of the second session of the course, review what was covered in the first, but
emphasize mainly the rationale of active learner and participation as a learning mode. The need
for the individual to be present and contribute is of value to her/himself, but it is also valuable to
others. These points can be stressed:

75
1. Involvement learning is learning by doing. Greater insight is possible by interacting in the
activities than by just reading about theory and concepts. The course emphasizes skills
acquisition, which means discovering and practicing them.

2. Through participation you are contributing to the learning of others. Sharing your views,
ideas, and perceptions helps others synergistically develop new knowledge, insight and skills. In
a sense you are an active contributor and coach.

3. Conversely, failure to contribute deprives others of opportunities to learn. Failure to

contribute can also interfere with the learning of others—turn them off.

4. Horseplay, doing homework in class, sleeping, reading newspapers, etc., is a definite

interference with the learning of others.

These points need to be stressed because students have the preconception that they are
responsible only for absorbing and applying the material and see little connection between their
learning and that of others. They underestimate the value of their contribution to the peer
interactions. However, they feel the responsibility for others when this new viewpoint is
reiterated during the early sessions of the course.

Choices: Following the session introduction a few choices can be made in regards to the
sequence of mini lectures and activities. The following are a few options that have worked for us:

The 1st option. Start with a mini lecture on Appreciative Inquiry and the role that it can play at
work or managerial work. Next continue with Activity 2-1 to be followed by a mini lecture on
expectations at work. Last, if you use permanent teams in your class (which we do) you can get
the students into their teams and ask them to work on Activity 2-3. The homework assignment is
to work on Activities 2-5 and 2-6W.

The 2nd option. Start with a mini lecture on Appreciative Inquiry and the role that it can play at
work or managerial work. Next continue with Activity 2-1 to be followed by a mini lecture on
expectations at work. Next introduce Activity 2-2 and after individuals completed task 1 have the
teams work on task 2. Have the teams plot on the board the team learning style profile and
facilitate a class discussion on learning and appreciative inquiry. Provide a mini lecture on
expectations at work and assign the teams Activity 2-3 and 2-5 as homework.

The 3rd option. Start with a mini lecture on learning. Next facilitate Activities 2-2 and 2-4. A mini
lecture on expectations should be followed with Activity 2-1 and the homework assignment
should be Activity 2-3, 2-5 and 2-6W. Start the next session with a mini lecture on appreciative
inquiry and draw input from the students based on the previous class and the homework
assignments.

Introducing Activity 2-1

Have the students turn to Figure 2-1 in their texts and explain the idea of developing the
classroom climate and character, pointing out that research indicates many organizational
problems can be attributed to differences in perception and expectation between bosses and
subordinates. This is an important topic which will reappear later in the course. The
communications-dialoguing activity of this module is included here to reduce the possibility of
communication failures due to differences in perception and expectation occurring in this
classroom. As in the first module, the best approach is to demonstrate by going directly to the
activity, rather than by a traditional lecture.

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Activity 2-1: Organizational Dialoguing about Learning, Expectations, and Teams
Before reading the activity instructions aloud, have the participants form into groups of five to
seven (no more). Teams will thus be quieted down and ready to start on the activity when the
instructions are read. Due to our course registration policy we are able to get the students into
permanent teams before the second class session. If your system provides for a longer period for
“add/drop”, you might be better off not forming the permanent teams before the third class
session. In the later case, assign randomly individuals into teams for the duration of this activity
only.

Tasks 1: Read aloud the objectives and instructions. Before the groups go to work, be sure to
clarify the question of Task 1a, 1, “What things would you like to learn, study or have
emphasized most in this course on human behavior in organizations?” This is not a request for
them to design or redesign the course. This has already been done, as indicated by the course
schedule that you handed out at the end of the first session. What is sought here is a statement of
interest from participants on the types of subjects they would particularly like to delve into to
meet their needs as the course progresses. There may be room for some tailoring, but it’s
important to clarify lest false expectations be raised—something which is wise to avoid.

Question 1b: Student concerns or doubts—is included here because some students have the
erroneous impression that this may be a “touchy-feelie” course or sensitivity training. This is the
time to bring this out. Others are concerned that the activities won’t be “real” or relevant. They
can be reassured that the activities are similar or identical to exercises widely used with
government, business, and industry executives for years.

Questions 1c-e: If time permits 1c is a good question that builds some team connectedness. Yet,
you may have enough time for this question. We found that 1d and 1e are important as they
highlight some past experiences with groups and what can be done better this time around.

Task 2: This is another opportunity to get the teams going. If you have not formed teams till now,
this can be a good 1st activity for the teams to start with. It is a relatively easy task that can help
students get to know one another.

Task 3: This task should be handled by the professor interviewing the spokesperson to find out
what each group is saying and how they perceive the situation. You should not respond at this
time, since students will have the opportunity to raise questions directly in Task 2. The point here
is to be sure that students have been heard accurately and know it. The fishbowl technique works
best if each spokesperson comments on the first question only before the second is taken up.
After all have had their opportunity to talk on the first question, summarize or paraphrase what
you have heard to check out understanding. This approach should be repeated for the other
questions.

Task 4: This task is usually enjoyed fully by participants. Whether for students or executives,
this may be the first time they have had a real live professor to interview in an open fashion. The
class should be told that their questions are anonymous in that the spokesperson will not be asked
to reveal who asked what. When interviewing (Task 3) each spokesperson should only ask one
question per turn, continuing until all questions are out. If such a procedure is not followed, one
person can take up all the time as a master interrogator (and many questions considered important
by others may not be asked).

Among questions participants frequently ask is, “What do students do that irritates you or turns
you off?” This is an excellent opportunity to talk about the participant role which was discussed
on the previous page. The authors’ answer: “Students who interfere with the learning of others
make me very angry. The student who refuses to participate, whether out of self-consciousness
or another reason, who engages in horseplay, or who in other ways shows lack of involvement, is

77
interfering with the learning of others. This is a course in which your views, your ideas, your
contributions are important ingredients for the learning of others. If you deprive others, you may
be interfering with their learning. There have been occasions when I have kicked people out of
class for these types of interference. However, I’m always available for consultation with
students who are unhappy about involvement learning and will try to be understanding of their
problems.” (Note: This may strike you as extreme and unnecessary, but remember that the text is
most frequently used in a required course in the school of business curriculum. Some students
may have a negative attitude toward taking a behavior course, when they could be spending their
time on hard skills from MIS, finance, accounting, marketing, etc. If we emphasize our course
will be a good experience if it is managed well and ground rules and rationales are set down for
them, we have found student participation most enthusiastic. When the class is made up of
students having chosen it as an elective, less emphasis has to be put on tight management.)

Before going into the classroom to do this activity, you should decide whether you want to be put
on the “hot seat.” How willing are you to be open with students? Hopefully, very willing, since
this can create an excellent learning climate. Students are typically considerate, for the most part,
and of course you can always decline to answer a particular question you consider inappropriate
(and you should certainly reserve this right explicitly by telling participants so as you read the
instructions aloud).

One problem that can arise is when students get the impression that the professor is not primarily
interested in teaching. If they ask what satisfaction you get from your job and you stress research
and working with graduate students to a classroom of undergraduates, they may be unhappy
about your priorities.

Being able to say “where you are” is not always easy, but knowing yourself is an important goal
in personal growth (for both instructors and participants). Those who know where they are, are
apt to be more open and effective in interactions with others than those who act on pretense.

Substitute Activity: If you do not wish to go through the “hotseat,” complete only Task 1.
However, instead of just interviewing the spokesperson, make the fishbowl session an open
session in which you respond to the views, concerns, and preferences the students bring up. After
the spokespersons have had a chance, open the circle up so that all members of the class can
participate in the dialoguing. It is helpful to end by summarizing consensus about concerns or
expectations, to underline the shared values that can emerge in the course of such a session. This
provides a useful jumping off point for further group development within the class.

This second class session should conclude with a discussion of the design of the course. Indicate
which plan is to be followed (A, B, or C), so that a thorough discussion can take place. (If you
are meeting in one-hour sessions, the discussion can take place in the third meeting.) Also to be
discussed are the following:
1. Differences between process and content learning (if not already covered), using Figure 2-4
of the text.
2. The classroom climate as a learning environment (discussed in Part One and Module 2 of the
text).

Assignments
The assignment at the end of Module 2 can include both individual and team assignments:
Activity 2-6W “Personal Learning Statements” and the first outside of class team activity—
Activity 2-3 “The Development of Team Name and Logo.” Ideally both activities should be
assigned at the end of the first week of the course so they can be used to start the second week.
We have added an additional activity (Activity 2-7IM) at the end of this module that we found
useful. This activity was developed by our colleague David Peach that can be used as an
alternative for expectations, team goals and behavior.

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Instructions on Team Formation
By the time Modules 1 and 2 and Activities 1-1 and 2-1 have been completed, the adding and
dropping of classes by university students should be over and teams can be formed. It is
preferable to compose teams of strangers, and to assign members. If permitted to choose their
own teams, participants will typically select those they know or friends if any are present (and
students often do choose courses in which they can be together). Previously-established patterns
of interaction can be a deterrent to examining behavior. Perhaps more important, the opportunity
to consciously develop and explore new interactions in a work team will be lost.

While teams can be formed to last all terms, of course, they can be shifted (particularly if the
course is not following one of the plans requiring extensive outside team work). Students tend to
suggest shifting teams when things are not going well, and to resist change when teams are
functioning effectively. Longer, more stable team relations tend to encourage the development of
more complex team dynamics; some shifts are desirable, however, to allow participants to
practice entry skills and have the opportunity to start over.

Course Plan A
There are no outside team projects for participants in a Plan A course. These teams can change
periodically through the term (three times a quarter or four times a semester is probably the
useful maximum), allowing participants to learn from new personalities, and form more
friendships. Teams should be named by color (red, green, blue, etc.) or number to avoid names
that might encourage stereotypes. The following procedure has worked well in team
assignments:

1. Explain the need for stranger teams. Note that work teams are typically assigned (not
chosen), and that work participants will have to interact effectively with a variety of people to
succeed. Comments about the importance of developing interaction skills, about the frequency of
problems in teams at work, and the opportunity class interaction provides for learning are
appropriate.

2. Women often comprise 50% or more of business classes in many large schools, so no special
arrangements may be necessary to distribute them. However, where there are markedly fewer
women—as in a school of engineering, for instance—it may be helpful to “share out the scarce
resource” and be explicit about doing so. Care must be taken to avoid unduly singling out the
women or other minority groups in this process, however. Male instructors may find that,
without explanation, women complain about the allocation process. When males are the scarce
resource, divide them up.

An alternate to announcing previously designated teams is to make teams up at random in class.

Here are steps to follow to get randomly formed teams of six:

a. Divide the number of students by six to get the number of teams you will have. If you have
forty-two, for instance, you will have seven teams of six. To get the seven teams, have the
students count off by sevens: i.e., the first student calls out “one,” the next “two,” and so on
until “seven” is reached. The next student begins again at “one.”

b. Have non-native English speakers, or women, or minority members (if you have a small
number to distribute evenly) count off sequentially first, so they are distributed. Be sure,
however, to have the other students pick up with the number after the one with which your
special group stopped: if the last non-native English speaker is “four,” the next person
continues with “five” (otherwise you won’t get even teams).

79
An alternate method is simply to point to students, insuring by the sequence of those you point to
that they count off so that the non-native English speakers, minority members, or women are
widely distributed to teams.

c. When all have their number, have the “ones” meet in one designated corner of the room
“twos” in another; the “threes” in a third; the “fours” in the final corner; and other groups at
designated areas in the middle. Teams that will meet each time for the next few sessions are
thus identified to one another. Have them exchange names at this time, to encourage
interchange. These teams are now ready to start with one of the leadership exercises.

If it is not possible to have all teams of six members, form as many of six as possible, with
remaining teams composed of five. Make sure no team has fewer than five members. Avoid
teams of seven. They are apt to break down into sub-groups and are too large for convenient
team meetings either in class or out.

Course Plans B and C

For Plans B and C, teams must remain together for the full course because they will need to
gather enough observational data to complete the activities required for projects. You will
probably wish to make team assignments prior to class, to insure heterogeneity in groups (among
major, background experience, and the like) on the same rationale given for stranger teams above
for Plan A: work group teams are typically strangers at first, ordinarily management assigns
people to teams, and one important goal of this course is for them to experience and explore the
group processes they might miss or be less aware of with friends. Have class members fill out a
3x5 card with relevant information so you can sort them before the class in which you announce
teams.

Academic major is a key variable in most educational settings. It is well to distribute academic
majors among the teams. Teams of six are ideal: teams of four are too small, and of seven too
large. Teams of seven should be avoided also because they break down into factions readily, and
are difficult to assemble for out-of-class meetings. Teams of five are fine, but the problem is that
if one student drops during the course the four persons remaining do not experience the group
dynamic processes as well as formations of five or six. As with Plan A teams, you should also
seek to distribute members of groups that are a minority in the class, whether these “minorities”
are women, English majors, blacks, Chicanos, or foreign nationals.

In-class procedure for B and C Plan teams should include the following:

1. Provide participants with a handout listing member names for each team. (Or, let the students
copy off the list from a viewgraph projected on a screen).

2. Have teams assemble (assign a portion of the room to each for this meeting). Once
assembled, have members exchange telephone numbers and complete a roster sheet (with
telephone numbers) for the instructor.

3. Explain fully the factors and your decision in making up the team assignments (for instance,
distributing minorities, academic majors, or work experience; the need for stranger teams;
any other considerations necessary in your setting).

This is an opportunity to help the students see the connection between the course and the teams.
Making explicit comparisons between the method of team assignment (by “management,”
according to criteria important to management), and underlining the value of stranger teams for
the learning process can induce a good deal of enthusiasm. Without some such explanation,
students may be suspicious or resentful at not being able to work with their friends or those they
know will do a good job (both arguments have been presented in pleas for reassignment). In an

80
urban setting, where participants’ homes may be widely separated, it may be wise to consider
geography, but, as in the work setting, such arrangements are typically considered the
“employee’s” responsibility.

Age can also be an important factor. Older, more experienced persons can provide important
insight, especially for younger students, but older persons can also be uncomfortable or awkward
with a very young group. However, you may also wish to consider the tendency for a single
much more mature person to take over leadership. If you have enough mature persons to make
up one or more complete teams, do so.

If your participants are homogeneous: in age, academic major, experience, and the like—and
there is no meaningful basis for teams other than having strangers meet together, use the same
method for team assignment as in Plan A, above.

Activity 2-2: Individual Learning Style: Diagnosis and Appreciation of Individual

Differences
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the experience of diagnosing their own
learning style and to begin the development of the appreciative inquiry process within the
learning community.

The Learning-Model Instrument: An Instrument Based on the Learning Model for

Managers

Kenneth L. Murrell
Although the learning model presented here was not designed exclusively for managers, the
versatility and flexibility demanded by a managerial career requires a knowledge of and
experience with a variety of learning styles. The Learning Model for Managers introduces four
domains of learning based on a person’s preference for cognitive or affective learning and the
person’s preference for concrete or abstract experiences. Since it is important for managers to
learn how to use a variety of learning styles, the manager will be given special attention as the
model and instrument are discussed.

Developing the Model and Instrument

The idea that people will be able to live a better life if they understand who and what they are
goes back at least to the early Greek philosophers. Many aids and guides have been created to
help people in today’s world to learn more about themselves. After reading Freedom To Learn
(Rogers, 1982) and studying various learning-style models and instruments (e.g., Kolb, 1974, and
instruments described in

Peters, 1985, and Pfeiffer, et al., 1976), I saw a need for a different type of learning model and
self-awareness instrument. The following goals were important in developing this new model:

1. Create a model that will help to explain the cognitive and affective learning styles in such a
way that managers and trainers can gain an appreciation for and understanding of the various
ways in which learning takes place.

2. Clarify conceptually what a learning environment is so that participants in a learning program

can gain an understanding of what the learning environment is and of how experiential-
learning methods differ from other learning methods.

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 3. Create an instrument, based on the model’s assumptions, that will provide immediate self-
awareness feedback to help individuals know more about how they learn.

4. Develop an instrument that will help individuals (a) to connect their awareness of their own
learning preferences to the nature of what and how a manager learns and (b) to understand
why experiential learning and management development must differ from traditional
classroom learning.

5. Develop an instrument that will generate thought and discussion about the process of
learning, so that program content will be seen as only a part of the total learning experiences.

The Model
The Learning Model for Managers (see Figure 1), which was based on these goals, has been used
in industrial settings, in graduate and undergraduate courses on management and organizational
behavior, and in offices in the United States and abroad. The instrument is simple to use and its
designed to help the instructor or trainer explain the importance of being able to learn in many
different ways, including experiential learning.

Learning comes not only through thinking or cognition, but also from experience and affect or
feeling. Although some people have realized this fact for a long time, it is still “good news” for
many when they discover that it is acceptable to be emotional and have feelings and that they can
take pride in being able to learn from emotions and feelings. Although everyone probably has a
mixture of learning preferences,
ABSTRACTa way was needed to identify a person’s preferred position on a
continuum for the cognitive to the
10 affective.

The Learning Model for Managers assumes that the difference in a preference on the affective-
I cognitive dimension of learning is a key factor in how a person learns.II This assumption is based
ThinkingonPlanner Feeling
the idea that the affective and cognitive end points can Planner
be defined so that they correlate with a
people-versus-task orientation (Blake & Mouton, 1984). Although empirical research may not
show a strong correlation between a preference for the cognitive style of learning and task
orientation, they seem to be closely related because of the similarity in their definitions.

This task-person and cognitive-affective correlation provides an opportunity to use this learning
model for stressing the relationship
5 of learning style and personality type to the behavior of a
COGNITIVE 0 Although managers, like other people, probably 10
manager. preferAFFECTIVE
learning in a particular way, it is
5
important for them to develop the ability to learn by both thinking and feeling. The model can be
used to illustrate this
importance. In training managers, the trainer should thoroughly discuss this issue and show how
the model correlates with the career changes the managers may expect to face.

Task Implementer
III
0
CONCRETE
Figure 1. The Learning Model for Managers

82
The model’s second dimension (the vertical axis) uses, as did Kolb, a concrete-abstract
continuum. However, this model reverses the positions of the end points in order to place
concrete (the down-to-earth point) on the bottom and abstract (the in-the-air point) on top. A
preference for the concrete reflects a person’s desire to come into contact with the real object, to
touch it, or even to physically manipulate it. The abstract end of the continuum reflects a
preference for dealing with the world in terms of thinking about it and for manipulating idea or
thoughts. The vertical axis represents the way people tend to experience life and is loosely
associated with the psychology of Jung (1924). The preference for experiencing life in the
concrete indicates a desire to experience through the direct senses.

The Learning Model for Managers, therefore, contains two primary axes, ranging from cognitive
to affective in the horizontal dimensions and from concrete to abstract in the vertical dimensions.
The axes divide the model into the following four domains: I, thinking planner, II, feeling
planner, III, task implementer, and IV, participative implementer.

The Instrument
The Learning-Model Instrument can be used in the following ways:

1. To give feedback to individuals in their own preferred styles of learning and domains of
strength;

2. To help a new group of trainees or students to learn more about one another in order to work
together more effectively; and
3. To provide an overall explanation of the learning environment so that participants will
receive a conceptual understanding of the experiential approach to learning.

Validity and Reliability

Establishing validity and reliability of any model and instrument Participative
of this type is difficult or
impossible. However, if the face validity is positive and if the learning value is apparent, then the
Implementer
material should be useful when it fits the training and learning goals. IV The results of the
instrument are not intended to label the respondents, but simply to give them feedback on their
preferred styles of learning.

Administering the Instrument

Although this instrument is particularly helpful to managers and prospective managers, it is
appropriate for anyone who desires to know more abut his or her own preferences for learning
styles. A management-development program, which was built on the model and utilized the
instrument, can be summarized in the following way:

The first session met in order to accomplish two things: (1) to allow the participants to become
acquainted with at least four other participants and (2) to outline preliminary objectives for the

83
program. To accomplish the getting-acquainted process, each person introduced one other
person. Later, triads were formed to develop additional program objectives, which then became
part of the program outline. The facilitator used a system framework to explain the relationship
of inputs, throughputs, and outputs. The facilitator also gave special attention to the feedback
loop and discussed it in terms of the need for communication and self-control in order to make
sure that the program was accomplishing its goals, and that each participant was receiving what
he or she needed.

The next focus was on the learning model. The facilitator explained how the program activities
would be a necessity by heavily oriented toward experiential learning and would deal directly
with the feelings and emotions that would emerge as learning took place in domains II and IV of
the model.

The model and instrument were valuable in helping participants to learn something about one
another, which in turn helped them in working together more effectively. After the instrument
was administered, the results of the last half of the instrument were used to form groups of
participants with similar scores. Each group consisted of from five to seven members. Within
each group, the members compared their responses and tried to determine whether or not the
scores seemed valid. They also discussed the results of the first half of the instrument. Then all
the groups held a joint discussion.

Topics for the joint discussion might include the way men are socialized to be more cognitive and
women are socialized to be more affective; how background or academic interests can cause a
bias; and how individuals can determine which domain they belong in if their scores place them
on an axis. The discussions in both the small and large groups can help participants to be more
aware of themselves, of the other participants, and of the kind of learning that will take place in
the program.

This particular program was designed to place a heavy emphasis on and to give special skill-
building attention to domains II and IV.

Scoring the Instrument

The scoring sheet indicates which answers receive a score of one point. The rest of the answers
receive a score of zero. The total of the scores in the first half of the instrument is plotted on the
vertical axis and a horizontal axis and a vertical line is drawn through that point. The point of
intersection of the two lines indicates the domain of the respondent.

Interpreting the Scores

The next four paragraphs give an interpretation of the four end points of the axes in the Learning
Model for Managers. Following these are explanations of the four domains in the model.

Cognitive Learning
A person who scores low on the cognitive-affective axis shows a marked preference for learning
through thought or other mental activity. People who grasp intellectually very quickly what they
are trying to learn or who simply prefer to use controlled thought and logic will be found on the
cognitive end of this axis. Rationality appeals to these individuals, as do logic and other thinking
skills that are necessary for this type of learning. Although this statement is not based on hard
research, it appears that a high cognitive orientation correlates with a high task orientation rather
than with a people orientation. The research about possible left-versus-right brain functioning
correlates a cognitive orientation to individuals who are left-brain dominant. Therefore, the left
side of the axis was deliberately assigned to the cognitive orientation to serve as an easy
reminder.

84
Affective Learning
A person who scores high on the cognitive-affective axis shows a marked preference for learning
in the affective realm. Such an individual is more comfortable with and seeks out learning from
his or her emotions and feelings. These individuals desire personal interaction and seek to learn
about people by experiencing them in emotional ways. This type of learner would potentially be
highly people oriented. A manager with this orientation would probably seek out social
interaction rather than to focus exclusively on the task components of the job. In right-brain
research, affective learners are said to be more intuitive, more spontaneous, and less linear. They
seek out feeling and emotions rather than logic.

Concrete Life Experiencing

People with a preference for the concrete enjoy jumping in and getting their hands dirty. Hands-
on experiences are important to them. As managers, these people want to keep busy, become
directly involved, and physically approach or touch whatever they are working with. If they work
with machines, they will get greasy; if they work with people, they will become involved.

Abstract Life Experiencing

Individuals preferring this style have no special desire to touch, but they want to keep active by
thinking about the situation and relating it to similar situations. Their preferred interaction style
is internal—inside their own heads.

The Four Learning Domains

A person is unlikely to be on the extreme end of either axis, and no one type of learning is “best.”
Any mixture of preferences simply represents a person’s uniqueness. The model is useful in
helping people differentiate themselves, and it offers a method for looking at the way different
styles fit together. This section describes the four domains that are represented in the model.

The descriptions of these domains could be of special interest to managers, because they will help
the manager understand the relationship between managerial action and learning style. A
manager should be capable of learning and functioning well in all four domains, especially if he
or she expects to face a variety of situations and challenges. The successful manager is likely to
be the one who can operate in both a task and a people environment with the ability to see and
become involved with the concrete and also use thought processes to understand what is needed.
The normative assumption of the model is that a manager should learn how to learn in each of the
four domains. In doing this, the manager may well build on his or her primary strengths, but the
versatility and flexibility demanded in a managerial career make clear the importance of all four
domains.

Domain I, the Thinking Planner. A combination of cognitive and abstract preferences

constitutes domain I, where the “thinking planner” is located. This domain might well be termed
the place for the planner whose job is task oriented and whose environment contains primarily
things, numbers, or printouts. The bias in formal education is often toward this learning domain,
and Mintzberg (1976) was critical of this bias. In this domain things are treated abstractly and
often their socio-emotional elements are denied.

The domain-I learner should do well in school, should have a talent for planning, and is likely to
be successful as a staff person or manager in a department that deals with large quantities of
untouchable things. This domain represents an important area for management learning. Of the
four domains, it seems to receive the heaviest emphasis in traditional university programs and in
management-development seminars, particularly those in financial management.

Domain II, the Feeling Planner. A combination of affective and abstract preferences constitutes
domain II, where the “feeling planner” is located. The managerial style associated with this

85
domain is that of the thinker who can learn and who enjoys working with people but has limited
opportunity to get close to them. This domain is important for the personnel executive or a
manager with too much responsibility to interact closely with other employees. Social-analysis
skills are represented in this area. Managers in this domain should be able to think through and
understand the social and emotional factors affecting a large organization.

Difficulties in this area sometimes arise when good first-line supervisors who have a natural style
with people are promoted into positions that prevent them from having direct contact with others
and are expected to determine without concrete experience the nature of and solutions to
personnel problems.

Domain III, the Task Implementer. A combination of cognitive and concrete preferences
constitutes domain II, where the “task implementer” is located. This domain contains decision
makers who primarily want to understand the task and who can focus on the details and specifics
of the concrete in a thoughtful manner. If theses people are allowed to think about a situation,
they can see the concrete issues and, after close examination, can make a well-thought-out
decision. A person in this domain is often a task-focused doer. If the interpersonal-skill demands
are low and if the emotional climate is not a problem, this person is likely to do well.

Domain IV, the Participative Implementer. A combination of affective and concrete preferences
constitutes domain IV, where the “participative implementer” is located. The manager with
people skills who has the opportunity to work closely with people is found in this category. This
is the place where implementers and highly skilled organization development consultants reside.
This domain is for those who like to become involved and who have the ability and interest in
working with the emotional needs and demands of the people in an organization. This is the
domain that is emphasized by most of the practical management programs, and it can be used to
complement the traditional educational programs of domains I.

REFERENCES

Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. (1984). Managerial grid III (3rd ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf.
Block, P. (1987). The empowered manager. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bradford, D., & Cohen, A.R. (1984). Managing for excellence: The guide to developing high
performance in contemporary organizations. New York: John Wiley.
Byham, W.C. (1988). Zapp! The lightning of empowerment. Pittsburgh, PA: Development
Dimensions International.
Chakiris, B.J., Chakiris, K.N., Felkins, P.K. (1996). Developing Change Management
Competencies. Chicago: BJ Chakiris Corporation.
Felkins, P.K., Chakiris, B.J., Chakiris, K.N. (1993). Change Management: A Model for Effective
Organizational Performance. NYC: Quality Resources of Kraus Publications.
Gibb, J.R. (1978). Trust: A new view of personal & organizational development. Cardiff, CA:
Omicron Press.
Jamison, K. (1984). The nibble theory and the kernel of power. San Diego, CA: University
Associates.
Jung, C.G. (1924). Second impression (H. Godwin, Trans.). New York: Harcourt Brace.
Kanter, R.M. (1983). The change masters: Innovation for productivity in American culture. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
Kieffer, C.H. (1984). Citizen empowerment: A developmental perspective. Prevention in
Human Services, 213 (3), 9-36.

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Kolb, D.A., Rubin, I.M., & McIntyre, J.M. (1974). Organizational psychology: An experiential
approach (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
Mintzberg, H. (1976, July-August). Planning on the left side and managing on the right.
Harvard Business Review, pp. 49-58.
Murrell, K.L. (1977). An exploratory descriptive study of the relationship of alternative work
organizations and quality of life: More modern times. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The
George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Murrell, K.L. (1987). The managerial infrastructure in economic development: Its importance
and how to analyze it (SICA Occasional Papers Series, Second Series, No. 12). Austin, TX:
Section on International and Comparative Administration, American Society for Public
Administration.
Murrell, K.L. and Blachard D. (1992). OrgSim: Using an Organizational Simulation To Create A
“Live” Case. (The Journal of Management Development, Volume II, Number 7) London.
Peters, D. (1985). Directory of human resource development instrumentation. San Diego, CA:
University Associates.
Pfeiffer, J.W., Heslin, R., & Jones, J.E. (1976). Instrumentation in human relations training (2nd
ed.). San Diego, CA: University Associates.
Rogers, C.R. (1982). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Sims, H.P., Jr., & Gioia, D.A. (1986). The thinking organization. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Vogt, J.F., & Murrell, K.L. (1990). Empowerment in organizations: How to spark exceptional
performance. San Diego, CA: University Associates.

Activity 2-3: Group Dialoguing: The Development of a Team Name and Logo
This activity is designed to help the newly formed teams begin the process of developing a
distinct identity. This activity can be divided into two parts: The first part can be devoted to brain
storming and team decision about the name for the team; the second part can be devoted to the
creation of a team logo.

We have successfully managed the development of “team name” as an in class activity. The
teams were given 20 minutes to arrive at a name that reflects who they are, who they would like
to be, a name that they are going to be proud of, and a name that cannot be changed during the
life of the course. The team gave the instructor a note at the end of the session that included the
names of individual members and the team’s name.

The development of a team logo is an activity that requires about an hour. We have found that
this activity is best carried out outside of class. The students are instructed to create a logo on a
regular size page that captures creatively who they are, who they would like to be, and their team
name. We devoted about 20 minutes of class time to allow the group’s spokespersons to share
with the entire learning community the name, the logo, and how they were created.

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Activity 2-4: Developing a Questioning Mind

Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to create a path for students to follow as they seek to develop their
Self-learning Competency through action and reflection in this course. While each learning
experience presents unique challenges and opportunities, students can develop thinking strategies
that facilitate quality learning experiences in diverse contexts.
Objectives
The learning objectives for this activity are:
1. To equip students with the necessary metacognitive skills needed for life-long learning in
environments characterized by rapid change.
2. Outline a strategy for critical thinking development for students in business and
educational environments.
3. Explain Bloom’s Taxonomy as the basis for the grading criteria of the course. Students
should understand that the instructor is looking for evidence of different levels of
thinking in class discussions, team papers and journals.

Where and How should Activity 2-4 be used?

This activity is designed to help students integrate the skills and information acquired in
Activities 2-2 and 2-3. Activity 2-3 Team name and Logo: begins the development of the
appreciative inquiry process for the teams; laying a foundation for the learning community.
Activity 2-2 Ken Murrell’s Learning Model: helps students diagnose their learning styles and
initiates dialogue in teams around the diversity of learning traits. Activity 2-4 Developing a
Questioning Mind: should be seen as a tool to help add depth and focus to individual and team
learning through the use of critical thinking strategies. Properly taught and used, it can serve as a
model (or path) for students to follow as they pursue numerous learning experiences throughout
the quarter.

Sample Class Outline and Content

1. Assign Task 1 as homework for individuals. This activity will most likely be foreign to
many students; it may be helpful to explain the instructions to the students at the end of
the preceding class period. (Note: if time is a constraint, assign Task 2 as homework as
well and begin class with the mini-lecture on Cognitive Learning)
2. Mini-Lecture: Introduction to Cognitive Learning
a. Describe the all-too-common learning experience
i. “People waste enormous amounts of time attempting to memorize facts,
procedures, and slogans. Such memorization has no impact on behavior;
it doesn’t translate into learned skill.”1
ii. “Rote memorization puts things in the wrong place, in short-term
memory (where you can only hold something for as long as you
continually rehearse it) rather than long-term memory (where things are
organized and retrieved on the basis of the sense they make to us.”2
b. Explain the role that questions play in the learning process.
Important quote:
• “Questioning, Puzzlement, and doubt are needed for learning and adaptation to
take place.”3

1
Roger Schank, Virtual Learning: A Revolutionary Approach to Building a Highly Skilled
Workforce. McGraw Hill 1997, pp47
2
Frank Smith, Book of Learning and Forgetting. Teachers College Press, 1998. pp 88.
3
A.B. Shani and Bushe, Parallel Learning Structures

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 c. Key Points and Assertions on Cognitive Learning:
• Quality learning that influences how we think goes beyond rote memorization of
facts and details and seeks to develop a questioning mind.
• The ability to learn how to learn involves the skill of asking good questions.
• A questioning mind is proactive rather than passive and is driven by questions
and not just answers.
• Good, thoughtful questions serve as guides (lights) and motivators (magnets) in
the learning process.
3. Task 2: Team Discussion of their top questions and the intended learning outcomes.
4. Task 3: Teams present their questions and the intended learning outcomes to the class.
5. Class Discussion: (See teaching suggestions below)
6. Mini-Lecture: Bloom’s Taxonomy and Question Cues
a. Key Points:
• Bloom’s Taxonomy represents a spectrum of thinking skills that are present
in higher order thinking and learning.
• Beginning at the foundation, progression through each level of the
Taxonomy requires a higher order of thinking skills.
• In light of Bloom’s Taxonomy, the level of the question shapes the
depth/quality of the thinking and learning experience.
• “Question Cues” are tools that help us develop thought-provoking questions
for each level of reasoning.
• Individuals and teams can take a proactive role in their learning process by
assessing their current level of thinking and developing questions to discover
(and guide) areas for future learning.
• Brainstorming and discussion about questions help refine our thinking and
focus the learning experience.
b. Application to business world
i. The Current Business Environment:
1. The increasingly global world of business is characterized by
change and diversity. (See Module 2 introduction and Module
15 for illustrations of changing work environment).
2. Knowledge creation is increasing exponentially
Quote: “The amount of information being created today is enormous
compared to any time in our history…Knowledge today becomes
relatively quickly obsolete, and in this era of the knowledge
explosion, what students know when they leave college will not be
nearly as important as what they are capable of learning. Learning
must continue throughout life.”4
ii. Necessary Competencies for individuals in Business
1. Individuals entering the business world will frequently be
presented with situations that cannot be solved by learned
responses. Therefore it is essential that learning-to-learn
strategies be taught and developed in students.
2. Self-Learning Competency, Appreciative Inquiry and Reflective
Questioning are skills and strategies necessary for employees
entering the business workforce.
7. Assign Task 4: Team Homework- Teams should review their questions and develop
questions for each of the remaining levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

4
Lion F. Gardiner. Redesigning Higher Education: Producing Dramatic Gains in Student
Learning. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report Vol. 23, No. 7. The George Washington
University Publication. Washington D.C. pp. 7

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Teaching Suggestions
1. Class Discussions
a. Quite often after a team poses a good question, other students want to answer the
question right away. This should be avoided at first. Instead, write down the
intriguing question and let the students know we will return to it later. If you are
not careful an entire class session might be spent on one team’s list of questions.
b. This activity is revealing of student ability for abstraction. It is important that a
fair assessment is made of the critical thinking levels during team and class
discussions.
c. Depending on the common level of thinking demonstrated by the class, lead the
discussion one more level by posing a good question to the class. Pushing the
level of thinking too far too fast may result in students feeling inept and serve as
a turn-off.
d. If an exceptionally good high-level question is posed by a team, acknowledge its
significance as an example of how far this type of activity can lead our thinking,
and come back to this question later in the quarter- once students have had more
opportunity to develop their critical thinking skills.
2. Lectures
a. For most students, this will be their first exposure to Socratic Dialogue. It is
important that you help students see the significance of questions in learning, and
the applicability to this course and the workplace. (Sample quotes and notes are
provided in the outline above for this reason).
b. At the end of the lecture on Bloom’s Taxonomy, inform students that their
performance and grades will be evaluated based on this Taxonomy of thinking
skills. It is essential that they understand the difference in these levels of
thinking.
c. For additional material and insights on critical thinking strategies for class
activities see: Redesigning Higher Education listed in the endnotes of this
section.

Common Themes
The following are some reoccurring themes in student thinking and behavior that we have
experienced in classes.
• Students tend to view people categorically as either rational or irrational. (Evidencing
concretized thinking).
• Students are often unaware of how irrational forces are at work in their own life.
(Evidencing a lack of self-reflection).
• Students tend to view irrational forces as categorically negative. (Evidencing dualistic
thinking).
• “Balance” is the catch-all word that is used by students to describe how managers should
deal with rational and irrational forces. (Evidencing the lack of holistic thinking).
• Most students are comfortable with thinking at the knowledge, comprehension and
application levels of thinking. (Evidencing the need for helping students develop higher-
order thinking skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation).

Sample Questions
• Develop additional elements for above and below the waterline for the iceberg model of
rationality. (This question requires comprehension of subject matter as well as analysis
of what the model could also include).
• Explain why people often view irrational forces as negative. What are the consequences
of this type of thinking? (This question challenges the common assumption that all
irrational forces are negative).

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 • Describe how irrational forces can be used in constructive/positive manor. (This question
challenges common assumptions about irrationality and asks students to proactively
pursue positive application of its usefulness).
• Create a plan for a manager to use to increase employee awareness of the irrational forces
effecting the working environment? (This question asks students to synthesize the
subject matter and their knowledge of the workplace).

Activity 2-5: Developing a Team Contract

The purpose of this activity is to formalize a psychological contract between the students within
each team. Following the creation of the teams and after one or two initial activities in the teams,
it is of value to have the team develop a team contract. If this is the first activity for the team as a
team we recommend a short team activity to be followed by the development of the contract.
Such an activity might be individual sharing in groups something about themselves, such as:

v Tell team anything particularly relevant about their backgrounds, interests (e.g.,
major, extracurricular)
v Offer personal “two lies and a truth” as an icebreaker
v Share best and/or worst group experiences. Answer the question, how can your team
emulate that best experience?

Next, explain to the class what team contract involves and how it helps to guide team behavior.
This activity should take 45 minutes to an hour. This activity can be carried out in class if time
permits or as homework assignment. Each student must keep a copy of the contract and the team
is to turn in one copy of the contract to the instructor.

Activity 2-6W: Personal Learning Statement

The purpose of this activity is to formalize the psychological contract between the students and
the instructor. Following activities 1-1, 2-1, the review of the course syllabus and initial scanning
of the textbook the class is ready to articulate in writing their learning agenda for the course. The
guidelines for task 1 explain in some detail the process. We stress that the students can revise
their statement during the course by submitting a new statement. We ask students to submit two
copies of their statements. After review we sign each statement and return to the students one
copy.

At the end of the course we return the second copy to the student. This is a powerful way to
provide a closure to the course. During the last class session we provide some time for initial
review of the statements and let the students assess to what extent they have achieved their
learning objectives. In case of a discrepancy we asked the students to identify the potential
reasons. This activity can serve as an arena for dialogue, course review, and feedback.

Activity 2-7W: A Dialogue With A Manager About The Management Of

Expectations And Learning
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the experience of learning with a
manager about the nature of expectations and how one can manage them in the context of work.
The students are asked to review carefully the module and develop an interview guide for a
semistructured interview with a manager. Our experience tells us that this activity provide a good
opportunity early in the course for the students to see the relevancy of some of the topics in the
course to the managerial world of work. We usually instruct the students to contact a manager

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that they know and ask the manager for 30 minutes of his/her time. The interview should start
with the student spelling out the purpose of the interview and how it will be used. The following
is an example of the introductory statements and a list of possible questions.

“I would like to start by thanking you for your willingness to take part in this
learning assignment. The assignment is part of the requirement of a course in
Organization Behavior. We were asked to conduct a 30 minute interview with a
manager in order to learn from his/her about their views as they relate to your
experience with the issues of expectations and expectations, the role that they
might play at workplace and who are they being managed. I have a list of
questions that I’ll try to follow and if it is OK with you I’ll take notes as we are
progressing through the interview. As a part of the assignment, I am expected to
write a two page paper that summarizes a managerial view of the topic. Your
name and the name of the company will remain confidential and will not be
shared with anyone. Any questions at this stage? ….. Can we proceed?”

• A good place to start is to learn a little about you. Can you tell me a little about your job?
(i.e., What do you do here? How many people do you have working for you? How long
have you been with the Company?..)
• What are some of the expectations that you have of yourself?
• What are some of the expectations that you have of your employees?
• What are some of the expectations that you have of your company?
• What are some of the expectations that your employees have of you?
• What are some of the expectations that your boss have of you?
• How do expectations get communicated in this company?
• Are there any forms of arenas in which expectations are discussed? If so how are they
discussed? If not is there any dialogue about expectations at any level?
• If we may switch to the topic of learning, how important is it for individuals in the company
to improve their learning ability?
• How do you encourage individual learning?
• How do you encourage team or department level learning?
• How does the company help the team to acquire team-based learning competencies?
• What are some of the organizational mechanisms that were established to nurture
organizational learning?
• Any relationships between expectations and individual motivation? If yes, what might the
relationship be?
• How do expectations relate to bottom-line results? Performance?
• Any relationship between learning at the individual and team levels and bottom-line results?
• If we were to switch hates, you are the interviewer and I am the interviewee, what questions
would you ask me that I did not ask you? (list the questions in your pad)
• Now, lets switch hates again, how would you answer each question that you have listed
earlier?

Thank you for your cooperation and help in this learning endeavor. I have learned a lot!!

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Additional Team Activity – Activity 2-8 IM
Group Dialoguing about Team Goals and Behavior

This is an alternative activity to Activity 2-5. This will be one of your first activities of a
group of individuals who will form a team, which during the time of the course will be
assigned a variety of tasks to complete as a team. As a “learning-by-doing” activity, your
team will experience and learn how an effective team operates, and individually how you
can be a more effective team member.

If this is your first meeting as a team, you should first introduce yourselves to each other. Then,
decide on a name for your team. Next, you should decide on some goals for your team. Finally,
you should list some individual behaviors that would help the team achieve their goals. You can
record these on the attached sheet. The sheet will be collected at the end of the session. None of
the things you decide on today are written in stone. You can change any of them at any time. You
will be given a specific opportunity later in the course to review them.

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TEAM NAME: ______________________________________________________

TEAM MEMBERS: ________________________

________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

TEAM GOALS:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

BEHAVIOR NECESSARY FOR GOAL ACHIEVEMENT:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Lecture Notes on Expectations
One way to start the mini lecture is by asking participants to identify an experience that they have
had in which expectations of others had an impact on them. (i.e., “Think about a time when
someone that you knew enabled you to achieve success. Describe the event and its impact”).
After hearing a few responses one can begin the mini lecture.

The essence of the mini lecture centers on a few key points:

• Managerial expectations play an important role at work.
• Many organizational problems can be traced to expectations and expectation discrepancies.
• Expectations are the driving force behind subordinate response to managers.

The mini lecture is outlined and captured on the power point slides (slides 3-15). The last slides in
the lecture spell out “My Expectations” as they relate to what I expect of myself (slide 13) and
my expectations of the participants (slide 14, 15).

Lecture Notes on Learning and Experiential Learning

One way to start the mini lecture is by asking participants who study such a topic in an OB
course/Business Program. (i.e., “How is the topic of learning relevant in the field of organization
behavior? How is it relevant for Business?” OR “What does learning mean to you?” OR
“Complete the sentence – For me learning means…….). After hearing a few responses one can
begin the mini lecture.

The essence of the mini lecture centers on a few key points:

• Wide array of learning theories can be found in different academic disciplines
• The focus in this course is “experiential learning” or “learning-by-doing”
• Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience
• Individuals develop a wide variety of learning styles
• Self-Learning competency skills are critical for human development

The mini lecture is outlined and captured on the power point slides (slides 16-32). Slide 31
captures the differences between process and content learning and Slide 32 captures the
technology used in human development training.

Lecture Notes on Appreciative Inquiry

One way to start the mini lecture is by asking participants who study such a topic in an OB
course/Business Program. (i.e., “How is the topic of appreciative inquiry relevant in the field of
organization behavior? How is it relevant for Business?” OR “What does appreciative inquiry
mean to you?” OR “Complete the sentence – For me appreciative inquiry means…….). After
hearing a few responses one can begin the mini lecture.

The essence of the mini lecture centers on a few key points:

• What is Appreciative Inquiry
• The difference between Problem Solving and Appreciative Inquiry
• The AI cycle
• The art of the question
• Assumptions about AI
• Some of the evidence

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Review of Purpose of Introductory Sessions
After completing the Activities in Modules 1 and 2 and reading Modules 1 and 2, it’s a good idea
to pause and review. In doing this the terms “learning community” and “bonding” are helpful in
that students seem to retain them.

Learning Community: Anyone who has conducted or participated in management workshops

which have lasted from a week to several months becomes aware of the community building that
takes place during the early phases. This is particularly noticeable when you conduct one long
workshop which ends on a Friday and on Sunday night receive a group of strangers settling in for
a new session. The group that was finished up was warm, supportive, open hearted and had
attained considerable knowledge and many skills. The role relationships, the interaction
relationships, the value system and the climate were thoroughly developed, so much so that many
of the participants would form networks and be in touch with one another for years to come. A
real sharing of feeling and thoughts existed.

In contrast, the new group coming in on Sunday night was uptight about what was going to
happen and had no system of expectations or established contacts with one another—there was no
community, no bonding, and the task of community building lay in the week ahead.

In our course, the first three activities and two modules are used as a strategy to develop the
learning community on an augmented basis. This is continued through Module 3 after teams
have been formed and are developing as they explore course concepts through interaction.

At the end of the second session, or preferably at the beginning of the third, the overview of the
learning community should be presented. It should be reviewed for reinforcement after Module 3
material has been presented.

Turn to Part Two of the textbook and read the description of the elements of the learning
community you are building: Through conscious effort you are introducing (1) content, (2)
technology, (3) roles, (4) climate, and (5) structure into the interaction mix of your classroom
while covering the first four modules of the textbook: the content is spread throughout the
modules and sessions; the technology is in the interaction learning, communication dialoguing as
perceptions are shared; the roles are the instructor as facilitator and the described role of the
participants; the climate is revealed in the goals, values, and participative learning method; the
structure is the instructor-student relationship, and after Module 2, you will have instructor and
teams.

The learning community concept and its formation by you needs to be articulated to the students;
it has applicability both in the classroom and in the work situation they will be managing some
day.

Bonding: And now it might be said that bonding has begun in that people have developed
feelings for one another and the class, and presumably feel secure in the learning environment.
Bonding is the cohesiveness, the adhesion that seems to be a by-product of working and
interacting together that spontaneously occurs under these conditions.

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Study Questions
1. What is a “psychological contract”? What is its relationship to Activity 2-1, 2-3, 2-4 & 2-5?
Comment: A set of understandings between the individuals and the organization as to what is
expected as obligations both must observe. Some of it would be based upon written agreements
and policy, but much of it, such as what is fair treatment, is based upon the operating climate
arising from past behavior. In Activity 2-1 and 2-2, we were establishing important aspects of
our psychological contract for this class. In Activity 2-3 we began to establish the psychological
contract within the teams.

2. In what way did Activity 2-1 and 2-3 contribute to the development of the learning
community?
Comment: The interaction process started in Activities 1-1 and 1-2 was continued. Roles of
instructor and participants were developed. Climate values of openness to learning, sharing,
meaningful confrontation, and dialoguing were developed or reinforced.

3. Describe the roles of expectations, expectations discrepancies, and self-fulfilling prophecy in

organizational settings.
Comment: Recent research suggests that many problems in organizations can be traced to
expectations and expectations discrepancies. Self-fulfilling prophecy seems to influence human
behavior and is at the core of expectations dynamics and expectations discrepancies. Raising
supervisor’s expectations about employee performance is likely to set in motion expectations
dynamics that will affect the behavior and performance of both the employee and the supervisor.
Managing the potential expectation discrepancies via dialogue mechanisms is likely to change
behavior and improve performance.

4. Explain the relationship between expectation, self-efficacy, learning, experiential learning,

and self-learning competency.
Comment: All the concepts are critical to the understanding of human behavior in organizations.
There are many ways to illustrate how the concepts might interrelate. One way to illustrate the
relationship is via the experiential learning cycle: (1) Experience in an activity is influenced by
learning styles, self-efficacy and expectations; (2) discussing the issues and feelings, raised by the
experience can reinforce expectations; (3) mini-lecture input on theory, concepts and issues can
enhance learning; (4) reading assignment; (5) application later in course can enhance self-learning
competency. Also, this is a learn-by-doing approach which develops skills immediately useful in
work, school, and personal life—and which could not have been learned just through reading.

5. Discuss the relationship between appreciative inquiry and experiential learning.

Comment: Experiential learning views learning as a process that occurs through an interaction
between thinking, cognition and experiences. The learner plays an active role on the learning
process. David Kolb articulated an ever ending experiential learning cycle in which individuals
move from “concrete experience” to “reflective observation” to “abstract conceptualization” to
“active experimentation” to “concrete experience”,…. The experiential learning view is anchored
in a systematic collaborative inquiry process into one’s own experience. At the foundation of
appreciative inquiry is the co-inquiry between two or more individuals. As such appreciative
inquiry can take place only if people are actively involved in the learning process, willing to
emerce themselves in experiences, reflect on their experiences, explore them in the context of the
body of knowledge and experiment with new actions.

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6. Identify the difference and similarities among cognitive learning, content learning and
process learning?
Comment: See Figure 2-4 in the text for the comparison between content and process learning.
Content learning is primarily related to memory storage, a database. Process learning is primarily
analytical use of the database or behavioral learning through interaction. Different learning
methods are emphasized to correspond with each. We use process, interaction, experiential and
involvement learning almost interchangeably (obviously they are not identical). We make this
distinction because we have chosen process learning methods for this course to correspond with
skills development objectives. Figure 2-2 in the text provides the Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive
development.

7. Explain the basic assumptions about the adult as learner.

Comment: In the text we have listed a few of the basic assumptions about the adult as a learner.
The implication of the assumptions is that the adult must take charge of his/her learning. This
course provides an opportunity to acquire the self-learning competency. The lecture notes (slides
12-16) provide an insight into the process, roles, mechanisms and skills through which this can
occurs.

8. What are the roles of participants and instructors in an appreciative inquiry-based course?
Comment: The classroom is viewed as a dynamic learning social system or community of
learning that is guided by appreciative inquiry. In page 36 in the text we have listed 10 special
role requirements for such a learning environment.

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Module
3
Learning-in-Action

Module Overview
This is the third and last module in the framing and community building section of the
course. Clarifying expectations, focusing on learning goals and establishing the norms of
appreciative inquiry were the center of the second module. The students were introduced
to learning, experiential learning, cognitive and process dimensions and learning. The last
foundation element is the beginning of the development of the learning-in-action skills,
such that deeper level learning about organization behaviour topic can be achieved. The
focus of this module to teach students to catch what goes on in their heads (and their
feelings) as they engage in interaction with others. Much of what this module explores is
what we do spontaneously and without awareness. It aims to develop attentiveness to
cognitional processes. We can be inattentive to what goes on in our consciousness and so
act in an unaware manner. We judge situations without stopping to weigh evidence or
view alternatives. We jump to conclusions, make inferences and attribute motives to
people and so on. The key to this module is to allow students to struggle with attending to
cognitional processes, something we are not used to doing.

Learning Objectives
1. Know how to engage in learning-in-action so as to engage with the material of
organization behavior
2. Explain the many terms that describe the various approaches to learning-in-action:
action inquiry, action research, action learning, reflective practice, work-based
learning, action science, collaborative inquiry
3. Describe the four phases in journaling
4. Begin the development of the reflective practitioner skill
5. Gain insights on how to reflect on-action AND in-action

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 6. Acquire the skills of comprehensive journal writing
7. Know how to test assumptions and inferences

Module Outline
PreModule Preparation
Activity 3-1: Learning-in-Action Skills
Activity 3-2: Capturing the Team’s experience: Practicing Journal Writing
Introduction
The Process of Human Knowing
Taking an Attitude of Inquiry
Reflection
Developing Reflective Skills through Journaling
Helping Others to Learn-in-Action
Approaches to Learning-in-Action
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes

Activity 3-3: Using the ORJI methodology to develop the reflective practitioner skill
Activity 3-4: The reflective practitioner skills - Learning with others

This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Session design
* Activity 3-1: Learning-in-Action Skills
* Activity 3-2: Capturing the Team’s experience: Practicing Journal Writing
* Activity 3-3: Using the ORJI methodology to develop the reflective practitioner skill
* Activity 3-4: The reflective practitioner skills - Learning with others
* A notes on the mini lecture about learning-in-action
* Responses to the Study Questions

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Session Design

There is no inherent sequencing of the activities other than working on individual

learning prior to teaching students to help others learn. The activities in this module may
be done in any order.

Activity 3-1: Learning-in-Action Skills

Task 1: This activity of getting the students to reflect on their experience of constructing
and thinking through a term paper that they have written aims to focus their attention on
cognitional processes. It is a relatively unthreatening but challenging exercise whereby
they try to identify initial insights about the paper subject at the outset, how those insights
changed in the light of reading or research they did, what happened when they struggled
and found themselves in a blind alley after a library search, the ups and down of
frustration in trying to find relevant sources, perhaps a sense of joy when things fitted
together and satisfaction when they handed it in. What is important is that they get in
touch with struggles of frustration that they experienced, insights that opened up avenues
of progress and the encouraging feelings they had when they felt they were getting
somewhere.

Task 2: Task 2 is an exercise taken directly from the work of Chris Argyris and is
developed in the text in Figure 3.2 (ladder of inference) and in Table 3.3. The key point
here is that, when we are interacting with others, we make inferences about what they
say. We don’t test these inferences and we decide that they are true and we act out of
them. This premodule preparation exercise aims to disturb the comfortable notion that
how we are interpreting privately what others do and say is fraught with difficulties and
that we act on the basis of very flimsy evidence.

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Activity 3-2: Capturing the Team’s Experience: Practicing Journal Writing

Objective

To help individuals begin to develop the reflective practitioner skills by utilizing journal
writing methodology

Task 1: The aim of this task is to get the students to practice journal keeping. To help
them to do that, a structure is provided: experiencing, reflecting, interpreting and taking
action. So helping them to distinguish between these activities is a first step. A second
step is learning how one step can lead to another. There is one example in the text. Help
them to find other examples.

Task 2: This is an exercise that might be repeated through the course. Occasionally, get
the students to reflect on how they are using their journals and what they are learning
from them.

Activity 3-3: Using the ORJI Methodology to Develop the Reflective Practitioner

Skill

As in many of the activities in this module, the key is to help the students isolate and
identify the steps that are implicit in taking in, processing information and making
decisions and taking action. The ORJI methodology is particularly useful in aiming to
catch immediate and spontaneous emotional responses before they get rationalized.
People typically present a rationalization and miss that they may be feeling angry, hurt or
whatever. Recognition and acknowledgement of emotion allows the individual to be
grounded in what is real and then to have a choice about what he/she says and does. Not
to acknowledge an emotional reaction is to lose freedom and to be controlled by an
unrecognized and unacknowledged emotion that may lead to regrettable consequences,
such as saying something one regrets later or taking violent action that lands one in
trouble. If students can learn how to catch such emotional reactions by work back from

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an action (the I in ORJI) to the judgment (the J in ORJI) to the R (the emotional reaction
in ORJI) then they have an important life skill.

Activity 3-4: The Reflective Practitioner Skills - Learning with Others

This activity is commonly used in educational and training settings and may well be
familiar. From my experience of both participating in it and in facilitating it, there is a
hidden trap. In Task 1, B works hard at explicitly practicing Schein’s intervention
typology in response to what A presents (similarly in the alternative roles after the
switch). The challenge and the trap is when the observer’s role comes into play.
Observers typically fall into the trap of feeling that they need to show what they observed
and they consequently present a report of their observations from an ‘expert’ perspective,
rather than engaging in an inquiry mode with the intervenor and presenter and drawing
out of them what happened, how they understand it and what they have learned.
Attending to this stage of the activity is important.

A more subtle trap is that the instructor may also fall into this trap and rather than
drawing out what happened in the role plays and helping the students inquire into their
experience, teaches them what happened and tells them about it.

A notes on the mini lecture about learning-in-action

One way to start the mini lecture is by asking participants why study such a topic as
learning-in-action in an OB course/Business Program. (i.e., “How is the topic of learning-
in-action relevant in the field of organization behavior? How is it relevant for Business?
How is it relevant to managers?” OR “What does learning-in-action means to you?” OR
“Complete the sentence – For me learning-in-action means…….). After hearing few
responses one can begin the mini lecture.

The essence of the mini lecture centers on afew key points:

• Wide variety of approaches to learning-in-action can be found in the literature such
as, Experiential Learning, Action research, Action Learning, Action Science, Action
Inquiry, Reflective Practice, Work-Based Learning, Collaborative Research,
Appreciative Inquiry
• This Module is “knowing about knowing” where knowing is viewed as a set of inter-
related operations: experience, understanding, judgment, decision/action

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• The importance of adopting an attitude of inquiry
• Learning-in-action is viewed as a form of inquiry. Three forms of inquiry can be
found in the relevant literature: Pure Inquiry; Exploratory Diagnostic Inquiry:
Confrontive Inquiry.

The mini lecture is outlined and captured on the power point slides (slides 1-37). We
found that focusing on the Journal Writing in an experiential-based course is an important
learning tool; It is a critical mechanism for developing reflective skills; Noting
observations and experiences in a notebook is about creating the personal data-base;
Creates discipline of reflection and; Captures experience close to events and before time
changes perception (slides 22-24).

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Study Questions

1. Why philosophy?
a. Why did we start with the philosophy of knowing?
b. Have you an insight into why we did this?
c. How might it apply to the field of organization behavior?
Comment: Again the main learning is less about the answer to the questions and more
about puzzling over the questions, catching insight and developing understanding. What
kinds of answers do the students come up with and how?
As to answers to the question, knowing about knowing through experiencing,
understanding and judging builds self-confidence and grounds our ability to assess what
we know, as contrasted with what we believe, suspect or infer. It also positions us to
engage in introspection, to catch insights, to weigh evidence and to make choices. It
allows us to engage with our world intelligently and not reduce the world to electro-
chemical events as many scientists and neuro-biologists do or reduce the world to what is
known by physics, biology, psychology, sociology or any of the empirical sciences or be
caught in a fundamentalism or be seduced by slogans. In the field of organization
behavior where there aren’t single right or wrong answers, the ability to question and to
test insights is paramount.

2. How is the study of organization behavior different from the study of engineering?
a. From your experience of organizations, what might be examples of puzzles?
b. What might be examples of problems?
c. Describe how you might apply Schon’s notion of ‘swampy lowlands’ to
organization behavior?
Comment: As the text says, the world of organization behavior is complex and messy
because human beings are wonderful, unique and unpredictable. We can be enthusiastic
one day and be stressed another. We can be skilled at working in groups and be
unfocused in planning. We can be inconsistent. We change our minds. As the chapters in
this textbook aptly discuss the world of behavior in organizations is a world of adventure
as we try to understand people and work with them across a variety of organizational

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settings, structures and tasks. Accordingly, we have to understand how we know in
settings that are socially constructed and that shift and change.

Organization behavior varies from place to place and from situation to situation. What is
familiar in one place may be unfamiliar in another. No two situations are identical. Time
has passed. The place has changed. We remember differently. So in each of these
situations we attend to experience, seek insights, make judgments in order to know how
to act. You can say one thing in one setting but not in another; something will work in
one setting but not in another. This is why we reason, reflect and judge in order to move
from one setting to another, grasping what we can understand in a given situation in order
to know what to say and do.

Revans’ distinction between ‘puzzles’ which are those difficulties for which there is a
single solution and are amenable to expert advice and ‘problems’ which are those
difficulties where there is no single solution because people advocate different solutions,
depending on their values, past experience, intended outcomes provides a distinction that
helps students to avoid the trap of treating people like machines and to be cautious about
expert consultants who prescribe advice as to how to deal with people. It opens up
discussions of how to engage with people and to draw them into discussions of what
needs to be done and how they might contribute to improvements and change.

Schon’s presentation of the notion of ‘swampy lowlands’, where problems are messy and
confusing and incapable of a technical solution, allows students to see how they can learn
from being insiders and from being close to situations. Here the link back to methodology
may be made. We can engage with situations in which we are closely involved by
learning to question our experience, find insights into them and then check if those
insights fit or are true.

3. Discuss the relationship between appreciative inquiry, experiential learning and the
reflective practitioner skills.

106
Comment: While the distinctions between these approaches may be moot at times, and
not necessarily agreed upon by scholars, the appreciative approach that focuses on the
best of what is and what might be, rather than framing issues in terms of problems is a
key distinction. Experiential learning and reflective practitioner skills overlap
considerably.

4. Discuss the unique features of learning-in-action while utilizing any two of the various
approaches described in the chapter (i.e., action research, action inquiry, action learning,
action science, collaborative inquiry, reflective practice, work-based learning)

5. Identify the differences and similarities among cognitive learning, content learning,
and learning-in-action.
Comment: Cognitive learning refers to learning how to think. Content learning is
learning about a subject area (i.e. accounting, history, organization behavior). Learning-
in-action is about stopping to reflect while you are doing something, having an insight as
to what is going on (both in you and in the situation) and then adjusting your behavior in
light of the insight.

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Part 2

Managing Individual Processes

We have found that a quick review of the framing part of the course (part I) is helpful at this stage of the
learning process. Part 1 had three distinct purposes: (1) to create the content and process boundaries for
the course; (2) to establish the learning community, and (3) to set in motion the development of the
learning-in-action skill set. Five key elements of the learning community were advanced:

1. Content. In defining organizational behavior, the topic areas were identified. The course objectives
were given.

2. Process (technology). Experiential learning methods (that is, involvement learning through
interaction activities) were used and contrasted with cognitive learning methods. We have
introduced appreciative inquiry and learning-in-action as key pedagogical orientations in the
learning process. The crucial role of the manager as a reflective practitioner was presented as one
of the key learning objectives for the course.

3. Expectations and Roles. The course expectations were discussed and the instructor’s role was
defined as that of a facilitator, a coach, and as a resource person. The participant’s role was
defined as that of a learner and coach who is responsible for the learning of fellow participants.

4. Climate. Values of openness, sharing, full participation, and appreciative inquiry were discussed as
critical elements of a learning community.

5. Structure. Teams were established as a key learning engine for the course under the guidance of the
facilitator.

All of these factors and more are of utmost relevance when you are building the learning organization at
any organization; they apply to any level from the basic supervision up to top management.

Part 2 concentrates on the understanding and managing of individual behavior in organizations. The four
core components of psychodynamics of human behavior, motivation, perception, and communication as
the foundations of individual behavior are explored.

An integrated perspective on organizational behavior is designed to improve human, ecological and

economic sustainability. We take human sustainability to mean the development and fulfillment of human
needs. Understanding and managing individuals require a comprehensive and wholistic orientation that is
embedded in continuous learning. An integral part of learning is creating the space and time for reflection.
We argued in Modules 2 and 3 that reflection is the mental discipline of distancing oneself from the
situation, experience, or content and focusing on meaning, ideas, and linkages. Module 3 provided a
framework to guide our learning-in-action and learning-on-action. As a part of the learning process, as we

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advance through the course, we need to stop periodically to reflect on our progress. Thus far, we have
explored the context within which individuals and groups function in organizational settings. Part 1
helped establish the boundaries and process of the course: The field of study was defined; the learning
community was established, expectations were clarified, and individual learning goals were set; the role
and skills to be an effective learner via the learning-in-action perspective were examined and discussed.

PREVIEW OF PART 2
We start the second part of the book with a focus on the psychodynamics of human behavior. An integral
part of module 4 is the development of an appreciation for individual differences. We review how
unconscious and psychodynamic mechanisms influence individual behavior. We review the nature of
individual diversity, explore some basic notions of emotions at work, present three theories of personality,
discuss their implications in the workplace, and propose a path for personal growth and development.
Motivation theory is considered in Module 5. We review some of the theories of motivation and examine
their implications for human behavior. The module discusses applications in the workplace, managerial
approaches, and organizational policies and practices that might affect motivation. The role of perception
and perceptual differences among individuals is addressed in Module 6. This module also deals with
perceptual differences between different organizational levels. Module 7 addresses communications at the
interpersonal level, at the small-group level, and between groups. The module integrates the four core
concepts by examining some of the barriers and inducements to interpersonal communication. Personal
effectiveness in communication is one of the key skills of a manager. Exercises here help to develop
active listening skills and techniques of paraphrasing, feedback, and influencing. A road map that can aid
in understanding the relationship between the psychodynamic view of human behavior, perception,
communication, motivation, and individual effectiveness is presented in the following diagram. The
psychodynamic nature of human behavior plays a major role in shaping perception, communication, and
motivation. All four core concepts are essential to understanding and managing individual behavior.

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Module 4
A Psychodynamics Perspective of Human Behavior

I. Module overview

This module provides students with an overview of the psychodynamic theories of Sigmund Freud and
Carl Jung, and ties it with Chris Argyris’ work on defensiveness and espoused theories vs. theories-in-
use, personality theory in psychology (the Myers-Briggs and the Big Five), developmental psychology,
and recent research on emotional intelligence. While psychodynamics have been left aside from many OB
curricula, we believe it is one of the only theories that can provide students with an integrated view of
human psychology, which can serve as a background for the appreciation of specific individual-level OB
topics covered later. We also believe that this theory appropriately emphasizes the importance of the non-
rational and non-conscious origins of human behavior, which are now being “rediscovered” in recent
research on such topics as emotion in organizations, emotional intelligence, positive organizational
scholarship, and authentic leadership.
 

II. Module  learning  objectives  

After completing this module, students should be able to:

1. Appreciate the nature and foundation of individual differences

2. Understand and describe how the unconscious and psychodynamic mechanisms influence
individual behavior
3. Understand, appreciate, and engage individual differences
4. Develop an appreciation for a psychological growth and development perspective
5. Develop a cursory understanding of how psychopathologies undermine interpersonal
effectiveness
6. Define personality and the basic dimensions of personality differences.
7. Explain the relationship between personal growth and individual effectiveness.

III. Module  outline  

Premodule Preparation:
Activity 4-1: tracking the origins of your biases in your past
Introduction
A Psychodynamic View of Personality
The Freudian Unconscious
Defense Mechanisms and Psychological Growth
The Jungian Unconscious
Human Development and Growth
Exploring the Unconscious: Techniques and Processes for Growth
Freudian psychoanalysis
Jungian Analysis
An Overview of the Psychodynamic View of Personality
Personality and Emotional Intelligence

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 The Myers–Briggs model
The Big Five Personality Theory
Emotional Intelligence
Emotions in Organizations
Summary and Managerial Applications
Study questions
End Notes
Activity 4–2: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Big Five Locator Questionnaire

Optional  Activities  on  the  WWW  

Activity 4-3W: Learning about Self and Others: Personal Reflection via “Collage”
Activity 4–4W: Transactional Analysis in the Work Situation
Activity 4-5W: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Keirsey Temperament Sorter
Activity 4-6W: Assessing Your Emotional Intelligence
Activity 4-7W: Assessing How Personality Types Affect Your Goal-Setting Skills  
 

IV. This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Session design

* Activity 4-1: Tracking the origins of your biases in your past

* Activity 4–2: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Big Five Locator Questionnaire

* Activity 4-3W: Learning about Self and Others: Personal Reflection via “Collage”

* Activity 4–4W: Transactional Analysis in the Work Situation

* Activity 4-5W: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Keirsey Temperament Sorter

* Activity 4-6W: Assessing Your Emotional Intelligence

* Activity 4-7W: Assessing How Personality Types Affect Your Goal-Setting Skills questionnaire

* Note for a mini lecture on the psychodynamics of human behavior and exploration of various
psychological approaches to personality

* Responses to the Study Questions

Session Design
Following the review of the first part of the book (Part I) and its learning agenda, we usually provide a
preview of the second part of the book (Part II). A variety of choices can be made as far as experiential
activities and the mini lectures in terms of content and sequence. This module provides students with a
basic understanding of individual behavior as articulated in the psychology discipline. It should thus be
taught at the beginning of the series of lectures on an individual level of analysis topics. If the instructor is
inclined to begin the class with the individual level of analysis, then this module should be taught early in
the class. The instructor may, however, choose to begin with the organizational level of analysis, and
teach the individual level of analysis last. You also have choices about what if any of the activities should

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be carried out before the class session. We have found that assigning one of the activities as a pre-session
activity is an effective way to get the learning into the topic at their own time and space and they usually
come ready for the more indepth exploration of the topic that takes place in class.

Activity 4-1: Tracking the Origins of your Biases in your Past

This activity is best assigned as a preparation to be completed individually before the session on this
module. It allows students to reflect upon biases they have and the past experiences that gave rise to them
and reinforce them regularly. The goal of the exercise is to demonstrate to students that they have
irrational and unconscious factors that shape their perception and cognition.

If the exercise is used in class, the instructor may wish to limit the exercise to one bias, ask students to
complete tasks 1 to 3 on their own, and then discuss their biases with one other person, or in a small
group,. The instructor could then facilitate a discussion of some of the biases identified with the class as a
whole. We have found that it is easier for students to discuss biases about non-demographic categories,
such as athletes, or disorganized people. We have found that it is often harder to get students to admit that
they may have biases about race or gender. But a skillful instructor may nonetheless be able to facilitate
discussion about these.

Activity 4-2: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Big Five Locator Questionnaire
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to investigate their own
personality profile. Following the completion and scoring of the instrument, you can provide a mini-
lecture that focuses on individual personality. The following is an expanded definition of the “big five”
domains developed by P. J. Howard, P. L. Medina, and J. M. Howard.*

The Meaning of Scale Scores

The Big Five Locator’s scales measure traits that approximate normal distributions. Most respondents
will score near the average for each scale, with a small percentage at either end of the continuum. Thus,
professionals should avoid “typing” any individual when interpreting scores. For instance, because most
individuals can best be described as “ambiverts” who show a combination of introverted and extraverted
tendencies, it is unfair to think or speak strictly in terms of “introverts” and extraverts” (Costa & McCrae,
1992).

Expanded Definitions of the Five Domains

Negative Emotionality. The negative emotionality trait is about an individual’s resilience in response to
stressful situations. At one extreme is the “reactive,” who experiences more negative emotions than most
people and who reports less satisfaction with life than most people. This is not meant to place a value
judgment on reactives; the susceptibility to negative emotions and discontent with life provides the basis
for several roles in our society, such as social scientists and customer-oriented workers. At higher

                                                                                                                       
*
Adopted with permission from “The Big Five Locator: A Quick Assessment Tool,” The 1996 Annual:
Volume 1, Training, 1996, pp. 113-17.

  112  
intellectual and academic levels, however, extreme reactivity (high negative emotionality) interferes with
performance.

On the other extreme are the “resilients,” who tend to experience life on a more rational level than most
people and who appear impervious to what is going on around them. Such people seem unflappable.
This extreme is the foundation for many valuable social roles, from air-traffic controllers and airline pilots
to military snipers, finance managers, and engineers.

Along the continuum from resilient to reactive is the vast middle range of “responsives,” who are a
mixture of qualities characteristic of resilients and reactives. Responsives are more able to turn behaviors
from both extremes on and off, calling on what seems appropriate to the situation. A responsive typically
is not able to maintain the calmness of a resilient for as long a period of time, nor is a responsive typically
able to maintain the nervous edge of alertness of a reactive.

Extraversion. The extraversion trait is about the degree of one’s preference for being actively engaged
with other people. On the one hand, the “extravert” tends to exert more leadership, to be more physically
and verbally active, and to be more friendly and outgoing around others than most people tend to be. The
extraverted profile is the foundation of many social roles, including sales, politics, the arts, and the social
sciences.

At the other extreme, the “introvert” tends to be more independent, reserved, steady, and more
comfortable with being alone than are most people. The introverted profile is the basis of such varied
social roles as production managers and the physical and natural sciences.

In between these two extremes are the “ambiverts,” who are able to move comfortably from outgoing
social situations to the isolation of working alone. The stereotypical ambivert is the player-coach, who
moves on demand from the leadership demands of coach to the personal-production demands of player.

Openness. The openness trait is about the degree to which one is curious about one’s inner and outer
worlds. On the one hand, “explorer” has broader interests, has a fascination with novelty and innovation,
would generally be perceived as liberal, and reports more introspection and reflection than most people.
Explorers are not unprincipled but tend to be open to considering new approaches. The explorer profile
forms the basis for such roles as entrepreneurs, architects, change agents, artists, and theoretical scientists
(social and physical).

On the other hand, the “preserver” has narrower interests, is perceived as more conventional, and is more
comfortable with the familiar. Preservers are perceived as more conservative but not necessarily as more
authoritarian. The preserver profile is the basis for such social roles as financial managers, performers,
project managers, and applied scientists.

In the middle of the continuum lies the “moderate.” The moderate can explore the unusual with interest
when necessary but would find too much exploration to be tiresome; on the other hand, the moderate can
focus on the familiar for extended periods of time but eventually would develop a hunger for novelty.
This trait is not an indicator of intelligence, as explorers and preservers both score well on traditional
measures of intelligence. It does tend to be a measure of creativity, as openness to new experience is an
important ingredient of creativity.

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Agreeableness. The agreeableness trait is a measure of altruism versus egocentrism. At one end of the
continuum, the “adapter” is prone to subordinate personal needs to those of the group, to accept the
group’s norms rather than insisting on his or her personal norms. Harmony is more important to the
adapter than, for example, broadcasting his or her personal notion of truth. Galileo, in recanting his
Copernican views before the Roman Inquisition, behaved as an adapter. The adapter profile is the core of
such social roles as teaching, social work, and psychology.

At the other end of the continuum, the “challenger” is more focused on his or her personal norms and
needs rather than on those of the group. The challenger is more concerned with acquiring and exercising
power. Challengers follow the beat of their own drums, rather than falling in step with the group. The
challenger profile is the foundation of such social roles as advertising, managing, and military leadership.

In the middle of the continuum is the “negotiator,” who is able to move from leadership to followership as
the situation demands. Karen Horney (1945) describes the two extremes of this trait as “moving toward
people” (adapter) and “moving against people” (challenger). The former, known as the tender-minded, in
the extreme becomes a dependent personality who has lost his or her sense of self. The latter, known as
the tough-minded, in the extreme becomes narcissistic, antisocial, authoritarian, or paranoid—a person
who has lost his or her sense of fellow-feeling. In one sense, this trait is about the dependence (altruism)
of the adapter, the independence (egocentrism) of the challenger, and the interdependence (situationalism)
of the negotiator.

Conscientiousness. The conscientiousness trait is about self-control in the service of one’s will to
achieve. At one extreme, the “focused” profile portrays high self-control, resulting in consistent focus on
personal and occupational goals. In a normal state, the focused person is characterized by academic and
career achievement; but when focus turns extreme, it results in workaholism. The focused person is
difficult to distract. Such a profile is the basis for such social roles as leaders, executives, and high
achievers in general.

At the other extreme, the “flexible” person is more easily distracted, is less focused on goals, is more
hedonistic, and is generally more lax with respect to goals. The flexible is easily seduced from the task at
hand by a passing idea, activity, or person; he or she has weak control over his or her impulses. Flexibles
do not necessarily work less than focused people, but less of their total work effort is goal-directed.
Flexibleness facilitates creativity, inasmuch as it remains open to possibilities longer without feeling
driven to closure and moving on. This profile is the core of such social roles as researchers, detectives,
and consultants.

Toward the middle of this continuum is the “balanced” person, who finds it easier to move from focus to
laxity, from production to research. A balanced person would make an ideal manager of either a group of
flexibles or a group of focuseds, providing just enough of both qualities to keep flexibles reasonably on
target without alienating them and to keep focused people sufficiently spontaneous to prevent them from
missing important opportunities.

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SAMPLE PROFILES

An Individual Profile: The Burned-Out Producer

Negative Emotionality = 76 (Very High)

Extraversion = 67 (Very High)

Openness = 42 (Low)

Agreeableness = 51 (Medium)

Conscientiousness = 72 (Very High)

Situation: Henry is a freelance television sports producer who is rich and miserable. He has plenty of
work but he is worn out. At 11:00 p.m., after wrapping up his evening’s work broadcasting a professional
basketball game, he finds that he cannot get to sleep until five or six in the morning, and then it is time to
get up. Each game frazzles his nerves, and it takes him a long time to calm down. He is good at his job
and he loves sports. He does not know what is wrong with him, but knows that the quality of his life
must change.

Analysis: The key here is Henry’s high N. His scores on the other four dimensions are a perfect fit for his
job, but live, on-the-air sports production is no place for a reactive personality. The behind-the-scenes
producer needs to be relatively sedate, calmly monitoring all the cameras and coolly giving instructions to
guide the show’s progress. Henry’s high reactivity in a stressful environment with no margin for error is
an unhealthy combination. He would probably be more comfortable in a job doing sports documentaries,
where he could edit without the stress of real time.

A Team Profile: A Human-Service-Agency Team

Negative Emotionality = 3 Low, 5 Medium, 8 High

Extraversion = 2 Low, 1 Medium, 13 High

Openness = 3 Low, 4 Medium, 9 High

Agreeableness = 4 Low, 2 Medium, 10 High

Conscientiousness = 2 Low, 2 Medium, 12 High

Situation: In this team of sixteen members, meetings are loud and competitive, with little real listening.
Side conversations continually crop up. Team members love to brainstorm but often lose track of many
of their good ideas. Some tend to feel arrogant with respect to the rest of the agency, particularly to what
they perceive as sluggish upper management. Most of them, however, are uncomfortable with conflict
and dread the meetings, which frequently erupt into accusation, blaming, and intimidation.

Analysis: The fact that thirteen of the sixteen team members are moderate or higher in N suggests that the
problems simply will not go away. The abundance of extraverts calls for strict norms regarding how to
conduct meetings. The abundance of explorers (high O) calls for detailed minutes with follow-up to

  115  
evaluate suggestions, establish priorities, and assign responsibility for implementation. The high number
of adapters (high A) accounts for the discomfort with conflict and the need to agree to turn every
complaint into a plan of action (“fix it or accept it”). The large number of focused (high C) team
members accounts for the perception of others as sluggish. Members need to learn to ask for and accept
time lines for decisions from top management.

Activity 4-3W: Learning About Self and Others: Personal Reflection via “Collage”
The purpose of this activity is to enable the students to explore patterns of personal growth and
effectiveness. MAKE SURE THAT YOU ARE COMFORTABLE WITH THIS KIND OF ACTIVITY.
SOME INSTRUCTORS MIGHT FEEL THAT THEY WOULD NOT LIKE THIS LEVEL OF
OPENNESS OR MIGHT NOT BE ABLE TO MANAGE THIS KIND OF SELF-EXPOSURE. IF YOU
HESITATE, OUR RECOMMENDATION WOULD BE NOT TO ASSIGN THIS ACTIVITY.

Task 1: Creating the “collage” is a very involved activity that requires a significant amount of time. A
week’s preparation time should be sufficient. Some students like to go home in order to incorporate some
of the more personal material in the “collage.” If you can assign the activity before a long weekend or
give the students a longer notice, some might get much more out of the activity. We encourage the
students to be as creative as they can humanely be.

Task 2: After putting a significant amount of effort and a big part of themselves into the collage, students
are a little apprehensive about sharing their work. We discovered that the best way to start the sharing
activity is for the instructor to share his/her own collage. Furthermore, after the sharing we encouraged
the students to ask questions about what was shared. This joint inquiry into the instructors’ collage sets
the stage for a similar process within the teams. Following the sharing of the individual collages within
the teams (allocate between 5-10 minutes per team member), we encourage the group to identify common
themes/dimensions among the different collages. The next task is for the team to choose the collage to be
shared with the class and how it is to be shared. Following the sharing, the instructor facilitates joint
inquiry into each collage. The class discussion based on the common themes/dimensions and the shared
collages sets the stage for a unique class learning experience.

The following are some of the points that we make sure we cover:

∗ An appreciation for the level of creativity, effort, and openness.

∗ What individuals got out of the activity is directed correlated to the effort they put into it.
∗ An appreciation for the unique personal life patterns.
∗ We are all influenced by critical events/incidents.
∗ We all have a few “relevant others” or influential people in our life.
∗ We all make a few key decisions in our life.
∗ Finally, you can tie some of the course related concepts to themes/issues that were surfaced during the
sharing and discussion: Diversity, personality, perception, communication, leadership, motivation,
being part of relevant groups (i.e., family, sports, religion, youth group, . . . .), decision making.
 

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Activity 4-4W: Transactional Analysis in the Work Situation: Alternative 1

When assigning Module 4 to be read in advance of the session in which this activity is to be used, tell the
participants not to read the activity until they come to class. The reason for this is they might read the
roles of Stacy Lee and Kris Bono which are located at the end of the exercise. In class, have them study
the instructions in preparation for the activity. They need (and especially the observers) to know the ego
states, the types of transactions and the “OK-Not OK” positions in order to analyze what goes on during
the exchange between Stacy and Kris. Of course, those playing Stacy and Kris will forget the concepts
under the pressure of interaction—adding to the naturalness of the activity—but the observer will apply
the concepts.

Task 1: It is important that the role playing takes place with individuals outside the person’s own team;
when they know each other well, they do not role play easily, with strangers they feel obligated to try. To
divide up the class so they are with someone outside their group, the following is suggested: If there are
only three teams, one team’s members are all to take the part of Stacy, a second team’s members are to
take the part of Kris, and the third team’s members are to be observers. If there are six persons in each
team, have the team count off 1 to 6, so that all 1’s from the three teams form a triad, all 2’s a triad, etc.
If you have only two teams, members 1 to 4 of each team play the two roles while 5 and 6 become
observers. These models can be applied to whatever number of teams you have in your class. By going
through this process of forming triads, you eliminate a lot of confusion and shuffling around while
students are looking for partners if told to do so on their own.

Task 2: Circle around to the triads after about five minutes to see if any are done. When you find one
done, tell them to go right on with Task 2. During the interaction, watch for the dyads that have the best
interaction, are the most into it, and the observers who seem to be keeping the best notes.

Task 3: Call upon those triads first that have had the best interaction. Their reports are usually good in
bringing out the points you are trying to illustrate and they stimulate the less active triads to discuss the
experience.

Most of the triads will have stayed in the Parent to Child positions most of the time. When this happens,
Kris feels uncomfortable, dependent, putdown, defensive, and forced into the Child position. Some triads
will end up in the Adult-to-Adult problem-solving position and both players will feel good about it. A
number of ulterior transactions and games will be reported.

The activity not only illustrates PAC/TA but also sheds some light upon how the situation might be
handled in an Adult-to-Adult manner with goals and problem solving in the results.

The big question Stacy is confronted with is how to let Kris know (1) what his responsibilities are as
manager in attaining quota and goals of sales, (2) what methods of sales seem to have worked well for
salespersons in the past and, (3) what kind of coaching he can give Kris. This would seem to be a
combined supportive Parent and Adult role. However, he needs to be sure he does not dampen the
enthusiasm and budding sales ability of Kris. One thing he could do to produce the problem-solving
atmosphere is to have coaching meetings in which all the salespeople share their knowledge. Since
customers are rotated, that is, each salesperson gets his equal turn as customers arrive on the scene,

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sharing is more possible than when they are being pitted against one another in a sales situation. The
participants always have good ideas as to how this situation might have been best handled.

Activity 4-4W: Transactional Analysis in the Work Situation: Alternative 2

For more mature participants, Alternative 2 is best. With extensive work experience, they readily adapt to
the situation, whereas some young people need the structures of Alternative 1. The instructions are
complex in the text but you should follow the suggestions for selecting stranger triads as given for
Alternative 1. One addition needs to be made for Task 1c. Emphasize that Members B and C are to play
the roles as they would if they were in that situation and they need not carry it through to the end as
Member A had described it. This allows for flexibility, which augments the PAC-type behaviors.
Member A must definitely not interrupt.

Other Possible Classroom Material

Role-playing sessions to help individuals become more assertive in expression of feelings, in contrast to
being nonassertive (not expressing feelings) or aggressive (expressing feelings in a manner that offends or
puts the other persons down) are excellent to assist participants to better understand personal growth. The
book by Alberti and Emmons* is excellent in providing the theoretical background and role-playing
techniques for this purpose. Their approach has the advantage of being straight forward and practical
without elaborate theorizing and the individual finds specific guidance as to behaviors they can try with
other participants or on their own.

Carl Rogers** idea of congruence is also more easily grasped by students than more extensive theories. It
is particularly valuable in learning to “read” the behavior of others, just as the assertive training is
valuable in learning to be more congruent; i.e., becoming more aware of what you are actually feeling,
finding ways to communicate these feelings so the receiver understands your feelings, and your
communication in the way you do.

Activity 4-5W: Exploring Individual Personality Profile: The Keirsey Temperament Sorter
(Myers Briggs Questionnaire)
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to investigate their own
personality profile. Following the completion and scoring of the instrument, you can provide a mini-
lecture that focuses on individual personality. The web site provides insight into the guiding personality
theory that explores the relation between temperament, character, and personality. The web site address
is http://kts2.personalityzone.com/user/register.aspx.

                                                                                                                       
*
R. E. Alberti and M. L. Emmons, Your Perfect Right, 5th Edition (San Luis Obispo, California:
IMPACT, 1986).
**
Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1961), pp. 338-46).

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Activity  4-­‐6W:  Assessing  Your  Emotional  Intelligence    And                                                                                                                                                                        
Activity  4-­‐7W:  Assessing  How  Personality  Types  Affect  Your  Goal-­‐Setting  Skills  

Both activities are self explanatory. Each can be used as an individual activity and/or a team activity. If
you chose either one as a team activity, after the individuals complete the self assessment, ask the
individuals to share with their teams the results. Each team is to identify some common denominators and
implications to managerial practice. Next, you can have a class discussion when each team representative
shares the teams ideas.

Note for a mini lecture and possible sessions outlines on the psychodynamics of human behavior
and exploration of various psychological approaches to personality (matches the slides provided)

The time allocated for this topic seems to vary from one to three sessions. Regardless of the overall time
allocation for the topic we have found that mixing the experiential activities with mini lectures seems to
work best. If you have only one session for the topic we usually start with a short introductory mini
lecture and move into one of the diagnostic instrument-based activities and back into a more indep mini
lecture on the topic. We usually start the session with a broad overview. We have used either slide 2 OR
slide 5 to serve this purpose. If you chose to use slide 2, the following is a possible explanation of the
diagram (figure 4-3):
a. Usually, to understand somebody’s behavior, or even our own, we assume we just need to
understand what they think (cognition)
b. But to get a deeper understanding, we need to know what shapes their thinking (perception,
motivation, emotion). At the origin, lies the unconscious, which evolves through
time/experience (personal AND collective), in diverse worldviews (typology of it). A
certain type of reflection can evolve worldviews. We are going to see:
i. Different views of the unconscious (Freud and Jung)
ii. Summarize key contributions made by other prominent psychoanalysts
iii. Summarize different models of human development elaborated in developmental
psychology
iv. Connect the dots: how does this all matters?

Again, if you have only one session for the topic this is a good time for an experiential-based activity (i.e.
Activity 4-2 OR 4-4W OR 4-5W OR 4-7W. We have provided a comprehensive set of slides for those
that are using the MBTI, slides 20-45 with a comprehensive session layout.

Next we usually provide a short indepth lecture on psychoanalytical thought, the unconscious, defense
mechanisms, and important influences in our childhood and adolescence (Freud, Jung, Adler, Melanie
Klein, Winnicott, Frankl) (20-30 min)
c. Freud: Ask them to define for me the id, ego, and superego (to check their understanding)
i. The id develops when the infant is not aware of otherness: absolute gratification of
his/her needs
ii. The ego: awareness of others with their needs (and arbiter between ego and id): tell the
story of little girl in Cambodia.
iii. Superego: moral instance, internalized social rules
iv. Talk about neurosis vs. psychosis (overemphasis on superego or id in sexual
development)

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 v. Ask them to define a few of the defense mechanisms listed: displacement, projection, and
rationalization (say they were elaborated upon by Ana Freud, Sigmund’s daughter)

d. Jung:
i. Disagreed with Freud about overemphasis on sexual development
ii. Disagreed with Freud that unconscious is just repressed fantasies, and religion a
collective neurosis
iii. Ask them to define for me the different parts of the Jungian unconscious (to
check their understanding)
1. Persona: social mask
2. Shadow: all potentials in there, mostly scary ones (violence,
inappropriate desires, etc…)
3. Anima/animus: other gender’s qualities repressed and projected onto
loved one (images of the goddesses and the gods, or heroines and heroes)
4. Archetypes: mythical symbols and motifs of universal significance
iv. Psychological issues, but also lack of meaning come from divorce between
conscious life and unconscious life (including archetypal motifs in our lives)
v. Goal of psychoanalysis is individuation and integration of various parts of the
psyche (holding the opposites)

e. Alfred Adler: when children, we are dependent upon our parents for everything, which makes us
feel inferior in some way or another. Adult, we continue to find ways to rebuild our self-esteem
unconsciously by finding ways to address these feelings of insufficiency. We have to become
aware of this and resolve it with our adult outlook.

f. Carl Rogers can help us do that: unconditional regard for patient for them to develop
unconditional acceptance of themselves (also good for interpersonal helping and loving
relationships)

g. Melanie Klein: we all have to become the parent and cope with our mother’s (and father’s)
unresolved issues. We’re walking around working on problems that are not ours. We have to
discover what they are to free ourselves.

h. Victor Frankl: 2nd WW, concentration camp, psychology of meaning

Transition: explain that one’s worldview evolves with time and experience. Understanding how it
evolves, and having a typology of worldviews can facilitate the understanding of others (in the chapter,
they have a few trait-theories that can help them categorize others better)

Next we explore theories of adult development

i. Psychological development happens in stages, in a punctuated equilibrium fashion (series of

radical shifts in worldview)

j. This has been particularly observed in children (developmental psychology), but also adults (but
the shifts happen slower), in particular those who keep growing their whole life (Gandhi,
Jesus, Buddha, etc…)

k. Describe Kohlberg’s 3 broad stages of moral development in children

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 i. At first, no sense of the existence or importance of others (selfish, self-centered point of
view): what’s moral is what I can get away with
ii. Then, conventional point of view (need is acceptance): do what others do.
iii. Develop a relativistic point of view, and keep need of acceptance in check: more
universal moral stances (if cool kids tease the nerd, I can realize it’s absolutely
wrong, despite my need for acceptance)

l. Wilber:
i. Documents various stages that people seem to go through (for their whole worldview).
ii. Only a few reach the highest stages
iii. We can always regress to lower levels under stress
iv. We can be unevenly developed in different arenas (intelligence, sensori-motor, psycho-
sexual, relational, etc…)
v. To know more:
1. Read the article I put on blackboard
2. Read "A brief history of everything", Wilber

Last we discuss practical conclusions:

* Possibly, goal of life is to keep growing to highest levels of development and helping others
do so
* Each time you grow to another level, you die to yourself. Dream analysis, and attentiveness
to your emotions helps you navigate the paradigm shift.
* As you grow to higher stages, you become a better leader and manager
* To cope with, motivate and manage others, you need to understand where they are on the
scale of development

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Answers to the study questions that appear at the end of the Module

1. What are the three great blows in the history of Western thought?
Answer: The first one was cast by Galileo, who demonstrated that the Earth was not the center of
the universe. The second blow was cast by Darwin, whose theory of evolution undermined the
notion that humans have a special place in the animal world: man simply evolved from other
species. Freud cast the third blow to the Cartesian image that men have of themselves: we are not
even in control of our own mind.

2. Can you cite evidence that supports the notion of an unconscious?

Answer: Neurobiologists have found evidence that the human brain is composed of three
superimposed brains. The two lower-level brains constitute biological evidence of the
unconscious because they control processes that are for the most part unconscious. Cognitive
psychologists have also found evidence that supports the notion of an unconscious. Reality is
frighteningly complex, and people have limited mental capacities. The unconscious is what
allows us to do so.

3. Compare and contrast Freud and Jung’s models of the human psyche.
Answer: Jung believes that in addition to a personal unconscious, which is similar to Freud’s
unconscious, we have a “collective unconscious”, in which “archetypes” are stored. Archetypes
are innate, universal prototypes for ideas that have evolved throughout human history in our
struggle for meaning, and which we inherit, like a psychological DNA. The Jungian unconscious
is thus wider than the Freudian unconscious because it includes it plus the collective unconscious.

4. Can you find examples in which friends, families, acquaintances, or even you yourself have
unconsciously used a defense mechanism? Which one was it? Can you identify the threatening
feelings or realizations that this defense mechanism was protecting your ego from?

5. According to Argyris, how does defensiveness reduce effectiveness at work, and how can this be
prevented?
Answer: Defensiveness prevents people from learning the lessons they most benefit from
learning, and engaging in double-loop learning. Defensiveness is a natural phenomenon that is
very difficult to overcome. Trying to be aware of one’s defensiveness, and possible tracking
which defense mechanism one is using can help one be less defensive. Consulting with trusted
allies and asking them to be truthful can also help.

6. How does human development happen? Describe two theories that illustrate it.
Answer: Human development happens in successive, nested, hierarchically organized stages.
Piaget’s theories of the development of intelligence in children, and Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development are examples of this. Freud’s view of how we develop from the id, to the ego, to the
superego can also be used as an example.

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 7. Can you analyze a dream you have had by making associations, and identifying mythical symbols
or themes?

8. How do past experiences influence our present?

Answer: By shaping your worldview: students may want to refer to activity 4-1.

9. What are the differences between an extrovert and an introvert? Is it always better to be an
extrovert?
Answer: An individual is extroverted and attends more to the outer world of things and people or
else is introverted and attends more to the inner world of the experience (a private world of ideas,
principles, values, and feeling). Both tendencies are equally healthy: it is not better to be an
extrovert.

10. What are the 5 dimensions of the Big Five?

Answer: The Big Five factors (and prototypical characteristics for each factor) are extroversion
(sociable, talkative, assertive, ambitious, and active); agreeableness (goodnatured, cooperative,
and trusting); conscientiousness (responsible, dependable, able to plan, organized, persistent, and
achievement oriented); adjustment/emotional stability (calm, secure, and not nervous); and
openness to experience (imaginative, sensitive, and intellectual).

11. What is emotional intelligence?

Answer: EI is defined as the ability for an individual to know one’s emotions, manage them,
motivate one’s self, recognize emotions in others, and manage relationships with others.

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MODULE 5
Motivation

Module Overview
Motivation theories can be fitted into a variety of managerial viewpoints and can be classified in
many ways. Motivation is a core concept that applies at all levels of effectiveness in the framework
of the course (individual, small group, intergroup, and organizational), and a central topic of OB
about which there is considerable controversy. In this module, we classified motivation theories as
either content or process. Three content theories—Maslow’s need hierarchy, Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene, and McClelland’s achievement—and three process theories—expectancy,
equity, and goal setting—are discussed. Critical aspects of motivation such as the group influence
on individual motivation, the relationship between the human organization and motivation, and
frustration and their effect on motivation are explored. The last section is devoted to some specific
managerial implications and programs to influence individual motivation at the workplace.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Appreciate the complex nature of motivation at work.
2. Gain insight into some managerial viewpoints of motivation.
3. Explain and apply basic theories of motivation.
4. Gain insights into your own motivation patterns.
5. Identify some basic managerial and organizational actions that can foster individual motivation.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 5–1: Motivation to Work
Introduction
Managerial Viewpoints on Motivation
Traditional Viewpoint
Human Relations Viewpoint
Human Resources Viewpoint
Alternative Clusters of Motivational Theories
Theoretical Viewpoints on Motivation
The Role of Needs in Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
McClelland’s n Achievement and n Power
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
The Role of Equity in Motivation
The Role of Goals and Expectations
Goal Setting Theory
Expectancy
The Role of Context in Motivation
The Role of Rewards in Motivation
Porter-Lawler Theory
Linking Theory and Managerial Practice
Alienation at Work
The Process of Demotivation
Management by Objectives
Profit-Sharing Plans
Skill-Based Pay
Pygmalion and Motivation
Behavior Modification
Motivation in Work Teams

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International Viewpoint on Motivation Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 5–2: The Slade Plating Department Case
Activity 5–3: Alternative Courses of Managerial Action in the Slade Plating Department
Activity 5–4: Motivational Analysis of Organization’s-Behavior (MAO-B)

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 5–5W: Motivation through Goal Setting
Activity 5–6W: Reinforcement Theory

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on:
* Segment design.
* Notes on mini-lecture outlines
* Activity 5-1—Motivation to Work
* Activity 5-2—Case Study—The Slade Plating Company Case
* Activity 5-3—Alternative Courses of Managerial Action in the Slade Plating Company Case
* Activity 5-4— Motivational Analysis of Organization-Behavior (MAO-B)
* Activity 5-5W—Motivation Through Goal Setting
* Activity 5-6W-Reinforcement Theory.
* An Additional Activity 5-7IM - RESPONSES TO FRUSTRATION.

Session Design
The module provides a variety of options in the design of the teaching module. For one two-hour
session, the following designs have worked well: 1. Individuals are to read the module and prepare
the “The Slade Plating Company Case” (Activity 5-2) prior to the class session; Introduction to the
module; Activity 5-1 in class; mini-lecture about Motivation; class case discussion about the case
(Activity 5-1). 2. Students are to read the module, prepare “The Slade Plating Company Case” and
complete the first task in Activity 5-3 prior to the class session; introduction to the module; Activity
5-1; completion of Activity 5-3; mini-lecture; and Activity 5-4.

For two two-hour sessions, the following seems to work well: For the first session, the presession
preparation should be Activities 5-2 and 5-3, and the class session can start with a short
introduction, Activity 5-1, Activity 5-2, mini-lecture, and end with Activity 8-3. For the second
session, the presession activity could be Activity 5-4 and the class session can start with Activity 5-
5W (Motivation Through Goal Setting), Activity 5-4 (Motivational Analysis of Organization
Behavior), and mini-lecture.

Activity 5-1: Motivation to Work

The module begins almost immediately with an activity, maintaining emphasis on participants’
experience as important data for learning. The activity parallels Herzberg’s experiment (described
in Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, The Motivation to Work, 2d ed., New York: Wiley, 1959).
Students frequently have many of Herzberg’s dissatisfier items on their lists of factors that account
for their best performance, along with the motivator items. There seem to be at least two reasons
for this: first, their jobs have frequently been at the beginning level where they have not had the
opportunity to experience the motivators such as independence, creativity, challenge, etc.; secondly,
some have the work-ethic view that, no matter what the work is, they are going to do their best and

125
be proud of their efforts. Also, some of the dissatisfier factors do give job satisfaction to some
degree.

The second important item for discussion concerns the impact of frustration. If people do have
needs for motivators which they cannot satisfy, their frustration can be very great. Herzberg
emphasized apathy as one consequence of frustration; but, particularly for the skilled and educated,
the frustration at being unable to use talents on the job can be still more serious. An extreme
example is to be found in those involuntarily unemployed for significant lengths of time:
depression, alcohol and drug abuse, physical and psychological stress, increased incidence of
divorce and family problems are all being widely reported by social workers as consequences of
unemployment. While our culture places especially heavy demands on males to self-identify by
occupation, any working adult who is unemployed or seriously underemployed (working in a job
well beneath his or her qualifications) can feel demeaned and depressed. Another example would
be the college graduates placed in a menial or trivial job “to learn the business”—a not infrequent
practice used by companies and supervisors to “break in” the new employee and convince that
person that they still have learning to do. The resulting unhappiness can be seriously demotivating.

You can pull the students input via a discussion around the following question. What is the
difference between job enrichment, job enlargement, job rotation, and job simplification?

Job enrichment: Is making the job a more enriching experience for the individuals by providing it
with more of the motivators.

Job enlargement: Adding tasks to a job so the individual may have greater variety, e.g. instead of
just doing the dishes, you can do dishes, silverware, and pans.

Job rotation: Changing from job to job over time to relieve boredom.

Job simplification: Breaking job down to its simplest component parts and assigning each part to a
separate person on the assumption that more can be accomplished with just a simple, repetitive task.

All of the above can be meaningfully used under some conditions. (We will explore some of the
issues of work design in more depth in Module 13.) However, Herzberg’s conclusion is that the
latter three, which are traditional methods of work design, have been misused since they turn most
people off and do not improve, and often reduce, productivity. Job enrichment in contrast taps into
the motivators so that the individual derives motivation from the nature of the work.

An example of job enrichment would be as follows: In an insurance office, one group of people
deals with customers and obtains information for contracts, a second set of people types up
contracts, and a third keeps the files up on the customer accounts. The second and third groups are
apt to become turned off, while the first may like their jobs. When the job is first set up, design it
so that one person is responsible for all three activities. The individual is challenged by the contact
with the customers, but also by the responsibility for the entire account, thus the lesser tasks are
seen as part of the job. The result is all persons filling the job like it.

Another alternative is to pull the students input via Maslow’s Hierarchy. We find students have
heard of Maslow’s hierarchy so many times that it is not wise to dwell upon it in class. They
sometimes groan when the topic is introduced, until they are told it is going to be used as a tool of
analysis—something they have not done before, and something they seem to enjoy doing. If you

126
feel your students need additional input, one of the best succinct accounts can be found in the
classic McGregor version.*

The Utility Value of Motivation Theory

Worth emphasizing here is goal-setting which we have made a primary subject of this book for both
individuals and organizations. Also worth highlighting is role motivation theory, certainly not a
usual topic in OB texts. Yet, the systematic attempt to place individuals in jobs for which they are
most suitable is obviously a payload area of motivation.

Activity 5-2: Case Study—The Slade Plating Company

It is an advantage for the students to have read Module 5, Motivation, before they complete this
case; however, it is not necessary if the assignment schedule gets too packed. It is important that
they know the hierarchy of needs, and specifically how it can be used to analyze the Operational
Blueprint factors. When assigning this case, you should review the Script and Actor method of
analysis and the value of this scheme for managers.

The following is a “school solution” analysis of the “Examination.” Students have the greatest
problem with Item 2, which they frequently analyze with the data they learn on the Sarto group. It
is well to point out in advance that this should be made from the viewpoint of the Script factors
only, as if the company was just being started and no Actors were yet employed. This permits a full
realization of the high potential for frustration in this system. In items 4 and 5, they will realize the
power of the emergent role system, developed by the Actors, in overcoming the frustrations and
creating satisfactions.

Examination on “The Slade Plating Company”

Operational Blueprint Analysis

1. What background factors are important for understanding the emergent role system that
developed in the plating room? Make a list, in the space provided below, of only those specifically
mentioned in the case, e.g., Slade was not unionized. (You do not have to give reasons for each
factor but be prepared to do so if called upon.)

External Factors
Sales volume high.
Large recurrent orders fluctuating with business conditions.
Higher pay scale outside than in company.

Internal Factors
Nonunion.
Loose management.
12 hour day—7:00 to 7:00.
Spatial arrangements in plating room.
Difficult working conditions.

*
McGregor, D. M., “The Human Side of Enterprise.” Management Review, vol. 46, no. 11
(November 1957).

127
2. The required system can be understood from the description in Exhibit 3 and in the text
explaining it. Assume that all you know about the plating room operations is the important
background factors listed in 1 above, including this required system; make your prediction as to
what satisfactions and frustrations would be experienced by the workers in the plating room. Note:
Include also any inferences you can draw from Exhibit 1. Do this by commenting on each level of
the hierarchy of needs in the space provided below.

Potential Frustrations Potential Satisfactions

High potential.
Few if any apparent
opportunities for SA Low.
self actualization.
Some skills requirements.
The 2nd highest prestige group
Esteem in company.

High potential.
Low interaction
requirement. Social Low.
Too noisy to talk.
Predictable working
conditions.
Safety Steady job.

High potential.
Routine and uncomfortable
working conditions. Physiological Pay.

Character of the Actors

3. On Exhibit 6, the various subgroups are shown which developed in the plating room. The Sarto
and Clark subgroups are the two most important. What are some of the factors or characteristics
that probably account for group membership in each subgroup? That is, there are certain
similarities of the members within a group and certain differences between the two subgroups. Use
Exhibits 4 and 5 as your source of data in making your analysis. Make a list of your answers in the
appropriate spaces below:

Sarto Subgroup
Italians and relatives.
High skills and high training.
Functionally and spatially interrelated in work.
Mixed on age, education and marriage.

Clark Subgroup
Non-Italian, Anglo-Saxon.
Medium skills and training.
Functionally and spatially interrelated.
22-29 years of age.
Mostly single.
All high school graduates.

128
Actors Playing Their Roles
4. Make a complete list of the norms of the emergent role system that developed in this case.
(Use the Sarto group norms, since they seem to determine the behavior of the other subgroups).

1. Punch-in/punch-out system “day’s work.”

2. Stay until 7:00 p.m. when load is heavy.
3. High productivity.
4. Best place to work-security.
5. Did not want union.
6. Carry a guy like Herman Schell.
7. Hard work respected, e.g., Pearson.
8. Innovation, craftsmanship; train new people well.
9. Exclude nonconformist from group.
10. Socializing-lunches, outside gathering.

5. In what way did the norms of the emergent role system meet the needs of the workers? Indicate
by commenting on which norms fulfilled needs at each level of the hierarchy.

Hierarchy Satisfaction of Need

Self Actualization Innovations in their craft, high standards.

Esteem Craftsman skills; productivity accomplishment; self-directing work system,

control over the system; high status of Sarto group, medium for Clark group.
Feelings of power can be assumed.

Social Well-established and active socializing.

Safety Control over the work and the work system; best place to work. Feelings of
power can be assumed.

Physiological Some control over pay; adequate pay.

The above represents a well-organized, cohesive, powerful human organization or emergent role
system providing for productivity and satisfaction that hardly would have been predicted from the
Script factors alone. If management does not guide, mold, and influence the actors in the
development of the actor system, the actors will do so on their own.

Activity 5-3: Alternative Courses of Managerial Action in the Slade Case

Plans B and C: For teams following the team development orientation which includes four outside
team meetings, this is another major outside activity. Since the teams have so few outside
meetings, and since these are necessary to generate enough team dynamics for the members to have
sufficient data upon which to make a group analysis, emphasize that they should plan on at least

129
two hours for this purpose. Also, they are to turn in a one page summary of their results as
indicated in the activity instruction. They also are to turn in attendance sheets. If you don’t do this,
they are inclined to assign the task to one or two members and the rest bug out. (At the end of the
course, they always say required attendance is the only way to go, and they are glad to have had the
extensive group experience.)

Discussing the Alternatives in Class: As with all case studies there are no right or wrong solutions.
But we can always fall back on our old criteria of consequences in trying to select a course of
action.

Have each spokesperson for the Mr. Porter (Alternative 1) groups list the elements of their solutions
on the board. To save time, have them all do this at the same time. Then have each spokesperson
explain these elements. Tell the class not to make evaluating comments on what is being presented
until they have heard all reports, but they can ask questions for clarification. Hold off class
discussion until the Sarto (Alternative 2) groups have boarded and given their reports. The two
alternatives have been introduced to increase the opportunity for student insight. In previous
editions, only the Mr. Porter views were presented. The majority of the time, teams did not take
into consideration the powerful Sarto emergent system. Their solutions were mainly autocratic,
clamping down and telling the workers what to do, but they did usually propose wage increases.
With the Sarto group’s views added to class presentation, more teams attempt to deal with the
emergent system, making the case more meaningful. Also, perceptual differences are brought out
well.

During the discussion, the following points are usually brought out. Management has given up
considerable control of its operation to the Sarto group. The Sarto group has a lot of power and
autonomy (n-power motivation) and is not likely to give it up willingly, particularly when this
motivation is reinforced by their control over pay. Also, wages are low compared with other
factories in the region. Any unilateral action by management in which strong supervision is
undertaken for the purpose of having the employees work hard for twelve hours a day will in all
likelihood meet with resistance. Sarto’s group could undertake to unionize the plant. So the
probability is that management would be best off by negotiating with the employees, presumably
the Sarto group, unless they put the workforce on an eight-hour day with a pay rate that permits
earnings to be equivalent to the present twelve hours. (We don’t have sufficient data to explore
this).

Some Mr. Porter (Alternative 1) teams propose that no action be taken. Since everything is going
so well at Slade, and the workers are well satisfied, why “fix it when it isn’t broken.” They assume
that maybe management knows all about the punch-in-punch-out system and couldn’t care less.

Questions for Class: Should management take any action? Why try to fix what is working well?

Answer: Management does not have good control over this system. It is entirely possible in a
highly competitive market that management would need more control if external conditions change.
Timing would of course be important, but why wait for a crisis?

In bringing this into perspective at the conclusion, use the three criteria for evaluating the
consequences we introduced in the text: productivity, worker satisfaction, and organizational
health. Of course you could have given them the requirement of applying these criteria to their
solutions when you made the assignment of Activity 5-3. We usually do not because a wider range
of possible solutions emerges when they have less guidance.

130
In your wrap up, emphasize again that there is no right or wrong answer, that there may be a
number of solutions that would work. Even a highly autocratic approach might work if all the
conditions were right. Certainly, the autocratic solutions have been successful on many occasions.
Particularly in hard times people often feel they are fortunate to have work, so they keep their
mouths shut and work hard. What is going on now between labor and management under
conditions of international competition? Certainly there are many attempts being made for
management and labor to pull together, each side to give up something, in an attempt to preserve
our markets, our jobs, productivity, our standard of living and quality of life. Participation has been
a part of this.

Voting on Best Solution—Introduce a little more pressure on the naturally existing rivalry among
teams by asking: “Assuming you think your own team’s solution was best, whose solution was next
best? Show hands.” We are approaching the module on intergroup dynamics; this adds to the
motivational base for understanding it.

Team Papers: Sometimes we have forgotten to hand back team solutions with our comments.
Teams sometimes get upset about this. If the team really put time on the solution, they want your
views on how well they did—and they often think they did better than other teams. However, they
tend to become defensive and turned off if they are graded less than A or if your comments are too
judgmental. Therefore, we list the strengths on each paper and also say where it could have been
stronger in considering certain factors. As long as the team seems to be involved and committed to
the activity, we try to maintain a supportive relationship that will encourage continued involvement.
Of course, if the team did a poor job by not giving anything but superficial attention to the task, this
should be confronted—at times a meeting with a specific team to discuss performance is necessary.

Activity 5-4: Motivational Analysis of Organization-Behavior (MAO-B)

The MAO-B Instrument is meant to provide individuals a profile of motivational aspects of role
behavior. It is important to note that there are no right and wrong answers and like any other paper
and pencil instrument needs to be examined in a larger context of individual knowledge. We ask
students to respond to the instrument as if they were in managerial positions in an organization.
The administration and the scoring of the instrument are self-explanatory. The scores can be
discussed to show motivational trends of the students.

Since the instrument is an advanced development of McClelland’s theory, in the discussion the
instructor can use the scores to further explore the process theories of motivation while comparing
them to the content theories. You can use the discussion in the textbook at the basis for your mini-
lecture.

Activity 5-5: Motivation through Goal Setting

A rich variety of experience arises in the classroom activity. Dyads frequently achieve a goal-
setting mode. For some dyads there is bewilderment since they did not have time to resolve
differences. However, the instructor can pull out of the experiences of the class members the
following learning points for the final summary:

1. Managing individuals according to their individual differences.

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The most basic issue involved is fair treatment. As soon as a manager tries to handle each
individual according to his/her needs and abilities, some will believe others are getting preferential
treatment. Further, individual interviews such as Birch is using add to the possibility of rivalry,
perceptual, distortion, etc., since the boss may be seen as colluding with an individual (what we are
frequently referring to in this text as using one-to-one instead of one-to-all management).

2. Birch’s actions before or during the meeting that could have prevented or alleviated the
problem.

a. Birch should have informed the employees in a meeting that decisions would have to be made
on the scarce resources or opportunities available and not everyone would be able to achieve what
they desired when formulating their goals. Every effort would be made to be fair and would give
everyone a full hearing before announcing decisions. (One mistake was to approve plans of
individual employees like Stage before all employees had been interviewed.) Birch’s decisions
would not make all happy but it was Birch’s responsibility as a manager to determine who received
what opportunity.

b. During the interview with King, Birch needs to be cool and keep from becoming defensive
since it appears from the role description that King is rushing in during the heat of anger for what
may appear to be a confrontation. Birch should let King express feelings and, calming King, try to
pin King down on what are specific goals at this time. Birch should try to turn it into a problem-
solving session to the degree possible.

3. King’s actions before or during the meeting that could have prevented or alleviated the
problem.

Comment: Discussion questions can be selected to emphasize either students’ experience in the
exercise or the problem-solving approach (it is helpful to allow a set time for discussion of these
topics, and to announce the shift to question 5 in Task 3a, lest participants get wholly wrapped up
in the earlier questions. It is possible to allow discussion to run for substantially longer, to explore
these issues [particularly useful with older and more experienced participants]).

Having Birch groups and King groups respond individually helps to highlight different
perspectives, although it also takes time to develop them. Having the role-play “rerun” after
discussion can help solidify participants’ insight into how to improve the situation. “Freezing the
action” to have commentary or advice from the rest of the class to the role players can also help.

a. King should never have assumed an understanding existed about being appointed to the liaison
position. (Some assumptions are frequently embarrassing instances of “wishful thinking,”
especially if the boss meant only that King might be considered). King is competing with other
young professionals, and must decide on goals and make these known to the boss. No one can
assume that the boss can read minds to understand subordinate needs. King’s self-perception and
self-assignment of abilities and behavior, and King’s perceptions of Stage may differ significantly
from those of the boss. In other words, what happened might be King’s own fault, because of
passive rather than aggressive behavior. Stage did not wait, but got in early to seek personal goals.
If King’s views had been made known to Birch early on (assuming an acceptable way could be
found), this might not have happened.

b. King should never have rushed in to an interview with Birch, but should have “cooled it” at
least until the next day to have more perspective and less emotion when talking to Birch.

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c. Now that this has happened, King had better figure out what is needed in planning before
approaching Birch. To rush in without being prepared for problem solving, leaves the boss in the
position of saying, “Sorry, come back when you are ready to talk.” (Note: Students often do not see
the mistakes King is making, and put the blame on Birch, which is one thing that makes this a good
learning activity.)

Feelings of Guilt versus Blaming the Other Guy: During the discussion, those playing Birch
sometimes say they felt defensive when King seemed to be making the accusation of bad
management practices. Frequently the word guilt will be used, while others say they blame King
for the whole problem. Do a little perceptual checking at some point by asking for a show of hands
as to how many Kings felt guilty and how many blamed the other guy. Get some views from each
group to get some insight into defensiveness and the direction it takes. Is there a difference in the
sexes as to the number which felt guilty or blamed the other guy? If so, explore this with them.
What is a good way for handling your own defensive feeling? How can you be less defensive
(personal growth topics)? Perceptual checking is helpful in that it shows how widespread these
feelings are and participant ideas on handling them are often good.

Attribution Theory: The differences in male-female perceptions for those playing Birch as to what
the cause was of King’s reactions to the way the goal-setting program was managed is a good place
to talk about attribution theory—that is, to what do people attribute the cause of an event or
behavior? This will fit in well with the next module on perception and future activities on
male/female relationships. Aronson describes it as follows:

Attribution theory deals with the rules most people use in attempting to infer the causes of behavior
they observe. The theory also deals with the different kinds of events that produce different kinds
of attribution. In general, we tend to attribute our own blunders to the situation in which we find
ourselves; conversely, we attribute other people’s blunders to some personality defect or lack of
ability in that person.*

Male/female differences in attribution have been studied and it appears women learn early in life to
derogate their successes, while males attribute their successes to their own abilities. The effect of
this on performance may be that men encountering failures try harder, while women lessen the
attempt to overcome the failure. For instance, supposing a tennis player loses a best-of-three sets
by 6-2. A male experiencing this may conclude the other guy was lucky, therefore he should try
harder. A female experiencing this may think she is not as skilled as her opponent. Aronson
reports on a research study which would support these assumptions:

Here comes the interesting part: The attributions a player makes about their failure in the first set
may, in part, determine their success in subsequent sets. That is, men may try harder to “come from
behind” and win the next two sets and the match. However, women may “give up,” thus losing the
second set and the match. This is, in fact, what happens. In another study, the outcomes of 19,300
tennis matches were examined. In those matches where a player lost the first set, men were more
likely than women to come back and win the second and third sets. Women were more likely to
lose a match in straight sets. This phenomenon occurs even among professional tennis players—
players who surely regard themselves as talented and able.

What is the implication of the attribution tendency reported in the above research? If women are
aware of this tendency they can prepare themselves to avoid it.

*
E. Aronson, The Social Animal (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, Fourth Edition, 1984,
p. 232.

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Behavior Modification—A Classroom Demonstration
The general idea of behavior modification theory based upon Thorndike’s Law of Effect is that
behavior that leads to positive consequences tends to be repeated, while that leading to neutral or
negative consequences tends not to be repeated. A classroom demonstration of shaping behavior by
positive reinforcement is as follows: One participant is selected as the subject to be shaped and is
sent from the classroom. The class agrees upon a sequence of acts which they would like the
participant to perform upon returning to the classroom, e.g., cross the room and take a paper out of
the wastebasket, go to the blackboard and write his or her name, climb upon the instructor’s chair
and on to the desk. When the participant is called in he or she is given no instructions, the class
members merely rap their knuckles on the desk as long as he or she is moving in the direction of the
wastebasket. As soon as the participant stops or moves in a direction not leading to the
wastebasket, the class members stop rapping. This technique generally “shapes” the behavior
decided upon as the subject goes through the sequence.

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Activity 5-7IM: Additional Activity: Responses to Frustration

Objectives
a. To help you understand human responses to frustration.
b. To consider the consequences of the effects of frustration in the work situation.

Task 1: Working alone, jot down as many ways you can think of that individuals respond to
frustration or behave under pressure in work situations. Give an example of how you related to a
specific experience. (Time: five minutes.)

Task 2:

a. Teams elect spokespersons.

b. Each team compiles a list of reactions agreed upon by the team and gives examples to support
this wherever possible. (Time: 15 minutes.)
c. The Instructor will call upon spokespersons, one at a time, to name one way individuals
respond to frustration. These are to be written on the board. Examples should be given for
clarification. This should be continued until all teams contributions are listed.
d. The instructor will give a short lecture on this subject.

Notes on the additional activity: Responses to Frustration

Before proceeding with this activity, you should make a decision as to how you want to cover the
topic of frustration. We follow the textbook instructions; at the conclusion we pick up with Task 2d
and present the following lecture material:

a. Motivation can be considered as psychological energy directed toward a goal. When a barrier
intercedes, the frustration and stress can be responded to in a variety of ways:

Barrier
Withdrawal
Apathy

Psychological
Energy Goal
Possessiveness
Distrust
Substitute
Aggression Goal
Anger

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b. Among the responses to frustration are the following:*

1. Finding ways around the barrier to achieve the goal (problem solving).
2. Finding a substitute goal.
3. Moving away—withdrawal, resignation, apathy.
4. Moving against—aggression, anger, resistance.
5. Moving toward—conformity, seeking reassurance.
6. Variability of behavior, reduced consistency, disorganized performance.
7. Rigidity, reduced flexibility, compulsiveness, fixation; responses become ends in
themselves.
8. Possessiveness.
9. Distrust, suspiciousness, paranoid reactions.
10. Reduced perceptual intake, increased stereotyping.
11. Defense mechanisms operating, e.g., displacement, projection, rationalization, denial,
fantasy.
12. Psychogenic illness from prolonged stress-fatigue, loss of appetite, ulcers, etc.
13. Tension release, such as laughter.

c. Moderate stress, under certain conditions, increases productivity.

d. Implications of the above for dysfunctional behavior in organizations. Some examples:

1. Threatening leadership can augment informal organizational and informal leadership

against management.
2. Lack of two-way, open communication can lead to feelings of distrust and possessiveness
as evidenced by the proliferation of CYA (Cover Your Ass) files in organizations.
3. Above types of problems can lead to perceptual distortion as discussed in Module 7.
4. Intergroup conflict is largely a response to frustration.

*
T. M. Costello and S. S. Zalkind, Psychology in Administration (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), pp. 123-90.

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Study Questions.
1. When the authors were preparing this text and creating the classroom workshop model, which
of the following viewpoints were they using: Horticultural, Engineering, or Human Resources?
Give reasons and illustration to support your answer.
Comment: All three. Building the learning community during the first four modules presumably
produced the hothouse culture within which the learning could be maximized. Engineering
pertained to the course design: providing three different course plans, sequencing exercises for both
the design of the text concepts and the team activities of Appendixes A and B, and using the
experiential learning sequence. The Human Resources viewpoint was used by including topics and
activities in the course which are relevant to the needs, abilities, goals, and interests of the students.
Skills development is the best example of this. The grading system also was designed to enhance
learning by the reward system: do well on the mid-terms and especially the term paper and you do
not have to take the final examination.

2. Compare and contrast between Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, McClelland’s and Herzberg’s
perspectives.
Comment: All three are viewed as being a part of the ‘content’ cluster of motivational theories. The
‘content’ cluster of theories focus on the factors that arouse, start or initiate motivated behavior. Yet
a closer examination reveals some distinct difference between the theories in terms of their
emphasis. Maslow emphasize the five basic human needs, McClelland focuses on the needs for
achievement, power and affiliation while Hertzberg focused on dissatisfiers and motivators
dimensions.

3. Your manager tells you Herzberg’s theory applies to himself and other managers he knows, so
his advice is to forget about other fancy theories of motivation. If your manager is the type of
person you can talk to, how would you respond?
Comment: His theory has “face” validity in that people think they want self-direction, challenge,
responsibility—all the good sounding things—but frequently find they do not when they have them.
Herzberg’s work has a research problem in that people recall all the good job experiences as arising
from their own efforts of responsibility, etc., but recall situations where they were less effective as
being due to something outside themselves—blame it on others. Another problem is
generalization—thinking the theory applies to everyone. Some people do not respond to the
motivators, are perfectly satisfied with a job that has only the dissatisfiers on the job design.
Motivation is a very complex subject and an organizational or individual problem has to be studied
from many perspectives.

4. Explain the unique added perspective of each of the role’s perspectives (i.e., needs, equity,
goals and expectations, context and rewards) to understanding the challenge of employee
dymotivations at work
Comment: This is a great review question that challenges the learner to explore at a deeper level the
distinctness of each of the perspectives and their added value. One can challenge the class to create
a comparative table that can capture in a visual way the essence of each theory.

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5. The discussion on leadership asked whether leaders are born or made. How would
McClelland’s and Eden’s work affect the answer to this question?
Comment: We did not try to resolve the question, but concluded for our purposes in this course that
most people can learn some leadership skills and behavior, for example, team skills. McClelland’s
research with achievement motivation supports this conclusion. Eden’s work on Pygmalion suggest
that leadership skills and competencies are learned.

5. Compare and contrast between one theory from each of the “role” clusters.

6. What is the basic management issue you encounter when you manage people according to their
individual needs, abilities, and experience? What are actions supervisors can take to manage
according to individual differences and still try to avoid the problems inherent in such an approach?
Comment: Fair treatment is the basic issue. Since needs vary, some people may get more of the
limited resources available than others—remember the exercise, “Motivation Through Goal
Setting.” Actions supervisors can take will of course depend upon their particular work situation.
However, managers must earn the trust of employees so they are assured of fair treatment. Policies
and practices should be open and well articulated to employees, and the open-dialoguing model of
Activity 2-1 should exist. Creating the right climate is important. Practices such as we commented
upon in connection with the participative decision-making exercise (how to be a facilitator if you
want employees to make decisions), are relevant as would be the practice of not passing out the
“goodies” in advance of all having a hearing, as was done in the “Motivation Through Goal
Setting” activity. Our old concept of one-to-all management rather than too much one-to-one is
foremost in preventing conflict and problems among employees.

7. If you were the Human Resources Manager of a large corporation and the Executive Officer
told you to prepare a report on installing an employee profit-sharing program, what are major topics
your report would have to include?
Comment: First, research should be done, or consultant services used, to determine what types of
profit-sharing programs exist and the conditions under which they are successful and not
successful. Lawler’s conclusion that the bonuses need to be tied in with the production of the small
unit with which the individual identifies would be important. Second, a feasibility study is needed
to decide if the program would work here. Third, a plan for implementation is needed. Fourth,
communication with employees concerning the program would provide some indication of what
facts had to be given attention. Presumably, employee participation in the plans and
implementation would be essential.

8. Explain the phrase, “Motivation is culture-bound.”

Comment: We cannot assume the American culture motivation is identical with all other cultures.
Even in the United States there are regional differences. Ideas like time, planning, and goals vary
in meaning with different cultures. In the module we mentioned that the word achievement is
hardly translatable from English into any other language.

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MODULE 6
Perception, Attribution and Values

Module Overview
Perception is the third major core concept that is embedded within work-related belief and value
systems. The module begins with a short discussion of work-related belief systems and social
values at work. Values and belief systems influence the work behavior of individuals and trigger
differences in perception. Conversely, perceived congruence between belief systems and value
systems seems to effect work-related relationship. We argue that perception is also influenced by
physiological, psychological and past experience. Left-brain and right-brain dominance may
account for differences in professional viewpoint, with many executives being right-brain
intuitive, while accountants and planners are more apt to be left-brain rational. Motivation at the
subconscious level would appear to contribute to behaviors in organizational life; examples
would be those exhibiting groupthink, denial, rationalization and cognitive dissonance. The
dysfunctional effect of stereotyping is contrasted with the positive aspects of the Pygmalion
effect. Major problems of perception are found in differences that exist between managerial
levels of the hierarchies and among functional units. Awareness of the dynamics of perception
and its impact upon organizational effectiveness is the place to begin in alleviation of inherent
problems. The experiential base for understanding the challenges associated with perception are
provided by a few optional activities. Last, we explore some action steps that manager can take to
overcome or reduce perceptual difference and distortions.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Appreciate the role of work-related values and belief systems in shaping individual
behavior.
2. Define and describe the perceptual process.
3. Understand your own perceptual process and barriers to accurate perception.
4. Describe how the attribution process influences perception and individual behavior.
5. Identify the basic managerial actions that can help overcome the barriers for accurate
perception.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 6-1: Values in Business
Activity 6–2: Exploring Perceptual Issues via Dan Dunwoodie’s Challenge
Introduction
Work-Related Values and Belief Systems
Belief Systems
Social Values
Perception and Perceptual Differences in Daily Life
The Perceptual Process
Physiological Factors
Past Experience
Psychological Factors
Stereotypes
Stereotype Threat
The Pygmalion Effect
Attribution Theory
Perceptual Challenges in Management
Reducing Perceptual Differences and Distortion

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Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 6–3: Mirroring Gender: Perceptual Exploration
Activity 6–4: Prejudices and Stereotyping

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 6–5W: Male–Female Interface on Women in Management

Teaching Notes
The module provides a variety of options in the design of the teaching module. For one two-hour
session the following designs have worked well:

1. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 6-2—Exploring perceptual issues via
Dan Dunwoodie’s Challenges—prior to the class session. The session can start with an
introduction to the module, Activity 6-1 (Values in Business), Activity 6-2, mini-lecture
perception and if time allows, Activity 6-3 (OR 6-4W) and class discussion.
2. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 6-2—Exploring perceptual issues via
Dan Dunwoodie’s Challenges—prior to the class session. The session can start with an
introduction to the module, Activity 6-2, mini-lecture perception, Activity 6-3 (OR 6-4W)
and class discussion.
3. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 6-2—Exploring perceptual issues via
Dan Dunwoodie’s Challenges—prior to the class session. The session can start with an
introduction to the module, Activity 6-2, mini-lecture perception, Activity 6-4 and class
discussion.
4. Individuals are to read the module prior to the class session. The session can start with an
introduction to the module, Activity 6-4, mini-lecture perception, Activity 6-5W and class
discussion.

This module includes notes on:

∗ Activity 6-1: Values in Business
∗ Activity 6-2: Exploring Perceptual Issues via Dan Dunwoodie’s Problem
∗ Activity 6-3: Mirroring Gender: Perceptual Exploration
∗ Two Opening Classroom Activities
∗ Comments on Opening the Lecture on Determinants of Perception
∗ Paradigms as an Additional Lecture Topic
∗ Right-Brain/Left-Brain Dominance Classroom Illustrations
∗ Comments on Alleviating Perceptual Problems
∗ Activity 6-4: Prejudices and Stereotyping
∗ Activity 6-5W: Male-Female Interface on Women in Management

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Activity 6-1: Values in Business
This activity can be used as either an in—or outside—class team assignment. If it is used as an
outside of class activity, the participants should be reminded that they should meet at a time when
all members can be present for at least a two-hour block of time. Both the team results and the
team attendance sheet (provided at the end of the module) are to be turned in at the next class
meeting. Unless this is done, some teams delegate the task to a couple of members who spend
little time on it. Students will usually respond well when they learn it is essential for full
attendance in order to accumulate data for their individual term papers.

Task 3: When the team representatives list the rank orderings on the blackboard, there is often a
marked contrast between teams. These represent differences in both the values of team members
and the way the listed values were perceived by the members.

Sometimes teams will say they answered the overall question from the standpoint of how a
business team would answer it, but most teams will have done the rank ordering of values from
the viewpoint of their own members. Among the latter group, an opportunity exists for you to
explore the contrasts. For instance, if the red team had ethics first and profits lower, while the
blue team had the reverse, interview each team during the class session to probe for the reasons
they arrived at their ratings. Ask about the background, experience, and interests of the team
members that might account for the differences.

Activity 6-2: Exploring Perceptual Issues via Dan Dunwoodie’s Problem

Although the objective indicates this is an activity in which the group is to define a problem, this
is only a secondary purpose of the activity. The primary purpose is to illustrate how perceptual
distortion enters into the rational problem-solving process required in the case study. The
secondary purpose, group definitions of problems, will be discussed after the perceptual aspects
have been covered.

Task 1: It is better for the instructor to read “Dan Dunwoodie’s Problem” out loud to the class
while they follow if the case was not assigned as homework. This assures all are done at the
same time; if they are permitted to read it individually at their own pace, some will finish early
and start talking, which interferes with the slow readers completing their preparation.

Task 2a: In listing the team definitions of the problem and then, afterwards, the causes, the
following will become evident: There will probably be several different problem statements, such
as “communication breakdown,” “the informal organization of Russ Marrywood, Elsie Eden, and
the old-timers, had blocked Dan,” “Dan had been insensitive to the needs of the employees and
was operating somewhat in the autocratic style, doing all the work himself,” “Roman’s leadership
style was indecisive.” There will also be several different statements of causes. However, after
both problems and causes are listed it becomes obvious that the two lists overlap a great deal.
One group will be saying that “communication breakdown” is the problem and the cause of this is
the “informal group is working against him” another team will say that the problem is the
“informal group” and the cause is the “communications breakdown.”

At this point the instructor should let the class wallow about in trying to figure out the difference
between problems and causes without coming to any conclusion or without helping them. After a
few minutes of this, move on to the consideration of what action Dan should take for the purpose
of seeing if this will throw any light on how problems and causes are defined. The action
proposals will include the following: “Dan should quit his own job since everything is stacked

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against him,” “He should get Russ and Elsie into a participative problem solving effort,” “He
should get his fellow branch chief, Carl Carlson, to help him out of this.”

Task 2b: Now that all the data is on the blackboard, it is time to address the question of what
criteria might be helpful in bringing some system and order into defining the problem, the cause
and the action. This discussion does not have to go on very long because the students usually
have difficulty coping with this, and are ready for some help. This can be brought into focus by
asking the following: “What should be the relationship between “action,” “problem,” and
“cause”? Finally there is some agreement, steered by the professor, that the action should be
clearly directed toward solving the problem and overcoming the causes.

School Solution: Some will finally suggest the following:

Problem: Dan cannot get the new computer program installed in his branch.

Cause: His boss has turned the proposal down for an unknown reason.

Action: Dan should return to his boss and ask for an explanation before deciding upon further
action.

Here the three elements are clearly interrelated and this sets aside for the time being the need for
speculation on the numerous other problems and causes. Since this case was based upon a similar
true incident, the professor can indicate what really happened. When the real Dan actually went a
few days later to his boss and asked if he could not have an explanation, he learned the following:
Roman had been told by his own boss on the Monday morning when Dan’s plans were canceled
that no more new computer programs were to be accepted for a short period because the company
was considering installing an entire new computer system. However, top management did not yet
want to announce what they were going to do until all decisions had been finalized, since it would
cause too much speculation among the employees. Although Roman was not supposed to pass
this information on to his subordinate, he did confide in Dan and asked him not to say anything to
the others for a few days. He assured Dan his program was excellent and would be installed,
which it was, in a new computer set up at a later date.

Point of the activity thus far: Most of the students and the teams produced “irrational”
conclusions as to what the problem and the causes were. It did not occur to them that there might
be some rational basis for Roman’s action of canceling Dan’s project. They developed many
“tentative working hypotheses” which were not substantiated when the final facts were known. It
is pointed out to the student that this is one disadvantage of behavior courses; students frequently
forget to think of the logical aspects to managerial decisions and speculate freely upon the
motivation and frustrations of the human system of the organization. Many of their working
hypotheses of the irrational behavior will be accurate; however, one needs to develop balance in
the realization that logic and objectivity often prevail. It is easy for us to draw “dirty pictures” by
then projecting our own needs, fears, and desires into what is going on, and even though the
speculations are sometimes borne out, the professional manager needs a sense of balance in
looking for both rational and irrational causes. John Roman knew the logic and rationality behind
his decision to cancel Dan’s project, but he overlooked the irrational speculations that would be
developed by his not giving appropriate reasons with the decision. Being insensitive to the
irrational factors of behavior can have serious consequences, but overlooking the rational or not
giving it sufficient weight can also have serious consequences.

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Activity 6-3: Mirroring Gender: Perceptual Exploration*

Activity Overview
This activity allows students to surface underlying assumptions concerning their own perceptions
of their gender as a group, and their assumptions concerning how the opposite gender group
views their own group. While the exercise does not ask each group to discuss their views of the
opposite group, through the report out and discussion each group can see how the other group
sees themselves, and how they think they are perceived by the opposite group members.

This activity is particularly effective in surfacing stereotypes, prejudices, and assumptions that we
all carry towards the opposite gender group. It also allows for differences within the groups to
surface, as not all women, for example, will see themselves as nurturing, or think that men see all
women as chatty. This can lead to a fruitful discussion of how we came to adopt these views, and
the differences and similarities in perceptions and behaviors among members of the same gender
group and across groups.

Learning Objectives
A. To heighten students’ awareness of their perceptions of themselves, their perceptions of
members of the opposite sex, and the perceptions of themselves by the opposite sex.
B. To elicit data for improved working relationships between the sexes.

Teaching Notes
At the beginning of this exercise it is important that a simple rule of trust be agreed upon by all
members of the group: the rule of anonymity. Students need to feel that if they are sharing their
sincere feelings with other members of the class, their contributions are anonymous. Students
may want to talk about the exercise and the data that we discovered, outside of class, and this
should be acceptable, as long as no one’s name is attached to any of the data. As students talk
about the exercise they are processing it in their own way, as they need to, and this should be
allowed to happen in a way that is safe for all.

This activity is best done with not more than 8 persons in each group. If the class is large, you
might have more than one group for each gender, that is, two groups of men and two groups of
women. It is not a problem if the numbers of groups, or the numbers of members in each group
are not the same. The reporting is best accomplished in the large group, with each group reading
from their notes on the flip chart or chalkboard, and hearing from all of the other groups. This
can also be time consuming if you have more than 4 groups, total, in which case you might ask
each group to read every other item on their list, making sure redundancies are noted but not
necessarily explained.

This activity can also be done with groupings other than by gender, if there are sufficient numbers
of students from each group in the class. For example, African-American students can get
together and talk about how they see themselves, and how they think the other group or groups
see them, and the other group(s) might be Latinos, Irish, Asian-American, etc. There can be
groupings by age, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, etc.

*
Contributed by Judith White.

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There is benefit in looking for themes in the students’ lists of responses. For example, there
might be a large cluster of adjectives that the male students have used to indicate that they think
women see or perceive men as having physical abilities or attributes, for example: strong,
mechanical, handy, athletic. Likewise, it may be that several of the ways women think men see
them tend to have negative connotations, such as chatty, catty, shops all the time, vain, overly
interested in appearance, etc. This can be noted and then discussed in the mini-lecture.

If more time is available, it is helpful for students to spend some time in dyads talking with a
partner about the origin of their perceptions of how they are and how they think the other group
sees them.

Notes for Potential Mini-Lecture

In the debriefing, discussion, and lecture following this activity it is important to acknowledge
and validate that we all have differences and similarities in how we see ourselves, how we think
others see us, and how we see others. This exercise gives students an opportunity to get inside
the head of the other students, to share their thoughts, fears, and concerns.

A short lecture can cover the topic of the origin of gender-based stereotypes, the perpetuation of
stereotypes, and what we can do to acknowledge and get rid of them. Another issue that is
important to cover is the pressure to be or live out the perceptions and stereotypes that others
have of us. For example, men can talk about the burden of being expected to fix cars and
mechanical things, or make money to support a family, while women can be encouraged to talk
about the oppressive nature of what it is like to have to be “nice” all the time, to feel obliged to
smile, be pleasant, kind, and lovely at all times with all people, and how and where they learned
these behaviors. In contrast, either group can talk about what it is like to behave against the
expected norms, for a women to publicly express her anger, or for a man to not be interested in
sports or cars or fixing things, and instead be interested in children, handicrafts, or nurturing
others. To surface the oppressive nature of these expectations and assumptions is a chance to
explore and gain validation for an alternative mode.

Additionally, students can be exposed to the wide variety of ways to express their gender. They
can be asked about personal heroes, highly regarded public figures, historical figures that provide
guidance for their lives. In this discussion, it may be uncovered that some of their true heroes or
heroines in fact do not have the culturally expected gendered behaviors or characteristics.

A fruitful area for lecture and discussion is how our perceptions of ourselves and others impact
our work in organizations, from recruitment to selection, to promotion, to everyday interpersonal
interactions, the formation of and reaction to leadership, etc. This in turn can lead to a discussion
of occupational segregation, by gender, race, etc. There is a large amount of data on this topic in
the area of occupational sociology.

There also is a growing literature on gender, differences and similarities, from the fields of
sociology, psychology, anthropology, and neurobiology. This material is readily available in
most libraries and bookstores, and students can be encouraged to read in this area.

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Classroom Opening Activities

Demonstration of How Expectations or Assumptions Determine Perception and

Perception is Selection
This module is not assigned to the student until after the professor has had a chance to lecture on
it in the classroom. The student will be fresh to the participants and they generally find it most
interesting. It is helpful to open the class sessions with short activities such as those below.
Draw the square matrix on the blackboard and ask people to call out how many squares they see.
Their responses will range from 1 to 30. There are: 1. square composing the entire outside frame,
16 single squares, 9 sets from the 2x2 groupings, and 4 from the 3x3 groups, totaling 30. The
point of the exercise is that many people had different initial perceptions and many did not see all
the possibilities until others pointed them out. Why? Difference in experience, ability,
orientation?

The figure can effectively be used in an individual-first, group-second exercise. Print the figure
on a 2x3 foot chart, or if you have a film projector screen above the blackboard, pull it down and
draw the three triangles and included phrases on the blackboard behind it. Tell the class you will
expose some figures to them for five seconds and do so. Have each individual draw his/her
version of what he/she saw (three minutes) and then have them do it in triads (five minutes).
Sometimes no one in the class will get it, but usually some piece together the correct version of
the chart. This does demonstrate how assumptions determine what is perceived and not
perceived. In this case, the expectation is that the articles “the” and “a” never appear in double
form.

Busy
as A
A Beaver

Snake Paris
in The in The
The Grass The Spring

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Source: W. V. Haney, Communications (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960), p. 7.

Introducing Lecture Material on Determinants of Perception

In using this material from the textbook, we like to talk about differences in individual perception
and the effect these have on interpersonal dialogue whether in the business world or in daily life.
You can start your talk by saying something like, “There are no two people in this room who are
experiencing what is going on right now in exactly the same way. We are all getting a little
different input and that input in being interpreted a little differently. What is the basis for me
making that statement? And if it is true, what are the implications for interactions between and
among people?” Using Figure 9-1, develop the determinants using many of your own examples.
Students love anecdotal material which illustrates the points. They are also fascinated with the
right-brain left-brain aspects of difference in perception. You can explore with the participants
how many feel they are primarily intuitive in orientation and how many feel logic and objectivity
are their primary outlooks. Also, how do the “intuitives” feel about the “topics” and vice versa.
Another area of particular importance is the defense mechanisms. Our defensive responses can
be a tremendous hindrance to our effectiveness. Personal growth techniques and managing stress
will be topics covered later in the text, and both relate to this subject. Incidentally, the assertive
behavior movement, or “assertiveness,” which you so often hear, includes as one assumption the
idea that being able to express your feeling in a way acceptable to others is an effective means of
controlling defensiveness.

Figure 9-1: Relationship between Factors Determining Perception That Are Internal to the
Individual and Those That Are in the External World.

Internal Factors External Factors

Physiological Physical Objects
Past Experience People
Psychological Motivation Social Interactions
Defense Mechanisms

High Percentage Low Percentage

of Influence of Influence

Paradigms as an Additional Lecture Topic

In addition to the conceptual material provided in the text, another aspect of perception that
affects the way people select and interpret data around them is the paradigm or mental model they
use. A paradigm is a structure of response, a type of logic with associated criteria and underlying
assumptions about the way the world works. In effect, a paradigm is a mental map of the world,
used to select and interpret information.

Numerous aspects of human communication derive directly from the way the mind works:
selecting some information and ignoring some, “completing the picture” on the basis of partial
information, and making simplifying assumptions in order to cope with the flood of sense stimuli
and cognitive information that surround us. An important point to make is that perception is
naturally concerned with selecting and organizing stimuli in order to make sense of the world: we
all do it, all the time, necessarily. Given this fact, potential exists for various dysfunctional
consequences. The perceptual errors that result include stereotyping, the halo effect, premature
closure, projection and denial (described in the text).

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In discussing this module with students, emphasize managerial implications and organizational
consequences. Most students are sensitized to discrimination issues, so these offer one useful
theme for discussion. A helpful endpoint is the recognition that some of what may look like
“discrimination” may well be stereotyping, halo, or premature closure resulting when people rely
on outdated expectations of others’ capabilities, interests, strengths or weaknesses. The massive
amounts of social change that have occurred during the last 10 years offer abundant grounds for a
wholesale rethinking of our attitudes and expectations, yet on a daily basis life must go on, and
we all process information relying on attitudes developed in the past.

Paradigms play a crucial role in human interactions as shaping frameworks for perception. The
key point here is that such paradigms contain a consistent logic, criterion set, and assumptions
about the world: within the paradigm, data is interpreted according to these guidelines.
Moreover, it is extremely difficult to transcend the logic of a paradigm and call its assumptions
and logic into question.

A good discussion question can be to have participants identify consistent paradigms they have
seen (religious views, the Boy Scouts’ philosophy and Marxism offer examples; there are more in
the text). Of particular interest for managers are paradigms that evolve around functional
specialties (accounting, finance, marketing, production). Another good question is, “What are the
managerial implications of that framework?” Particularly when several frameworks are explored,
the discussion of consequences can be very lively.

Differences of perception between different levels of hierarchy in organizations are both

predictable and problematic. The widespread existence of such differences (recall Birch and
King) should be underlined: both as subordinates and as managers, participants can expect to
encounter these issues. Since having an impact on others is the heart of managerial work,
awareness of these differences and sensitivity to handling them take on special importance.

Film: A classic film on perceptual differences is “Roshomon,” a Japanese film that recounts
events from several different perspectives. Particularly if art films are available in your area, this
film might be assigned as “homework” for students.

Film: “Visual Perception” (19 minutes, color, sound, 1959), Education Testing Service (Horizons
of Science Series). This is excellent to illustrate that assumptions determine what an individual
perceives in experiencing the physical world thus causing illusions. If this is true in viewing the
physical world, how great or how much greater distortion might be caused by assumptions on
social interactions? In the physical world, we are continually getting feedback such as when we
go through a doorway and (almost always) make it, thus receiving reinforcement driving an
automobile where feedback from the road is constant. In the social world the assumptions from
stereotypes or categorized ways of thinking seem to “work” but are frequently freezing out new
data which might change the assumptions. Self-fulfilling prophecies are an example.

Another excellent point in this film is the importance of mistakes in the learning process. A
young woman in the film knows cognitively, or intellectually that the Aims Box she is working
with is distorted and that the impression of it being square is an illusion. When she tries to extend
her arm and move a pointer stick from a point it is touching on one wall to a point on the opposite
wall, she cannot do it smoothly; her muscle system is still acting as if the box is square. The
intellectual knowledge does not get into her “golf swing,” her bodily movements, until she has
made mistakes and had time to practice. The value of mistakes in learning is an excellent point
for discussion since everyone is so concerned about making mistakes and looking bad. This cuts

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down risk-taking and the learning of new behavior. The young woman’s experience also
illustrates the importance of process learning as well as a content learning course.

Right-Brained/Left-Brained Dominance Classroom Illustrations

Students are fascinated with this area of study and wish to discuss it more. A classroom activity
that illustrates the simultaneous right and left brain functioning is as follows: Have the students
fix their eyes on a point straight ahead and hold their hands at arms length at their sides. Move
the hands back so they are not in sight and gradually move them forward to the point where both
are in the range of peripheral vision. Generally, the individual will be aware of about 180 degrees
of vision in all. Presumably, we are unconsciously aware of activities out in the peripheral areas
through our right brain and through the left brain we are consciously aware of what our eyes are
attending to. If what is in the peripheral areas should become threatening, we become
consciously aware of it. A good deal of the right brain functioning is supposedly unconscious
and emotions and feelings often exist which are revealed through our nonverbal behavior.

A second classroom activity is suggested by Mintzberg’s statement: Eye movement is apparently

a convenient indicator of hemispheric development. When asked to count the letters in a complex
work such as Mississippi in their heads, most people will gaze off to the side opposite their most
developed hemisphere. (Be careful of lefties, however.) But if the question is a specialized
one—for example, if it is emotionally laden, spatial, or purely mathematical—the number of
people gazing one way or another will change substantially.*

Some Comments on Alleviating Perceptual Problems

At the beginning of this section on lecture material, we told the participants that no two people
were experiencing this moment in exactly the same way. We raised the question as to why this is
so, and also asked what might be some implications for interactions among and between people.
To return to this latter question, this is a good point to bring in several ideas which will lead us
into the topic of communications in the next module.

Dialoguing: Since perceptual differences are such a pervasive problem, an effort must be made to
determine if you are understanding the other person, particularly when the topic under discussion
has an effect upon future actions and understandings. Paraphrasing was introduced in Activity
1-1 and hopefully has been used in team interactions. It will be practiced and examined further in
Activity 6-4: Coaching and Goal Setting (usually rated the best activities in the course by
participants).

Perceptual Checking: Often people working in organizations feel on a particular subject either
that “everyone feels like I do,” or that “no one else feels like I do.” It is possible to be wrong in
both ways, so that a pluralistic ignorance exists if the topic is not openly discussed.

Avoid Use of “We” Phrases: In discussions one member will often use the word “we” when
expressing his/her own feelings. “We believe . . .” “What we want . . .” etc. If this goes

*
H. Minzberg, “Planning on the Left Side and Managing on the Right,” Harvard Business
Review (July-August 1976), p. 52.

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unchallenged, everyone present may believe all others are in agreement with the speaker. So
when this happens, it is wise to tell the person to speak for him/herself or to ask others to express
their own views. Be sure to check out “we” claims.

Activity 6-4: Prejudices and Stereotyping*

Activity Overview
This can be a very powerful exercise if done carefully, with sufficient time. It is best done within
a 2-hour time period, but can be shortened to fit into a 50 minute class. It is an exercise that some
students may initially shy away from, because you are asking them to admit what is not
politically correct or “nice.” It is best if you start out by giving an example of a group that you,
personally and sincerely, hold a stereotype or prejudice against. This seems to make it OK,
especially if you acknowledge that your feelings are feelings, just that, and not based on fact, but
nevertheless, you have them and it helps to acknowledge it.

Also, it is easier to get a group started if you begin with naming a group or two that is clearly not
in the room, depending on your classroom demographics. For example, it is easy to admit that we
have stereotypes against senior citizens, lawyers, or people who are obese, and then students can
start naming groups like Latinos, Jews, African-Americans, the handicapped, etc. who may or
may not be in the room.

It is important that students have time to talk about an experience they have had when they have
been a target of prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, and admit it to others. For many white
students, it is an education to hear from their fellow students who are from a racial or ethnic
minority group.

Learning Objectives
A. To heighten the learners’ awareness of their own prejudices and stereotypes.
B. To develop awareness of the effects of one’s own prejudices and stereotypes on one’s
behavior.

Teaching Notes
It is best to begin this exercise by stating to the class that we can assume almost all of us carry
stereotypes and prejudices about other people with us, and in order to understand them first it is
best to become aware of them. These prejudices and stereotypes keep us from interacting
honestly with other persons, narrow our contacts, are harmful to others as well as ourselves, and
may be illegal if acted upon in the workplace. This is also a good time to give the class the
definitions of prejudice, stereotypes, and perceptions, and talk about how individuals form these.
You can emphasize to students that this is an exercise to heighten awareness of some of the
attitudes we have towards others, and we are not setting out to change anyone’s mind. (Students
who have rigidly held prejudices may be uncomfortable with parts of this activity, particularly if
they are part of the dominant group present in the classroom.)

The latter half of the exercise is the time for students to get in touch with their own feelings of
what it is like to be a victim of stereotyping and prejudice, and what it is like to perpetuate this

*
Contributed by Judith White.

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onto others. This can lead to a discussion of morality and ethics, the importance of not harming
others, directly or indirectly, and the effects our conscious and unconscious actions and attitudes
have on others.

The length of time spent on the various tasks of this activity can vary depending on the class size
and the amount of time available. For example, in Task 2, the instructor can ask students to
brainstorm on specific characteristics for most if not all of the groups the students have identified
to be targets of stereotypes, or just a few. If the class period is less than 1 1/2 hours, the instructor
might not have time to have each of the small homogeneous groups to report out to the larger
group. Remember that smaller groups give individual members more air time, but require more
time for reporting out to the larger class.

Notes for potential mini-lecture

This is where the instructor can talk about the prevalence of prejudices, stereotyping, and
discrimination in the workplace. Recent examples of where systematic and systemic
discrimination has occurred include: against women in the C.I.A., against African-Americans at
Denny’s restaurants, against African-Americans at Shoney’s restaurants, against Latinos in the
Los Angeles police force, against homosexuals in the military, against women faculty at Stanford
Medical School, etc. Encourage students to pick up any national newspaper to find examples
almost any week.

This is also an opportunity to discuss the problem of maintaining a neutral position when
observing others to be targets of stereotypes, prejudices, or discrimination. Common examples
include idly listening while someone in your group is making a negative joke or an ethnic, racial,
or religious slur against a group, or individual as representing that group. The effect of becoming
neutral or passive when these incidents occur is that it helps perpetuate them, rather than confront
the injustice of them at the time. This can then lead to a discussion of communication and the
importance of being able to give negative feedback to others, something all supervisors and
managers have to do at some time in their careers.

The instructor also can cite examples where diversity and/or multicultural values training occurs
in organizations, particularly in large corporations and government agencies. Some of these
organizations include 3M, the U.S. Navy, Hewlett-Packard, Hughes, and the University of
California. Again, encourage students to read the Wall Street Journal or another national paper to
read about organizations that are working on this issue.

Activity 6-5W: Male-Female Interface on Women in Management

(Includes the case study, “The Silicon Technologies Corporation”)
An activity somewhat similar to this appeared in the previous editions of this textbook. However,
there were objections from textbook users and a few female students. They insisted that the case
study reinforces negative stereotypes of women—all the hackneyed, wornout arguments as to
why women will be less effective than men in leadership positions. They say there are many
examples of competent, effective women in these roles and why not emphasize what women have
done well, how successful they are, and forget about these stereotypes. This point is well taken,
and every means should be taken to emphasize the successes of women in the work and political
world; but our women contacts in Human Resources Management positions in the work world tell
us these stereotypes are as resilient as they are virulent, are alive and thriving covertly and often
overtly in organizational life. This problem was presented to our classes while this activity was

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being field tested and more than 99% of our students anonymously rated this activity to be a
valuable contribution to the course. Of those voting against it, comments were made by males
that the activity was unfair, because it made men look bad. Male students in schools of business
administration have a healthy respect for the abilities of female students, who, these days, not
only sometimes outnumber them, but also frequently have better academic skills. In the area of
leadership competence, however, they have inherited some of the stereotypes passed on to them,
and this activity helps them take a look at these. For both sexes, we assume that, as in other areas
of attitude change, examining the stereotypes directly can be beneficial.

Many U.S. students tend to say they find sex-role discussions somewhat “old hat”—“Nobody
says things like that anymore” is a not infrequent comment, in part because it isn’t socially
acceptable to be explicitly sexist in many student circles. (Canadian students, and many
managers, are less resistant to acknowledge the persistence of such attitudes, if the discussion is
carefully handled by the instructor to preserve a problem-solving, exploratory tone and prevent
attack). Of course, the problem hasn’t disappeared; while somewhat ameliorated, sexism remains
a serious problem and has become more subtle. One part of the difficulty is that neither men nor
women have yet evolved comfortable ways to deal with the residues of sexist attitudes that
surround us and affect our perceptions. It’s doubly difficult to admit that one feels emotions or
holds attitudes that are considered both out-dated and morally wrong. It is here that an
experiential course like Behavior in Organizations can make a major impact by helping
participants find ways both of examining their beliefs and attitudes, and exploring more fruitful
ways of dealing with them.

Task 2: When giving the classroom assignment, read aloud the question at the end of the case
study:

Question 1. Discuss each of the reasons advanced by the men of the Human Resources Review
Board as to why women are not as qualified as men for management positions. There is validity
in these arguments. What is the nature and degree of validity in each of them? Use the
accompanying worksheet to record your responses.

Stop and emphasize to the class that people like to dismiss these stereotypes and say they no
longer exist, but research shows they do. What we need to discuss is the nature and degree of
validity of the stereotypes. This seems to overcome any arguments about whether these are
stereotypes only of older generations.

Sometime prior to this activity you may want to present the Dialogue Sequences printed earlier in
this module, so you can build upon it here; however, the limited time is always a problem in
running this activity, so it should not be interrupted at this point. Inform the students that in
interface activities, the most important initial goal that can be achieved in a learning situation of
this type is for each group to find out how the other perceives the situation. In the activity to be
conducted here, participants should strive to give their true perceptions so the other sex will be
able to learn from the knowledge. (The authors are always fascinated with how much they learn
from these student perceptions.)

Task 3: (Note: See comments at the end of the case for use with work groups in an organization.)
You need to use flexibility in getting reports from the teams. Pick the spokesperson of the male
team whom you believe will be more articulate and interesting in presenting views. Sometimes
an extreme sexist is chosen; if you know this and feel he will present some controversial views,
you may want to start with him all in the interest of making it interesting. If the first spokesman
is doing well, let him go through all the issues and go on to the second. If it drags, stop the

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spokesman on one issue and say, “Let’s hear what the other male teams say on this issue.” In
other words, watch the pacing and try to keep it interesting by jumping around when and if
necessary. If the women start to attack the men, ask them to wait until all reports, male and
female, are out, before discussing.

They can ask questions for clarification, however at this point we are just trying to understand
how each group perceives the issues. Attacks, if any, can come last. Protect the integrity of those
who are trying to say it as they see it, unless the male is enjoying being attacked.

Concerning the assertion: Many women do not like to work for women bosses—when the men
are reporting their views on this, do not get the women involved. When the women are reporting,
ask if there are any among them who would rather work for a man than a woman and why.
Sometimes several are willing to admit this and share their views. If none do, ask them why
some other women might feel this way. The answer you will usually get is that it is easier to
manipulate a man or to influence him than it is a woman. A woman boss knows women’s tricks
and cannot be so easily influenced.

Caution: In the interface exercise, male and female groups are being asked to express their
honestly held views for the education of each other. It is important that they be respected and
protected by the instructor for doing so. If a group or person is attacked by the opposite sex, the
instructor should intervene and remind all that the objective is to truly find out perceptions and
attitudes and that evaluations can interfere with the open climate. Student groups do not have
much trouble being open and this exercise is usually rated highly in the course. However, an
additional caution should be observed with adult groups who work for the same company or who
might know each other. Since they will be seeing each other on the job, they are cautious,
understandably. Instructors can alleviate this by doing two things. Make sure they understand
that the spokesperson is presenting a summary of the group’s views. Adult groups who have not
had this course sometimes interpret spokesperson to mean that they are to have one person in the
group give her own or his own views—this sometimes to their own embarrassment. Also, the
instructor can encourage individuals in these circumstances to say how they think others would
feel, thus disowning the views as their own (openness can be harmful under some situations and
this could be one).

Discussion of the Validity of the Arguments from the Social Science Viewpoint
Students do not need a detailed social science lecture or a lot of statistics to conclude this activity.
We use some generalizations at this point which they seem to accept as appropriate in our limited
time allotment for this activity. Also, the amount of material appearing in literature on women in
the business world is continuous and abundant, making most of what we would offer here out of
date. If you are a male professor seeking additional reference material, most schools of business
now have women faculty members who are very knowledgeable on this topic. The following
points are important:

1. There is no evidence that women “by nature” do not have the necessary abilities,
temperament, personality, and emotional stability to be as competent and effective in leadership
roles as men. The evidence indicates that all the factors mentioned in this case as reasons women
are not in leadership positions or do not want leadership positions are culturally determined.
Women are trained by their particular society to behave in their specialized roles and most often
perceive themselves the way society sees them. The stereotypes of women’s roles are barriers to
change and provide the basis for a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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2. Only a dozen years ago, many high schools were still counseling women students by
recommending the occupational roles of nurse, teacher, secretary, etc., assuming they would not
have an opportunity in the professions. Women have recently been entering the professions in
great numbers, and most obvious to all of us are their increase on television as journalists,
anchorwomen, producers, and financial analysts. In real estate and the world of finance, women
are now prominent where men once filled the roles by a huge majority; the same can be said for
law practices and other professions. Many women have moved into the ranks of middle
management, yet the upper echelons still are held by men with few exceptions. This is ample
evidence that the old role models assigned to women were culturally assigned and not due to any
innate characteristics of the female.

3. Why have women not gone higher in management in greater numbers? Give them time; they
have only been on the move a short while. It was only recently that women outnumbered men in
the schools of business; fifteen years ago hardly ten percent were women. Women lack the role
models in the upper echelon of management that men have which is a disadvantage. Also, men
moving up are often part of a network, and often are sponsored by male superiors.

4. There is no evidence that women’s biological makeup produces emotional factors making
them less suitable than men as managers. Women in management workshops respond to this
argument by saying the emotional makeup of men is a far greater threat to management: the need
for power, the forming of power networks to do battle, and the lusting after female employees can
be long-enduring and damaging to managerial effectiveness. The prominence of sexual
harassment concerns is often mentioned as an example.

5. Concerning the point on the women’s liberation movement not really representing what
American women want, we cannot answer this specifically, but national surveys have for a
number of years shown about 60% of the female populations support the Equal Opportunity
Amendment.

6. Concerning aggressiveness, management is not a body-contact sport. There is no evidence

they do not have enough of this attribute, and the Equal Rights movement led many to think they
had too much.

Human Resources Viewpoint on Women in Management

Assuming women are equally qualified as men for many professional managerial positions, there
are presumably large percentages of very talented human resources that are not being utilized in
society. If we consider abilities to be normally distributed for both the male and female
populations, and if we select primarily from the male, think of the valued abilities at the upper
end of the female distribution that are not being tapped.

The Silicon Technologies Corporation as a Case Study: This case can be used without the
exercise. One general question assigned for homework and used for class discussion is all that is
needed to produce considerable response in the classroom. The general class discussion will go
best if you give them 10 minutes to discuss the question in small groups. Then open up the
session to general discussion. Listen to their analyses without interjecting any guidance, using
paraphrasing or board analysis to keep it rolling. At the conclusion, sum up their positions and
input some of the material provided here in the manual on the validity of the arguments from the
social science viewpoint.

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The group dynamics concepts can be applied to this Board. The norms of the male group include
the factors provided on the Worksheet for the exercises, plus (1) they do not level when Sonya is
present; (2) males in the plant resent females competing with them for jobs; (3) fair treatment is
required for employees; and (4) femininity is desirable in women professionals but should not be
flouted. Duke seems to be fulfilling a professional manager role, letting most of the decision
process be carried by the group, but encouraging openness and fair treatment; but he too espouses
the male norms and adds to the stereotypes involved by bringing in the idea of a genetic base for
male leadership. Chong represents the enlightened point of view which is associated with those
in human resources positions and is supported by Duke. In a triad of Chong, Marcos and Rod,
Chong is the singleton and the other two the dyad. The dyad of Rod and Marcos could have its
foundation in the occupational background of their departments: Production and R&D are heavily
manned with engineers, where conservative attitudes toward women have existed. Finance has
many women professionals and their success in that field is reflected in the more favorable views
toward women professionals expressed by Sam.

And finally, there is the covert and somewhat deviant role of Rod whose attitudes suggest lust for
the female. Female students have remarked, “This guy has sex problems.” “He’s a potential
sexual harassment problem.” He exhibits the denial defense, by claiming to support the
promotion and the woman, while bringing up all the possible problem areas. Other roles, Sam is
the humorist, Sonya the women’s advocate.

Study Questions
1. Describe the role that work-related values and belief systems play in shaping the behavior of
individuals. Provide examples from your experience.
Comment: Work-related values and belief systems play an important role in shaping the behavior
of individuals. Values are groups of beliefs about a particular object or process. Every human
being has certain implicit and explicit values that are a cumulative result of upbringing,
community dynamics and educational experience. Some of the values are materialistic in nature
while others are more of spiritual nature. Values serve as a criteria or framework against which
individual experience is examined. Values and belief systems are partially responsible for
people’s choice of what company to work for or what product or service to use. Many individuals
chose to work for a company that they perceive fits their values. For example,….

2. Identify and describe the key elements in the perceptual process.

Comment: The perceptual process is a complex process that occurs in split seconds. Research
indicates that one can identify six basic elements in the perceptual process: environmental stimuli,
observation, perceptual selection, perceptual organization, interpretation and responses. We also
identified key determinants of perception that influence the perceptual process. Figure 9-1
captures these determinants.

3. “Perceptions influence team performance”. Illustrate your understanding of the phrase by

using some examples from your team experiences to date.
Comment: Many aspects of behavior occur below the individual’s or group’s level of awareness.
We all start the course with initial perceptions of ourselves, the course, the instructor and of each

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other as students. The initial set of activities and interactions amongst ourselves and the instructor
triggered more perceptions. These perceptions have colored our level of effort and thus had an
impact on our performance. For example,….

4. Explain the phrase “expectations determine perception.” If you are a manager of a number of
employees, half of whom have a college education and the other half only a high school
education, how can this concept provide some guidance for supervision?
Comment: Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs are categorized into modules in the cognitive
structure of the brain to make life immediately meaningful—so you don’t have to learn the world
over every time you perceive an event. The expectation systems from this cognitive structure
determine what you see and are selective of the external world, often missing data that does not
fit into the categories being used. In the case of the college and non-college group, stereotypes
around these are going to play a significant role in how these sub-groups perceive each other and
themselves; these provide the potential basis for intergroup conflict. The manager is going to
have to be aware of the bias in their perceptions and her or his own in determining assignments
and promotions; also in influencing how people treat each other. Policies, practices and norms
have to be formed to prevent these biases from causing unfair treatment. People need to be
evaluated by their performance and not be the stereotype—some organizations have a practice of
promoting only college education employees.

5. Why are defense mechanisms studied in the field of perception?

Comment: The answer to question 2 above is applicable here. When an individual displays
defensive behavior such as denial, it may indicate the individual is not aware of the needs, doubts,
fears causing the behavior. These are apt to result in distorted perceptions in the individual
evidencing such behavior.

6. Maier’s findings were that there is almost always a difference between the way the boss and
the subordinate perceive the goals of the subordinate’s job and an even greater difference in their
understanding of the problems. What can be done about this?
Comment: More dialoguing needs to take place. A systematic way of alleviating this is by using
the Management by Objective approach in which the employee’s job is discussed periodically.
More important is the awareness of the need and having both manager and employee feel free to
initiate the dialogue necessary.

7. An expert in Product Quality made the following statement recently: .” . . . I’ve met people
who said, . . I’ve stopped buying Japanese electronics component . . . because the quality seems
to have suffered.” Analyze the above statement while illustrating your knowledge of perception.
Comment: Perception has been described as what a person is experiencing at a given moment
based on senses, memory, feelings, needs, wants, and goals. The concept of an erroneous
perception can be problematic because there many not be a means of determining the absolute,
correct perception to which we want to compare.
Let us assume, in this instance, that Japanese quality has not suffered, and that the story line
contradicts the fact. Various possibilities exist to explain the contradiction. It could be that
certain people have said that quality has declined. Their perception is unique (incorrect) perhaps
as the result of their personal experience with various Japanese electronics products, or they may
have a need to degrade Japanese products (as the result of a racial prejudice or a relative that
works for an American electronics firm). On the other hand, the expert may have inaccurately

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perceived the comments he (thought) he heard. He may have heard (sensed) them incorrectly, or,
because of his anxieties about Japanese quality affecting his business, his feelings interfered with
his perception. And there is the possibility of our premise about a sustained Japanese quality
being inaccurate as the result of biases that we have about what we perceive as factual.

8. What perceptual errors by managers foster special problems in the assessment of worker
performance?
Comment: Meaningful assessment of worker performance must go beyond inspecting production
figures if it is intended to explore and improve motivation and other human aspects of production
efficiency and not simply survey the physical or mechanical elements of improving production.
Perceptual errors could nullify an assessment or create a highly inaccurate evaluation and
subsequent, inappropriate managerial action. Certainly, perceptual errors are not self-remedying
and could compound themselves causing extreme counter-productive situations (for conflict).
Accurate perception, then, occupies a vital segment of the organization.
Potential perceptual errors made by management cover a large spectrum. Unusual worker
performance (i.e., production above or below the norm) could be incorrectly perceived as to its
cause, for example. Management could assume the cause of an unavoidable mechanical problem
to be that of an individual’s error or careless attitude. A worker could have a “bad day” and be
discontent with his own performance; yet, he could be misunderstood as being careless.
Intentions and attitudes of workers could be misinterpreted willingness of help or simply listen
could prove to be most beneficial to management if the true condition were perceived.
In its haste, management could fail to see the entire context or circumstance behind a worker’s
performance and therefore miss the worker’s reasoning and justification. Dealing with more than
one set of facts is bound to lead to erroneous perceptions. Theories X and Y illustrate assessment
problems based on potentially erroneous perceptions. If management assumes that the workers
have a poor attitude, management is going to be reluctant to rate them highly.
Some perceptions may affect worker assessment yet not be directly associated with workers. If
management perceives itself as being under a great deal of pressure from top management, it will
likely be harsh in evaluating workers. Also, if management perceives itself as having inferior
knowledge of the technology, it may exhibit a defensive posture that is prone to be more
emotional than objective. Management has to understand people. If managerial perception of
human behavior includes only a rational behavior model, then the many irrational responses that
will occur will assume exaggerated proportions and be interpreted as being negative.

9. Some argue that .” . . perception plays a critical role in the problems that women and
minorities in management experience at the workplace.” State your position and provide your
reasons while incorporating what you have learned about perception.
Comment: The answer or position is not as important as the supporting evidence or reasoning.
Contrarians may argue that the erroneous perceptions are not critical to the problem. What, then,
is the crux of the problem? Is there no problem? These are difficult positions to defend. Or, it
could be said that the real problem is that of faulty self-perception on the part of the women and
minorities that dampens their advancement. If so, what is the origin of those perceptions?
The consensus is probably that the perceptual problem is one of stereotyping—so that these
individuals and groups are negatively categorized and not given fair opportunity to demonstrate
and prove their desires and abilities. Information is shut off, and objectively is minimized by
stereotyping. This question is an opportunity to discuss Figure 6-2.

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MODULE 7
Communication

Module Overview
Communication is a major component of individual, group and organizational effectiveness. This
module explores the communication process, identifies the barriers of accurate communication
and investigates the dynamics within different levels of communication. A variety of activities
were designed to provide the experiential base for improving ones skills to better understand the
complex dynamics of communication.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Explain the basic communication process and its key elements.
2. Appreciate the relationship between personality, perception, motivation, and communication.
3. Understand the different levels of communication and media richness.
4. State the internal and external determinants of interpersonal communication.
5. Identify the potential barriers in the communication episode.
6. Understand your own barriers in the communication process and some of the actions that you
can take to overcome them.
7. Identify some managerial actions that can help overcome the barriers for communication in
organizational settings.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 7–1: Reflections on Communication Episodes
Introduction
Psychodynamics, Motivation, Perception, and Communication
The Communication Process
Levels of Communication
Interpersonal Communication
Barriers to Accurate Communication
Conflicting Assumptions
Inadequate Information
Semantics and Language
Emotional Blocks
Nonverbal Communication Barriers
The Grapevine
Communication Networks
Communication Methods and Technology
Cultural barriers
Emerging Challenges
Managers’ Role in Managing Communication: Overcoming the Barriers
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 7–2: Nonverbal Communication

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Optional Activities on the WWW
Activity 7–3W: Exploring Communication Barriers Activity
Activity 7–4W: Choosing the Best Communication Medium

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes
- Note on session/s design
- Note on mini-lectures and possible outlines
- Activity 7-1 “Reflections on Communication Episodes”
- Activity 7-2 “Nonverbal Communication”
- Activity 7-3W “Exploring Communication Barriers”
- Activity 7-4W “Choosing the Best Communication Medium”

Sessions’ Design
The module provides a variety of options in the design of the teaching module. For one two-hour
session the following designs have worked well: Activity 7-1 “Reflection on Communication”
followed by Activity 7-2 “Nonverbal Communication”, mini-lecture on the communication
process and levels of communication, Activity 7-3W Exploring Communication Barriers, and
mini-lecture on barriers to accurate communication. An alternative session design is to start with
Activity 10-1, mini-lecture, Activity 10-2 or 10-4W, mini-lecture and Activity 10-3W.

Activity 7-1: Reflection on Communication

The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to investigate into the
meaning and meaningfulness of communication based on past work situations. This is a good
activity to start the class session on the topic. After the individuals completed Task 1, we usually
ask them to share their insights with their teams (Task 2). A short class sharing provides an
opportunity to set the context for a mini-lecture on the topic. Students begin to see clear patterns
between effective and less effective communication styles, the issues associated with the
communication process, the issues of communication media, and media richness.

Activity 7-2: Nonverbal Communications

It is most important for the instructor to decide if he/she will be comfortable doing this exercise
because there is a certain amount of stress for the participants which can arise from Task 2, the
unstructured part. (Task 1, the nonverbal group problem, was added to the revised edition of the
text to reduce the amount of stress arising from Task 2, and it does just that.) If the course has
been going well, students will be responsive, become involved in many activities, and a wide
range of behaviors will develop in the classroom. This is particularly true if young women are in
the groups. On the other hand, if the class has not been too responsive, or if there are some
students that have been resistant to involvement learning, or if the age range of the class is rather
wide, students may not be very responsive and will stand in tight circles and do little for the seven
minutes. Even if this occurs, this is not a real loss since the participants are experiencing stress in
their silence and this makes for good conversations later. The main precaution being pointed out
is that a course which has been going only moderately well may not be improved by this exercise
if they are too unresponsive. The activity should be skipped if such is the case.

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This activity has two major purposes: The first is to further explore some of the dynamics within
small groups when verbal communications are cut off and only nonverbal communications are
permitted. The second is a covert purpose and not related to the participants until after the
exercise has been completed; it is to provide the experiential base for exploring reactions to
frustration.

During Task 2 (An Unstructured Task) in which the participants are carrying on activities for
seven minutes using only nonverbal communications, you will see each team develop a number
of elements of group structure which will nicely illustrate that whenever two or more persons
meet to complete a task, group norms always spontaneously emerge along with roles, dyads, and
so forth. However, the real payload of the activity comes from exploring the feelings of the
participants and relating these to the theories of frustration.

We suggest you read aloud the objectives then go right into Task 1, telling the participants to
move the chairs to the walls. It will not be necessary for the students to have a copy of this
activity; in fact having it to read for themselves would be a distraction. However, when you get
to Task 4a, you may want to have the questions ready on a viewgraph or a flip chart so you won’t
have to delay progress by writing them on the board. Also you will have to prepare on a poster or
flip chart the “Shoe Store” problem needed for Task 1d. (A transparency is provided.)

Management of this activity is most important so follow the instructions in Tasks 1, 2, and 3 to
the letter. If the students are in permanent teams, be sure this activity is done with the teams so
they can learn to apply group dynamics concepts to their own behavior.

Here is further guidance for covering certain points:

Task 1d: The following “Shoe Store” problem is to be written on a poster (or use the
transparency provided) in advance of class and displayed for this step of the activity:

A man went into a shoe store to buy a twelve-dollar pair of shoes. He handed the clerk a twenty-
dollar bill. It was early in the day and the clerk didn’t have any one-dollar bills. He took the
twenty-dollar bill and went to the restaurant next door, where he exchanged it for twenty one-
dollar bills. He gave the customer the change. Later that morning, the restaurant owner came to
the clerk and said, “This is a counterfeit twenty-dollar bill.” The clerk apologized profusely, and
took back the phony bill and gave the restaurant owner two good ten-dollar bills. Not counting
cost of the shoes, how much money did the store lose?

Task 1e: Teams usually give $28 as the loss for the shoe store. Some will give $8, the correct
answer. After discussing it verbally, most teams decide $8. For those still insisting on $28, they
see the light when you tell them that the transactions between the shoe store clerk and the
restaurant cancel themselves out: The clerk got twenty good one-dollar bills from the restaurant
but when he learned of the counterfeit, he gave back two good ten-dollar bills.

Task 2b: After reading this instruction to the class from the activity in the text, don’t ask if there
are any questions. The vagueness is an additional stressor.

During this task, the instructor should note all the activities that develop in the groups and he or
she will see many norms and roles and role relationships (dyads, triads) develop. Here are
examples (remember, norms are shared expectations of what should, must, ought, or might be or
not be done when two or more people get together and interact to achieve goals):

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Norms:
1. Tacitly deciding to do nothing; standing in a tight circle, sitting down, or spreading out,
observing other groups while doing nothing.
2. Use of space: some will stay in one area, others leave the room, etc.
3. Use of equipment: drawing on blackboards, stacking chairs, etc.
4. Bodily contact: some groups will not touch; others touch most of the time; the latter
happening more frequently if women are in the group.
5. Creativity and inventiveness indicated in the range of activities.
6. Intergroup activities: some groups get involved with others, some do not. Some involve the
professor, others not.

Roles
1. Leadership—shared by the number initiating activities, sometimes only one or no leader.
2. Individual roles—clown is most frequent.

Role Relationships:
Dyads and triads occur. Sometimes groups break up into couples or triads for the entire time,
another group norm.

Task 3c: Individuals will be called upon to share how they felt about the experience. This is the
most interesting part of the activity. Interview members of each team, asking them to share with
the class how they were feeling during the activity. You will note that the tendency will be for
people to tell what happened in their group instead of how they were/are feeling. Call this to the
attention of the class as a natural response to your questions; people often describe what is or was
happening when the important determinant of their reactions is/was how they are/were feeling.
They need to become more aware of how they are feeling. Now ask again, “How were you
feeling? Tell me in feeling words.” After you have interviewed as many as you have time for, go
to the board and tell them that their words can be categorized into personal-style types of
responses to frustrations. We all have a style. For instance, Karen Horney described three typical
generalized attitudes which characterize coping behaviors in interpersonal relations: moving
toward, away from, and against others. Many of the words used by your respondents fall into
these categories.

Personal Style Reactions to Frustration

1. Moving away from: Escape—I wanted to get out of here. Felt like escaping from this stupid
place. Felt hemmed in. I froze. I wanted to do absolutely nothing.
2. Moving against: Aggressiveness, Anger—I felt mad. This was really dumb. What was the
purpose of this stupid activity.
3. Moving toward: Conformity, being submissive, being overly nice, seeking reassurance—I
tried to do just what we were told to, felt we should really try.
4. You can elaborate on this a bit, of course. If no one brings up anger (socially not acceptable
to say so), ask how many felt angry. “How many felt like throwing this stupid professor out
the window?” Many will vote for that. Point out also that “moving toward” in real life can
be overly complaint, overly conforming. The Horney categories are ways we have learned to
cope with threat in interpersonal relationships as we grew up. “How many of you are aware

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 of your style?” At this point tell them there is a fourth category which we will discuss later,
and then go on to further discussion of reactions to frustrations by drawing on the board the
outline of the chart on this subject.

Barrier

Psychological
Goal
Energy

The barrier in this case was, of course, cutting off verbal communications.

Put up only the psychological energy, goal and barrier model and let them tell you what typical
behaviors are that result from encountering a barrier to a goal.

During the discussion someone will bring up finding alternate goals or solving the problem
through persistence. Now you can go back to your Personal Style Models on the board and add
the fourth category. The idea here is to show them that the first three styles are coping responses
to threat which do not solve the problems we face, and may complicate them. Part of maturing is
to learn behaviors beyond the first three so we can better cope with people and stress. Some of us
never reach that stage of maturity; however, we hope participants will become more aware of this
as a personal growth area. One of our older participants (maybe forty) gave himself as an
example: when a young man he was overconforming, later became overly aggressive (a “boss
beater” as he referred to it), and in more recent years has learned a more problem-solving manner;
however, he still feels on occasion, first like escaping—his primary style of reacting to stress,
second like fighting—his backup style, and then, gaining control over these emotions, he begins
to think of alternative solutions.

Task 4a: After getting a report from the groups on their norms and role developments from this
activity, the instructor can add her observations. An effort should be made to clarify these
concepts as they apply to their groups. Teams should be told that this is the type of analysis they
are to make of their teams for completion of the requirements of Appendix A or B, if they are
following one of those plans. Early in the course, students were keeping journals on the behavior
of their group without the help of theory and concepts so they could collect fresh data without
imposing the concepts upon it. In Module 10, a summary of the groups’ dynamics concepts will
be given. They are to continue this on their own with their journal entries. In Activity 15-4, the
students will have a team assignment which will help them more systematically apply the
concepts to their team’s interactions in preparation for the final papers required for Appendix A
and B activities.

When evaluating all activities at the end of the course, participants always rate this as the one
they liked the least. However, they always vote to leave it in the course because they believed it
was one of the best as a learning experience—they may just want future students to suffer as they
did.

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Note on a mini lecture - A Guide to More Effective Communication
There are certain suggestions for improved communication made at different points in the course
that should be summarized here.

1. Understanding of self and others presumably is the most solid base for good interpersonal
communications. Being sensitive to others’ feelings and your own should provide a basis for
empathy.
2. Listening skills have a high probability for yield on your investment of time to keep them
honed. Elements include:
- The radio receiver model of listening for information without being judgmental.
- Paraphrasing for information, understanding and acknowledging.
- Tracking—When having trouble paying attention, try repeating to yourself everything
being said to you. This is the process an interpreter goes through when translating for
parties.
3. Perceptual checking—a process for determining how other individuals (or an individual) are
perceiving something. If you don’t elicit these perceptions, you may be making the wrong
assumptions about their perceptions. (We practice this in our discussion after Activity 8-1.)
- Avoid “we” statements as a member of a group. If you go unchallenged, everyone will
think your views represent those of other members even if no one agrees with you — no
one bothered to do perceptual checking.
4. Goal setting is most effective in preventing communication problems between boss and
subordinate. Organizational Dialoguing is an organizational approach that is designed to
improve communications among employees.
5. Avoid defensive feelings and expressions. Count to ten before speaking.
6. Avoid “hidden agendas.” They are manipulations.
7. Develop assertiveness skills. Getting feelings out in a socially acceptable way is the goal.
Reduces defensiveness. Includes:
- Feedback skills—learning to take and give feedback.
- Confrontation skills—finding the appropriate time and manner to try to influence
someone’s actions that are bothering you.
- Own your own feelings. Use “I” messages. Don’t lay it on the other guy.
8. Deal with the situation, not the person. (See One Minute Manager, below.) However, the
opposite may be best at times. If an employee rushes in angry and upset, you may want to
calm him down first—“I can see something has happened to make you very upset. Tell me
about it.” What he tells you may not be the real problem, but dealing with the person for
awhile may calm things so the real problem comes out.
9. Timing—If you don’t have the right timing, nothing will work well.

The above is presented primarily for the interpersonal perspectives. Needless to say, the factors
discussed should become a part of team norms and part of the organizational culture.

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The One Minute Manager as a Coach
The long-time national bestseller* by Blanchard and Johnson fits in nicely with this lecture, our
activity and other concepts we have used in the course. Their viewpoint can be used after the
above lecture. They have three points on communication and managerial effectiveness:

1. One Minute Goal Setting—You and the employee should agree on goals and each goal
should be reduced to a brief written statement. The goals should be reviewed often. You
should also agree on what specific behaviors will achieve the performance necessary.
2. One Minute Praising—Be up front, praise people for what they are doing right, and let them
know how good you feel about it.
3. One Minute Reprimanding—Let them know in advance your up front policy of reprimanding.
Reprimand immediately when needed. Tell them what is wrong; tell them how you feel
about it, but let them know you still appreciate their overall performance.

There is a similarity to what we have said in the above guidance in terms of goal setting,
feedback, and assertiveness. They also are saying, let people know how you feel, deal with the
situation, but don’t demean people. Let them know how much they are appreciated.

The immediate feedback policy is, of course, behavior modification.

Using Paraphrasing in Your Own Teaching

Students often complain of “other professors” who make them feel belittled or criticized for their
classroom contributions. They say they just stop trying to talk in class once this happens. One
way for you to avoid this, if this is a problem—and most of us do feel we need to respond when a
student makes a comment in class—is to just paraphrase back the student’s statement. Students
are thus getting a nonjudgmental, nonevaluative response, but they know the message has been
received—sometimes you find you were not hearing it right, also. It’s true that sometimes you
should be giving judgmental responses, if the student is just plain wrong. Of course, an
occasional joke helps: “As long as you are not uncomfortable with being wrong, you can believe
anything you want to believe.”

The Power of Listening In Interpersonal Relations

If you have time to explore this with participants, there is something to be gained. Most of us
undervalue our ability to listen well—if we are so fortunate to have the skill. There are a couple
of questions that can be used to do the exploring:

1. What are characteristics you would appreciate most in a mate—someone whom you could
love? Give four.

As you get students to respond you will find three phrases that seem to be repeated, among the
others: tenderness, supportiveness, and willingness to listen.

2. Assuming we all want others to listen to us, how do you feel when someone comes to you to
tell you their troubles, or just what happened to them?

*
Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson, The One Minute Manager, William Morrow and
Company, Inc.: N.Y., N.Y., 1982.

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Many people say they are inclined to be uncomfortable. They don’t know what to tell people,
how to advise them, how to respond. They feel rather guilty and inadequate for not having an
answer to problems. Since most of us feel this way, one good learning experience is to
understand that most of the time just listening and paraphrasing back what you have heard is
enough to make the other person feel some reassurance. Particularly if you are nonjudgmental
and nonevaluative in your response.

So one of the best ways of sharing yourself in personal relationships is to be a good listener. It is
acknowledging and reassuring to the other person. Conversely, one of the most punishing things
you can do is not to listen, refuse to listen, or to cut someone off—to refuse to communicate.

So what we are saying is that personal effectiveness as a communicator in a work relationship can
be built from the skills of personal relationships in nonwork life—the latter is the basis for the
former, even though the goals and intents may not be identical.

To return to our point, listening is a great strength but is one we frequently don’t value highly
enough in ourselves.

Self-Image
The central core of an individual’s communication is her/his self. How you see yourself, how
you feel about yourself, what your goals are—these are all part of the core. You may wish to
develop this idea when you discuss Figure B in the text, Relationships between Core Concepts of
Motivation, Perception, and Communication. What is being said is that what is being
communicated is dependent upon how the situation is perceived, which is dependent upon
motivation—the self being centrally involved.

Group Cohesiveness
Up to this point in the course, many of the permanent teams will have been rather task-oriented in
their attempt to get the team project accomplished. They will not have stopped to become
acquainted with one another as human beings. Team members often report in their final feedback
sessions to the class that these activities were a breakthrough in their interrelationships. There
was more basic supportiveness in the team, more openness, and better communications.
Feedback, both positive and negative, became easier following this activity. The value of
delaying these communication exercises until this point is that the teams learn that they did not
take the initiative to get to know one another better and did not feel it was important until they
had gone through a number of meetings in an impersonal fashion; once they opened up this void,
it made a difference in their commitment to the group.

Question for Discussion: How much personal closeness should one develop with fellow
employees? How much closeness should a boss develop with employees? This is a great
question for discussion in executive managerial workshops and can produce heated arguments. It
is raised here because students, after this exercise, feel so much closer to members of their team.
The question of closeness bringing greater ability to work together seems obvious but is really
moot. There has to be a balance between being too close and too distant, particularly when you
are supervising people. Management is situational, of course, so some groups may be very close
and very productive. But personal closeness, friendship, can sometimes interfere with objectivity.
(Some big corporations have informed employees they expect them to develop friendships in
their personal life with persons outside, not inside, the firm.) If you are a supervisor and
responsible for performance, how can you be most objective in judging the performance,

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assigning people to jobs, promoting people? The closer the friendship, the more the employee
might try to impose upon it. Some people know how to balance this.

A similar problem arises in performance evaluations. The emphasis has to be on the behavior
showing the performance and not on the personality of the individual, or the potential of the
individual (potential can be evaluated separately). Stick to behavior. What does the individual
do, not who or what she/he is—a friend?

If you have time for discussion of this question, you will find it most interesting. You may wish
to save it until later when the topic of organizational politics is introduced.

Activity 7-3W: Exploring Communication Barriers

The activity as described in the textbook is self-explanatory. The activity provides four scenes
that can be used in a variety of ways: each scene played by the same individuals; rotated between
the individuals, or; role play a scene then have a discussion before proceeding to the next scene.
We would like to emphasize a few points: First, the activity provides a unique opportunity to role
play three roles, one of which is of an observer. If the students have not taken part in role playing
until now, this is a good activity to try it; second, the role playing can be used to begin, develop,
and refine some basic communication skills; third, we have used the activity as the basis for a
discussion about some of the effective communication skills that might want to develop while
taking this course.

Activity 7-4W: Choosing the Best Communication Medium

This activity is self explanatory. It can be used as an individual activity and/or a team activity. If
you chose this one as a team activity, after the individuals complete the self assessment, ask the
individuals to share their choices with the team. Each team is to identify some common
denominators and implications to managerial practice. Next you can have a class discussion when
each team representative shares the teams ideas.

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Study Questions
1. “The way communication occurs in organizations has changed dramatically in the past 20
years.” Describe the nature of the change, what seems to have triggered the changes, and how the
changes influenced performance.
Comment: The change is technologically driven. New technology seems to have changed the
nature of the communication process. Furthermore, the emerging communication technologies
have made it increasingly feasible for individuals to communicate, share information and monitor
human dynamics and human performance….

2. “In the communication process, meaning is in the mind of the sender and receiver.” Explain
this statement.
Comment: We learned that factors internal to the individual are the primary determinants of
perception. Also that we develop many categories or modules that provide cognitive maps so that
the world is meaningful and does not have to be relearned every day. In this module, we
continued to develop this idea by speaking of the codes of past experience an individual uses in
communication. Two individuals communicating use these codes in sending and receiving and
the degree of meaning transmitted will depend upon the degree to which they are using the same
coding systems. Communication breakdown occurs when individuals are not using the same
coding system, thus each is either not understanding or misunderstanding the meaning intended
by the others.

3. Of the barriers to communication given in the module, which is the most basic? Why?
Comment: Conflicting assumptions is the most basic. When transmitting, the sender assumes the
receiver will be using the same coding system he or she is using. The receiver assumes he or she
is using the coding systems the receiver is using. When the coding systems involved are
different, these assumptions are in conflict. So all barriers result in conflicting assumptions or
they would not be barriers. We are speaking of psychological, not physical, barriers, of course—
if the telephone goes dead, no transmission occurs.

4. Several methods are given for overcoming barriers to communication. Give examples from
your own experience of how these methods worked. Give examples of other methods that have
worked for you or others you know.
Comment to the instructor: List the methods as listed in the module and provide example for
each.

5. Discuss the relationship between intergroup communication and intergroup conflict.

Comment: Intergroup conflict is manifested when concern, apprehension, or distrust for other
groups develops as the result of the attachment to another group. As the result, intergroup
communication is biased by negative perceptions and emotions. Learning and problem solving
capabilities are compromised by defensive postures that often spontaneously develop as
individuals “choose sides.” The members of all groups concerned are likely to benefit by first
understanding the shortcomings of this kind of counter-productive group allegiance, and
developing productive, interactive patterns. Communication, ideally, becomes a means of
enhancing the intergroup relationship (and its advantages) rather than a sign of the problems that
existed between groups.

5. Discuss the relationship between communication and perception.

Comment: Figure 7-1 and the discussion that follows in the textbook, captures the relationships
between the two concepts.

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6. “Managing the Grapevine, Rumor and Gossip are critical to management success.” Explain this
statement. Do you agree/disagree with the statement? Provide an example from your experience
and use it to provide the rational for your position.
Comment: Many potential causal relationship can be identified and explored between the three
concepts. The answer is likely to vary based on the level of communication and the method of
communication that one chooses to focus on. We will focus (for illustration purposes) on
communication between two individuals and on face-to-face communication. As we have seen
earlier, communication that occurs between two individuals is influenced by the individuals’
personality, perceptions and motivation. An integral part of personality is based on individual
differences, background, education and the like (see Module 4). Furthermore expectations play a
critical role in shaping individual motivation (see Module 5). As such one can argue that
diversity and expectations influence the communication process.

7. We discussed a few ways for overcoming barriers to accurate communication. Provide an

example from your group’s experience that illustrates how you overcame communication barrier.
Comment to the instructor: Each team had to overcome barriers to accurate communication. This
is a good reflective process, that if shared can impact the communication process in the team.

8. What are some of the similarities and differences between interpersonal and intergroup
communications?
Comment: For the most part, there is a considerable similarity between the two, and differences
are a matter of degree. Intergroup communications are more susceptible to perceptual
misunderstanding by virtue of the increased number of individuals, experiences, assumptions, and
perceptions. Because of the numbers involved and what is usually a more formal communication,
groups do not have the advantages available to interpersonal communication such as
paraphrasing. Some problems are most often associated with interpersonal communication. They
include body language and paralanguage.

9. What does Goal Setting have to do with communication (both at the interpersonal and
intergroup levels)?
Comment: Achieving goals common to groups usually reduces intergroup conflict thereby
encouraging meaningful communication. Common objectives reduce perceptual distortion and
communication problems. Motivation is then enhanced as well. Within a group, intergroup
communication and interpersonal are one of the same. A discussion of interpersonal goals (that
do not pertain to group activities) typically involves individuals with opposing goals and could
therefore exemplify goal setting as detrimental to productive interpersonal communication.
Lastly, some degree of communication is necessary to establish goals whenever more than one
individual is involved. So that the cause and effect roles of communication and goal setting are
interchangeable.

10. Discuss the relationship between “media richness” and communication effectiveness.
Comment: Managers can use a variety of media for transmitting messages. Research indicates
that media choice has a direct effect on communication effectiveness. Three clusters of media
options were identified: written, oral, and electronic. Table 7–1 summarizes the variety of media
choices in each of the clusters, their general availability, cost, speed, immediate interactions,
impact, and attention. Media also vary in richness. Recently, media richness has received
considerable attention in organizational communication. Media richness theory ranks
communication media along a continuum in terms of their “richness.” In this context richness
denotes the capacity of the medium to (1) carry a large volume of data and (2) convey meaning.32
More specifically, media richness refers to the ability of a medium to change human

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understanding, overcome different conceptual frames of reference, or clarify ambiguous issues in
a timely manner. Thus, where the mode of communication provides new substantial
understanding, it is considered “rich”; otherwise, it is “lean.” As tasks become more ambiguous,
managers should increase the richness of the media they use. For example, simple nonroutine
tasks can benefit from a communication medium that is lean, such as a memo, whereas complex
nonroutine tasks can benefit from a face-to-face or videoconferencing communication medium
that is rich.

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Part 3
Managing Interpersonal Processes
REVIEW
We always start a new section with a quick review of the previous section in order to make sure that every
learner is on the same page in terms of course flow, content and process. We use the course overview
slide as the basis for the review. The first part of the course explored the context within which individuals
function in organizational settings. We have established the boundaries and process of the course: The
field of study was defined, the learning community was established, expectations were shared and
examined, the learning community was established, and the nature of learning-in-action explored. The
second part of the book focused on understanding and managing individuals and examined four core
elements: Psychodynamics of human behavior, motivation, perception and communication. The nature of
the psychodynamics of human behavior within the context of work was explored. Examination of
motivation was followed by an exploration of the role of perception and perceptual differences among
individuals. The last module in the section addressed communications at the interpersonal level, at the
small-group level, and between groups. Parts one and two provide the foundation for the exploration of
interpersonal process – the focus of the next section - part three of the book.

PREVIEW OF PART 3
Understanding and managing interpersonal processes are the focus of the third part of the book. Five core
processes are the focus of the section: Leadership, mentoring, negotiations and conflict management,
team work and effectiveness and, team dynamics and performance. The first module in the section –
module 8 - starts with the exploration of leaders and the leadership process. Three broad perspectives that
emphasize a different aspect of the phenomenon: the leader-centric perspective, the follower-centric
perspective, and the interactional perspective are presented. The leader-centric perspective assumes that
leadership flows from characteristics of the leader. The follower-centric perspective assumes that
leadership is attributed to leaders by their followers, but has nothing to do with the leader’s traits or
actions. Finally, the interactional perspective assumes that leadership is a process that results from the
effective interaction of the leader with the situation and his or her followers. This module’s activities -
Exploring the Meaning of Leadership (Activity 8–1), Diagnosing Leadership Behavior (Activity 8-2),
Donny in My Leader Case (Activity 8-3), Creating a Dialogue with a Leader (Activity 8-4W), Least
Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale (Activity 8-5W) and, Exercising Your Leadership Skills (Activity 8-
6W) – provide an opportunity to develop an understanding of the learners’ leadership style, diagnose the
complex nature of leadership dynamics and provide an opportunity to develop leadership skills.

Next, in module 9, we focus on the development and management of mentoring relationship. The
mentoring relationship can have powerful and positive effects on the mentor, the protégé, and the
employing organization. This module’s activities – Exploring the Meaning of Mentoring and Other
Developmental Relationships (Activity 9-1), Mentoring at Work (Activity 9-2), A Tale of Two Proteges
in Two Formal Mentoring Programs (Activity 9-3), A Role Playing Involving a Student Mentoring
Program (Activity 9-4) and, Creating a Game Plan to Use Your Developmental Network to Aid Your
Career (Activity 9-5) - provide an opportunity to nurture the ability to develop and manage interpersonal
mentoring processes.

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,
Negotiations and conflict management – the focus of module 10 – are key interpersonal processes that
follow. The module presents conflict as a complex phenomenon and a multilevel concept that can have an
effect on behavior at the individual, group, and organizational levels. In this module we focus on conflict
at the individual, team, and intergroup levels within the organizational context. A framework that can
guide the examination of the dynamics between two or more work teams is reviewed. Intergroup
communication processes and the dynamics of conflict are focal points for the module. A significant
portion of the module is devoted to understanding the context and process that triggers conflict and
alternative orientations and processes for handling conflict. Five strategic intentions are presented for
handling conflict in a variety of situations. We argue that in situations where there is both conflict and
interdependence, the process used to deal with conflict is negotiation. Two basic types of negotiation,
distributed and integrative, are discussed. Finally, strategies and structures for negotiations are described.
This module’s activities–Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics (Activity 10–1), The Prisoners’
Dilemma (Activity 10–2), The SLO Corporation Dilemma (Activity 10–3), The Ugli Orange Case
(Activity 10-4), and Discovering How You Typically Handle Conflict (Activity 10-5) — provide an
opportunity to develop the ability to diagnose, handle individual and intergroup conflict, and create and
practice negotiation strategies.

Teams are a major focus of study throughout this course because teams and work groups are the basic
units of emerging, contemporary enterprises. Interestingly, teamwork is an old idea that is experiencing
renewal as a mechanism to carry out complex tasks and integrate work, people, and organizations. As of
late, the view of organizations as “teams of teams,” or team-based organization, seems to be taking hold.
Two modules are devoted to the understanding of managing team processes.

Module 11, team work and effectiveness, starts by providing an overview of teams, the historical, cultural
and global context for the emerging of teams at work and types of teams. Next the module focuses on
team decision-making and team problem-solving processes. A discussion about the application of teams
at work is followed by a brief examination of the impact of information technology on team behavior and
performance and the review of some of the major challenges that have emerged for teams at work. A wide
variety of activities were created for this module. The module’s activities include – Team Skills (Activity
11-1), Mountain Survival (Activity 11-2), Who Gets the Overtime role playing (Activity 11-3), Team
Development Assessment (Activity 11-4), Important Days Task (Activity 11–5W), Task 21 (Activity 11–
6W), Three Essential Process Tools for Team Development (Activity 11-7W), and Decision Making—
Japanese Style (Activity 11-8W). These activities should help you understand (1) the difference between
a group and a team and (2) why teams are so often used in organizations (3) the role of the manager in
facilitating group decision making and problem solving (4) ways in which creativity in problem solving
can be enhanced (5) specific ways in which organizations use teams (6) team problem-solving and team
decision-making process and skills (7) the diagnosis of team progress, skill level and development, and
(8) ways to gauge team progress and utilize process tools for team development. Together, the activities
provide an opportunity to diagnose and develop team skills and team leadership skills.

The last module in this part of the book – module 12 - focuses on group dynamics and performance. It is
important to note that group development is something that not all groups achieve over time but instead it
should be viewed as “a journey towards optimal functioning only some groups attained.” As such, the
module begins with two activities, Tower Building (Activity 12–1) and An Initial Inventory of Group
Dynamics (Activity 12–2), designed to help the learners work as a team on a creative task and reflect on
some of the dynamics that emerged within the team. The module explores in detail the factors that affect
group development and performance, including leadership, group structure, and member composition.
The dynamic nature of group development, the phases that groups progress through, and two models of
group development are presented and discussed. The phenomena of social loafing and cohesion are also
explored. The module ends with two activities to help the learner to develop further appreciation for

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individual differences and team development, The Plabaf Company Case (Activity 12–3) and Values in
Business (Activity 12–4). The Web provides three additional activities for group development—A Card
Game Called Norms (Activity 12–5W), Individual Role Assessment (Activity 12–6W), and Status on the
Campus (Activity 12–7W)—designed to help the learner focus on some of the dynamics at work within
the classroom learning teams. These activities should help enhance the understanding, conceptual
implications, and skills discussed in the module as well as the ability to influence the developmental
process and phases in the development of teams.

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MODULE 8
Leaders and Leadership

Module Overview
Leadership is a central concept in management, but it has been conceptualized in so many different ways
that it is difficult for instructors to provide students with a coherent story. We help them do so in this
chapter by classifying the most important leadership theories into three broad perspectives that emphasize
different aspects of the phenomenon: the leader-centric perspective, the follower-centric perspective, and
the interactional perspective. The leader-centric perspective assumes that leadership flows from
characteristics of the leader. The follower-centric perspective assumes that leadership is attributed to
leaders by their followers, but has nothing to do with the leader’s traits or actions. Finally, the
interactional perspective assumes that leadership is a process that results from the effective interaction of
the leader with the situation and his or her followers. Activities are provided to help students experience
and investigate leadership issues.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, the learner should be able to
1. Understand and explain what is leadership.
2. Explain the different leadership schools of thought and identify their complementary contribution to
our understanding of leaders, leadership, and leadership dynamics
3. Gain insights into their own leadership potential, its effect on others, and its effectiveness.
4. Prepare an intentional leadership development plan based on the learner’s own professional and life
goals.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 8–1: Exploring the Meaning of Leadership
Introduction
Leadership: An Overview
Leadership Defined
Leadership versus Management
Leadership: Multiple Views
The Leader-Centric Perspective on Leadership
The Trait Theory of Leadership
Leadership Style
The Follower-Centric Perspective on Leadership
The Interactional Perspective on Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Hersey and Blanchard’ Situational Leadership
Leadership Style and Culture
Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
Recent Themes
Emotional Intelligence and Primal Leadership
Leadership Development
Learning Leadership from Experience and Authentic Leadership Development
The Leadership Ladder
Leadership and the Development of Your Class Team
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 8–2: Diagnosing Leadership Behavior

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Activity 8–3: Donny Is My Leader

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 8–4W: Creating a Dialogue with a Leader
Activity 8–5W: Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale
Activity 8–6W: Exercising Your Leadership Skills

Teaching Notes
This Module includes

1. Notes on:
Session Sequencing
Activity 8-1: Exploring the Meaning of Leadership
Activity 8-2: Diagnosing Leadership Behavior
Activity 8-3: Donny is My Leader
Activity 8-4W: Creating a Dialogue with a Leader
Activity 8-5W: Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale
Activity 8-6W: Exercising Your Leadership Skills
Session/s’ outlines and mini lectures

2. Additional Activity:
Activity 8-7IM: Leadership Development - 360 Degree Feedback Instrument

Session Sequencing

Choices! Choices! Choices!

Leadership is such a vast topic and there is so much material available, theoretical, conceptual, historical,
testimonial, and researched, that it is most difficult to decide what is appropriate for a required basic OB
course lasting only a quarter or semester. One major consideration for an experimental course is to
continue building the learning community at this point and to get the newly formed teams started. If you
are fortunate enough to have classes as small as twenty or less, you can include more material in a course
and may have time to use the introductory Activities 8-1 and 8-4W. Smaller classes are also easier to
handle for these softer, less-structured activities. We frequently have classes of forty to sixty, which
require considerable time to process all the data teams generate. For the larger classes, the other
alternative is to go into the more-structured experiences of Activities 8-2 and 8-5W, where team activities
can be cut off, and a mini lecture given, and participants can still have a meaningful involvement
experience. Another alternative is to start with Activity 8-1 or 8-4W, provide an introduction lecture and
then proceed to Activity 8-2 or 8-5W. Yet, another alternative is to start with a case discussion based on
the students’ pre-session preparations of Activity 8-3 “Donny is My Leader”, and follow the case
discussion with one or two exercises and one or two mini lectures.

Activity 8-1: Exploring the Meaning of Leadership

If team assignments took place right before this activity, members should be given a few minutes to
introduce themselves. However, do not give them too much time, because the tension created by not
knowing about others is a good motivating factor. Ideally, conflict should be introduced into a team’s
interactions early in the course; this motivating force provides for a better group dynamics mix than a
bland experience. The resolution of conflict, the handling of conflict, can be one of the most important

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activities for learning about team dynamics and building. How much conflict? That is hard to answer.
One seems to be able to say what is too much or too little for a good learning experience, but its absence
is a disadvantage more on this as we go through the book.

Task 1: Ask the participants to take out a piece of note paper and be prepared to make notes. Read Task
1 afterwards, repeat, “See how creative you can be, let your minds probe back through your impressions.”
Allow five or more minutes to make notes.

Task 2: Read from the activity. Explain to students that after they’ve let their imagination run wild, this is
an opportunity for them to now use their analytical capabilities and figure out what their implicit theory of
leadership is: what are the implicit characteristics of leadership to them. Explain that the experiential
learning approach of this class assumes that for them to learn, they first need to understand their implicit
theory about a topic and then evolve this model with the help of modern research in management.

Task 3: Break students into groups and have them discuss their answers. This will help them further
clarify their implicit assumptions about leadership. Ask them to be prepared to share their insights with
the larger class. This is a good time to stop and explain the spokesperson process. Personal effectiveness
in business requires people to be able to make briefings or reports to a small group or for their work
group. Each participant should have opportunities to do this in this class. Therefore, the spokesperson
role for each team should be rotated as we go through the activities so all have an equal chance.

Task 4: Spokespersons are to report. After the spokesperson of a team has reported, ask other members
of that team if they have other ideas to contribute. If no one offers, call upon a couple, asking what they
had listed. This increases the idea mix and breaks up the formal spokesperson model, i.e., makes students
aware it is alright to get into the discussion. List some of the main ideas on the board to get the array of
impressions.

At the end of this activity you will have a backdrop to serve as a context for viewing the models of
leadership that will later be presented.

Time requirement should be about an hour: a ten-minute review of the first two modules at the start of
class and forty to fifty minutes for the activity.

Activity 8-2: Diagnosing Leadership Behavior*

Homework: Assign Activity 8-2, Task 1. Students must complete the leadership questionnaire and use
Appendix E to score it before class. You have the choice of working with average scores based upon the
1-5 scales, or using “high, moderate, low” summary scores suggested by the text. Give students guidance
with your assignment.

Purpose: The purpose is to examine the connection between behavioral leadership theory and the
student’s experience with a former boss. The activity can also be extended to demonstrate contingency
theory.

Task 1: If students have covered the text material on behavioral approaches, the connection between boss
ratings and Michigan leadership theory will be readily apparent. It may still be worthwhile to provide a
brief history of behavioral models and to emphasize the definitions for each dimension in the Michigan
model. While upward influence is not part of the original model, it is included here as an important

*
Contributed by Professor Michael Stebbins.

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addition to organization climate surveys on leadership. This added dimension is also included in the text
case example.

Task 2a: Task 2a asks students to meet with 5-6 other classmates or team members to share and discuss
the ratings. Each person has five minutes to describe a past work situation and discuss the boss’
leadership scores. Group members are to listen, and to ask clarifying questions concerning the
individual’s perceptions.

Task 2b: In some instances, the Michigan behavioral model offers an incomplete view of the leader’s
performance. Students are asked to determine whether the dimensions are related to job success. That is,
the boss might be rated high or low on Team Facilitation, but the amount of teamwork required by the
work could be low. What is needed from a leader in each example? Which dimensions are most related
to job success? The questions in the text help students determine the “fit” between their boss’ actual
behavior and ideal behavior required for the position.

Students are often able to bring in special demands of the work situation, and discuss whether or not the
boss was helpful or a barrier to meeting those demands.

Activity 8-3: Donny is My Leader Case

TEACHING NOTES FOR: DONNY IS MY LEADER, DONNY IS MY LEADER (WITH
COMMENTARY), AND INTERVIEW NOTES WITH DOC.

This case study on leadership is written as a pedagogical tool. It reflects the personal experiences of one
of the authors as a participant observer. The case is accompanied by a running commentary about the
meaning of the events in leadership terms. The running commentary developed from a sharing of the case
experiences, as they happened, with the other author. The running commentary is intended to be useful to
the teacher when discussing the case in class and to others who might read it outside the classroom
situation. The running commentary is an application of the leadership theories discussed at the end of the
case, namely Idiosyncrasy Theory and Path-Goal Theory, in terms of specific behaviors of Donny, the
leader, and his interaction with group members.

The instructor may choose to use the case with commentary (ICCH 9-481-667) or to present the case to
the students without the authors’ running commentary and the associated interpretation (ICCH 9-481-
666). If these interpretive comments are excluded from the students’ version of the case the instructor can
lead the class discussion to arrive at the students’ opinions and insights, and supplement their opinions
and insights with the authors’ interpretations as judged to be appropriate for each class.

This case on leadership can be interpreted theoretically in terms of both Hollander’s Idiosyncrasy Theory
and House’s Path-Goal Theory of Leadership. It is recommended for purposes of giving students insight
into the leadership process. The instructor can either assign readings describing the two theories* or the
instructor can describe the theories to students as part of a class lecture.

Idiosyncrasy Theory
The case does not offer a description of how Donny emerges as the leader. According to idiosyncrasy
theory he would have been predicted to have met the requirements of group norms, whatever they were,

*
These teaching notes were prepared by Professor Robert J. House and Associate Professor Harvey F.
Kolodny of the Faculty of Management Studies of the University of Toronto.

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and also to have demonstrated the ability to contribute significantly to group goals which presumably
concern achievement in running. We are introduced to the case after Donny has achieved leadership
status. However, what takes place from then on clearly indicates that Donny has a high level of technical
expertise and uses this expertise to help members of the group to accomplish personal objectives while at
the same time enforcing norms of group performance, that is, running at one’s highest level and running
with the group, rather than out-running the group or running in isolation from the group.

Donny exerts his influence with four major strategies. First he encourages members to set challenging
goals for themselves, although he occasionally dictates a goal. Second he evaluates their performance
against two criteria: (1) their own goals and (2) the membership norms of running with the group and
performing at one’s highest level of accomplishment. Third, he uses psychological coercion to enforce
these group norms by publicly criticizing and shaming members who violate the norms. Fourth, he uses
psychological support and technical expertise to help group members adhere to the norms and accomplish
goals.

Note that the norms of supportiveness apply to all members except Donny. He is the only one free to
initiate criticism of group members. When he does this, others join in. However, when others are
independently critical of the group members or when they fail to offer support, he chastises them. Thus
Donny has “idiosyncratic credit”, that is, he is allowed to violate common member expectations. The
expectations members have for Donny are different from the expectations they have from other members.
He is allowed these idiosyncratic expectations as long as he contributes visibly to group goals. His
idiosyncratic credit, or status as a leader, is determined and maintained by his ability to contribute
something unique to group functioning and goal attainment. Donny appears to recognize this and
constantly prevents others from making the same kind of contribution to the group that he makes.
Hollander notes that high-status people are likely to be perceived more favorably than low-status people.
Their motives are likely to be viewed as more benevolent and more in the interests of the group. One
implication of this hypothesis is that once a strong attribution of leadership has taken place, the behavior
of the person to whom leadership is attributed is likely to reinforce the attribution. Consequently, high-
status people are likely to have significantly more opportunities to earn idiosyncratic credits than low
status people because of this attribution process. Thus the theory implies that, other factors remaining
equal, status begets status.

We see Donny using his status as the leader to gain more status, reduce the status of others competing for
leadership and maintain his current status. Thus we see him always alert to challenges from others and
quick to undermine or discredit those challenges, as in the example of Herb’s short-lived and abortive
attempt to divide the group and take over leadership of the divided part.

Donny uses his technical competence together with a particular kind of social competence, namely
competence in articulating group goals. In enforcing group norms publicly Donny demonstrates that he
has an identification with the group. He is clearly closely involved in the group’s activities and places a
high value on meeting group goals, maintaining group cohesion and enforcing group norms. Thus he is
seen as loyal to the needs and aspirations of the group members.

Donny can be seen as engaging in three behavioral processes that are hypothesized to be important in
determining leadership effectiveness. He provides the group with structure by stating and enforcing
group goals and norms and by directing others to perform specific functions (pacer, timer, helper, etc.).
Secondly, he maintains flexibility by allowing members to vary their pace and length of run according to
how they feel on a given day as long as they give their all (an explicit norm). He also maintains
flexibility by varying the directions he gives to new members or trial members of the group. He varies
these directions according to the needs of the members of the group. He varies these directions according
to the needs of the members and according to their abilities and aspirations. Thirdly, he manages social

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relations among members. He encourages support, praise, criticism or blame in a way that others
perceive as fair, even if harsh. The result is that he provides the group with assurances of dependability,
predictability and fairness. The specific behaviors he employs are: a) goal setting jointly with each
member, b) coaching, and c) praise or criticism based on performance.

Path Goal Theory

The Path Goal Theory can also be used to further understand why Donny is effective as a leader. First,
the theory asserts that leader behavior will be acceptable and satisfying to followers to the extent that they
see it as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction. In the case of
Donny, it is his ability to be supportive when members find running difficult that constitutes an
immediate source of satisfaction. It is his expertise in coaching, which is instrumental to future
satisfaction.

Further, the theory asserts that leader behavior will be motivational to the extent that it: 1) makes
satisfaction of follower needs contingent on effective performance and 2) compliments the environment
or abilities of subordinates by providing the coaching, guidance, support and rewards which are necessary
for effective performance and which may otherwise be lacking in subordinates or in their environment.

In this case, we see Donny clearly making satisfaction contingent on adhering to group norms, which may
be viewed as criteria for effective performance. Failure to adhere to group norms (that is failure to be
effective in the sense of running one’s best) brings down Donny’s wrath which is usually followed by
criticism from other members. Thus failure deprives members of satisfaction. Success means praise and
recognition which are of course satisfying to recipients. Thus we see that Donny’s behavior meets the
requirements of making satisfaction of follower needs contingent on performance. Secondly, Donny
compliments the abilities of subordinates through his coaching and his psychological support while
running. He publicly demonstrates that without his expertise, the group loses track of how far it has run,
and consequently, individuals fail to pace themselves adequately. He also provides psychological support
to members at the critical times required, that is, he is selective in his use of psychological support. He
uses it when individuals most need it—when they are either new to running or towards the end of the run
when they find running most difficult.

The psychological functions Donny performs for the group are suggested by Path Goal Theory. First he
arouses the desire to do well by stressing the individual’s obligation to the group and by defining
excellence in running in terms of giving one’s all. The use of excellence as a standard of performance
rather than recreation or sociability arouses the individual’s achievement needs and enhances his or her
motivation to run well. Since the value of doing one’s best is enhanced by Donny’s behavior, goal
attainment naturally results in more satisfaction than if doing one’s best were not so highly valued. Thus,
by stressing the importance of doing one’s best Donny also increases the value of personal payoffs to
followers for goal attainment. Goal clarification and coaching by Donny serves to clarify what
individuals can expect of their own efforts and to enhance such expectancies. That is, as a result of goal
clarification and coaching, individuals are more likely to have higher expectations of themselves, and to
live up to these expectancies. Finally, coaching and psychological support when running becomes
difficult serves to reduce frustrations and to increase performance.

Conclusion
Donny’s leadership behavior and its effect can be analyzed and interpreted in terms of the above two
theories of leadership. The interpretations are somewhat different but not inconsistent or conflicting.
Idiosyncratic Theory is primarily concerned with explaining the emergence and maintenance of informal
(non-elective and non-appointed) leadership. Path Goal Theory is primarily concerned with the
motivational effects of leader behavior, regardless of whether the leader is a formal or informal leader.

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Further, Idiosyncratic Theory is primarily concerned with the leader’s effects on the group whereas Path
Goal Theory is primarily concerned with the effects of the leader’s behavior on the motivation of
individuals. As such the two theories are complementary and both yield interesting insights about the
leadership process and its effects.

REFERENCE NOTE

The recommended readings are: House, R.J. and Baetz, M.L., “Leadership: Some Empirical
Generalizations and New Research Directions,” in Research in Organization Behavior, Vol. 1, pp. 341-
423 and; House, R.J. and Mitchell, T.R., “Path Goal Theory of Leadership,” in Journal of Contemporary
Business, Autumn 1974, pp. 81-97.

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 DONNY IS MY LEADER (WITH COMMENTARY)1

The first day I joined the team Donny asked me how far I was going to run. The team had a goal of
running two miles, every Monday, Wednesday and Friday morning, at a fairly fast pace—about 8 minutes
a mile. That is not fast by any track club’s standard; but it’s fairly fast for 33-45 year old occasional
“jocks”. I said I’d try for one mile and a half, a distance I had occasionally managed to complete over the
past several months of jogging by myself. I ran at the tail end of the team and did, in fact, run the mile
and a half. We run on a small inside track at the “Y” which has 18 laps to a mile. At the end of 27 laps, a
mile and a half, Donny turned and shouted back to me from his place at the front of the group, “OK,
Harvey, that’s enough!” And I stopped.

When the others finished, some did the two miles, On the very first time out, Donny sets a pattern of
others dropped out at different distances—as little what we will subsequently see to be as effective and
as a mile, Donny came over and congratulated me. consistent leadership behavior. He asks Harvey to
He told me I’d run well. He suggested I try adding set an ACHIEVABLE goal for himself, offers him a
three more laps next time, stay at that level for a psychological reward when he does so, and then
while, and then add another three until I reached encourages him to even higher, but still achievable,
the 36 laps or two mile objective of the team. goals.

This case was prepared by Associate Professor Harvey F. Kolodny and Professor Robert J. House of the
Faculty of Management Studies of the University of Toronto, July 1980. All rights reserved by the
authors.
1
The instructor may choose to use the case as it is presented here or to present the case to the students
without the authors’ running commentary and interpretations. The latter version is entitled only “Donny
Is My Leader”.

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The “team” is a very informal collection of people with no formally appointed leader. Donny, however,
is referred to as “the coach”. The team has existed for a while with a small hard core and with others who
come and go. The regulars comprise Donny, who always runs on the right side of the “pacer” who is
almost always “Choc”, & Herb, who runs about fourth and takes over as a leader when Donny is away.
Barrie generally runs third and sometimes sets the pace but is sort of an irregular regular since he
occasionally forsakes the group for a squash game or gets in late after a hard night. Harry and Larry are
two recent regulars. Larry always runs last and Harry runs just ahead of me. There are three or four
others who occasionally join us. On some mornings there are nine running.

RAIL

C HO C
HA RVEY

HARRY
LA RRY

BA RRIE
HE RB
DO NNY
WALL

My second day was a beautiful, warm morning and we ran outside. I quit after a mile and quarter. Harry
quit after a mile. No one said anything to us about the running - neither good nor bad.

My third day and my big mistake! Donny and the team have made Harvey aware that
I vowed to run one mile and 22 laps to myself, each person has to run as hard as they could on
three better than my previous inside run. At the that particular day.. In other words, it was alright
end of the eleventh lap of the second mile I still had to run 36 laps one day and only 25 the next day if
a little left in me so I sprinted the last lap, passing that was the best that the person could do on that
everyone. I’d noticed that all the finishers usually day. This was a team or grown Norm - that you
sprinted for the last one or two laps. However, had to do your best. Two miles was one team
when he was done, Donny came over and severely GOAL and completing each mile in eight minutes
castigated me. How could I possibly have or less was another goal. But whether you could
sprinted? If I could sprint I must have had some finish two miles or not and whether or not you
strength left in me and therefore I could have gone could do it at an eight minute per mile pace, you
for several more laps; in fact I might even. nevertheless had to abide by the norm of giving in.

180
have been able to finish the two miles. He verbally all you had on that particular day.
lashed out at me several times both on the track and
back down in the locker room. The others joined
in, though in a more teasing mode. They said that
next time I was not only going to run the two miles,
but they would make me set the pace.

Soon after this occurrence, Harry became the Harry’s behavior and the subsequent reaction to it
culprit, and the victim of Donny’s wrath. We did by Donny brought to light another team norm. Two
each lap in about 28 seconds. Donny was the time miles in 16 minutes was hard to run. To do so
keeper. He shouted out the time for the first lap required the maximum amount of supportiveness
and for the first mile and he counted out every from every member for every other member. The
second lap each time we passed the starting point team’s goals were to finish the two miles in good
(where a wall clock was mounted). Donny time and to have as many team members as
constantly encouraged us to keep going. Herb and possible do so. To be negative was to undercut the
Larry did so too. They called out milestones, support needed to achieve the difficult goals. To be
“Three-quarters done!” or “Two-thirds done!” or negative was to fly in the face of the team norm of
“Five laps to go!” Near the end of the run they supportiveness. To challenge a team norm was to
kept up a steady stream of comments to urge those invite harsh and retaliatory criticism; and Harry
of us who were struggling to keep going and to try received just that.
to finish the distance. On this particular day, at the
end of the first lap Harry said, “Hey, we’re going
too fast! We did it in 20 seconds”. It was a bad
day. Quite a few of us didn’t finish. Donny was
angry. He took it out on Harry repeatedly. He said
that Harry’s statement was incorrect and,
furthermore, it had discouraged several of the team
members making them, including me, quit. He
carried on all the way down to the locker room, in
the showers, and even into the next running day.

An incident somewhat similar to my own

experience occurred about two years after I first
joined the team. By this time we were all up to
three miles a day. A fellow named David joined us
on the track. He ran two miles at first, while we
ran three, but he soon got up to two and a half
miles. Then one day it looked as if he might be
able to make the three miles so Donny slowed
down and ran with him for the remaining three
quarters of a mile. At first Donny harangued him
very loudly, you could hear him all around the
track, for threatening to quit. Then, as David came
closer to completing the distance Donny became
gentle and encouraged him on until David made it.
David was very excited; and we all congratulated
him on his success.

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The next time out David was having a hard time At first Donny attempts to shame David into
repeating the three mile distance so Donny slowed completing the distance. Then he becomes very
down to urge him on and asked us all to encourage considerate, encouraging him and urging him on.
him. We all did, most by running slowly with him The rest of the team takes the lead from Donny and
and talking it up and David did successfully collectively exercise the supportiveness norm.
complete the three miles that day.

However, the next time out it looked certain that

David wouldn’t make it. It was hot and we were all
dragging. Donny dropped back to help David
along for the last one half mile while the better
runners sprinted ahead to complete the distance. I
stayed back, running behind David. Donny told me
to go ahead, that it was okay because he would take
care of David. But I was exhausted and said that I
would just continue running along behind him,
slowly, because I just couldn’t go any faster. We
all finished together and then David, to everyone’s
surprise, kept going and ran for several more laps.
I was walking slowly with Donny, to settle down
after the run, and he was livid with rage. “What David exceeded the team’s goal of three miles by
does he think he’s doing?” he exclaimed. “I’ve got running farther. That was alright. Several of the
to teach that boy something!” team members do so occasionally. However, they
do so by running at a constant pace and continuing
As David passed us on the track, Donny shouted on or by sprinting with the team and then
out at him several times along the lines of “What continuing. David had chosen to violate that
do you think you’re doing?” Then, when David pattern. Moreover, in doing so he had disrupted
stopped, Donny walked up to him and chewed his Donny’s personal running pattern because Donny
ear off. “We are all here to run three miles,” he enjoyed sprinting at the end of the run and, usually,
said, “and if you have enough in you to go further, out-running the rest of the team who sprinted for
then you should try and sprint with the others at the the finish. David’s stab at independence might
end. The goal is to make three miles and with the have been tolerated, if it had not been purchased at
rest of us if you can. Don’t you understand? I Donny’s personal expense.
dropped back and ran with you to help you through
and then you just kept running on. Next time, if
you have something left in you, just sprint a little
harder a little earlier”. David apologized.

The Training of Troy

One morning Donny showed up with a rather
corpulent gentleman and introduced him around as
Troy and as someone new who was going to run
with us. Troy was not a very good runner. Donny
said he would spend his time with Troy and not run
alongside Choc, the pacer. The first morning,
amidst a lot of puffing, panting and perspiring,
Troy ran about six laps, he told Troy to stop
running and just walk for a bit. Then Donny ran up
alongside the rest of us taking, eventually, his
regular place at the head of the team.

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Donny did this for many mornings thereafter. Each
morning he set increasingly difficult targets for
Troy and mixed them up a bit, e.g., “This morning
you’ll walk five laps after you’ve run ten and then
you’ll run with us for four more”. This was a Supportiveness was an important group norm.
typical instruction. Then Donny would run ahead Donny reinforces it strongly with his pattern of
to join us after running alongside Troy at a slightly
helping Troy. And it’s alright to desert the regular
slower pace for the first few laps. team to help the newcomer because it is a kind of
expression of confidence in the regular team
After a while, we got used to the idea of Donny members’ capabilities.
being all over the track: sometimes behind us,
encouraging Troy on; sometimes ahead of us,
pacing alongside of Choc. After a month or two,
Troy was up to a mile and was running with the
rest of us.

Weigh-In
Once a month, Donny had us weigh in. At that Donny demonstrates another characteristic of good
time, we set our objectives for how much weight leadership style—uncertainty reduction. He always
we would lose by the next weigh-in. He made a tries to have the team know in advance what the
big occasion out of it, talking about it several days goals are or what the courses of action are that will
before, advising us to begin to fast a few days be taken.
before, and culminating with a rather ceremonious
act on the day of the weigh-in.

Stepping out to the scale he asked each person to Once again, achievable goals are set. Unlike the
announce his objective, then weighed him, and two mile goal situation, everyone had a different
made a large fanfare about those who had achieved body structure and a different capacity to control
their objective and those who hadn’t. We were put their weight. Hence the goals Donny has the team
into two groupings: those who’d reached target and members set for themselves are each different, each
those who had not. Each one who didn’t was set to be in a range achievable by each member.
publicly castigated, in humor, and asked to reset One person can succeed well by dropping two
goals for the next weigh-in. The successful ones pounds while another can fail even with a weight
were not pressed. reduction of five pounds.

The next running day after the weigh-in there was a Donny adds some ritual to the process, as well as a
great ceremony. Herb received a jersey on which reward. He, of course, also won a team jersey; so
was printed “Doctor D’s Track Team”. Choc had the incentive to control one’s weight and to run
had them made up and kept them in his locker consistently well is all that greater because the
waiting for the appropriate occasion to have one higher status team members have shown that they
handed out. Herb was the only one to be awarded. value the reward and its accompanying behavior.
He had not only consistently run the distance, he
had also made his weight target. Donny let us all
know that he wasn’t going to be generous about
giving the others out—even though they were all
ready and printed.

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Only consistent demonstrations of performance
across several fronts would merit a “Doctor D’s
Track Team” jersey.
The Breaking of Bruce
Bruce was a bit younger than most of us, in his late
twenties. He had been running with us and had
been mocking Donny a bit about how slow he ran.
One morning, Bruce set out in the first lap and
passed Donny and Choc and everyone else and
proceeded to finish well ahead of everyone. Donny
castigated him for doing so, for setting so severe a
pace that he could not possibly maintain it
consistently, even if he had done so on that
particular day. Well that was the beginning of
quite a situation. Next time out, Donny and Bruce
and John (who joined us occasionally) were all
running well ahead of the rest of us and lapping us
once or twice in the process. John runs well and
quickly. Donny had set the pattern for his running
by telling him, before we started, how to pace
himself, how often to lap us, etc. Donny stayed
with him most of the way, but not all the way all
the time. Bruce ran ahead too. However, he
appeared to listen less to Donny’s advice, in fact,
not to take it at all. At first he was going great
guns. He would lap us two and even three times,
finishing the 2 miles in times as quick as 14 and
one half minutes. However, he was doing it
independently of Donny, while John, in contrast
was getting better, but under Donny’s tutelage.
Soon, John was outperforming Bruce, and Bruce
was, in fact, slowing down. He was soon back to
running with the team. Donny challenged him
almost every day about his pace and pattern of
running. Soon he was running regularly with the
whole team and then even a little behind the team.
I know, because he would run just ahead of me, and
I was one of the slower runners.

Donny would harass Bruce quite a bit in the locker Bruce blatantly challenged Donny’s leadership
room by telling him that he wouldn’t last and by role. He paid no attention to Donny’s authority to
telling some of Bruce’s buddies who were also give direction and he ignored the “technical
there in the morning but didn’t run with us, that competence” that Donny used to advise and
they would have to do something about the poor counsel team members with respect to their
boy because he was getting beyond himself. It running styles and patterns of running.
appeared to have a significant effect on Bruce
because he kept slowing down, and then, one very
hot muggy day near the end of June, when many in
the group ran poorly and quit after a mile, Bruce

184
pulled up short of one mile. Donny was sort of
gloating in the locker room afterwards. He told
everyone, particularly Bruce’s buddies, quietly of
course, what happened. He told them they would
have to get the poor boy’s morale up again. He
said to me coming out of the showers, “Well, we
broke him, psychologically. Now we’ll have to
build him up again”.

About one year later I asked Donny why he had

broken Bruce. He didn’t respond immediately, but
later, while we were running, he shouted back to
me, “I have an answer to your question”. And he
answered with a question. “Why does a parent
discipline a child?”

Emergent Leadership
On a Friday, not too long after I first joined the Herb took an important team goal, finishing the
team, Donny was absent. Herb took over as leader distance, and increased its importance while
that day. He took over by asking us each how far downgrading a secondary goal, eight minutes per
we planned to run and by assuring us that we would mile. Since finishing was easier when the team ran
run slower in order to make sure that everyone was slower, Herb’s change in goal emphasis was
able to finish. quickly welcomed.

He stressed this repeatedly—that we would go slow

so everyone might finish. And that way, we all did,
including two members, and I was one of them,
who had never been able to do two miles before.
Everyone felt great and some joking remarks were
made about how we had to make Herb our new
leader.

Herb left for a one week holiday that weekend and

Donny reappeared to lead us on the next running
day, a Monday. It was a tough run. Several of us
quit early and Donny catigated everyone who quit,
particularly Harry. Harry muttered about how he
preferred running under Herb. The rest of the week
was average, no great performance. On the
following Monday Herb returned, and Donny, for A discrepancy had begun to arise between Donny’s
the first time in years, failed to show up because he clear leadership style with its strong actions and
had slept in. Herb took charge and we all ran the harsh reprimands and Herb’s gentle approach that
two miles again. I looked forward with anxious appears to accomplish the same with less of the
anticipation to Wednesday when both Donny and accompanying stress.
Herb would be there together.

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Wednesday turned out to be a strange running day.
It happened this way: Donny took the right lead
position beside Choc and Herb was two positions
back. After less than a mile, Choc faltered badly
and began to slow down. Barrie, running behind,
took over as pacer. But as Choc fell back, Herb fell
back and kept pace with Choc. Harry, Larry and I
were behind them and stayed there. Meanwhile
Donny and the three others in front moved ahead,
and as they continued a normal pace and we kept
slowing down, the gap between us widened. We
were two separate groups running. Those of us
behind Choc and Herb, who were still running side
by side, didn’t know what to make of it. He
muttered about getting farther behind, but made no
specific effort to pass Choc and Herb and catch up
to the front group. Donny kept turning and
shouting over his shoulder at all of us in the back
sub-group to move up, gesturing constantly with
his arm and looking very worried about what was
happening. In the meantime the gap widened.

Then Donny did something unusual. Leaving the Herb made an abortive bid for leadership. When
front group to fend for itself, he dropped all the Donny challenged his bid Herb lost his courage
way back to our sub-group and urged us to keep and conceded the role to Donny.
running ahead. He commenced with Herb, getting
him to leave Choc’s side and run ahead. And Herb
did. Choc was slowing down more and more.
Donny urged us all ahead of Choc and soon we
were all running, not as we normally do in a tight
group, but spread out and scattered all along the
track.

Then Donny took another assertive action. He Donny’s anxiety about the events was evident, but
dropped all the way back behind everyone to take he displayed the aggressive integrity of his style by
up a position, his usual one, alongside Choc, who taking several strong actions, particularly one
was lagging very far behind now. And though we action in helping Choc that strongly reinforced a
were all ahead of him, and it was clear he wasn’t highly valued team norm.
going to complete the two miles in any kind of
time, Donny stayed alongside Choc all the way,
urging him on in a constant and very audible voice.
We all kept going and we all finished. Donny
stayed with Choc and with Donny’s help, he too
finished. Admittedly, the pace was much slower
than normal, but Choc did finish. After that most
of us ran the two miles almost every time out,
under the “original” coach’s direction.

186
Challenging the Leader
Larry usually ran in last place with the team. One summer he broke his ankle playing baseball and he
didn’t run with us for most of the year. Then he started running again, sometimes joining us for short
periods, sometimes running before or after us, sometimes faster for short spurts, though usually slower.
He was slowly getting back in top shape.

Then one day he took his usual position at the rear

as we were starting. After the first few laps, Donny
had not called out the number of laps and Larry
chose to call them out, loudly. Someone kibitzed
and said that wasn’t his job. I chipped in jokingly
and said that I liked it when Larry called the laps.
It was like old times again, I said, having Larry
back. So Larry kept calling the laps out as we
completed them and Donny, up front, said nothing.

Then Larry lost count somewhere around the 8th or Leaders are always being challenged, sometimes in
9th lap. I shouted to Donny, up front, to tell us very small ways, as when Larry attempted to take
where we were but he wouldn’t answer. I feel kind over the small but important task of keeping the
of lost when I don’t know what I’ve run so I asked team informed about how far they had run. As with
a few more times, “Would someone please say any other role, the leadership role requires
where we are?” Donny didn’t answer. Then, after practice and so Larry stumbled. Donny is ever
a while, in a loud voice, he said, “Strictly for conscious of his position and did not hesitate to use
Harvey, that was one mile we just passed”. The the occasion to remind the team of his value to
next mile, he gave us two counts, one at the half them.
mile and one at the end of the second mile.
Normally he would count out every two laps, i.e.
nine times in a mile. In the third mile he gave us
three counts.

At the end of the run he muttered something about

“Teaching you guys respect the hard way”.

I was away one week when a new fellow, Bradley, joined the group. He ran two miles with the team but
showed up on the morning I returned complaining about his leg. He said the tight corners on the track
had bothered him, particularly because we always ran in the same direction.

Choc was on vacation so Herb took up the pacer

position and Donny ran along side him. After
several laps Donny looked back at Bradley and said
he could see why he was hurting. He was doing
something wrong. Donny dropped back to run with
him and talk to him; which he did for quite a while.

187
Then he made some kidding remarks from his
position near the back of the group about how Herb
was burning up the track and would never have the
stamina to keep it up. Someone else made an aside
about how leaders shouldn’t undermine their
subordinates. Donny was running beside me at that
point and muttered, “Yeah, but if you don’t
undermine a subordinate who challenges the leader,
you become an ex-leader”.

Then he turned to me and said, “That reminds me Donny, as leader, is always conscious that his role
of the time I was in the office of a chief executive I must be guarded. Expectations are set that the
know. His company normally placed their leader will behave as a leader and in Donny’s case,
insurance through my agency but someone in the he interprets this as a need to constantly reinforce
organization had placed it with a competitor that his role and occasionally denigrate anyone else’s
year. I found out and came to see him and I was aspirations in this regard, as in the case of Herb.
mad. I shouted and yelled at him. And he said,
“Don’t you think you are over-reacting?” I said,
the cemeteries are filled with insurance agents who
under-reacted”.

188
Interview with Doc Lyons
Could you say a few things about yourself, your background, what you do, how you began coaching?
I was born in Toronto in 1936. I went to the University of Toronto for a BA, University of Toronto Law
School, practiced law until 1964, then went into the insurance brokerage business which I am still in. I
also own a restaurant where I spend my evenings. I am looking for a third job from midnight to 6 AM so
I can die a lot earlier.

When did you first find yourself doing coaching?

From the early days when I started playing sports. I am a sports junkie. Picking teams — things like that.
My first real recall was with the water polo team at the University of Toronto. I played on the Junior
Varsity and I coached the interfaculty UC (University College) team. In fact, we lost in the final. I can
still remember every detail of that game. That’s when I learned that wins aren’t that important but losses
kill.

What made you believe you had a useful role as a coach as opposed to a player?
The first time I recognized that was when I started reclaiming fat old people for running. I wanted to get
back in shape when I was in my 40s. I wanted to run. I discovered quickly that I can’t run by myself. I
needed other bodies. So I’d get friends to come and run with me. And then the group became kind of
big. I learned about rewards. About giving different colored T-shirts if they could run a mile, a colored
T-shirt if they could run 2 miles. It didn’t matter if a man was worth a million dollars, he wanted the
hottest color T-shirts because that proved that he had achieved something.

We were really, then, the first group that you coached. Yet you had all the right instincts, did all the right
things relatively quickly.
You were my guinea pigs.

This was over a period of about two years, maybe less than that. In that short period of time, you took a
lot of who had really never done anything and, apart from running the 2 or 3 miles that are in the case
study, quite a few of those guys went on to run marathons.
Lots of them did. Lots of them did. The first thing you learn is if you take a fat middle-aged man, you
take him out to run on the streets and everybody leaves him. He quits running. Because he wants to be
with the group. So the first rule you make is that everyone runs at the speed of the slowest runner, for a
certain part of the run. So the person who violates that, has to be whipped a little bit, has to learn what the
parameters are. Everybody is allowed to sprint in the last quarter of a mile, or half mile, but for the
balance of the run, you run with the slow runner. It doesn’t take long for him to come up to the norm.

Was this a realization you had instinctively or did you think about it a lot?
Well, I thought about it, but I also saw beginners come out to run with us once or twice and quit. You ask
them why they quit and they say, “Well, what do I have to run with your group for? I was alone all the
time.” So you learn that the majority of runners find it a social activity. The great runners—my wife—
she runs alone, she doesn’t need anybody. She can run her 8-10 miles a day and doesn’t need people.
But most people like to have a body beside them.

You also seemed to have a natural instinct for rewards and for the right kind of motivation for different
individuals. Again was that something you thought about or did it just come naturally?
It’s a natural thing. I don’t know. Does a mother know when to kiss her child or to spank him. There’s
an instinct.

If someone wasn’t behaving for the good of the group, so you whip him. You can whip him a hundred
different ways. You can talk to him. You can insult him. Or else if somebody left the pack, and was

189
going to show how fast they were, I’d send someone out who is faster just to beat him, so he would know
he wasn’t all that fast.

After you stopped sort of coaching our group, and I can’t remember how long that period of time was,
what did you do next?
When I was coaching your group, I got a call from an ex-professional hockey player, who had been on
two Stanley Cup teams and asked me if I would coach their old-timer hockey team. They wanted to see if
they could win the world over-35 championship. I asked him, of course, because I knew nothing about it,
“What is old-timer?” He explained to me—over 35 years of age. The next question was “Why me? I’ve
never coached hockey?” Well, he said, “We don’t need skills. We’re all ex-professionals. We need
motivation.”

So I went out to a practice and there were people like Paul Henderson and half the Hall of Fame skating
and I asked a couple of people why they didn’t coach these NHLers. They seem to know a lot about
hockey. They said, “You can’t coach these people. They chew coaches up. Nobody can last.” Well that
to me was me. If somebody was going to be chewed up it was going to be the players. It wasn’t going to
be me.

Well that was seven years. We won five world championships. We were in Germany, Paris, Nice,
Moscow. The Canadian Military flew us over to their bases in Germany to entertain. So that was really
exciting. From ’84 to ’90.

At the same time, one of my runners wanted to enter a mixed team in a race which included some ladies,
and that was my first introduction to female runners. Which was really fun because they listened. They
trained hard and they listened. So at that point I got rid of all men runners. I went to lady runners.
Which was Spring and Summer. I went to them from men’s hockey. So I changed sports. I changed
seasons and I changed sex. And that went three years and that became Doc’s Angels which was probably
the best ladies relay team in Canada.

We read about them, especially there was an article in the (Toronto) Star about their running the race in
Jasper-Banff and beating out teams that were a lot better or had a lot more experience.
Well, the first time we went we won and we set a ladies record. We were an all-women’s team. And then
the Calgary team that was the favorite, said “Would we come back? They would be ready for us.” We
said, “We’ll be back.” By this point, the team had so much momentum, women from the Olympic team
wanted to run for us. While they might have been ready, I might have had twice as good a team. We
broke our own record by over two hours. We beat the RCMP all-men’s team. We beat the LA Police
Department men’s team. We beat a lot of good teams.

Preparing for that is different. That’s like an Entebbe raid. That’s like guerrilla war. You’re running in
the mountains. You’re running with bears. You’re running at night. It is a totally different preparation.

Did a lot of that early experience at the ‘Y’—you coached us at the ‘Y’ but you were also coaching
runners up around Upper Canada College—in the morning we would occasionally see you with bunches
of people when we were running by—did all of that prepare you for this?
Oh, no question. Even the hockey prepared me. Because there would always be one hockey player that
would challenge you. He was leaving the bench. He was going home. Everybody would say, “Your
captain just left.” I’d say, “Let him go.” And ten minutes later he’d come back. Contrite. And when the
players have tested you and they understand the one thing you want is the same thing they want, which is
victory, and then you are all on the same page. And then you can change the methods by which you
handle them.

190
What part of coaching gives you the most satisfaction?
Probably understanding which button to push with which different athlete. You know you can make a
speech to your lady runners or your hockey team, which is a team speech. But every individual is
different. I had a player that if he made nine mistakes in a hockey game and you mention one to him,
quietly on the bench, you might as well not play him anymore. He’d be destroyed. You had to pat him
on the back after a hundred mistakes and tell him he was doing well. My captain, the more I insulted him,
the better he played. So once you understand each guy, you know which buttons to push.

So different styles really become important to you.

Well, that to me is the thing that is interesting - the psychology of the athlete and how you can use that for
the team to be successful. My Captain, Mike Walton, was on the last Leafs Stanley Cup in ’67, the last
Bruin Cup in ’72, and the more I insulted him the better he played. Now I recognize that because that’s
how I get motivated. I like when people scream at me. But most people don’t react favorably to that.
They need a pat on the back. I could tell him in a tie game in overtime that he was a disgusting Captain, a
disgrace to the team, that he’s done nothing. Thirty seconds later he’d score the winning goal and come
back and sneer at me, “Is that better?” “Yeh. That’s a lot better.”

When people read the “Donny Is My Leader” case, your style becomes clear and it upsets a lot of people
who read it. They see it as very authoritarian and at the same time, almost everybody who you coached
seems to thrive on it. Are there some people who don’t thrive under that style?
Some probably. Even a politician doesn’t get one hundred percent of the votes. As long as the majority
are happy, and improving, and enjoying, and getting fit.

Have your views on coaching changed over the years?

They’ve changed in so far as now I have children. So I have a ten year old son who’s got my wife’s
genes, who’s an excellent athlete. I sit back and I watch. I watch coaches abuse kids, I’m not saying
sexually or physically, but abuse them, scream at them, swear at them. I see coaches take the fun out of
the game for young kids. Because I want to win so badly when I coach, I would never coach kids because
I want a non-Doc Lyons to coach my kid. I want to see a guy coach my kid who pats him on the head. I
want to see the kids giggling. I just want to see them learning. I want to see them learning fundamentals.
So that’s changed.

At what age level or what kind of people would you say your style kicks in?
Adults.

Darryl Sittler left the NHL in 1986. Two weeks later he was on a plane that went to Paris for the world
over-35 championship. He was told by the players in the dressing room. I didn’t say a word. Here’s how
it works. We win, the Doc throws a party. We lose, stay away from him. Professionals understand that,
because there is always a reward. It’s financial. We lose—stay out of my way. Now whether I was
really as angry as they thought is not important. As long as I could do that charade and let them think
that.

At the same time, I noticed when I spoke with you once before, you dwelled a lot more on the one loss
you had than on the many, many victories you had.
Well, when I coached my fear was losing. There was no thrill in victory. We won six world
championships and lost one. I can replay the game we lost in my head today from the beginning of the
game. But that motivates me, because I don’t want that feeling again. That motivates a lot of athletes.
Some guy that wins nine World Series in a row, they are not so novel, but he’ll remember the loss.

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In the “Donny Is My Leader” case there are a few incidents that people start to get a little irritated by,
such as that business of psychologically breaking Brian and then beginning the process of building him
up again. Is that the kind of thing that leaders of sports teams have to do?
Brian didn’t play by the rules of the group. So Brian would be a superstar in your business, your office,
off on his own tangent. Everybody was working for one goal and Brian was off on another goal, another
tangent. He didn’t fit.

So things that people have to do absolutely, what are they—to be a member of the team?
They have to fit into the team structure. They have to know the team goal. And once they know the team
goal, then you can allow the creativity. You allow the superstar to blossom. But not until he understands
the rules. The rules aren’t that he runs and embarrasses his teammates. The rules are that he doesn’t
show how much better he is than his teammates.

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Activity 8-4W: Creating a Dialogue with a Leader
[Based on a technique used in a dialogic method of journal writing developed by Ira Progoff and
described by him in a Journal Workshop (1973, Dialogue House: New York)]

Directions for Instructor

The purpose of this activity is to enable the student to be aware of aspects of leadership which are
important to him or to her and to learn from his or her past experience of a leader.

It can enrich a more theoretical study of leadership by encouraging the student to use his or her
imagination to dialogue with a leader the student admires for his or her positive traits or actions. Some
instructors might feel uncomfortable using this activity, as it is a more reflective one than is commonly
used when teaching Organizational Behavior. I think understanding why one might use the activity,
adequate preparation for the instructor, and care in introducing the activity to students, can help
instructors to feel more comfortable with the activity.

In addition to helping students to learn more about the leadership and their experiences of a leader in their
lives, the activity begins to teach a number of behavioral skills. Students learn a simple relaxation
technique which they can add to their repertoire of behaviors for coping with stress. Students learn as
well one way of reflecting on their past experience of another person so they can learn from that
experience. Those who are especially interested in this can read more about it in a Journal Workshop
(Progoff, 1973, Dialogue House: New York) or can register for a workshop through Dialogue House (80
East 11th Street, N.Y., N.Y. 10003).

The instructor should go through the steps of the activity before using it with a class in order to feel
familiar with the process, to feel comfortable introducing it to students and to be able to pace the activity
appropriately.

Some time should be spent introducing the activity, as it may be unfamiliar to many students. I have
found that encouraging students to approach this with an attitude of experimentation and adventure is a
good way to begin. I explain that while we often have been very active in the classroom, this activity
allows us to change our pace and to be more reflective. If we have spent time in the course discussing the
difference between “right brain” and “left brain” modes of thinking (e.g., Henry Mintzberg, “Planning on
the Left Side and Managing on the Right,” Harvard Business Review, July-August 1976), I point out to
students that this is an opportunity to develop their right brain skills.

The relaxation with which the activity begins is a necessary transition from the day-to-day classroom
situation to the world of the students’ imaginations. It is helpful to dim (but not extinguish) lights.
Traditional classroom seating also seems to be helpful. We have found that if students face one another,
in a circle or around a table for discussion, it is more difficult for them to engage in the self-reflection
required by the activity.

Some students will not wish to participate in the activity and I believe it is wise to respect this reluctance.
However, I do ask students who do not participate to leave the classroom, as their presence could be
distracting to other students.

In class, the steps of the activity should be read aloud by the instructor at an unhurried pace. Plenty of
time should be allowed for the exercise and the following discussion.

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Students’ privacy should be respected and they should not be required to hand in the exercise or to discuss
details if they don’t wish to do so. However, time should be allowed to discuss with a small group of
students or with the class as a whole for those who wish to share responses and learnings from the
activity. Some discussion time should be focused on helping students to integrate their personal,
experience-based learning from this activity with the more theoretical learning they have gained from
readings and lectures. I also have asked students to write a short, anonymous response to the exercise and
to give suggestions for changes.

This activity might evoke memories of past unfinished business with former managers or supervisors or
raise issues about relationships with current managers for some students. I let students know that I am
available to them as a consultant to think through those situations which might be problematic but which
might not be appropriate for full class discussion.

You may wish to give students the option of completing a written assignment which integrates their
understanding of leadership from this exercise with the more theoretical learning about leadership gained
from reading and lectures.

Timing
Introduction: 5-10 minutes
Activity: 30-35 minutes
Discussion: 20-30 minutes

The Activity
Introduction: This activity provides you with an opportunity to enrich your understanding of the concept
of leadership by imagining a conversation with a leader admired by you. You will imagine this person,
engage in a dialogue with him or her and reflect on what you have learned. Your instructor will guide
you through the steps of this process. You will need a blank paper and pen or pencil.

1. Relaxing. First you will relax in order to eliminate distractions. This will help you to better use your
imagination. Be as comfortable as you can be at your desk or table. Close your eyes. Be aware of the
floor and the chair supporting you. Breathe deeply. As you breathe out, exhale your worries and
tensions. As you breathe in, inhale energy and relaxation. Do this slowly, several times. Now relax your
face, the muscles in your forehead and around your eyes and nose. Relax your jaw, your mouth. Relax
your neck and shoulders, your arms. Slowly relax all the parts of your body until you reach your toes.

2. Thinking. Think about the leader you have chosen. As you feel ready, write a short paragraph which
states the essence of your relationship with this person right now.

3. Imagining. Now imagine the person you have chosen in as much detail as possible. What is she or
he wearing? How is his or her hair done? Is she or he sitting or standing?

4. Listening. When you have imagined what the person looks like, give him or her a voice. Let the
person speak to you about the ten or twelve most important steps in his or her life. List these steps on
your paper, beginning with the words, “I was born . . .” When you’ve finished, relax again.

5. Dialoguing. Imagine the person again, and imagine having a conversation with this person about
leadership. Ask the person questions which you would like answered about his or her leadership behavior
or about the situation which supports this leadership. Record this dialogue as you image it, as if it were a
script for a play. Write your questions and comments as they occur to you and imagine what the person

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would answer and record his or her comments and answers. Begin as you would any conversation, with a
greeting such as “hello,” and introduce yourself.

6. Reflecting. When your conversation has ended, return to quietness. Be aware of how you are feeling.
Record your emotions. Then rest quietly for a few minutes.

7. Closing. Read what you have written. Observe your responses to what you have written. Write
down anything else that you wish to say. Record your feelings.

8. Returning. Return from your imagination to the room around you. Be aware of your surroundings,
what you see and hear, the people around you. Stretch. Stand up. If you wish, speak quietly with those
around you.

9. Discussing. Discuss what you wish about the experience you have completed. Your instructor will
give you further instructions.

Activity 8-5W: Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale

Task 1: Comments on the questions:

1. Strengths of the Fiedler Model:

a. It emphasizes the interactions between the personality of traits of the leader and the situation,
including the subordinates, the structured or unstructured nature of the task, and the authority
granted to the leader. Thus it can be assumed that different types of leaders will be more
effective in certain situations, less effective in others.

b. Managers need to be alert to individual and situational differences when making assignments of
other managers, and Fiedler has described three important variables. Since situations are not
always available to match the assignee’s traits, managers may have to coach their supervisors or
managers to adapt to situations for which they may not be best suited.

c. Individuals need to become aware of their own task and relationship-motivated tendencies, so
they can try to get assigned to positions where they can perform best or so they will have greater
flexibility in adjusting to situations where they would probably be less effective.

d. Training people to strengthen their strengths, and become more comfortable and adaptable to
situations where they would be expected to be less effective, would be a meaningful implication.

*
Special permission for reproduction of this activity is granted by the author, Professor Mary Ann Hazen,
College of Business Administration, University of Detroit Mercy, P.O. Box 19900, Detroit, MI 48219-
0900. All rights reserved, and no reproduction should be made without express approval of Professor
Hazen. We are grateful to Professor Hazen.

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2. Weaknesses of the Fiedler Model

a. What is the LPC measuring? About all we know is that those who tend to strongly reject their
least preferred co-worker seem more inclined to be task motivated, in contrast to those who are
not so rejecting, who appear to be more aware of people relationships. There is very little
personality or attitudinal information available to help us understand why these correlations exist.
The LPC scale is an empirical study in this regard.

b. Reliability of the measure? An individual’s LPC score is based upon only eighteen items. While
the LPC score may be useful to make predictions from aggregates, considerable caution should be
advised for using it as an instrument to classify individuals. Thus, if a manager were to use it to
classify subordinates, considerable inaccuracy could be involved.

c. Use of high or low LPC scores to classify people has the same shortcoming as use of the
leadership styles categories: they can produce stereotyped perceptions that may be badly distorted
and thereby obscure what the individual or individuals are really like.

2. Interpreting your own LPC score: The comments made under weaknesses above apply directly here:
Not too apparent what it is measuring, or how reliable it is. It may be reliable for research when working
with large samples, but to apply it to a single individual could be inaccurate.

3. This individual would fall into category 7 in Figure 3-3 of the textbook: Poor leader-member
relations, low structured task, and strong leader position power, so give her/him the power asked for and
the performance predicted would be “relatively good.” But, here again, we are violating our own caution
and applying the theory to a single individual rather than to a large sample.

Activity 8-6W: Exercising Your Leadership Skills

This activity provides a unique opportunity to lead an experience, learn some leadership skills and carry
out a noble activity. We have found that this is a very good assignment that the students can complete
outside of class any time during the course. We establish a date for project completion and after review
of the submitted reports ask five or six of the students to share their experiences. We have allowed three
weeks to complete the task. The presentations and the experiences of individual students provide an
opportunity to discuss leadership—one more time—as well as the potential relationship between
leadership, perception, motivation, diversity, personality, group dynamics and outcomes.

Activity 8-7IM - Additional Activity - Leadership Development: 360 Degree Feedback

Objective
To examine individual versus group perceptions of developmental factors that directly impact leadership
effectiveness. The instrument contained as a part of this activity utilizes the group learning activities in
this textbook as a substitute for the workplace that you will become a part of upon graduation. These
factors do not rely on innate traits, but rather factors that can be learned from experience. These skills
and perspectives really matter in a career. The power of this activity will largely become a factor of the
willingness of the student to become an adventurer in the quest for knowledge and personal growth. Each
of the factors considered have been shown to contribute to the success or failure of executives in major

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public and private organizations. If they are understood, they could contribute to the extent each
adventurer realizes his or her potential as a future leader.

Task 1: Distribute a copy of the form titled 360 Degree Leadership Feedback to each member of your
group with your name on it. Ask them to rate you from 1 to 5 on each continuum and anonymously
return the form to you. Fill out one form indicating on each of the 18 continuums how you believe your
group will rate you.

Task 2: Using the scoring sheet, record your scores for round 1 by placing the letter “S” and then record
the corresponding average of the group scores by placing the letter “G.” Utilizing a highlighter, highlight
the three most dissimilar responses (where there is a gap between your score and the group average.)
Record those three developmental continuums in the space provided for round 1.

Task 3: Develop a written strategy for bringing the scores more in line with what you would like the
perception of you to be. You may seek more feedback from your group, you may want to read more
about the underlying concepts, you may wish to seek advice from your instructor, or you may pick
someone to utilize as a role model and spend some time with him/her.

Task 4: Repeat tasks 1-3 at mid quarter/semester and at the end of the quarter/semester to determine if
you have enhanced your leadership skills and the accuracy of your self perception. The group has
potential for becoming a “Greenhouse” for individual growth and development, but only in proportion to
the individual and the group’s commitment to this process. Just as we cannot see the daily growth of a
plant, we often fail to see our own growth or allow for it in others. By taking multiple measurements we
can correct, redirect our energies, and grow. Without purposeful continuous feedback, we are like a
person fumbling in the dark unaware of the obstacles in our path and the resources we have to overcome
them.

Note: In responding to each of your peers’ requests for feedback, take time to weigh changes you have
observed, allow for the possibility of improvement, and maintain the confidentiality that this exercise
requires. Remember that real growth is possible when the giver of feedback is allowed to remain
anonymous and the purpose of the feedback is not a grade or monetary gain, but rather personal growth.
You will be playing two roles in this activity, enhancing your own growth and contributing to the growth
of another.

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360 Degree Leadership Feedback
The following scales contain a continuum, you are to select the point on this continuum that you believe
will be most consistent with the perception of you by your peers in this group. You will solicit feedback
from each member of your group as to their perception of your leadership abilities, they will do so
anonymously. You will then have an opportunity to compare the results of this feedback with your own
assessment.

5 4 3 2 1
1. Strategic Thinker ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Reactor

2. Perseverance ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Gives-up Easily

3. Quick Study ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Slow to Learn

4. Quick to Act ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Very Cautious

5. Delegates ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Makes all Decisions

6. Supports Growth ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Prefers Status Quo

7. Handles Problems ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Avoids Problems

8. Works Through Team ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Does Not Utilize Group
Members Process

9. Seeks Challenges from ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Avoids Challenges from
Others Others

10. Resolves Conflict ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Avoids Conflict

11. Sensitive to Others ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Insensitive to Others

12. Forthright ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Hedges

13. Balances Work Life ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Concentrates on Work

14. Accurate Self ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Unaware of Self Image

15. Friendly ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Cold/Distant

16. Flexible ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Inflexible

17. Independent ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Dependent

18. Follows Through ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Lacks Follow-up

5 4 3 2 1

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Record your score for each continuum by placing “S” (Self); record the average score for each continuum
by placing the letter “G” (Group). With your highlighter, highlight any score that is substantially
different from your own rating.

Round 1 Round 2 Round 3

Self Group Self Group Self Group
1. Strategic Reactor
2. Preservers Gives-up
3. Quick Slow
4. Acts Cautious
5. Delegates Decides
6. Growth Status Quo
7. Handles Avoids
8. Team Individual
9. Seeks Avoids
10. Resolves Avoids conflict
11. Sensitive Insensitive
12. Forthright Hedges
13. Balances Concentrates
14. Accurate Unaware
15. Friendly Distant
16. Flexible Inflexible
17. Independent Dependent
18. Follow-up Lacks

Select developmental factors you might want to do some work on, focus on two or three at most:

Round 1: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Round 2: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Round 3: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

As you consider the developmental continuum you are working on, consider the role of feedback from
other group members, course materials, skill building exercises, and people you know who may function
as a role model or mentor. (We all learn from imitating those we admire or look up to, pride sometimes
prevents us from seeing a peer as a possible source of enhancing our own growth.)

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Sequencing Leadership Development: 360 Degree Feedback and the Other Activities

Two sequences work well:

1. Questionnaire on Leadership Development: 360 Degree Feedback as homework

Mini Lecture on text models

Scoring of individual’s questionnaires

2. Questionnaire on Leadership Behavior as homework

Activity 8-2 in classroom

Mini Lecture on text models

Scoring of individuals’ Questionnaires

The activity involving 360 Degree Feedback is meant to be administered three (3) times during the
course. The first administration during Module 3 will draw heavily on first impressions, the second
administration should be given somewhere about midway through the course and the last administration
of the survey should be just before finals. The individual student will receive a lot of feedback about
his/her key leadership development. These scales were developed based on the research of the Center for
Creative Leadership of executives and those skills that were essential in their development as leaders.
Each of the scales draw on attributes that can be learned and developed. The individual student will have
an opportunity to compare his/her self perceptions with those of the group/team they work with, much the
same as it is in the work-place.

Instructions:

1. Explain that survey items have been derived from extensive research of Business Leaders, and are
learnable skills.

2. Encourage each student to take some time alone to fill out a survey on each team member and to
return it to them anonymously (the research indicates that anonymity is essential.)

3. Each student should fill out a survey on themselves before collecting their surveys from others.

4. Each student should compute the average score for each dimension (Wide variability of scores should
be indicated by an * asterisk for each dimension where it occurs for latter reference.)

5. Students should spend some time studying their results, they should consider significant differences
in group ratings vs. theirs (.75 or greater) and scores where there is wide variability in scores marked
with asterisk.

6. Class time should be available for distribution of surveys, collection of surveys and some group time
to share results and to further enhance individual understanding of the process.

7. The value of this activity becomes a lot clearer as the course progresses, and students report valuable
learnings as a result of this experience.

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For further reference, see Fortune October 17, 1994 “360 Feedback Can Change Your Life” pages 93-98.

Assignment of Journal on Team Observations: The handout at the end of this module should be handed
out and discussed at the end of the session when the newly formed teams have completed their first
activity together.

Possible lecture outline for a 2 – 3 hours class (We have provided 45 slides that can be
arranged in a variety of ways to match your session design with the module content as can
be found in the textbook)
1. Introduction
a. Why a session on leadership?
b. Because it is one of the ways in which you can get a group of people to work together
towards a common goal, influence them, and create shared meaning.
c. You do not need to have formal authority to exert leadership
2. Activity 8-1
a. Have students work on the questions individually (10 min)
b. Then, have them discuss them in groups, pick one example, and a spokesperson (25 min)
3. Debrief of activity 8-1 along with a lecture on what is leadership
a. Ask each group to pick one example; if needed, give background info on the chosen
leader, and provide to the class their answers to the questions, and conclude with a
definition of leadership.
b. While they do so, instructor summarizes their findings in a 3 columns table that maps the
3 overarching perspectives on leadership :
i. The leader-centric perspective: trait and style approaches
ii. The follower-centric perspective: Pfeffer’s attribution theory of leadership and
management as symbolic interaction
iii. The interactional perspective: Contingency theory, H&B’ situational approach,
path-goal theory, and charismatic and transformational approaches to leadership
c. Give students a break and organize the table better.
d. Start giving them theories behind the perspectives that they have uncovered in the
different columns
e. Complete the table by asking pointed questions that gets students to uncover the
approaches they didn’t identify by themselves
i. Traits: no question
ii. Contingency: Pick one of the leaders mentioned and ask: Would that leader be
equally effective if s/he had to manage a group of unskilled workers on a factory
floor (or inmates in a jail), as if s/he had to manage scientists working together on
a innovative research project?
iii. Follower’s attribution: How much influence does a CEO, or president have on
the organization, or a country? What percentage of influence do you think the
president has on the fluctuation of the GNP?
iv. Pick very different charismatic leaders that have been mentioned, or name a few:
Hitler, Gandhi, Bin Ladden, Bush, and ask what they have in common. What do
they do for their followers? What do they provide them with?
4. Lecture on leadership development: What practical conclusions can we draw from all these
theories in terms of leadership development?
a. First questions to ask yourself are:

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 i. Do I want to be a leader? Why?
ii. Can I be a leader? How?
b. Traits/styles: identify which ones you have and which ones you don’t have but want to
develop (emulate people, get certain experiences, etc…).
c. Leader-situation match: when you get a new job, or when you prepare for a leadership
situation, try to identify its characteristics (including those of the followers/subordinates)
to determine whether you’re up to the challenge (Fielder’s contingency approach) or
which style to adopt (H&B).
d. Attribution theory of leadership: symbolic interaction; developing good acting skills to
give the followers what they want to see (this is what a lot of self help books about
impression management sell). Discuss whether it’s cynical or realistic.
e. Interaction approaches (charisma, and transformational leadership): in a word, everything
that brings about personal growth, more authenticity, self-actualization and individuation:
i. Authentic Leadership Development perspectives: listening and following your
inner voice, your feelings, what makes you vital, your dreams in spite of outside
judgment and hurdles. That way, you reach separation, an authentic self that can
withstand outside judgment.
ii. Warren Bennis’ notion of crucibles (When you reach a situation where you may
lose yourself or not, where you can be true to yourself or betray yourself and lose
vitality; become a zombie)
iii. Asking (and giving) feedback and being very open to it.
iv. Experimenting with different roles, and stretch assignments
v. Finding mentors

Study Questions For Discussion of Leadership

1. Describe your mental model of leadership.

2. What is the difference between leadership and management? Would you apply this to all levels of
management? Give reasons for your answer.
Comment: Leadership is usually associated with charisma and power. There is a visionary, educational,
communicative role, a hoisting of the standard for values, an urgency to press for ideals that goes along
with this. A John Kennedy or Steve Job representative. Management is more associated with
accomplishment of the daily routine. Managers are the people who do things right (efficiency); leaders
are those who do the right thing (effectiveness). Management and leadership are not mutually exclusive,
they are distinct. We maintain that it is important for all managers and supervisors at all levels to
establish themselves as leaders.

3. Are managers born or made? The argument around this has long raged. Many executives will say,
“You’ve either got it or you haven’t.” What are arguments on both sides? What do you believe?
(TEACHING NOTE: THIS IS A GREAT QUESTION WITH WHICH TO OPEN YOUR CLASS
MEETING FOLLOWING THE ONE ON LEADERSHIP STYLES. GIVE THE PEOPLE THREE
MINUTES FOR A BUZZ SESSION AND OPEN IT FOR DISCUSSION.)

Comment: Many executives believe very strongly that when it comes to leadership “You’ve either got it
or you haven’t.” They often agree with each other on this statement. But when it comes to defining what
it is that you’ve got or haven’t got, they can’t agree, which seems to invalidate their arguments. Research

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on personality of leadership types has not produced any definite set of characteristics that will pick out
leaders as a general category. However, some corporations have developed personality or attitudinal
inventories that give them a profile of individuals who are more probably going to do well in their
managerial program than those with other profiles. The overwhelming problem is however, that
leadership abilities, skills and personality are going to vary from situation to situation. What works for
the Army may not work for Sears. Further, any profiling of managerial types can lead to the loss of much
potential among those who do not exactly fit, and this could be especially true of non-traditional
candidates (women or minority-group members) who are often not thought of as potential leaders.

For our purposes in this course, we do not have to worry about this point, because we assume that most
everyone can learn some leadership types of behavior. For instance, you can learn team skills, and help
influence the team to move in certain directions even though you are not the leader. Some students say
this course ought to be a leadership training course, but we point out that this is not West Point where
selection has been used and people are washed out for not developing certain skills. We just assume that
everyone in the course can learn some leadership types of behaviors, whether that person is capable of
becoming a leader or not.

4. In what ways can leadership be regarded as a process? How does this apply to your team activities?
Comment: The process of moving a team toward accomplishment is rarely done by the leader alone.
Rather, individuals assume roles in the group dynamics process which interact to move the activities
toward the goals. For example, one person will say, “What are we trying to achieve today?”, another
might say later, “Let’s decide how we are going to use the time remaining, so we can set some priorities,”
and so on. In leaderless groups, such as your teams, and in some groups where the leader is in a
facilitator role, the interacting roles of the members perform most of the leadership function through this
process.

5. Compare and contrast the leader-centric, follower-centric, and interactional perspectives on leadership.
Comment: One way to compare and contrast between the three orientations is by creating a table that
captures the essence of the schools of thoughts. The leader-centric perspective assumes that leadership
flows from characteristics of the leader. The follower-centric perspective assumes that leadership is
attributed to leaders by their followers, but has nothing to do with the leader’s traits or actions. Finally,
the interactional perspective assumes that leadership is a process that results from the effective interaction
of the leader with the situation and his or her followers. The interactional-perspective subsumes the other
two perspectives and can thus be considered to be the most comprehensive perspective on leadership.

6. How do charismatic and transformational leaders influence their followers?

Comment: Charismatic leaders transform and elevate the consciousness of their followers, thereby
building a meaningful cohesive identity, by articulating visions: fundamental mythic-like stories that
create meaning out of chaos. They thus are very good story-tellers and communicators, with high verbal
abilities, because the stories they tell must be convincing.

7. How does emotional intelligence help leaders be more effective?

Comment: Emotionally intelligent leaders create resonance: they are able to express emotions that align
followers’ mindsets to theirs. They can sway followers’ emotions, and motivate them beyond rational
expectations. Emotionally intelligent leaders can also read their followers’ emotions well, which helps
them better articulate a vision that conforms with their followers’ word views.

8. How can leaders become more authentic?

Comment: Authenticity develops naturally in certain individuals, as they overcome adversity (the school
of hard knocks), mature, and recognize what their strengths and weaknesses are, and how to fully deploy

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their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses. 360-degrees feedback can help leaders become more
authentic as they develop a broader vision of themselves.

9. Why is there a disconnect between executive and midlevel management development?

Comment: Most new executives reached this role based on past performance. With the exception of
leadership skills, though, such past performance may not be relevant for anything more than “credibility
with the troops.” The new assignment requires that the executive lead by creating a vision of the future
and by establishing the context of that vision for those beneath them on the ladder.

10. Describe the leadership dynamics within your team. How would you characterize the team? How
effective is the team? What can you experiment with to improve your team performance?
Comment: This question can be answered in two parts: The first is a basic descriptive part that attempts
to capture the leadership dynamics within the team. The second is an analysis of the descriptive mini case
study provided in part one.

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MODULE 9
MENTORING

OVERVIEW
This module overviews mentoring and other developmental relationships as vehicles of
personal learning and professional growth, and describes how having a ‘portfolio of
advisors’ that provides developmental support is beneficial to a focal individual, to his or
her employing organization and to the advisors themselves. The topics covered in the
module include what kinds of support mentors provide, how mentoring relationships
evolve, mentoring and diversity, formal mentoring programs and emergent practices such
as e-mentoring and relational savvy.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the concepts mentoring, developmental relationship, developmental
network, diversified mentoring relationship, relational savvy.
2. Identify the two key mentoring functions.
3. Describe mentoring phases.
4. Name mentoring benefits for the protégé, the mentor and an organization.
5. Explain symptoms of dysfunctional developmental relationships.
6. Describe challenges and outcomes associated with diversified relationships.
7. Overview newer areas of interest around mentoring.

MODULE OUTLINE
Pre-Module Preparation
Activity 9-1: Exploring the meaning of mentoring and other
developmental relationships
Introduction
Mentoring and Careers
What is Mentoring?
What Does a Mentoring Relationship “Look Like” in Practice?
Benefits of Mentoring: Protégé, Mentor, and Organizational
Developmental Relationships
Dysfunctional Mentoring Relationships
What is a Developmental Network?
The Story of One Man’s Mentoring Experiences
Diversity and Mentoring
Gender and Mentoring
Race and Mentoring
Age and Mentoring
Formal Mentoring Programs

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 Newer Areas of Mentoring Interest
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 9-2 Mentoring Interview
Activity 9-3 Case: A Tale of Two Protégés in Two Formal Mentoring
Programs
Activity 9-4 A Role Playing Involving a Student Mentoring Program
Activity 9-5 Creating a Game Plan to Use Your Developmental
Network to Aid Your Career

TEACHING NOTES:
This module includes teaching notes on the following:
• Session Sequencing
• Activity 9-1 Exploring the meaning of mentoring and other developmental
relationships
• Activity 9-2 Mentoring Interview
• Activity 9-3 Case: A Tale of Two Protégés in Two Formal Mentoring Programs
• Activity 9-4 A Role Playing Involving a Student Mentoring Program
• Activity 9-5 Creating a Game Plan to Use Your Developmental Network to Aid
Your Career
• Notes on mini lecture
• Notes on the review questions

ALTERNATIVE SESSION SEQUENCING

Options for Opening a Class Session

Option 1 - With an undergraduate course, the class will ideally draw upon the
students’ experiences with mentoring as a means to start a classroom dialogue.
While most undergraduate students will likely have had relevant experiences with
mentoring, they may not have reflected upon what mentoring means, what its
benefits are, and what alternatives to traditional mentoring exist, among other
relevant topics. Thus, Activity 9-1 is an appropriate activity with which to open
the class.

Presumably, graduates will be more familiar with mentoring and its impact on
their early careers. Therefore, an instructor might open more generally with
asking students to share their mentoring experiences and challenges or discuss
how an organizations can use mentoring to further leadership development and
successful planning. The instructor can use his or her discretion in choosing

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 questions. The goal is to choose questions that require students to move beyond
defining mentoring and engage the class in a meaningful way. Activity 9-1, in this
case, can be used more generally to elicit an opening discussion.

Option 2 – An instructor might opt to use the case analysis, Activity 9-2, as an
alternative opening discussion, depending upon the students’ familiarity with
mentoring. Opening with the case may be more effective than Activity 9-1 in
engaging the graduate students.

Option 3 – For a graduate course, assigning Activity 9-5 as a pre-assignment is

anexcellent option to engage students as it is student-focused and requires them to
reflect upon mentoring as a facilitator of growth toward a desired future state. The
instructor should note that Activity 5 requires students to pair with each other to
complete the activity. This requirement is unnecessary; students can complete all
of the tasks without discussing them with another student.

Homework Assignments

Activities 9-2, 9-3 and 9-5 are all amenable to pre-assignment work.

General Comments

The class session can be sequenced in any number of ways to generate

meaningful dialogue and learning for students. The instructor should determine
appropriate questions to speak to students’ existing knowledge of mentoring and
plan to share his or her experiences to highlight key learning points.

INSTRUCTOR ACTIVITY NOTES

Activity 9-1: Exploring the meaning of mentoring and other developmental
relationships

This activity can dually engage the students by leveraging their own experiences
and also illuminate numerous course concepts. Below, each part of the activity is
discussed in connection with how it illustrates module concepts.

a. Have you ever had a mentor? If so, how did you know this person
(e.g., family member, coach)?

This part of the activity helps students to define mentoring and describes
alternative developmental relationships. The instructor should validate
mentoring alternatives—e.g., peer relationships, team learning opportunities—
as vehicles to help meet students’ diverse developmental needs.

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b. Think of an individual/s who you perceive as having furthered your
personal growth and/or career advancement. This person (or people)
does not have to be someone with whom you have worked; rather, he
or she can be a friend, coach, teacher, parent or other family member.

Like (a), this part of the activity helps students to define mentoring and
describes alternative developmental relationships. The instructor should
validate mentoring alternatives—e.g., peer relationships, team learning
opportunities—as vehicles to help meet students’ diverse developmental
needs. Also, the instructor helps students to understand that mentors and
developmental relationships need not reside within one’s employing
organization.

c. How did the person (or people) identified in (a) and (b) help you? Be
specific.

Part (c) is intended to illustrate the two types of functional support—career

and psychosocial—and to highlight that individuals provide varying levels of
types of support.

d. Was your relationship with this person (or people) always positive? If
not, describe an experience that you perceive was negative. How did
that experience influence you, the other person and the relationship
overall?

Part (d) will help students to understand that mentoring can become
dysfunctional and can lead to a discussion about how to prevent negative
mentoring dynamics and outcomes from occurring.

e. If you wanted to have a mentor, what steps would you take to find one
and start a relationship with him or her? What personal
characteristics would you look for in a mentor?

Part (e) can lead into a critical discussion for students: how to secure a
developmental network and relationships that are responsive to his or her
needs. The instructor can speak to his or her own mentoring experiences at
this point or to the module’s reference to relational savvy as a means to
cultivate effective developmental relationships.

f. From your perspective, is there value to having a mentor? If so, what

are the benefits?

Part (f) is aimed at eliciting why students want a mentor and at understanding
the benefits that extend to mentors, developers and employing organizations.

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Activity 9-2: Mentoring Interview

Consistent with the idea that experiential exercises affect heightened student
learning, this activity allows a student to interview someone he or she admires in
order to understand mentoring and its challenges and opportunities. Specifically,
the interview can spur in-class dialogue around the benefits of mentoring, its
functions and phases, relationship initiation (e.g., how to start a relationship), and
the importance of mutuality between the protégés and mentors.

The instructor has numerous opportunities to make connections between the

interviews and mentoring theory and concepts. Of particular import is a
discussion around how protégés can start developmental relationships. Many
students do not understand that they bring skills to a relationship with someone
senior.

Prior to engaging in a larger-class discussion, the instructor can break up students

into pairs or small groups to discuss interview themes, surprises, etc.

Activity 9-3 Case: A Tale of Two Protégés in Two Formal Mentoring Programs

The case highlights some of the challenges associated with managing a mentoring
relationship and implementing a formal mentoring program. Since the case is
relatively short, it is feasible to ask students to read it during class without
disrupting its flow.

1. Based on the information provide in the case, how effective is ABC in

overseeing its formal mentoring program? What actions can it take to
become more effective?

The data in the case allows readers to make some inferences as to ABC’s
effectiveness in implementing the program. Since the case offers no reference to
the program’s alignment with the company’s business strategy, it leaves open the
possibility that the program is not clearly focused on developing participants’
skills needed by the business to be competitive in its industry.

The program has taken a back seat to the current Vice President’s focus on a
merger and health benefits. Without the sponsorship of the Vice President and
other key leaders, research suggests the program will not be maximally effective.
Mentors are already assumed to have the requisite skills to be mentors, which
research suggests is not the case. Program participants need training and clear

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communication about the program if they are to be effective. While there is
evidence that Nort was effective in mentoring Kate over time (see question three),
it cannot be assumed that chosen mentors, even if they have risen in hierarchical
ranks, possess the necessary skills to be guiding their protégés.

Ideally, an organization will gain participants voluntarily, as research suggests

that programs are most effective under that circumstance. The case notes that both
Kate and Nort were asked to participate, which violates the ideal state of
volunteerism. While Kate was pleased to participate, there is evidence that Nort,
given his impending retirement and busy agenda, may not be in a position to
provide maximal support.

Ideally, Kate would have been paired with a senior in engineering given her
experience with ABC. The case does not reference the extent to which Kate and
Nort have common values, attitudes and interests. However, a student can infer
that one basis of similarity from which to gain rapport would have been functional
background.

Finally, the case does not reference the extent to which the program is being
evaluated on an ongoing basis and whether the program coordinator (presumably
someone who works for the Vice President) is skillful in managing the program.
Students should highlight the need for these conditions to be met if the program is
to be effective over time.

2. How effective was Kate and Nort’s relationship during the timeframe
spanning their first few meetings? Why?

In spite of best intentions, Kate and Nort were not as effective as they could have
been at the onset of their relationship. They did not meet under ideal conditions
given the program administrators made no effort to facilitate a first meeting (they
met in the hallway rather than on the basis of a concerted program effort).

Nort’s busy schedule prevented him from emailing Kate to signal his interest in
their relationship. Students are correct to question his commitment given email
allows people to correspond 24/7; therefore, Nort could have sent a brief response
indicating his enthusiasm about their meeting. Kate appropriately arrived to the
meeting on-time and then emailed Nort promptly after the meeting, both of which
signaled her commitment to their partnership.

Unfortunately, the two did not establish a concrete follow-up meeting, which
ultimately caused a misalignment in their expectations; Kate was unsure how
frequently to contact Nort (given he mentioned that she should call him to
schedule another meeting whenever she “felt the need to do so”) and Nort
expected Kate to contact him sooner than three weeks from their initial meeting.

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 Students may assert that Nort, given his senior position, was responsible for the
misaligned expectations; the instructor should note the need for the protégé to be
proactive in shaping their relationship. Kate could have asked for a specific
meeting.

The relationship could have deteriorated quickly had Kate not enthusiastically
embraced Nort’s referral and then followed up to thank him and convey that she
acted upon his advice. This action rekindled the relationship as it again signaled
Kate’s commitment to the program.

3. How effective was their relationship after the first few meetings? Why?

Ultimately, the relationship was effective. Nort became proactive in guiding the
frequency of their meetings as well as the meetings’ content. He asked about
Kate’s short- and long-term interests and offered guidance in relation to skills and
knowledge she needed to secure her interests and goals. Kate solicited Nort to be
involved in her 360-degree feedback process, which requires trust and
vulnerability.

Later that year, Nort sponsored Kate for a key challenging assignment, one of the
key functions provided by mentors (i.e., sponsorship). Kate, in response, gave
Nort sincere appreciate for his involvement in her career.

Activity 9-4: A Role Playing Involving a Student Mentoring Program

The instructor should speak candidly about how role plays can inspire anxiety for
students and about the importance of playing one’s role seriously. An instructor
will want to consider the relative maturity of the class and the tone that has been
set since the beginning of the term. If students do not take their roles seriously,
the role play cannot be successful.

In the activity’s debrief, the instructor can ask observers for their observations of
the role plays and the participants for surprises and challenges they experience.
The stated goals of the role play are to align expectations and set goals for the
participants’ relationships going forward. Consequently, the instructor should ask
participants how effectively they have met the stated goals and whether
participants failed to share relevant information with each other.

The instructor can then lead a more discussion of formal and informal
relationships and their distinctiveness. In particular, the instructor could note that
formal relationships require particular emphasis on developing rapport among the
participants given they are often less successful than informal relationships
because the latter arise on the basis of interpersonal liking between two people;

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 formal relationships, because they are “engineered” by an organization, often lack
an initial chemistry.

The activity also provides a platform to discuss how to implement a formal

mentoring program in an organization. The instructor can draw upon information
in the text and his or her own experiences with formal mentoring programs.

Activity 9-5: Creating a Game Plan to Use Your Developmental Network to Aid
Your Career

This activity will require at least 30-45 minutes during a class period if students
are thorough and thoughtful in their approach to it. To allow for adequate
reflection time, an instructor could assign the activity as a pre-assignment, which
also allows for more interaction between pairs (if the instructor opts to have
students share their “game plans.”

The instructor should highlight the practical value of this exercise given the need
for students to engage others as a vehicle for their personal and career growth.
The student might draw upon trends in the workplace—e.g., people transition
between jobs with greater frequency, thus placing them in positions in which they
need to learn quickly—that require students to draw upon multiple sources of
support. The article below is an excellent source for an instructor whose goal is to
start a conversation around the need to foster a developmental network in today’s
environment.

Higgins, M.C., & Kram, K.E., (2001). “Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A

developmental network perspective.” Academy of Management Review, 26, 2, 264: 288.

Undergraduate students who lack definitive career plans may ask an instructor
how to create a game plan in absence of them. The instructor should encourage
students to choose a job that is interesting to them as a model to guide their
thinking. For these students, the exercise can also help them to begin to think of
their lives beyond their immediate studies.

The instructor should also ask students to be specific about their ideas; if students
move through the tasks too quickly, they will miss out on learning opportunities.

The exercise can stimulate discussions around numerous mentoring issues,

including types of developmental relationships and support, how to initiate
relationships, and how to think strategically, yet not manipulatively, about how
relationships can help an individual to gain needed skills and experiences.

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A notes on the mini lecture about mentoring

One way to start the mini lecture is by asking participants to reflect on the following
questions: Think of a person you consider(ed) to be a mentor; How did that person assist
you? Be specific; Was the relationship always positive for you? For the other person? Did
you ever assist the person in a meaningful way? How so? We have found that asking the
questions one at a time and providing the opportunity for a few participants to share their
responses sets the stage for the mini lecture or the more systematic activity/ies that will
follow. The notes below are congruent with the slides that we have provided.

The essence of the mini lecture centers on a few key points:

• Mentors provide both career functions and psychosocial support.
• Career functions include: Challenging work assignments; Protection;
Exposure/visibility; Sponsorship; Coaching
• Psychosocial support includes: Friendship; Counseling; Acceptance; Role modeling
• Mentoring Phases include four phases: Initiation (first six to twelve months)
Get acquainted - establish expectations; Cultivation (two to five years) - Time during
which most mentoring occurs; protégé gains competence and skills; Separation
(undefined) - Protégé, having gained needed support, seeks autonomy; often marked
by feelings of loss or distress; Redefinition (undefined) - Relationship redefined as
parties become peers; this phase does not always occur
• Mentoring Benefits include benefits to the Protégé, mentor and organization
• Recent research suggests that one way to sustain leaders is via the developing of
mentoring programs in which the leaders act as mentors. The act/process of
mentoring seems to be a major factor in sustaining leaders. (Boyatzis, 2006)
• Potential Mentoring Relationship Dysfunctions: Sabotage (e.g., a mentor or protégé
could ignore the other party or seek revenge for a perceived wrongdoing); Negative
relations (e.g., a mentor may exploit or bully the protégé); Submissiveness (e.g., if a
protégé becomes overly dependent upon a mentor); Deception (e.g., active attempts to
deceive the other party)
• Other Developmental Relationships include: A mentoring relationship—a
relationship between a senior, more experienced mentor and a junior protégé—is one
type of learning vehicle. Other types include: Peers at “co-learners”; Community
organizations; Teams; Family members; Friends outside of work; Task forces;
Network groups
• Successful Formal Mentoring Programs are characterized by: A clear set of objectives
aligned with human resources and business strategy; Sponsorship by senior leaders;
Communications and training; Choosing appropriate mentors and matching of
mentors and protégés; Evaluation and review of the mentoring program; The need for
a skillful program coordinator
• Developmental Network - “A group of people who take an active interest in and
action to advance a focal person’s career.”

The mini lecture is outlined and captured on the power point slides (slides 1-12). We
found that one can integrate parts of the mini lecture after activities or in between two or
three activities.

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STUDY QUESTION RESPONSES

The answers below are largely copied from the text in order to retain consistency in
content.

1. What is a mentoring relationship? A developmental relationship? A

developmental network?
Comments: a. Mentoring relationship – a relationship between a senior, more
experienced mentor and a relatively junior, less experienced protégé that involves
providing support and guidance for the protégé’s growth and career advancement.
b. Developmental relationship – a relationship that furthers personal growth and
career advancement. While the mentoring relationship provides high levels of
psychosocial and career support, other developmental relationships—e.g., peer,
family, friend, teams—providing varying amounts of and types of support.
c. Developmental network - a set of people a protégé names as taking an active
interest in and action to advance the protégé’s career by providing developmental
assistance. The individuals comprising the network can be considered ‘developers’
who provide varying amounts (greater or lesser) and types (psychosocial and career)
of functional support. Developers can reside in or outside an employing organization,
and can be from any number of “social spheres,” including from one’s family,
friends, community or professional affiliations or at various levels within one’s
employing organization.

2. What are the main functions provided by a mentor?

Comments: Mentors provide two general types of support, labeled formally as
“functions,” to their protégés: career (or vocational) and psychosocial support. Career
functions include providing challenging work assignments, protection,
exposure/visibility, sponsorship and coaching. Psychosocial functions include
friendship, counseling, acceptance and confirmation and role modeling, and more
generally aimed at helping a protégé to develop a sense of professional identity and
competence.

3. Through what phases do mentoring relationships typically progress?

Comments: Mentoring relationships are generally considered to last between three to
five years and involve four phases, although more research examining how they
unfold over time is needed. In the initiation phase that lasts between six to twelve
months, the mentor and protégé become acquainted with each other and establish
expectations around their interactions. As shown in Chapter 2, it is important for
mentors and protégés to have an explicit discussion around how often meet, what the
protégé wants to learn, whether an agenda should be set prior to each meeting and by
whom, and other issues to ensure that the mentor and protégé are “on the same page.”
Research shows that when people report that their expectations are met, they also

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report having received more mentoring support, suggesting that establishing
expectations up-front facilitates maximally effective relationships to occur.

The cultivation phase, the longest in duration, typically lasts between two and five
years and is the period during which mentors provide the greatest amount of career
and psychosocial support. During the separation phase the protégé begins to seek out
more autonomy, having advanced his or her skills during the cultivation phase. This
phase is often marked by distress and/or feelings of loss by both relationship
participants. Some relationships do not reach the redefinition phase; a lack of
reconnection can result if the participants do not maintain contact during and/or after
the separation phase. If participants do maintain contact after “separate,” the
relationship is often re-defined as the two parties begin to view each other as peers.

4. What are the benefits of having a mentor? A protégé?

Comments: As shown in Table 1 in the chapter, myriad benefits of mentoring exist
not only for protégés, but also for mentors and organizations. When most people
think of mentoring benefits, they think about how it benefits a protégé. Indeed,
having a mentor benefits protégés in a number of ways beyond immediate skill
development and knowledge acquisition, including heightening employee motivation,
job and career satisfaction, enhancing socialization into the employing organization,
increasing visibility to influential employees and increasing greater promotions and
income.
Mentors benefits from having protégés as well. Early examination of mentoring
relationships showed that mentors are often individuals who, having reached mid-
career and achieved a certain degree of career success, desire to help others achieve
success. Fostering a close relationship with a protégé who achieves success over time
creates feelings of personal satisfaction and, at times, of leaving a legacy. A mentor
can also experience self-rejuvenation from a relationship with a youthful, energetic
protégé. It has been noted that effective leaders often point to having had mentors
throughout their careers.
Along this line of reasoning, it has been asserted that sustained leadership excellence
results, in part, by coaching/mentoring others. Helping others achieve their dreams
creates psychological and physiological benefits to leaders in terms of their ability to
manage stress and anxiety. Therefore, leaders should proactively help others, in
essence, while helping themselves as well. The foregoing suggests that mentoring
enhances an individual’s sustainability, consistent with this book’s overarching
framework.
Like protégés, mentors can experience heightened job satisfaction, as well as greater
promotions and higher incomes. Protégés also enable mentors to connect with others
with whom he or she would not normally interact (e.g., individuals at lower
hierarchical levels in the organization), thus enhancing his or her base of support
within the organization. Protégés can provide mentors with technical information and
psychological support as well. Another benefit of mentoring others is that a mentor
can receive recognition for having developed organizational talent.

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Organizations benefit in a number of ways from implementing formal mentoring
programs and encouraging informal mentoring relationships. Mentoring expedites
organizational socialization as mentors can show newly-hired protégés “the ropes,” in
essence teaching them about the organization’s culture, policies and procedures,
introducing them to people and helping them to understand their role within an
organization. The foregoing enables organizational “onboarding,” which can be time-
consuming and costly as employees are not fully productive as they learn the ropes.

Organizations spend a considerable time and effort developing and implementing

leadership development and succession programs to ensure that there is an available
pool of talent to fill key positions. Mentoring, because it is a relationship dedicated to
learning and development, can aid both organizational practices. Other organizational
benefits include enhanced managerial succession, employee integration and
productivity, and reduced turnover. The foregoing benefits of mentoring are
inducements for organizations to invest in implementing formal mentoring programs
and fostering an organizational culture that values informal relationships.

5. Describe features of a successful formal mentoring program

Comments: The following factors are influential in determining whether mentoring
programs will be successfully implemented.
1. A clear set of objectives aligned with human resources and business strategy -
Given the resources and time needed to implement an effective formal mentoring
program, it is critical to have identified and be committed to a set of objectives.
The objectives should be aligned with the needs of the organization and
participants to ensure that the right skills are being taught and appropriate
knowledge is imparted. As an example, an organization whose success lies in
having a particular set of skills at senior levels should create a program with
objectives that relate to the development of those skills.
2. Sponsorship by senior leaders – Without the sponsorship of the most senior
individual in an organization or a number of key leaders, a formal mentoring
program will likely not have the momentum or needed resources to be effective.
3. Communications and training – Mentors and protégés need information about the
program if they are to understand its goals and their interactions. Requisite
mentoring skills such as active listening and counseling can be taught through
proper training sessions with mentors.
4. Choosing appropriate mentors and matching of mentors and protégés –
Identifying individuals who have the characteristics of outstanding mentors is
critical to a program’s success. Included among able mentoring characteristics are
experience, self-awareness and interpersonal skills. First, mentors must high
achieved mastery of his or her position and in-depth knowledge of the field.
Second, mentors should possess an awareness of their leadership role in the
relationship and have established a solid identity and sense of self. Third, in order
to provide the numerous mentoring functions, in particular psychosocial
functions, mentors must possess skills such as empathy and listening skills.
The matching process should consider three elements: similarity of participants;
input into the matching decision; and voluntary participation in the program. First,

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 successful mentoring pairs are often matched on the basis of similiarity in values,
attitudes, or interests. Second, input as to whom one will be partnered with instills
a sense of control and responsibility for the relationship’s success and subsequent
outcomes. Third, more generally, voluntary participation by participants is
associated with greater motivation and satisfaction.
5. Evaluation and review of the program – It is important to periodically reevaluate a
program against its stated objectives. The program coordinator should secure
feedback from program participants to gauge relationship effectiveness and to
assess whether the appropriate skills are being taught and knowledge is gained.
Exit interviews—those that occur after the duration of the program—should be
conducted as well to aid future programs.
6. A skilled program coordinator – A skillful coordinator is critical to managing
activities and processes as well as garnering and/or maintaining support for the
mentoring program.

Organizations embarking upon the implementation of a formal mentoring program

should be aware of the potential pitfalls. For example, it is important to educate both
parties to communicate their expectations early in the relationship so as not to
undermine trust and rapport later if miscommunication were to occur. Also, the
matching process critical in influencing the quality of the relationship, which will
largely dictate the amount of mentoring received and the degree of positive outcomes
for both parties. Another potential pitfall is locating mentors who can commit to the
time investment necessary to make a relationship functional well.

6. What are some newer areas of mentoring interest?

Comments: First, given organizations are increasingly sending employees abroad, it
is important to understand how developmental relationships at home and abroad can
aid an expatriate. In spite of best intentions on the part of the organization and the
employee, some estimates suggest that expatriate failures are as high as 40 percent.
Expatriates have various needs during the three international assignment phases—
pre-departure, on-site, and repatriation—that can be filled by home- and host-country
developers. For example, prior to departing for an international assignment,
expatriates need information related to the role, the host country’s culture and the host
organization’s culture.
Second, advancements in technology allow mentoring to occur between individuals at
distant locations and via various mediums such as email, chat rooms, blogs and
teleconferencing. E-mentoring has been defined as “a mutually beneficial relationship
between a mentor and a protégé, which provides new learning, as well as career and
emotional support, primarily through email and other electronic means (e.g., instant
messaging, chat rooms, social networking spaces, etc.)”.
Third, in the face of a complex career environment, individuals need to fashion a
developmental network that is responsive to their developmental needs.

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MODULE 10
Conflict Management and Negotiation

Overview
Human systems, by their vary nature, evolve through human negotiations. One way to think about an
organization is to conceptualize it as a collecting of interrelated groups operating at various levels of the
organizational hierarchy. As such, in any firm, high degree of intra-group and inter-group interaction are
vital to the organization’s success. Conflicts of various types are an integral part of any human system.
The ability to diagnose and manage inter-team interactions is essential to the firm because (1) in most
organizations, teams need to work with other teams to accomplish their goal; (2) the interdependency
between the teams often creates dependency relationships that might foster conflict; and (3) conflicting
team goals and the emerging dynamics between teams might influence the effectiveness of the firm.*
Even in small companies, the production group must interact with the marketing/sales group and both
must interface with the accounting, human resources and finance groups.

In the context of this module we go beyond the definition of a group that was presented in Modules 4 and
5, which focused on person-to-person relations. In this module, a team or a group refers to any one of the
types of groups and teams previously mentioned; a department or a business unit; or to any formal or
informal classifications of employees based on geographical location, hourly verses permanent workers,
race, gender, ethnic background, religion, occupation, educational background, and so on.**

The dynamics of conflict, intergroup behavior and performance and negotiations are focal points for the
module. A significant portion of the module is devoted to handling conflict and negotiation. Three
activities—“Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics”, “The Prisoners’ Dilemma,” and “The SLO
Corporation”—provide opportunities to have concrete experiences of the complex interteam dynamics,
conflict, negotiation, and to examine their effect on human behavior and performance.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Describe the nature of conflict dynamics and its impact on performance.
2. Explain the types and levels of conflict.
3. Describe the five individual conflict-handling styles.
4. Identify some conflict handling strategies.
5. Compare and contrast distributed and integrative negotiations.
6. Explain cultural and gender differences in conflict and/or negotiations.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation

*
See for example Guzzo, R. A. and Shea, G. P., Group performance and intergroup relations
inorganizations, in M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (eds.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Vol. 3, 2nd Ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychological Press, 1992, 269-313.
**
Triandis, H. C., Kurowski. L. L., Gelfand, M. J., Workplace Diversity, In H. C. Triandis, M. D.
Dunnette, and L. M. Hough (eds.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists, Vol. 2, 2nd
ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychological Press, 1994, 769-827.

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 Activity 10–1: Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics
Introduction
The Nature of Conflict Dynamics
Types and Levels of Conflict
Conflict within the Individual
Interpersonal Conflict-Handling
Five Conflict-Handling Styles
Cultural and Gender Differences with Handling Conflict
Intrateam Conflict
Defining and Handling Intergroup Conflict
Why Managing Intergroup Conflict is Important
Sources of Intergroup Conflict
Recognition of the “Common Enemy”
Development of Superordinate Goals
A Conflict-Handling Intervention
Intergroup Communication
Negotiation As A Means of Handling Conflict
Types of Negotiation
Power and Leverage in Negotation
Investigative Negotiation
Negotiation Structures
The Influence of Culture on Negotiations
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 10–2: The Prisoners’ Dilemma
Activity 10–3 : The SLO Corporation Dilemma
Activity 10-4: The Ugli Orange Case
Activity 10-5: Discovering How You Typically Handle Conflict

This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Module overview
* Activity 10-1: Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics
* Notes on Participative Management
* Notes on The Dialogue Sequence in Communications
* Activity 10-2 : The Prisoners’ Dilemma: An Intergroup Competition
* Activity 10-3 : The SLO Corporation Dilemma
* Activity 10-4: The Ugli Orange Case
* Activity 10-5: Discovering How You Typically Handle Conflict
* Responses to the Study Questions

Activity 10-1: Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics

This activity requires a one-and-one-half-hour time block for completion. If your class periods are for
one hour, it is suggested that you either not use it or that an evening or weekend session be arranged. It is
worth the extra time.

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The primary purpose of the activity is not stated in the book because it would not “work” if you told them
what it was in advance. This is an activity designed for the purpose of exploring intergroup conflict. If
the students know this in advance they can avoid the natural forces of competition that can arise between
groups. So the activity is introduced to the students under the secondary purpose of examining problem-
solving synergy under conditions of ambiguity. In contrast to other activities in which problem-solving
synergy was studied when the problems had a definite logical solution, this exercise is focused upon the
less definite problem area of the team members interacting and racking their brains on the advantages and
disadvantages of 1) participative management and 2) promoting competition among employees. They are
to draw on the data in their head and they are not to use any reference source. This can prove quite
frustrating for teams but they readily do the exercise when assured they are “coping with ambiguity.”

Class Preparation for the Activity

a. At the end of the class period in which this homework is to be assigned, the professor must be sure
and read the entire set of instructions on Activity 10-1 to the class so they will know what they are to do
outside class and in class on the next session. Stress that all members of the team must be present for the
outside activity or they really will not be prepared for Task 2 when it takes place in class. Also, require
the outside attendance sheet be turned in. In introducing and conducting this activity, be sure to avoid the
use of any words that might produce competition and intergroup conflict. Note that the wording of the
activity is to show that groups go into a conflict situation very spontaneously, even though rather neutral
language is used in the text.

b. Three ditto master sheets are to be issued to each team upon which they are to type the team solution
for Task 1 on advantages and disadvantages of 1) participative management and 2) promoting
competition among employees. We pass out the ditto master sheets and show them how to use them.

c. Teams are to be advised of the time and place where the ditto masters containing the teams’ solutions
are to be turned over to you so you can arrange to have them dittoed before the next class session.

d. The professor should have the appropriate ditto copies run off. If the class activity is to be done in
dyads, each participant will need two copies of his team’s solution, one for self and one for the dyad
partner from the other team, when they meet. If triads instead of dyads are to be used, each participant
will need three copies, one for self and one for each of the other two triad partners.

e. You should decide before class whether you are to use dyads or triads in Task 2 when the class
assembles to compare their solutions. Dyads have the advantage of having more time to compare their
products in the half hour allotted, and very few will finish the task in that time. At one time we always
used dyads when possible. However, we have noticed that more conflict is created in triads because of
the limited time and the more complicated interactions that result. Also, after the activity has been
discussed, you can take up the subject of the nature of the triad: it always breaks down into two against
one. The role of male and female in competition can also be examined: if you match male with male in
dyads, and female with female in dyads, what happens? And if you have two females and a male, or two
males and a female in triads, what happens? Try it. In male and female dyads, sometimes you will find
males being polite and allowing the women to “win.” While in others the males dominate. Very
interesting. However, any matching of males and females should not be announced in advance; just list
the last names of team members on the board as if it were unintended. You can tell them why you did it
during the discussion of this aspect of the activity.

f. Which teams to match? As soon as you get all their solutions, compare the quality of the work and
try to match teams together that have produced equally good and poor writeups. If one limited product is

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matched with one of high quality, there will be little conflict; the superior production is recognized by
both parties.

g. The team lists for the dyads and triads should be completed in advance of the session so you will save
time in the classroom. The method is described below.

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Conducting the classroom session described in Task 2
a. Arrive early and list the teams on the board. Each team should be listed in alphabetical order; if not
in alphabetical order, participants are sometimes suspicious that the instructor is pitting two people
against each other. The lists on the board should appear as follows:

Team 1 Team 2 T-1 T-2

Adams Arthur
Brown Handy
Case Higgines
Dawson Lawson
Henry Schwiderski
Shapio Zander

Total Score

Team 3 Team 4 Team 5 T-3 T-4 T-5

Ander Bean Kettle

Moss Carson Liu
Galvez Dawes Stein
Porter Easton Todd
Quin Fish Uhlman
Rawson Foxx Vince
Total Score

b. Task 2 should be read aloud to the class. Participants must understand that after the completion of the
dyad or triad decision making, the scores allotted to each solution for each dyad or triad will be listed on
the board. The scores will then be totaled. Tell the teams that the form and appearance of the team’s
written solution should not be a part of the decision process. Only the meaning of the entries are to be
considered.

c. The team papers which the professor had duplicated will be passed out to the teams. Each member
will have a copy for her/himself and one for each partner.

d. Dyads and triads are to meet for the thirty-minute session of Task 2. Participants should be
encouraged to use space other than the main classroom, if it is available, for their meetings; e.g., adjacent
empty classrooms, lawns, etc. The activity gets a bit noisy.

e. After twenty minutes, you should go around telling the teams they must come to a decision and return
to their teams in ten minutes. During the next 10 minutes, you should go around hassling people who are
not finished, e.g., “You have only three minutes left!” This added pressure increases the dynamics you
wish to illustrate. Insist that they reach a decision before returning to their teams. Students become so
involved in this that they frequently have trouble completing the exercises on time and must be urged by
the professor. Managers engaged in the process are very difficult to break up.

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f. When all dyads and triads have come to a decision, or when you can no longer wait for the few
remaining groups to come to a decision, order all to return to their teams. Watch what happens here.
Team members will be vigorously taking inventory as to who won and who lost; obviously they were all
engaged in a win-lose match, judging by their behavior.

g. For completion of Task 3, teams should be sitting together again in the classroom. The professor will
ask the first dyad, Adams of Team 1 and Arthur of Team 2, for the division of their twenty points and
their scores will be entered on the charts already on the blackboard. After all scores have been listed for
all teams, they should be totaled and teams will be ranked-ordered from high to low. If some dyads failed
to reached an agreement, enter a zero for their scores and then figure averages for all teams to get at the
total comparative score; since the participant receiving a zero is included in the average, their teams are
penalized in the rank ordering. This adds to the intergroup competition which is still important at this
point because you want to discuss their feelings later during the session.

h. Discussing the Data: Ask the class to interpret what the data on the blackboard means. The data they
will be examining falls into two patterns: 1) Problem solving took place within the dyads and triads as
indicated by Team 1, for instance, receiving the higher score in more dyads than Team 2, i.e., the students
in Team 2 seemed to be objective in judging Team 1’s solution to be better. 2) Mixed patterns in which
some of each team “won” and in which some rather extreme score might have occurred, e.g., a 15-to-5
score. After this has been discussed for awhile, ask the students, “How did you feel going through this
activity?” Some will start to discuss how competitive they felt and how they wanted to win.

Pick up many responses and you will get a number saying they felt they were more concerned about
winning than evaluating the product. You can remind them this was supposed to be an objective
decision-making exercise. Ask how many felt they were in a win-lose situation and the entire class will
probably respond affirmatively. An outpouring of feelings will follow. At the end tell them this was for
the purpose of showing, experiencing, intergroup conflict dynamics. Note how you saw them behave
when they returned to their groups. The hero-traitor patterns showed up when the lone loser on a team
indicated his/her score, while the individual bringing in the most points was applauded. This leads into
the dynamics of the activity.

i. The three basic conceptual areas of motivation, perception and communication are well illustrated in
this activity. The Rabbie experiment shows how in-group-out-group frustrations and stereotyped
perceptions are spontaneously generated when the two groups were in sight of each other but had not
even communicated. Group identity is a powerful motivating factor in many situations and out-group
attitudes are an inherent part of the process. Given the spontaneity and the intensity of these problems of
motivation/frustration, perceptual distortion, and communication in intergroup relations, the question
becomes one of how to constantly be aware of and cope with them. Coping with intergroup conflict:
There are of course no absolute answers, only directions in which people can work to overcome conflict
and facilitate coordination. Some of these are outlined in the module and should be discussed with the
class. In addition, get suggestions from the class. They often have examples of how coping was
achieved.

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The list from the text includes:

1. Developing an Awareness of how spontaneous intergroup conflict can develop.

2. Superordinate Goals.
3. Look for the Common Enemy—If you are at Chrysler, fight GM, Ford and the Japanese, rather than
each other.
4. Social Technology—use workshop methods.
5. Team Management.
6. Linking Pins.

In addition, you may want to use a number of other areas frequently discussed in the intergroup conflict
area. For instance, organizational design can build conflict into many situations. In one university, a
School of Business and Behavioral Sciences consisted of a Business Department, and three different
behavioral science departments. The Business Department had to fight three others for all scarce
resources and was always outvoted, and most important no accreditation was possible for them unless
they had their own separate school. Conflict was inevitable. There are numerous examples from business
and government of similar problems caused by faulty design.

Organizational practices and policies are other areas. Giving staff elements more power than line
elements, or leaving the authority of the two too vague would be an example.

We made a number of recommendations for further reading on this subject in the text and will leave this
phase at this point.

Participative Management
After the subject of intergroup conflict has been thoroughly discussed, the questions on participative
management and competition in Activity 10-1 should be explored in detail. Points for discussion on the
questions should include the following, along with the many other valid considerations the students will
introduce.

Question 1: What are the advantages and disadvantages of participation?

Advantages
a. It helps alleviate many of the problems caused by the one-to-one management style and the rigid
hierarchical organizational structure. When a manager meets with a team one at a time, problems of
communication, perceptual distortion (e.g., distrust) and motivation/frustration may be easily generated.
Meeting together to discuss operational activities, policies, etc., provides an opportunity for incipient as
well as actual problems of these types to be addressed.

b. Improved communication is possible concerning information essential to the operations so that all
participants have the same knowledge.

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c. If the organizational climate is one of openness, interpersonal relationships can be coped with,
particularly if the team is aware of the need for team building. The distrust that can arise when the boss
meets alone with you and then with your peers may be avoided or overcome, thus avoiding some of the
dysfunctional interpersonal competition and the intergroup rivalry just discussed in connection with
Activity 10-1.

d. Motivation can be enhanced since the individuals involved in the decision may become more
committed to it and also have a better understanding of how it is to be carried out. Resistance to change
may be reduced as individuals consider alternative actions together. A sense of group identity is more
possible when the team meets on matters important to all.

e. Role differentiation can be clarified, since one-to-one management can often lead to
misunderstanding as to who is responsible for what activities.

Disadvantages
a. It can be very time consuming. However, this can be controlled by the experienced manager.
Further, time spent in goal-setting, problem definition and planning can result in more rapid
implementation (professional-manager style), as the action-oriented team that does not spend the time in
these functions usually finds, halfway down the field, that they have to come back to start over—a far
more time-consuming endeavor. “Groupiness” as a way of life (permissive style) must be avoided.

b. Cohesive groups can become autonomous and work against management.

c. Participation can take the form of continuous committee formation and the bureaucratic entrappings
of “means over ends” can occur in which more emphasis is put upon procedure and form so that the
advantages of participation are not operating (corporate style).

d. Groups can sometimes become a way for everyone to escape the responsibility for actions, all
assuming that maybe someone else will pick up the ball (cop-out style).

e. Participation must be consistent with the ideology and expectations of the group. Participation
studies in more autocratic societies have not met with the success that they have in the United States. In
the autocratic style organization, people often assume that it is the boss’s job to plan, solve problems, and
make decisions alone.

f. The goals and interest of the employees and the management must be compatible; further, employees
may not be qualified to participate.

g. Individuals whose ideas are continuously rejected can become alienated.

h. It is frequently seen by managers as a way to manipulate employees into making the decision the
manager has already decided upon.

i. It can raise expectations that cannot always be met or that the manager did not intend, e.g., once
started employees may want to be included in all decision making appropriate or not. When a manager
must make a decision immediately and has no time to consult with the employees, they may become
resentful that they were not consulted.

j. All the hazards of groupthink can be encountered.

These lists contain some of the main advantages and disadvantages but are not exhaustive.

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Under what conditions or circumstances could participation have favorable consequences and under what
conditions could it have unfavorable consequences?

This of course is an extremely difficult question to answer. The advantages and disadvantages above
suggest conditions, e.g., if greater involvement, greater synergy, better role differentiation, etc., are
needed, participation may be relevant. Another important consideration for deciding on whether or not to
use it, as suggested in Module 4, is to focus on consequences: What are the consequences of involving
people or not involving people in any particular situation? The contingency model of management,
(Module 8) requires that the manager consider all of the variables in the situation (“management is
situational”) when deciding what will be more effective. The formula is relevant here:

M = f (I, P, P, T . . . . . . . C)
A n o e e u
N d s o c l
A i i p h t
G v t l n u
E i i e o r
M d o l e
E u n o
N a g
T l y

A factor of increasing importance to consider in this formula is people; the ever-increasing educational
achievement level of our current population and the alienation of many workers make participation an
ever more important approach to consider.

Question 2: What are the advantages and disadvantages of promoting competition among employees?

Question 3: Under what conditions should a manager promote competition among employees?

The subject of competition was introduced into this activity for two reasons: 1) students relate to it well
and have ready opinions, and 2) it is a real issue among managers at all levels. A certain amount of myth
concerning competition has been built into our school systems and it carried into management.
Competition under conditions of fair play is a healthy element of individual and team sports. However,
when it is carried into the business world, managers forget that business is not a sport; assuming always
that individuals must compete against each other and that work groups must compete can be highly
dysfunctional especially when it prevents cooperation. We go right back to our contingency theory of
management and emphasize that whether or not promoting competition among employees has beneficial
effects depends upon the circumstances. Whenever cooperation and coordination of work activities are
needed, pushing competitiveness can cause interpersonal and intergroup conflict. Likert has even found
among sales personnel that those who shared learning and were managed as a team were more productive
than those who were managed in competition with one another.

Unquestionably people in management and professional jobs are going to be in competition for promotion
and other rewards so it will exist. The point is that managers can handle the situation by avoiding pitting
individuals against one another and developing the environment in which people have all the information
to make their choices and direct their energies. Having high performance standards and group goals is
important; having people compete against their own records and set up their own high standards is also
healthy. Having Ford employees compete against General Motors may offer a better orientation than

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having employees compete internally. Look for the “common enemy” outside your own organization.
Emphasizing the excellence we are all trying to attain together is most meaningful.

There will be some situations in which direct competition is advantageous. For instance, two logging
teams doing identical work competing to see which can be most productive.

Some preliminary research* indicates that among successful scientists, students, and businessmen, hard
work and a preference for challenging tasks were more important than competitiveness. Only when these
factors were absent did competitiveness stimulate some to push for success.

The main point to stress is that business leaders frequently promote competition among employees on the
assumptions that it works best. The generalization should be avoided and the new contingencies
considered.

The Dialogue Sequence in Communications**

Social technology — the use of workshop methods—was one of the topics listed under “Coping with
Intergroup Conflict” in this module. We offer a model here that has been in wide use in one form or
another for coping both with intergroup and interpersonal conflict. The sequence consists of four skills
areas:

1. Listening Skills: If differences are to be overcome they must first be understood. Conflict is usually
accompanied by the refusal to really hear what the other party is saying. Each party assumes they know
what the other person is saying. A special problem of faulty listening is the common tendency to evaluate
and judge everything we hear. The idea is to be just like a radio receiver and pick up the message as it is.
In workshops, husbands and wives sometimes discover after years of marriage that they never heard what
the other person has been saying. In workshops between married people, or between labor and
management, or black and white, or other groupings, the first step is to develop listening skills and come
to understand what the other parties are saying, to be able to paraphrase it back to the satisfaction of
others.

2. Confrontation Skills: Once the basics of each party’s position have been heard, we turn to
confrontation of differences. This involves asking questions in a way that enhances understanding.
Questions often have hidden meanings, e.g., “Don’t you think . . . Don’t you believe . . . .” These types
usually mean the speaker believes this way, and that listeners ought to, too. Other questions are of the
Mr. District Attorney type, designed to catch the other person. So confrontation skills can include
learning to ask questions in a way that promotes trust and moves the process forward. Other
confrontation skills will not be discussed here but the footnote can lead you to additional approaches if
you are interested.

3. Searching Skills: Looking for problem-solving, creative, experimental alternatives for coping with
the problem areas identified is next.

*
Jack Horn, “The Element of Success: Competitiveness Isn’t That Important,” Psychology Today, April
1978, pp. 19-20.
**
Variation of this dialogue sequence can be found in Rogers, On Becoming a Person, ch. Floyd Mann,
“Handling Misunderstanding and Conflict,” in Current Perspectives for Managing Organizations, eds.,
B. M. Bass and S. D. Deep (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), pp. 476-80; and Gordon
Lippitt, Quest for Dialogue (Lebanon, PA: Sowers Printing Co., 1966).

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4. Coping Skills: Once alternatives are described, how can they be executed in a way that maximizes the
probability of success and avoid the barriers that should be identified in advance? The emphasis is upon
goals.

Activity 10-2: “Prisoners’ Dilemma”*

This activity takes approximately an hour to run, plus discussion time. If your class meets in one hour,
run briskly (eliminating Rounds 3 and 6 if you must), taking a few minutes at the end of the class to have
participants make notes of their reactions (according to the questions listed for discussion at the end of
these notes). Assign the chapter as homework (if you have not already done so around Activity 8-1), and
use a second class period for mini lecture and discussion of the impact of group conflict, trust,
cooperation and competition.

As an alternative, if you have run Activity 10-1 and already assigned the module text, this activity can be
run and participants asked to debrief using module concepts. Again, instructor guidance can be based on
the questions suggested in the notes. This activity’s overt competition can serve as a counterpoint to the
covert competition people tend to put into Activity 10-1.

This activity is based on an old decision-making problem, “the prisoners’ dilemma”: when two prisoners
are suspected of collaborating, guards would separate them, prohibiting communication. Each prisoner
would be told that the other had confessed, both confessed, both would be shown leniency. If neither
confesses, their jailers have no more information. If one confesses, but the other does not, the recalcitrant
prisoner would suffer further penalties. The dilemma is that one might confess when she or he should
not, or fail to confess when he or she should.

Underlying this dilemma are problems of trust and betrayal of trust, and intergroup competition.
Collaborative stances gain points for both sides, but only if trust is maintained: if trust is betrayed, both
teams lose.

Process
1. Divide the group into two teams of no more than eight members (extras can be observers). This
activity can be run with four teams of eight (two pairs) plus observers in larger classes, but more room is
needed, and management becomes a bit more difficult.

2. Tally sheets should be carefully torn out by all participants.

3. The teams are assigned Red or Blue names. Teams are instructed not to communicate with the other
team in any way, verbally or nonverbally, unless instructed to do so by the professor. (Where space
permits, separating teams into different rooms insures non-communication. When running two pairs, the
Reds can be in one room together, and the Blues in another, since they are in separate competitions.)

*
These instructions are an adaptation from J. William Pfeiffer and John E. Jones, Eds., A Handbook of
Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training, Volume III (San Diego, CA: University
Associates, Inc., 1974). Used with permission.

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4. Instruct the group that they are going to experience a “risk-taking” situation like that of guilty
prisoners being interrogated by police. Before interrogating prisoners suspected of working together, the
questioner separates them and tells each one that the other has confessed and that, if they confess, they
will get off easier. The prisoners’ dilemma or risk is that they may confess when they should not, or they
may fail to confess when they really should. (Carefully avoid discussing goals).

5. Teams will have three minutes to make a team decision. Instruct them not to write their decisions
until you signal that the time is up, so that they will not make hasty decisions. Begin Round 1.

6. The team choices are announced for Round 1. Scoring for that round is agreed upon and entered on
score cards. (The scores should also be posted on the board or on newsprint in the class or meeting
room.)

7. Rounds 2 and 3 are scored in the same way as Round 1.

8. Round 4 is announced as a special round in which points are doubled. Each team is instructed to send
one representative to chairs in the center of the room. (If you are running two pairs of teams, arrange a
meeting place separate from all teams.) Having the representatives meet out in the hall is one option.
After the representatives from competing teams have conferred for three minutes, they return to their
teams. Teams then have three minutes, as before, in which to make their decisions. When recording their
scores, they should be reminded that points indicated by the payoff schedule are doubled for this round
only.

9. Rounds 5 through 8 are conducted and scored as in the first three rounds.

10. Round 9 is announced as a special round in which the payoff points are SQUARED (multiplied by
themselves: i.e., 4 becomes 4 x 4 = 16). A minus sign should be retained, i.e., -3 becomes –9. Team
representatives meet for three minutes, as in Round 4; then teams meet for 5 minutes. At the facilitator’s
signal, teams write out their choices. The choices are announced and posted.

11. Round 10 is handled as Round 9, with payoff points squared. In Round 10, each team can be directed
to predict the choice of the other, and the choices can be posted or noted down by each team BEFORE
announcing the actual choices, using the Prisoner’s Dilemma Prediction Sheet diagram in the Appendix.
(Actual choices are recorded in the circles after the predictions are announced.)

12. The whole group is reconvened to discuss their experience. The point total for each team is
announced, and competing teams’ scores are calculated and compared to maximum possible positive or
negative outcomes (+126 or –126).

Topics for discussion include:

- Win-lose dynamics;
- Zero-sum games;
- Competitive situations and people’s expectations of competition between groups;
- How group cohesiveness affects competition and is affected by it;
- The relative advantages and disadvantages of competition or cooperation;
- The impact of trust and betrayal of trust on competition or cooperation;
- Situations in which cooperation or competition would be most effective.

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The discussion should turn on how the group context affected responses. For instance, team
representatives can be seen as “colluding” with the other team—particularly if the other team sabotages
by changing their agreed-upon response. The outcomes of early rounds as determinants of willingness to
cooperate later, and the temptation to take advantage in Round 4 (when “this is the only round to be
scored this way” appears to make it a golden opportunity) are also worthwhile points for discussion. See
also the notes on Activity 10-1. “Exploring Conflict and Negotiation Dynamics” (above) for some other
useful suggestions.

Variation:
I. The competition can be carried out using money instead of points.
II. Process observers can be assigned to each team.
III. Teams can be placed in separate rooms, to minimize rule-breaking.
IV. In Round 10, each team can be directed to predict the choice of the other. These predictions can be
posted before announcing the actual choices, as in the following diagram. (Actual choices are
recorded in the circles after the predictions are announced.)

Predicting Predicted Choice

Team
Red Team Blue Team

Red

Blue

Originally published in J. W. Pfeiffer & J. E. Jones, Eds., A Handbook of Structured Experiences for
Human Relations Training (Vol. III, Rev.) San Diego, CA, University Associates, 1974.

Activity 10-3: The SLO Corporation*

Objective
To explore the dynamics of interdivisional competitions and its effect on performance.

Procedure
The activity is self explanatory. We have found that the best way to manage the activity is to follow the
sequence of tasks and time frames that are listed in the book.

*
This activity is similar to many that have been developed previously. The original exercise was
developed by Sherif, Intergroup Relations and Leadership, and further developed by many others,
notably, Robert Black. This activity is a further modification of the one that can be found in, D.A. Kold,
J. S. Osland & I. M. Rubin (1995), Organizational Behavior: An Experiential Approach, sixth edition,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 291-293.

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Activity 10-4: The Ugli Orange Case

Objective:
1. To explore the dynamics of two-person bargaining.

The Activity:
This exercise is an excellent way to open a class on conflict and negotiation. In total, the exercise
can be conducted in 30-35 minutes. To ensure that students do not view each others’ roles, the
instructor will ideally make copies of the role and distribute them to the students rather than ask
them to read their respective roles.

Activity 10-5 can be assigned prior to the class as a complement to the exercise. During the Ugli
Orange debrief, the instructor can ask students to reflect upon the extent to which their dominant
conflict handling style is consistent with the approach they took to the role play.

The role play can be conducted in a meaningful way in 30-40 minutes between student reviews
of their roles, negotiation and a short debrief. Roughly 50 percent of the class will fail to
recognize that the role play involves an integrative negotiation in which Dr. Roland needs the
rind and Dr. Jones needs the juice of the oranges. These students are surprised by the nature of
the negotiation and some assert that they tend to view negotiations as implicitly distributive as so
they tend to use a forcing approach. Accompanying this approach is often lack of information
sharing, trust, and attempts for win-win solutions.

The instructor can highlight the role that trust plays in influencing negotiations, including
whether information is shared and mutual gains attempted.

The observer often leads to self-consciousness and/or a tendency for students to hold strongly to
their positions. To aid the observer in handling his or her role, an instructor can give an observer
a short set of questions concerning Dr. Roland and Dr. Jones’ interactions. For example, the
questions might include: What conflict handling styles did the parties seem to utilize with each
other? What was the impact of their styles on the role play’s outcomes?

Activity 10-5 – Discovering How You Typically Handle Conflict

Objective:
1. To identify your preferred method for handling conflict.

The Activity:
This exercise is an excellent way to help students diagnose their preferred style conflict handling.
The activity is an extension of Thomas and Kilmann. A few options on how and when to use the
activity: As a diagnostic tool it is a self discovery process. The activity can be assigned as a pre-
assignment or completed in class in about 10 minutes. The instructor should ask students to
reflect upon how they typically handle conflict situations and whether their approaches reflect

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the results of the instrument. One alternative is to weave a discussion about the results of their
instruments into debriefs on conflict and negotiation role plays (e.g., the Ugli Orange case). To
facilitate self-reflection, instructors can ask students to consider the roots of their dominant
styles. Quite often, for example, students’ styles are rooted in mental models they hold on the
basis of having watched their parents or family members handle conflict or negotiate. The
models are so ingrained that students are not even necessarily aware of their behavioral
influence.

Alternatively it can be a team-based activity in which following the individual sharing of their
conflict handling style the team can explore conflict handling at the team level and identify some
improvement action steps in the way the team deals with conflict.

Alternative session outlines “conflict and negotiation”

Option 1:

1. Think about the last time you experienced conflict with one of your room-mates (if you have
one), or significant other, or friend, or family member: (ask 1 or 2 people: 10-15 min)
a. What was it about?
b. What was the attitude of the other party? And your attitude?
c. How did it end?
d. What do you think about conflict?
2. Short lecture on conflict and negotiation (25-40 min)
a. Ask them: where does conflict originate?
Conflict originates in:
i. Different worldviews: mention ideological rigidity (Peterson) when fundamental
building blocks of one’s worldview are under attack.
This explains why intergroup conflict happens so easily (racial/ethnic, but also
functional or educational background): it shapes our worldview.
ii. Power struggles about real interests at stake.
b. Do you think conflict is bad or unproductive?
Substantive conflict is productive and constructive, but socio-emotional conflict can be
dangerous and costly (in terms of group effectiveness). Time pressures might foster more
socio-emotional conflict as a shortcut.
c. We all have our tendencies about conflict, which are often acquired through previous
experience. Depending on the situation and our personality, we adopt different conflict-
handling modes (avoiding, competing, accommodating, compromising, collaborating)
d. Different ways to overcome conflict: (21 min)
i. Introducing a common enemy (ex: WWII, Vietnam war, 9/11, natural
catastrophes) (2 min)
ii. Superordinate goals (Kennedy’s New Frontiers speech) (2 min)
iii. Awareness and identity expansion: works for intra-individual conflicts
(psychoanalysis) and also for intergroup conflict (in fact, common enemy and
superordinate goals are a type of it) (5 min)
iv. Negotiation: we’ll get into it in more detail after the exercise
3. Break?

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 4. Negotiation exercise: A few activities are available. We have used “The Sugar Bowl Activity”
(35 min)
a. Assign people within each group to roles A or B, and in odd-numbered teams, an
observer role, who will choose one pair and observe well (5 min)
b. Read your role and prepare for it with the worksheet (5 min)
c. Go to your breakout rooms and negotiate (15 min)
5. Debrief of negotiation exercise (5 min + 15 min/ pair: 35 min if 2 pairs)
a. Bargaining zone:
i. Sellers: what did you hope to get? What was the least amount you would have
accepted? What would you have done if you weren’t able to sell?
ii. Buyers: what did you hope to pay? What was the most you were willing to pay?
What would you have done if you weren’t able to buy?
b. BATNA: Would you have liked to know the BATNA and reservation point of the other?
Importance of perspective taking (focusing only on one’s desperation) and not using
one’s reservation point as a starting point, but aspiration level.
c. Get each pair to give me the price they agreed to pay
6. Negotiation concepts and ideas to remember:
a. Distributive vs. integrative bargaining (awareness about one’s and the other party’s
worldviews allow for a more integrative style, since conflict often originates there)
b. Importance or preparing upfront
c. Knowing as much as possible about the other party (style, personality, group identity)
and key norms about the thing under negotiation (blue book value for a car, market price,
etc…)
d. figure out One’s and other party’s BATNA
e. figure out One’s and other party’s reservation points (knowing BATNA helps)
f. Identifying different dimensions of the negotiation and their relative importance to you,
and possibly to the other’s (to create room for integration)
g. Creating a bundle of equally acceptable packages
h. For distributive negotiations, anchoring the initial offer
i. For negotiation between two social entities that are represented by 2 negotiators,
importance of offering face-saving solutions for the other party (as an integrative
strategy) and inquiring about absolute minimum acceptable outcomes to the constituents
they represent (e.g. Unions-companies negotiations, France imposing overly taxing war
sanctions on Germany after WWI)

Option 2:

ü This class centers on two role play events: Ugli Orange and Law Library (a Harvard Law School
case). Law Library should have been distributed as homework.
ü Students should also fill out a conflict-handling questionnaire so that students gain awareness of
how they typically handle conflict

• Agenda/Introduce importance of assuming role

a. Note that role plays consistent with the philosophy of learning by doing. Role plays
simulations of conflict and negotiation as a means to stimulate a relevant discussion on how
to better manage conflict and negotiate.
• Explain timeline on Ugli Orange and introduce partners to each other (should take five minutes –
have people make two lines, when they arrive at the front of the line, the person from the other line
is their partner
• Each person should read his or her Ugli Orange role play – 5 minutes

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• Negotiate Ugli Orange – 12 minutes
ü about 50% of the class will figure out the case represents a win-win situation, integrative
bargaining
• Allow students to briefly review Law library
• Introduce new partners and negotiate to new partners
• Brief break (ask some parties to write out the results of their negotiations on one side of the board)

• Ugli orange debrief (10 minutes)

• Law library debrief (15 minutes)
• General discussion on conflict, types of, strategies, international

Learning points: Helps students to understand how they approach conflict, to seek win-win solutions, to
realize that all conflict-handling styles can be appropriate (it depends upon the situation, to assess
BATNA and other negotiation tactics)

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MODULE 11
Work Teams and Effectiveness

Module Overview
Teams are a major focus of study throughout this course because teams and work groups are the basic unit
of the emerging contemporary enterprises. Interestingly, teamwork is an old idea that is experiencing
renewal as a mechanism to carry out complex tasks and integrate work, people, and organizations. The
view of organizations as “teams of teams,” or team-based organization, seems to be taking hold. As the
course progresses, new aspects of team effectiveness will be introduced so they can be applied to your
classroom group. If your course decision choice was to get individuals into teams at the beginning of the
course, by now individuals have had experienced many of the issues that are associated with team
characteristics, team dynamics, team processes, and team effectiveness. Modules 11 and 12 concentrate
directly on the small group and provide conceptual frameworks and practical skills as they relate to
effective team membership and team leadership that are embedded in small group theory and team
development. We approach the study of work groups and teams with the process-learning model, which
first provides an experience from which you can develop theory and concepts. You need to make choices
around the number of sessions that you would like to allocate to this topic. If time allows, one can use up
to three class sessions.

Thus at the beginning of Module 11, the team has the opportunity to identify and explore team skills that
individual team members would like to acquire (Activity 11-1 – Team Skills). Individuals are encouraged
to develop an action plan and the team as a whole can prioritize few crucial team skills. Group problem
solving is explored in Activity 11-2 (“Mountain Survival Exercise”), Activity 11-5W (“Important Days
Task”), and Activity 11-6W (“Task 21”). These exercises are similar, and you should choose only one of
them. These activities should help the students understand (1) the difference between a group and a team
and (2) why teams are so often used in organizations. These activities are a good introduction to the
subject of team effectiveness. We then discuss individual versus group decision making as well as the
circumstances where group problem solving or participative management is most appropriate. The
module examines the role of the manager in facilitating group decision making and problem solving,
explores ways in which creativity in problem solving can be enhanced, and shows some specific ways in
which organizations use teams. Module 11 ends with four additional activities that you may assign (two
in the book and two on the WWW). The “Who Gets the Overtime?” activity (activity 11-3) is followed
by “Team Development Assessment” (Activity 11-4). Three essential process tools for team development
are presented in activity 11-7W and Activity 11-8W is an exercise in decision making “Decision
Making—Japanese Style,” shows the impact of culture on group processes. Last, Activity 11-9W
provides an alternative way for the team to assess learning, dynamics and performance.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, the learner should be able to
1. Understand the differences between teams and groups.
2. Describe the potential problems that work teams face.
3. Identify the types of teams that can be found at work.
4. Describe the phases in a rational group problem-solving process.
5. Explain the role that synergy and creativity play in group problem solving.
6. Describe the role and activities of the team leader in group decision making.
7. Understand the consensus process in team activity.
8. State the conditions under which group decision making or participative management is most effective.

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Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 11–1: Team Skills
Activity 11–2: Mountain Survival
Introduction
The Nature of Teams
Historical Context and Global Competition
Work Groups and Teams: Toward a Definition
Types of Teams
Discussion of Pre-module Preparation’s Results
Individual versus Group Problem Solving
Group Decision Making and Participative Management
Other Factors
The Manager and Group Decision Making
Consensus and Group Decision Making
Creativity, Group Problem Solving, and Decision Making
Brainstorming
Nominal Group Technique
Application of Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Teams
Self-Managed Work Teams
Cross-Functional Teams
Quality Control Circles
Computer Technology and Group Decision Making
Virtual Teams
Group Decision Making and the Cultural Context
Problems That Emerge in Work Teams
Use of Time
Team Style
Work Habits and Skills
One-to-One Relationships with the Boss
Hidden Agendas
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 11–3: Who Gets the Overtime?
Activity 11–4: Team Development Assessment

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 11–5W: Important Days Task
Activity 11–6W: Task 21
Activity 11–7W: Three Essential Process Tools for Team Development
Activity 11–8W: Decision Making—Japanese Style
Activity 11-9W: Team Checkpoint Assessment

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This module includes teaching notes on the following:
* Module overview
* Activity 11-1: Team Skills
* Activity 11-2: Mountain Survival
* Activity 11-3: Who Gets the Overtime?
* Activity 11-4: Team Development Assessment

* Activity 11-5W: Important Days Task

* Activity 11-6W: Task 21
* Activity 11-7W: Three Essential Process Tools for Team Development
* Activity 11-8W: Decision Making—Japanese Style
* Activity 11-9W: Team Checkpoint Assessment, ADDITIONAL ACTIVITY

* Responses to the Study Questions

Teaching Notes
Introduce the session by having the students turn to Figure 11-2, Goals and Organizational Skills.
Emphasize that individuals can learn group-task and social-emotional skills which they can use in any
group and thus enhance their organizational effectiveness. Groups also, almost like people, can learn
skills through interaction practice. This will be demonstrated in the following activities: Activity 11-2 -
Mountain Survival; Activity 11-5W - Important Days Task; Activity 11-6W - Task Twenty-One

Yet, we have found that before we begin the set of activities that were designed to enhance team
performance, identifying the desired team skills that individuals would like to acquire serve as a
motivator. Thus, Activity 11-1 is a good place to start.

Activity 11-1: Team Skills

At this point of the course the students have participated in few team activities and begin to experience
differences in team skills that individuals poses. Thus, this activity is a semi-structured exercise that help
them reflect on their experience to date and identify specific team skills that they would like to acquire in
the course. Individuals are asked to rate the degree to which they have an interest in developing greater
skills of 23 team skills areas. Next, they are asked to prioritize the top five skills. The team time can be
used to brain storm about how the team can help the individual accomplish his/her goals. Each individual
can collaborate with the team to develop an action plan. To make sure that the activity is completed, we
ask students to submit to the instructor one page with a list of five skills that they wopuld like to acquire
and the action plan for accomplishing these learning goals.

Activities 11-2, 11-5W and 11-6W

Note: The following instructions are relevant to Activities 11-2, 11-5W and 11-6W.

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If only one of these is to be used, we recommend Activity 11-2: Mountain Survival. It is always rated
among the top activities in the critique at the end of the course. It demonstrates better than any activity
we have tried that pooling of knowledge and analytical reasoning produces synergy, with most all teams
being able to get a team score higher than its most accurate member. If there is sufficient time in the
course, two of these tests can be run in two succeeding class sessions. For this we would recommend
Activity 11-5W, Important Days, followed by the more difficult Activity 11-2, Mountain Survival. If the
course is run on one-hour blocks, it might be well to have a class session in between for discussion of
results. Teams can also discuss, during the in-between period, how their problem-solving skills could be
improved before they attempt the second activity.

Management of the Activity: All three are identical in their objectives and Task 2 scoring instructions in
Task 3 are the same for Mountain Survival and Important Days, but are different for the Task Twenty-
One. Activities like the Mountain Survival exercise have been around for a long time. However,
Mountain Survival is still valuable because of the excellent directions for consensus and conflict
resolution in Task 2, written by Jay Hall for the NASA exercise. Also, Jay Hall’s research with the
instrument is reported, providing support for the process we are trying to demonstrate. With the
Mountain Survival exercise, there is usually the potential problem that students will have already
completed it or one like it in another class and will ruin the exercise by telling their team members of their
superior qualifications. You can prevent this by announcing in class that students who have completed
this exercise in the past should not inform others and that the exercise will go well if they just present
their arguments as if it is a fresh experience (frequently their suggestions are ignored—a frustration hard
to endure). Another way to avoid this problem is to spring the exercise as a surprise, with the class
schedule showing only that an unnamed exercise will take place, which is what the authors usually do.

Don’t move the students into their team formation until after they have completed their individual work
on the questionnaire (Task 1) because they either start discussing this ahead of time or find it convenient
to consult one another’s papers. Each of these exercises can be completed in a fifty-minute class period,
by allowing ten minutes for individuals to take the test, twenty minutes for teams to do so, ten minutes for
scoring, and ten minutes for posting results on the blackboard. Further discussion of the results can take
place the next class period. The fifty-minute period will be tight so the students should be warned at the
end of the previous class session to be sure to be ready to start on time. While they are completing the
test individually they should be encouraged to come to their rank ordering of the test items within the
period allowed. If the instructor finds it took fifteen minutes for the individual completion part, cut the
time of the discussion period at the end and continue it at the next meeting. For the Important Days Task,
students should be instructed that no calendars (some have the pocket variety) should be used. This is
also a reason for not having this task completed as homework; some students will use references and their
scores will thus be more accurate, leaving less opportunity for the group score to be better than the most
accurate member.

Follow the instruction in the textbook for administering the tasks; they are complete. When most of the
students have finished the individual solution (at the end of 10 minutes), ask the class to follow Jay Hall’s
instructions for effective group problem solving by reading aloud to them the paragraphs from Task 2b.
Students who have not quite finished their rank ordering of the items can continue to work while you are
reading Jay Hall. During the team’s problem-solving processes, a student will occasionally want the
instructor to be the judge in an argument or provide additional information, particularly in the Mountain
Survival Task, and they should be assured that only their team must make the decisions; the instructor has
no further input while the exercise is running.

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Keys: The key for the Mountain Survival problem is included here as Figure 11-1. The key for the
Important Days problem is included in Figure 11-2. The key for Task Twenty-One is included here as
Figure 11-3.

Recording the Results: Table 11-1 has been provided in Module 11 for this purpose. The instructor
should also have drawn a similar chart on the board during the exercise. Call upon the teams, one at a
time, and record the results. If a team achieves a score better than its most accurate member, award them
a star by drawing it beside their results on the chart—this to their delight. When a team or group score
does not come up to its most accurate member, determine how many individuals had scores more accurate
than the group score (this is one of the columns on the chart) and point out that there were resources in the
group which the members did not recognize and integrate into the solution. If a management team
worked well over time, the manager and the members would learn to appreciate the different abilities in
the group and how to consider these in the problem-solving process.

Discussion of Results
Immediately following the posting of the team results, discuss the following:

Question: Why were the solutions in this specific case superior to those of the average of individuals or,
for some teams, of the most accurate individual?

Comment: 1. People built upon each others’ ideas to produce some no one had thought of before the
exchange. 2. Erroneous ideas were eliminated. 3. Consensus was used in that everyone’s input was
sought. 4. Three conditions appear relevant: (a) there was a definite answer to the problem, (b) the
problem could be solved by logic and reasoning, (c) each person had some of the information, but no one
had it all.

Module 4 will not have been read by the students, so any of the information can be used for lecture input.
The Hall summary in the module provides research data to support the results and can be mentioned here.
The main point with which to conclude is that group problem solving is not always superior to individual.
Management is an art; skill must be gained in using science-based technology by deciding under what
conditions (people, type of problem, situation, etc.) group problem solving can be meaningfully used.

<<<<Figure 11-1: Mountain Survival Exercise (Key can be found on the power point slides or
the previous edition of the web website)>>>>

<<<<Figure 11-2: Key – Important Day’s Exercise (Key can be found on the power point slides
or the previous edition of the website)>>>>

<<<<Figure 11-3: Key – Task Twenty One (Key can be found on the power point slides or the
previous’ edition of the website website)>>>>

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239
Guidance on Keeping Journals
This supplement to the module serves as a specific reminder that they should be making regular
entries in their journals. Give them 3 minutes for a buzz session with two neighbors to tell what
types of journal entries they are making. Call upon triads throughout the room to give a report.
Emphasize the need for this data upon which their term paper will be based their grade. This
supplement deals with appreciation of individual differences. Suggest they enter in their diaries
the strengths they are observing in members as it suggests. One final stimulant to entries is to
pick up their journals half way through the course to give them feedback on the type of data they
are recording. Tell them at this time if you plan to do so.

Quality Circles
Participants often say they want what we are doing in the course related to the real world. This is
a good chance to point out that some Quality Circles in industry undergo their initial training by
doing the NASA, Mountain Survival and other group problem-solving activities. Further, many
team efforts depend on input from members to reach good decisions.

Activity 11-3: Who Gets the Overtime?

Management of the activity: Careful management is particularly important if the activity is to be
completed in a fifty-minute time period. It is well for the professor to instruct the students at the
previous session to be sure to arrive early so this exercise can be undertaken promptly at the
beginning of the class period. The instructor should aim for a ten-minute introduction, twenty-
five minutes of role-playing and fifteen minutes of initial discussion. This is an exciting activity
which raises many issues and a large portion of the next session can be devoted to the results and
their implications.

Have the students seat themselves in their teams at the beginning of the class period to save time
and reduce confusion. If students come in late after you have read the instructions, ask them to sit
to one side and be observers. It is usually a good idea to ask them to observe a team other than
their own, otherwise they are apt to get involved in the activity with their friends and mess it up.
Inform them you will attempt to call upon them for their observations of the process by which the
decision of the team was made.

Task 1a: After reading this section to the students, a short warm-up is needed. Explain to the
students that role-playing is easy because the individual is simply responding as he/she would feel
if he/she were in the situation described. A good approach is as follows: Describe a case in which
a student was given an “F” for cheating on a test. After the test was over and the papers handed
in, the professor had informed the student that he/she had cheated. He/she had noticed notebook
papers lying loosely under and beside the student’s chair and the student had been looking at
them during the examination. The student now has to appear before the dean. Ask the class to
think of all the arguments they could give on the student’s behalf with you, the instructor, playing
the role of the dean. Give students two minutes to buzz session this with a neighbor, then ask for
their response. The arguments of the students will come rolling out fast. After you role-play this
with them for a minute, ask them why it is so easy for them to relate to the situation. They will
say that they have seen others cheat. The instructor might suggest that everyone might also have
cheated just a little bit during his/her lifetime, which usually brings a laugh. (Note: This
introduction of role-playing could best be done at the end of the previous class session to save
time if only fifty minutes are available for the exercise.) Point out that the roles they are to play
in the exercise are not too far from their own experience and they will have little trouble relating
to them.

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You might want to add a convincing note about role-playing by telling your audience that it is the
number one choice of training directors in industry as a method for improving interpersonal
skills.* Any anecdotal material of how you found role-playing meaningful in your own
experience is usually appreciated by the class.

Task 1 b and c: Read these aloud and follow them completely. Note that the names and roles are
unisex, except for that of Sara, which should be played by a woman. Be sure that Kim, the
supervisor, has time to read and understand his/her role. Kim sometimes does not understand that
a decision must be reached in the time allowed, so emphasize this. If you are running short on
time, allow only twenty minutes for the decision-making exercise, otherwise allow them twenty-
five. Notify the teams when they have only ten minutes left. The longer time is preferable
because teams tend to be better satisfied with their solutions. The professor running this for the
first time will be overwhelmed by the amount of involvement and noise at the start of this
exercise. It will quiet down at the end as the students develop a more problem-solving attitude.

Task 2: Be alert to teams finishing early so you can direct them to go ahead with Task 2. Some
teams will finish Task 1 and 2 and this will provide an opportunity to interview them as to their
difference in perception and decision when they are fighting for their own individual needs in
contrast to the management needs and responsibilities.

Task 3: Follow the instructions in the textbook for discussion of the results.

Task 3a: List on the board the names of the persons getting the overtime. Usually Chris gets it
for about half the teams—you can accuse them of being bleeding hearts. Adrian and Sara are the
next most frequent winners.

Task 3b: (1) Have the supervisor for each team describe the process by which the decision was
made. The most frequent pattern is that all participants first want a chance to put in a pitch for
their own needs. Then there is a discussion over criteria, followed by certain individuals
eliminating themselves or suggesting others to drop out. Conflicts arise but in the end they try to
be more objective and rational. Sometimes a consensus arises naturally, other times they decide
to vote, each person having a vote for the first person most deserving after her/himself. But
rationality does seem to play a major role after the initial conflicts.

Task 3b: (2) Was this a good way to make a decision for this particular problem? Get a show of
hands from those saying yes, and those saying no. Usually the no’s are the biggest group. Those
answering in the affirmative usually say their group worked it through and felt good about the
solution, or that they would feel more committed to the solution since they participated, etc.
Those answering in the negative provide you the opportunity to make a backboard display similar
to that which will be shown below.

*
Linda L. Neider, “Training Effectiveness: Changing Attitudes,” Training and Development
Journal, December, 1981, pp. 24-28.
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But stop at some point and tell the class:

This exercise was not a demonstration in how to do group decision making

the right way. We are not advocating this form of participative management.
We are only trying to identify some of the important issues associated with
group decision making. But we are saying that if a manager is going to use
this form of group decision making there are things that can be done that will
improve the role of the facilitator.

Those who do not feel this was a good form of decision making usually get into issues and
criteria, the supervisory role, and alternate ways of making the decision. On the board you will
usually wind up with these points:

Criteria to Be Used in Making the Decision

∗ seniority
∗ career needs of the individual
∗ organizational needs
∗ personal needs
∗ other

Alternate Ways of Making the Decision

∗ the supervisor decides alone
∗ the supervisor leads the group discussion and then makes the decision
∗ the supervisor consults with all one at a time and then makes the decision
∗ the decision is covered by company policy
∗ the supervisor leaves the decision up to the group

Issues Raised
∗ should people express feeling in this situation?
∗ should personal needs be considered?
∗ should one’s personal life be brought into this?
∗ doesn’t this just create conflict?
∗ what is fair treatment here?
∗ won’t the more dominant people win or scapegoat the others?
∗ isn’t it management’s job to decide?
Get a show of hands from the class and you will usually find that students prefer this choice—“If
you like and trust your boss,” is usually added by someone.

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Pulling It All Together at the End of the Activity
So many issues will be raised that there will be confusion at the end over the meaning and value
of participation and this is one thing you are attempting to demonstrate with the exercise. The
issues around participation have been raging for several decades. The following points are
important:

1. Was this a good way to decide who gets the overtime?

Many groups will say yes, but some will say they had too many unhappy members at the end and
reject the method. The groups that are best satisfied are usually those who decided upon a
method of making the decision as to who gets the overtime. For instance, some decide they will
vote by private ballot, listing all the people in rank order but leaving off their own name. The
supervisor tallies up the ballots. Others decide on alternate courses of action: whoever gets the
special Saturday overtime of the exercise will not participate in any other overtime during the
period. An agreement is reached as to whom would get the next special consideration that comes
along. The decision as to how the decision is to be made, or selecting the criterion by which it is
to be made brings more objectivity into the process and feelings are better satisfied.

Ask the students if they would have preferred a company policy assigning overtime on the basis
of seniority, and a large portion of the class will reject the proposal. Ask them if the foreman
should have decided on his own who got it, and they reject that. Ask if it is not apparent that
Chris should have gotten it on the basis of need, and many say they see no reason for rewarding
Chris for overpopulating the area. Give it to Sara and they object that a student should get it over
regular employees.

2. Does not the expression of personal feelings bring less objectivity into the process and
actually offend others, causing poorer rather than better relationships?

This can be the case if the interactions take the form of accusing one another, or “laying it on the
other guy.” But if work groups learn the communication skill of expressing their feelings by each
person stating his own case, or just saying why they would like to have the overtime without
criticizing others’ viewpoints, it is far easier for all to accept.

The professor should point out that most of their feelings would be existing beneath the surface if
management had arbitrarily made the decision. These feelings would affect their performance
and their behavior toward one another. Behavioral science practitioners have been trying to learn
how feelings can be dealt with in a way that is acceptable to others, thereby bringing more
objectivity into their work relations.

3. Should a person’s personal life, like Chris’s children, or Sara’s needs, ever really be a
legitimate consideration in a company’s decision-making process?

Here again the students in the class are divided with the majority saying it should. Point out to
the class that many employees are going to feel the same way, so again it can be a legitimate
factor for a manager to deal with. The question is, when is it appropriate?

4. The role of the supervisor in this case is often questioned. Some students believe he/she
should be making the decision because it is his/her responsibility. Others say that he/she should
not be present if he/she is going to let them take a part. They sometimes conclude a more proper
role for him/her would have been that of a facilitator: he/she would let them make the decision

237
but he/she would make sure everyone had an opportunity to state his/her position he/she would
have protected those who were attacked he/she would not take sides he/she would keep emotional
expression appropriate; he/she would summarize the positions and generally provide a supportive
atmosphere. (See the section in the module under the title “The Role of the Manager as a
Facilitator in Group Decision Making.”)

5. How is a manager to decide whether or not to use participation?

We have to go back to our position in Module 3 that management is situational and includes the
consideration of a number of variables. In every case he/she is going to have to consider what the
consequences are of using it or not using it. With a highly educated group of employees, their
expectations may more typically be that they want a piece of the action and you may have real
problems if you don’t get them involved. Other groups may be saying, “You’re the boss why are
you asking me to do the work?” The type of problem is also important, and this aspect offers the
opportunity of using the Vroom model.

6. What is the Difference between Group Problem Solving and Group Decision Making?

Participants sometimes ask this question. Group problem solving as we have used it here refers
to problems from which there is a definite solution, which can be solved by logic, rational
judgment, and knowledge, among other variables. Group decision making refers to problems for
which there are a number of possible solutions, each of which must be discovered and evaluated
before a decision can be made. The skills needed are going to be very similar, but they are going
to be applied to problems arranged on a continuum from those with definite solutions to those
with numerous alternative solutions.

7. What New Team Skills Were Introduced by the Group Decision-Making Exercise?

For the manager, a number of suggestions for facilitating team decision making appear in the
textbook.

In your team builder’s role, you will want to emphasize to the students the importance of looking
for team skills development areas in many of the exercises. In Activity 4-6W, team
communication and conflict-control skills are urgently needed. The more ambiguous the problem
the group faces, the more these come into play. Ambiguity frequently elicits defensive responses
from individuals, particularly because people believe they will look bad if they don’t have well-
informed, creative solutions. In Activity 4-6W, personal needs are involved, assuring profuse
defensiveness in real-life situations and to a degree in this case. So you might want to emphasize
some of the following:

a. Team climate needs to be supportive so members feel free to offer opinions. At the same
time it needs to be sufficiently confrontative and challenging to bring out differences and to
synergistically generate new thoughts. Ask the class how they can create a supportive
climate. (They will have some good ideas.)

b. When expressing feelings, team members might try saying how they are feeling about the
subject rather than “laying it on the other guy.” This term connotes labeling and judging the
other person, thus arousing defensive feelings that may long prevail.

c. When conflict arises, try to determine the differences in the issue involved in order to bring
more objectivity into the situation-focus on issues rather than personalities.

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As vague as these skills areas will possibly appear to you and your students, teams need to be
aware of and deal with them. Get participants’ ideas you will be pleasantly surprised how much
you learn from them, and they from each other and you in these discussions.

We will be examining these areas again and again as we go through the course.

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model

Activity 11-3 can also be used (even after it has been used as indicated above) to review the
Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision making model. Such a review could be done in class, by asking
each of the problem attribute questions in sequence, or it could be done in small groups, by
having the same task done by the groups and have them identify the preferred decision making
style for the situation.

Activity 11-4: Team Development Assessment

This activity provides the opportunity for classroom teams to review their progress to date. The
material in the module can then be used to help teams improve their performance and move
toward effective goal achievement. The questionnaire should be completed by individuals before
the team meeting (Task 1).

The group assessment of performance and team goals (Task 2) can be an end in itself, or it can be
used, after the text (and perhaps case) materials in the module, as the basis for the development of
an action plan by the team to improve performance and meet goals. This could be the basis of a
subsequent written assignment for the team.

Activity 11-7W: Three Essential Process Tools for Teams: The Eye Pie, Voice Box,
and Power Puzzle (Team Analysis and Development Instruments)

Objectives
To help group members get a better understanding of team dynamics. As aids for better
understanding the group in action, these exercises can help a group become a high performing
team.

Time
Each activity takes from thirty minutes to four hours, depending on the amount of time desired
for discussion and feedback.

Number of Participants
Restricted only by facilitators ability to facilitate group member interactions, the average ranges
from three to eight group participants.

Materials and Equipment

Paper and pencil.

Procedure
The three following exercises can greatly help a group become both more aware of how it is
working together, and when combined with challenging tasks that depend on contributions from

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all members, these exercises can also help the group become a higher performing team in terms
of task accomplishment. When working with groups who wish to become high performing
teams, use all three exercises. Start with the Eye Pie, move the Voice Box, and complete the
exercises with the Power Puzzle.

Begin by giving the group an activity to accomplish in a pre-determined amount of time. For
example, if used as a team forming activity, the group is given twenty to forty minutes to come up
with an agreed upon group mission statement. Mission statement being defined as the groups
purpose for being and what they hope to accomplish together. The success of doing this is not the
critical factor, nor is total consensus on the outcome, what is important is the structured activity
setting that provides an opportunity to observe the groups functioning. In order not to influence
the natural way of dealing with each other, little is shared about this exercise until after the
accomplishment of the task.

A. The Eye Pie Activity: In this exercise the purpose is to help a group of individuals assess the
direction and amount of eye contact existing in their group. After the allotted period of time, ask
the group to process itself in the following manner—looking back on the group experience, each
person working alone is asked to complete a distribution chart in the form of a “pie graph”
showing the amount of eye contact each person received during their just completed task.

This is best explained by visually showing what a “pie” would look like, a large round circle that
without any slices formed would represent 100% of possible eye contact. A near impossibility in
terms of actual distribution as that would mean everyone looked at one person while that person
did not look at anyone. At the other extreme would be for all participants to have equal time, a
group of five having 20% distribution for all members. Extremes in the distribution of eye time is
a rare event, most often there is an unequal, yet all inclusive distribution, where each member
receives eye attention, but some receive more than others. As members report back their shared
perceptions of the percentage of eye contact given each member, the results can represent
significant learning about the communication and status dynamics within the group.

Imagine being a camera looking down on the group from above and recording the distribution of
eye contact.

B. The Voice Box Activity: The purpose of this exercise is to help group members get an
understanding of who is doing the talking and for how long, within the time available for the
accomplishment of the group task, in this case the group’s vision statement. After finishing the
task, ask the group to process itself in the following manner—looking back on the groups
experience, each person working alone is asked to complete a distribution chart in the form of a
“box graph” recording the amount of time each person spent talking during the allotted time for
the group task.

This is also best explained by visually showing a “time block,” a square that represents all the
time the group had to complete its task. The block is then subdivided into sections, each
representing the percentage of time each individual spent talking. As with the Eye Pie, extremes
of distribution are rare, unequal yet all inclusive is more the common finding.

Imagine being a tape recorder and recording the whole conversation and then running the counter
to determine the distribution of time.

C. The Power Puzzle Activity: This exercise’s purpose is to help group members get a picture of
the perceived power relationships occurring as the group went about performing its task. After

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the allotted time for the completion of the group task, ask the group to process itself in the
following manner—looking back on the groups experience, each person working alone is asked
to complete a “power puzzle” depicting the relationships they saw occurring in the group as it
went about accomplishing its task.

This is best explained without visual queues, reason being that it might taint the participants ideas
about what figures to use in their representation. Ask group members to draw the groups process
interactions, using any combination of shapes, sizes, shading, and interaction representations.
The desire is for members to create representations of how they feel they fit into the groups
power relationships and the groups interactions. Try to encourage individual creativity in this
exercise, you might even want to provide colored pencils, additional paper, and even three
dimensional art materials, to help elicit a persons individual representation of the groups power
relationships. Since this is a highly personal interpretation, it is important that there is no critique
or criticism about a given individuals creation.

Summarize each activity with a discussion and debriefing period. It is important not to pass
judgment or draw conclusions about the perceptions each brings to the shared experience.
Rather, the facilitator can help to lead the group in a discussion about the possible impact of the
perceived behaviors. The questions should help lead in the discovery of process, and help move a
group of people toward becoming a better communicating and more effective team.

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Sample process questions include:
• What are the individual and shared perceptions of how much eye contact each person
received? How do estimates compare? What do differences in perception represent? Are
there socio-cultural influences in action? What types of eye contact occurred?
• What are the individual and shared perceptions of how much time each person spent talking?
How do estimates compare? What do differences in perception represent? What socio-
cultural influences are in action? What type of talking was occurring, task oriented or other?
How do findings compare to the earlier non-verbal Eye Pie findings? Are they same or
different? What might that say about the reality of group dynamics? e.g. if one person does
most of the talking, but another gets most of the looks, what does that mean about the groups
interaction process?
• What are the individual and shared perceptions of the power relationships and dynamic
processes in action? How do estimates compare? What do differences in perception
represent? Are there “hidden” dynamics? What lies behind the used symbols of power?
How are they interpreted by different group members?
• Where was there agreement on percentages and where was there disagreement?
• What would it mean to have near equal percentages/perceptions? Is that an image or reality
we seek? Why or why not?
• What types of tasks require more equality, which ones may not?
• What kinds of groups, or groups with what kind of participants, need equal percentage
distribution? Which kind may not need or desire equal distribution?
• How do these behaviors, eye contact, time talking and power relationships, help a group
become a team? What kinds of behaviors/percentages limit, and what kinds of
behaviors/percentages facilitate team development? Relate this to your teams development,
how can this knowledge be used now to improve your teams performance?
• What have you learned from these exercises and discussions? What needs to be done to
incorporate learning and improve team functioning? What learning will you take with you to
use in other group experiences to develop your team?

Customization and Options

Each exercise can be done by an external facilitator, by group members alone, or by both. They
may be done as a stand alone exercise or as a set. Individually, each of the three activities
focuses on a specific group process dynamic and can tell a great deal about that dynamic.
However, when used together and cross referenced, these exercises can undercover dynamics that
would otherwise go unnoticed. Example: the individual who never talks but has all the power,
people often look at them for silent approval. If just one exercise was conducted, this dynamic
might be missed.

They can be used for group forming, and may be repeated during the life of the team to monitor
changes in group dynamics and establish benchmarks. When used at specific set times over the
teams life these exercises can give insight into the evolution and flow of changes in the group.
These changes, plotted in time, can then be correlated with internal and external events pointing
to areas where individual expertise came into play at different times and under different
circumstances in accomplishing the group task. This can help identify team strengths and
weaknesses.

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Another option is to represent an additional dimension of a particular dynamic through the use of
coloring or shading in an individuals portion of the pie/box, e.g. different shading could represent
degrees of tone (positive, neutral, negative) in an individuals contribution to a group discussion.
It is also possible to add another slice to the pie/box to represent time when no talking occurred or
eye contact was made or it was non-task oriented. The Power Puzzle may also be expanded to
use other mediums to create three dimensional forms.

Facilitator Expertise
None needed, but an understanding of verbal/non-verbal group dynamics can be helpful in the
discussion and debriefing.

Figures
This diagram is an example of a tool to aid in recording and monitoring group dynamics.

Use these figures to represent team members

Use hash marks to represent eye contact or talking
Begin by drawing a representing figure for each group member, then as each member receives
eye contact or speaks (depending on the type of exercise being facilitated), they receive a hash
mark. The final tally can be used to facilitate discussion about differences in perceptions.

Example of Eye Pie:

1
6
2

3
5

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Example of Voice Box:

1 4 3 2 5 6

Example of a power puzzle:

A
A

E A
*DO NOT SHOW PRIOR TO COMPLETION OF INDIVIDUAL CREATIONS

This is given only as one of many possible options, others include: cartoons, pictures of objects,
people, or places, abstracts, impressionistic, formulas, mathematics, etc. Basically any “picture”
that has meaning to the individual.

The example shown is an interpretation of a seven member group. It shows (A) three sub-groups
within the team, (B) the dotted and dashed lines show types of communication, (C) it depicts a
force or pressure between two sub-groups, (D) it shows a member of the “ovals” to be perceived
as having a hidden motive, and (E) a member that does not “fit” any of the sub-groups, but has
contact to all groups.

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Activity 11-8W: Decision Making Japanese Style*
Most courses on Japanese management contain a module on Japanese style consensual decision
making (ringi/nemawashi). This exercise is geared to heighten students’ awareness of these
processes by structuring an activity in which they have to make a decision using consensual
processes, and by them contrasting this experience with a description of how these processes
work in a Japanese company.

Management of the activity: Start explaining the processes of ringi and nemawashi through
which Japanese managers involve subordinates in considering future directions for their
companies. Proposals for change may start with subordinates or with superiors, but they are
usually circulated to large numbers of managers for consideration. Proposals are rather general at
first and usually represent sincere attempts to arrive at a consensus. They are usually adopted
when a forma document is stamped with the seal of every manager who is considered relevant to
the decision (ringi). Nemawashi is the extensive formal communication process during which
actual agreements are hammered out. Advantages of the Japanese style are explained (i.e., group
commitment and ease of implementation) as well as the disadvantages (i.e., sometimes
inordinately long times are required for planning).

Task 1: Assign a task that is both generalized and “high stakes” for the students involved. The
following are some alternative tasks.

∗ Design a reward structure and processes that would facilitate learning in this course.
∗ Design a final examination process that is both a good learning experience and a valid means
of evaluating performance.
∗ Develop a proposal for a new student club in the business school.
∗ Design a structure and processes for admitting new students into the program.
∗ Design a structure and processes for graduate placements in the work environment.

Each student is to spend five minutes and come up with his/her set of ideas and capture them on
paper.

Task 2a: Teams are to get together with the oldest group member nominated as the group leader
(called kacho), and struggle with the assignment. Allow 15-20 minutes for this task.

Task 2b and 2c: At this stage you can allow the entire class to work together on the development
of the ringi document or get the “kachos” to meet in a fishbowl to hammer out some sort of
initial agreement to be taken back to the teams for further discussion and refinement. At this
point the class has to decide how to proceed with the process and discussion. The goal is to
produce a ringi document that is signed by all the managers relevant to decision making.

*
These notes were contributed by Professor William Van Buskirk, La Salle University,
Philadelphia. We are grateful to Professor Van Buskirk for his contribution.
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Task 3: Whether or not the groups come up with a usable plan, they usually generate enough
experience to compare their decision making process with those of the Japanese. As a follow up,
you can assign an article describing the Japanese consensual decision processes and conduct a
discussion in which students’ experience and textbook descriptions are compared and contrasted.
Evaluation of the activity includes the following questions: How much did it resemble the
descriptions of ringi and nemawashi found in the literature? What difficulties did we encounter?
Were those difficulties likely to be present in the Japanese context? If so, how might they be
managed. Through this point by point comparison we contrast top down vs. consensual decision
making.

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ADDITIONAL ACTIVITY – 11-9W - Team Checkpoint Assessment

TEAM CHECKPOINT WORKSHEET*

Assess your team’s performance for each category listed below by checking the number that
reflects your assessment. The responses given by each member of the team should then be
calculated and used as the basis for discussion.

1. Goal Clarity and Agreement

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Team goals are unclear, conflicting, or Team goals are clear and are shared by
ambiguous. Team members are not all team members. Team members are
working toward a common goal. committed to achieving the goals.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Listening

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

As a team, we do not listen to each As a team, we listen with focused

other. Instead each of us tried to push attention, ask for clarification or
our own agenda. It is difficult to be elaboration on ideas, and we work to
heard: some members compete to be understand each other. There is little
heard while others just give up. Ideas competition, everyone is given the
Must be repeated again and again before opportunity to speak and be heard.
they are acknowledged. There are few interruptions when one
member of the team is speaking.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
*Adopted and modified with permission from S. Carr, E. Herman, S. Keldsen, J. Miller and P.
Wakefield. A complete copy of The Learning Assistant Workbook can be found at
www.goteamlearning.com

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3. Trust

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

We are generally disrespectful of one We honestly and constructively address

another. We are guarded and cautious of issues as a team. We seek and give
one another and avoid being frank with constructive feedback to each other
each other. We hesitate to speak our regarding individual and team
opinions or address problems. performance, and work with each other
to improve.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4. Feedback

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

We avoid giving meaningful feedback t We honestly and constructively address

one another. Our team is only focused issues as a team. We seek and give
on getting the work done. We do not constructive feedback to each other
take time to discuss how we are doing as regarding individual and team
a team or what is getting in the way of performance, and work with each other
achieving our goals. We avoid discussing to improve.
problems that are fairly obvious to all.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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5. Conflict Management

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Our methods for managing conflict are We accept conflicts as inevitable and do
to avoid, smooth over, or minimize not attempt to avoid them. We do not
conflict. Frustration on the team builds personalize our disagreements; rather we
and leads to angry exchanges that are discuss our differences openly and
rarely resolved Open disagreements politely, focusing on the issues. We then
foster tension that is usually left work toward mutually satisfactory
unresolved. solutions.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

6. Decision Making

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Decisions are made by one or two team Decisions are made by discussion and
members or by a subgroup. Overall consensus. We value diversity and
commitment to these decisions is low; different ideas are integrated into team
members who were not involved in solutions. Commitment to decisions is
decision making often fail to carry out high and all team members work to carry
those decisions. out the decisions.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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7. Leadership

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Regardless of the task at hand, one or Leadership is shared depending on the

two people tend to dominate the tasks at hand and the skill of individual
discussions. They tend to control team members. All team members take an
decisions and call the shots while others active role in leading the team at various
sit quietly. points.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

8. Team Learning

Poor Fair Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Our team pays little attention to the We actively support the learning and
learning and development of its development of all team members. We
members. We do not use each team use the differences in our knowledge and
member’s skills and abilities to help us all abilities to strengthen the team, and to
learn more or understand course content help each other learn more of the course
better. material.

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Additional Comments and Examples:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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PEER FEEDBACK WORKSHEET

This instrument is used to give performance feedback to all team members. Contribution to
Content/Task Accomplishment and Contribution to Process/Leadership are assessed. You are
asked to rate each of your team members and yourself using the 5 point scale listed below.

Be sure your assignment of scores differentiates between the level of performance and
behavior of individual team members. For example, if a team member is a good listener,
yet another member is a better listener, they should receive different ratings.

Contribution to Task Accomplishment

For each question below, rate each team member, including yourself on the following scale:

Almost Never (1) Seldom (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Almost Always (5)

A B C D E F
Question 1: Shows initiative by doing research and analysis,
takes on tasks.

Question 2: Prepares for and attends scheduled meetings.

Question 3: Makes positive contributions to meetings and

helps team achieve objectives.

Question 4: Reliability fulfills assignments and work is of

high quality.

Question 5: Contributes ideas to team’s analysis and to my

learning of course concepts.

Contribution to Leadership

For each question below, rate each team member, including yourself on the following scale:

Almost Never (1) Seldom (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Almost Always
(5)

A B C D E F
Question 6: Keeps team focused on priorities

Question 7: Supports/coaches/encourages team members.

Question 8: Listens carefully to contributions of others.

Question 9: Manages conflict effectively

Question 10: Demonstrates effective leadership on the team.

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Written Comments

Question 11: For each member of your team, comment and give specific examples of
Contribution to Content/Task Accomplishment (e.g., shows initiative, attends meetings,
makes positive contributions, helps team achieve objectives, is reliable, contributes quality work,
contributes to learned of course concepts)

Team Member Comments

A
B
C
D
E
F

Question 12: For each member of your team, comment and give specific examples of
Contribution to Process/Leadership (e.g., keeps team focused on priorities, supports, coaches
and encourages team members, listens carefully, manages conflict effectively, demonstrates
effective leadership)

Team Member Comments

A
B
C
D
E
F

Question 13: Additional Comments: For each member of your team, provide any additional
comments and examples to help clarify the feedback and ratings.

Team Member Comments

A
B
C
D
E
F

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Study Question
1. What are some of the potential challenges that work teams face?
Comment: Work teams face many challenges in the context of work. Some relate to the context
within which the team functions; some relate to the process of establishing the team, and; some
relate to the emerging team dynamics.

2. Identify the types of work teams that can be found at work. How are they similar? How are
they different?
Comment: A variety of teams’ classifications can be found in the literature. For the purpose of
this book the authors identified four types of teams in organizations: work teams, parallel teams,
project teams and management teams. The teams vary in terms of their scope of work and the
specific task that they have formed to address, life cycle, leadership/management structure, links
to other organizational units and, size.

3. What is rational group decision making? Why is it useful?

Comment: The rational decision making process involves a) agreement on goals; b) a shared
understanding of what the problem is; c) a shared understanding of the ground rules under which
the group will work; d) a shared understanding of the basic assumptions and priority issues in
solving the problem; e) the development and consideration of alternative solutions; f)
development of criteria to evaluate those alternatives; g) selecting an alternative; and h) checking
that alternative against the problem statement to see if it does solve the problem. Rational group
decision making is useful to practice because it is a systematic way of approaching problems. It
is a way of helping to insure that our bias for action does not overcome careful analysis.

4. What is the consensus process? How is it of value to your teams in this course?
Comment: Jay Hall defines it as “a decision process for making full use of available resources
and for resolving conflicts creatively.” It requires the full input of all team members, implies that
others hear and understand. Conflict is viewed as an opportunity to use the differences to build
on ideas, to generate new ideas. It is one of the most basic skills which groups find to be helpful
in problem solving or arriving at a decision. It is one of the most useful skills to be learned in the
course. It is the process that leads to synergy.

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5. Athletic coaches train teams in techniques to win the game. Managers can train work teams
in what type of skills? Give specific examples.
Comment: Those given in Figure 11-1 are examples. The consensus process we have
emphasized here is another. Deciding what team should work on a problem or whether it can be
done by individuals is another. Planning and critiquing, avoiding the hazards of Groupthink are
also important examples.

6. Students often remember the activity “Who Gets the Overtime?” as an attempt to illustrate
the effectiveness of group decision making. Was it? Why do you think so?
Comment: Definitely not. It was used, in part to raise issues concerning the involvement of
employees in the decision-making process, the problems likely to be encountered, and some ways
to alleviate these. Whether group decision making has a probability of having favorable
outcomes depends upon a number of variables; this was illustrated by the use of a contingency
model (Vroom et al.). The exercise focused upon some interaction skills, e.g., consensus seeking
and conflict (resolution, which teams can develop and which can be relevant to the decision-
making process, but it did not introduce a planning model for problem solving, such as will be
discussed in Module 11. It did introduce questions about the various roles that can be performed
by the manager using the participative approach.

7. What are some of the considerations in deciding whether to allow a group to participate in
decision making?
Comment: Several elements in the Vroom et al. model are particularly important here. These
include: a) the importance of employee commitment; b) the extent to which employees share
organizational goals; c) whether conflict among employees is likely; d) the amount of information
the group has. Also to be considered are the personalities of the leader and the group members
and organizational climate.

8. Assume you are a manager and have decided to use group decision making for a problem
affecting the productivity of your team. What are the issues that you would want to consider
before the first team meeting? How would you go about managing the meeting? What would be
some of the pitfalls to avoid?
Comment: These questions are largely handled in the Module section titled “The Role of the
Manager as Facilitator in Group Decision Making.” Pitfalls to avoid: Don’t try to manipulate the
group; it almost always boomerangs on you. Be prepared to accept their decision if you tell them
it is their decision to make. If not prepared to accept it, be open and say you just want their input
so you can decide. You must be clear in this regard. Establish the ground rules: for example,
make them set up purpose and goals and criteria for deciding. Decide whether you should be
present; perhaps they will go better on their own. If present, don’t take sides or give your input if
you said they should come to their own conclusion; protect those being attacked, etc. The main
thing is to make sure they do not misunderstand your true purpose and that they trust you.

9. Identify the different phases in the group problem solving cycle. At which of the phases did
your group encounter problems in the activities in this module? Why? What steps will you take
to avoid these problems in the future?
Comment: The group could have had problems at any phase of the rational problem solving
model (see question 1 above). The difficulties could also be interpersonal: lack of effective
listening, effective differing, or failure to draw out the contributions of all members.

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10. Identify one method to improve your classroom group’s problem solving effectiveness. What
specific steps would you take to facilitate the process?
Comment: Communication is one example. It may be helpful to utilize paraphrasing, periodic
summaries, of even body language. Perhaps the group is trying too hard. More spontaneity
without fear of reprimand may be useful. Some group members may be excellent sources of
information but are reluctant to contribute. Can the feelings of acceptance be enhanced? Does
the group need to develop some standard means of coping with conflict so as to be able to follow
somewhat of a format?

11. How does culture affect group problem-solving effectiveness? How might U.S. Culture
affect a team’s performance?
Comment: Cultural context within the group can profoundly affect problem solving methods. In
the U.S. for example, the focus is on the individual, whereas in China collectivism is more
important. The effectiveness of group problem solving may be diminished if there exists a
cultural mix. Effective decisions could certainly be reached. However, the efficiency of the
problem-solving processes would likely be reduced until a mutual understanding was reached
about an expedient means of combining different attitudes, e.g., if the group is addressing the
problem of quality control inspection, an American member may favor designating a quality
control inspector versus the Chinese member, who, because of his cultural background, would
envision the process as involving a majority of the workers.

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MODULE 12
Team Dynamics and Performance

Module Overview
This module provides a detailed discussion of group dynamics. Factors affecting group development and
performance are outlined. The concepts of values, norms, status, and role differentiation are discussed.
The role of the leader in the development of the group and in improving group performance is presented.
Social Loafing, cohesiveness, and groupthink are introduced as further examples of group dynamics.
Finally, the stages of group development are outlined.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module you should be able to:
1. Describe the main characteristics of the human group.
2. Explain the basic elements and processes of small group dynamics.
3. Identify the factors affecting the evolution and performance of groups.
4. Describe the role that the manager can play in facilitating the development and performance of a
group.
5. Appreciate the effect of group cohesion on group performance.
6. Compare and contrast “the performance model” and “the emotional climate model” of small group
development.
6. Identify the developmental stages of groups.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 12–1: Tower Building
Activity 12–2: An Initial Inventory of Group Dynamics
Introduction
The Human Group in Context
Group Dynamics Defined
Factors Affecting Group Development and Performance
Context
Purpose
Composition and Diversity
Structure
Processes
Leadership
Other Aspects of Small-Group Dynamics
Social Loafing and Free Riding

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 Cohesiveness
Group Maturity
Group Development
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 12–3: The Plafab Company Case
Activity 12–4: Values in Business

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 12–5W: A Card Game Called Norms
Activity 12–6W: Individual Role Assessment
Activity 12–7W: Status on the Campus

This module includes teaching notes on the following:

* Module overview
* Activity 12-1: Tower Building
* Activity 12-2: An Initial Inventory of Group Dynamics
* Activity 12-3: The Plafab Company Case
* Activity 12-4: Values in Business
* Activity 12-5W: A Card Game Called Norms
* Activity 12-6W: Individual Role Assessment
* Activity 12-7W: Status on the Campus
* Additional Team Activities
* Activity 12-8IM: Exploring Team Effectiveness and Dynamics: A Winning Team
* Activity 12-9IM: Exploring Team Effectiveness and Dynamics: Twelve Angry Men
* Responses to the Study Questions

Teaching Notes
The reason for delaying the discussion of small group dynamics until this time is to allow the permanent
classroom groups to develop their norms, roles, and role relationships spontaneously and naturally
without the biases that might be introduced if the students were attempting to apply theory from the
beginning. Students will have been assigned the task of keeping a journal on the behavior they observe in
their groups; however, they are first doing this without concepts. It is assumed they are now aware of the
need for tools to assist them in their analysis.

The design of the textbook has been up to this point to place a major emphasis on involvement learning
and exercises while the teams are developing. This module will provide some theory and concepts for
them to use to analyze their group, and the exercises in this module will help them do so.

Activity 12-1: Tower Building

This is a great activity that brings to the surface some of the emerging working norms, roles, skills,
interpersonal dynamics, group decision making and team performance. Yet, the activity needs to be
managed carefully.

Stage 1 is for planning and preparation. Each team needs to be given an identical box of Lego blocks. We
have found that the boxes that contain 250 pieces are sufficient for the activity. Individuals are encouraged to

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read carefully the instructions for the activity in the text. We have used two different ways for the planning
and preparations stage. If you have two hour session, the entire activity including preparations can be
completed within 90 minutes. The construction materials (lego blocks) will be distributed at the beginning of
the session. The teams can be given up to 45 minutes to design their tower and the assemble process.
However, at the start of the actual construction period, all materials must be in the box, and all pieces
separated from all other pieces. During Stage 1, each team must prepare a Tower Building Profit Budget
(Attachment “D” in the text book). This form must be submitted prior to the beginning of the construction
period. Teams are free to meet to discuss the exercise prior to class time, but no teams will be given
construction materials prior to the start of class.

Alternatively, you can ask the teams to pick up the Lego box 24 hours prior to the class session. In this cased
during this preparation stage, test structures or sections may be erected. At the beginning of the class session,
the actual construction period, all materials must be in the box, and all pieces separated from all other pieces.
During Stage 1, each team must submit the Tower Building Profit Budget prior to the beginning of
construction (Attachment “D” in the text book).

Stage 2 has a maximum 8 minutes duration and is for tower construction. The actual time required to
complete construction will be noted. Calculated construction time will be rounded up to the next nearest
minute, e.g. construction time of 4 minutes 30 seconds will be recorded as 5 minutes. Upon completion of
construction the team calls their name and the instructor, while using a stop watch, will record the time that it
took the team to complete the task. The team name should be placed by the tower and the remaining Lego
blocks placed back into the Lego box. The team is to move away from the tower.

Stage 3 performance assessment. This stage includes four components:

a. Assessments for ecstatic judges. We have found that having three judges is the right number. Ideally the
judges should be neutral and objective.
The instructions to the judges are as follows: Walk between the towers that were erected and assess their
ecstatic beauty. You need to record their impressions and rank order the towers on their ecstatic beauty. Rank
the top four. After each judge completed the rank ordering of the top four towers, the judges are to leave the
room and agree on the rank order of the towers’ ecstatic beauty. Upon their decision, the judges will step
back into the classroom and announce the rank order from the 3rd place to the 1st place.
b. Wind Tunnel Test. As the judges begin their deliberations, the instructor is to place a fan three feet away
from each tower and run the fan from low to high speed, allowing for ten seconds at each speed. If the tower
did not fall it past the wind tunnel test. If it fell two individuals from two other teams are to count the number
of lego blocks used and report to the instructor. If the tower past the test, two members from a member from
two other teams are to count the number of lego blocks used and report to the instructor. The instructor will
record the reported numbers.
c. Performance Summation. The instructor will spend few minutes converting the recorded data into $, using
the table below.

Stage 4 Reflection on process and performance. As the instructor works on the arithmetic the students are
asked to begin the data entry into their journals. We have found that 15-20 minutes of reflection immediately
following the activity is very beneficial since the experience is fresh.

Conversion of Attachements “A”, “B” and “C” (in the text book) into $s

Time/Profit – Based on Attachment “B”

1.0 min – $ 40,000 4.5 min - $12,500
1.5 min – 36,000 5.0 min - 6,000
2.0 min – 33,000 5.5 min - 0

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2.5 min – 30,000 6.0 min – (-8,000)
3.0 min – 27,000 6.5 min – (-15,000)
3.5 min – 23,000 7.0 min – (-22,000)
4.0 min – 20,000 7.5 min – (-30,000)
8.0 min – (-35,000)

Time/Profit – Based on Attachment “B”

47 inches – $70,000 33 inches - $18,000
46 – 64,000 32 – 10,000
45 – 62,000 31 – 4,000
44 – 60,000 30 - 0
43 – 52,000 29 – (-5,000)
42 – 50,000 28 – (-15,000)
41 – 48,000 27 – (-20,000)
40 – 46,000 26 – (-30,000)
39 – 42,000 25 – (-38,000)
38 – 40,000 24 – (-35,000)
37 – 35,000 23 – (-40,000)
36 – 32,000 22 – (-50,000)
35 – 30,000 21 – (-50,000)
34 – 25,000

Materials/Profit – Based on Attachment “C”

75 blocks – $40,000 130 blocks - $7,000
80 – 40,000 135 – 3,000
85 – 37,000 140 - 0
90 – 33,000 145 – (-5,000)
95 – 30,000 150 – (-10,000)
100 – 27,000 155 – (-15,000)
105 – 23,000 160 – (-20,000)
110 – 20,000 165 – (-25,000)
115 – 17,000 170 – (-30,000)
120 – 13,000 175 – (-30,000)
125 – 10,000

Wind test failure – (Tower crash) – (-$40,000)

Judges assessment of artistic and aesthetic merits:

1st place - $15,000; 2nd place – $10,000 and; 3rd place - $5,000

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 JUDGES RATING SHEET
TOWER BUILDING EXERCISE

You are being asked to judge the lego tower on the basis of their “artistic and aesthetic merits”. Points will be
awarded to the best three designs in order of their finish, first, second, or third.

Would you please choose the top four designs and then rank them 1,2,3, or 4

TEAM RANK COMMENTS

1._______________________________________________________________________________

2._____________________________________________________________________________

3.______________________________________________________________________________

4.______________________________________________________________________________

5.______________________________________________________________________________

6._______________________________________________________________________________

7._______________________________________________________________________________

8.______________________________________________________________________________

9.______________________________________________________________________________

10.____________________________________________________________________________

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An Example of Summary Table of Team Performance
(Record the raw scores first and then convert the scores to $ based on the table provided above)

TEAM “A” TEAM “B” TEAM “C” TEAM “C” TEAM “E”

Time
Profit

Materials
Profit

Height
Profit

Design
Award

Wind
Penalty

TOTAL
POINTS

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Activity 12-2: An Initial Inventory of Group Dynamics
This activity is self-explanatory, and is a good way for teams to start the exploration of factors that affect
the evolution of teams. It can be used with a mini lecture on group dynamics (see below). Insofar as
students often have difficulty in identifying group norms, Activity 12-7W: Status on Campus could be
substituted or used as a preparatory activity to the examination of status in the student’s classroom teams.

Lecture Summary on Small Group Dynamics

When you have finished exploring this, you are ready to give a short lecture reviewing small group
dynamics. The students will have read Module 12 on the subject, but need the review. You can start with
the definition of norms and the Sherif experiment on the autokinetic illusion. The important focus is upon
the statement: Whenever two or more people come together to perform some task, group norms always
start to develop. The group dynamics process is like spinning a web through the interactions of people as
they go about satisfying their own needs and those of management, assuming they are in a work situation.
Almost unconsciously, the informal rules of behavior emerge, as we saw in the classical Sherif’s
experiment. Tell them this has been occurring in their own groups since the time they first met and that a
system of norms, values, roles, status structure, subgrouping, etc., exists. You can pretty much use the
paragraph headings of the module as the outline of your brief lecture. When relating group norms to the
teams, you can relate them to the emergence of norms uncovered in Activity 12-2. Norms, values, and
the experience of members serve as the background for the formation of group dynamics in their unique
group. You can use Figure 12-1 as the base line for your mini lecture.

After these points, it is a good time to remind students in the course that there is a paper on team
dynamics and that they should be keeping their journals up so they will have considerable data upon
which to base their term papers.

The recognition of norms, roles, dyads, triads and other group structure and process aspects of small
groups is a subtle and elusive endeavor. In preparing for the discussion, the professor might think of the
groups of which he has been a present or past member and apply the small group concepts to them. These
might be used as examples.

The examples used by the author come from executive workshops: On the opening night of such a
workshop, executives are assigned to a seven-man team (all strangers) and given no instructions other
than to complete within two hours an activity such as a more extensive version of Activity 8-2 on
leadership styles. Each team has its own teamroom equipped with blackboard, flip charts, conference
table, and chairs. Each team immediately starts to develop its own set of norms, roles, processes, etc. For
instance, one group may become highly procedural in the use of blackboard and flip charts, and establish
procedures for doing the exercise, i.e., how to discuss each item, how to decide, etc. A second team
might question whether this is a meaningful problem, show little involvement, make little group progress
in the two hours, or even refuse to do the exercise assigned. Another might use no procedures, but after
spending some time on what they were going to do and what they wanted to get out of the exercise, work
all items through by a consensus approach. Another might spend the first half hour parrying on
leadership problems and finally elect a leader, perhaps the only group of a dozen that got hung up on this
problem, the others having shared the responsibility in the group. The norms and roles and relationships,
which develop as recurrent patterns of behavior, are a function of the situation, the problem confronting
the group, the personalities, abilities, and experience of the members, and a variety of other factors. The
norms and role relationships establish the perception shared by the members of what they “should, ought,
must or must not do” and these become determinates of behavior of the group members.

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The purpose of studying small group dynamics is not only to help the student gain understanding and
awareness of these recurrent interaction processes but, more important, to learn that these can be
controlled, shaped and developed by team handlers and team members to facilitate their effectiveness.
For instance, if the communication pattern that develops in the group is that you never say anything that
might offend anyone, that “we are all good, considerate guys,” problem solving and decision making will
be impeded the resources in the group cannot be integrated fully into the processes. If the group decides
they will develop a norm of “openness” where they can find a way to bring out differences of views in a
way acceptable to others, and to value these differences rather than avoid them, the group will have a
better probability of becoming more effective. The norms and values included in Module 2 of text, were
those the professor was introducing into this course in an effort to build a classroom climate that would
facilitate the learning process. Organizational climate can be developed by management, just as team
climate can be built by the team handler.

Activity 12-3: The Plafab Company Case: The Performance Appraisal Task Force
Two questions are assigned to the class for their written preparation as homework. They will be calling
upon what they have learned about group dynamics concepts in making their analysis. They will be
relying heavily upon the brief section of Module 12 titled, “Developmental Stages of Groups.” This
should present a good challenge. In preparation for this case, we suggest that you read through Professor
Bushe’s analysis of these questions to decide how much you should review the stages with the class
before they do their homework. You will need to emphasize themes such as self versus group-oriented
behavior, task avoidance, dependency and counter dependency, and overt and covert conflict as aspects of
Stage 1 when you review the stages with them. In other words, you need to look at the case and manual
notes carefully to decide how it will be responded to by the students in your particular setting and how
much orientation they will need from you in advance. The concepts used by Professor Bushe are all there
in the text but the section is so brief they may not see them unless you review and clarify. Professor
Bushe’s notes follow:

Question 1: Analyze the case study by paying attention to the dynamics relevant to group development,
like task behavior, authority relations, subgroups and conflict. Diagnose what stage or phase the group is
in. Particular emphasis should be placed on providing specific examples from the case to justify your
diagnosis.

Comments: This case shows a number of group dynamics typical of early group life. In working with the
case, it is generally more useful to work in diagnosing different dynamics themes, culminating to a group
diagnosis. Pertinent themes reviewed here are self- versus group-oriented behavior, task avoidance,
dependency and counter-dependency, overt and covert conflict, and subgroup formation.

In general it is most useful to have students work at gathering the behavioral data in the case pertinent to
each of these themes. Often students will have an intuitive understanding of the dynamics at play, but
will have a harder time supporting their interpretations with data. By having the class contribute in listing
relevant data, students become aware of how much there is to “see” in the process of a very short period
of group life.

The following lists of data pertinent to each theme are not intended to be exhaustive and students may
well find other data:

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Self versus Group-Oriented Behavior:
- Paul, Eric, and Wendy each begin by proposing direction for the group without really taking the
others’ suggestions into account.
- Eric rides over Ron’s suggestions for structuring the task to see whether he should go talk to
management.
- Paul assumes a decision has been made not to use consultants when, in fact, no group decision has
been made.
- Eric doesn’t hear Paul say MBO.
- Sheila thought Ron was keeping a list and is waiting for the group to decide.
- Wendy digresses to take pot-shots at Paul, e.g., “girl” remark “sewing bee.”
- Paul is more concerned with avoiding work (training) he doesn’t want than with understanding
Sheila.

Overall, most behavior is individual as opposed to group oriented. There does seem to be a little more
active listening toward the end, particularly between Wendy and Sheila. Ron is the only member who
consistently displays a group orientation.

Task Avoidance
- Ron’s sensible idea for structuring the task (keeping a list) is ignored.
- Eric suggests a direction for the group (“define objectives”). Wendy appears to respond to this but
really makes a very ambiguous statement.
- Ron again suggests keeping a list, but no one really acts on it.
- Tangential discussion about girls and sewing bees.
- Wendy tries to refocus on the task, but this is followed by Eric questioning Sheila’s suggestion.
- As the group begins to explore a potentially useful, but novel idea, Eric suggests a break.

Overall, the group, at times, appears to be tackling its task but good suggestions for structuring the task
are ignored. The group is wandering aimlessly.

Dependency
- Sending Eric to ask management for greater clarification.
- Wendy’s desire to bring in consultants.
- Paul asks Eric to take charge of the meeting.

Counter-dependency
- Paul’s initial burst of anger toward the company.
- Sheila’s anti-brass gossip.
- Paul again voices dissatisfaction with senior management.

*
Contributed by Gervase R. Bushe.

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Overt and Covert Conflict
- Paul’s derogatory remarks about Wendy’s proposed consultants (overt)—the covert conflict here is an
influence struggle between Paul and Wendy.
- Wendy makes fun of Paul’s use of the word “girl” (overt)—the covert aspect may be a way of getting
back at Paul for putting down her consultant idea.
- Paul’s overt defensiveness to Sheila’s clarification of his meaning about task definition may mask a
covert fear that Sheila and Wendy are developing a coalition, or resentment at the ridicule following
his “girls” remark.
- Wendy dumps on Paul’s MBO idea which is overt. What is covert is Wendy’s influence struggle
with Paul, and perhaps getting back at him for dumping on her “consultant” idea.
- Paul’s, Sheila’s and Wendy’s discussion about training appears to be an overt disagreement, but the
misinterpretation and defensiveness indicate that this is probably one more instance of a covert
influence struggle.
- Paul, who has twice voiced dissatisfaction with senior management, now accuses Wendy of having
no respect for authority. Clear indication of covert conflict between the two.

Subgroup Formation
- Wendy supports Eric’s defense of the company.
- Wendy supports Eric’s leadership by suggesting he ask management about hiring a consultant.
- Sheila and Wendy subgroup around being women in response to Paul’s “girl” remark.
- Wendy supports Sheila’s addition to her task statement.
- Wendy supports Eric’s task statement.
- Wendy and Sheila again subgroup as women around Paul’s “sewing bee” remark.
- Paul looks to Eric for agreement on “line function.”
- Paul tries to include Eric in a subgroup, “When guys like Eric and me joined . . . .”
- Wendy may be trying to include Ron into her subgroups by directly seeking his opinion.
- Wendy and Sheila begin supporting each other’s views on PA explicitly, and this subgroup appears to
firm up.
- Paul and Eric may be moving into a subgroup around the confidentiality issue.

Generally, the group appears to be between Forming and Storming (Tuchman) or between sub-phase I
and sub-phase II of Bennis and Shepard’s theory. In its next meeting we would expect the group to move
more fully into the Storming phase. Subgroup formation is clearly evident, but not so much around
dependence and counter-dependence (as in Bennis and Shepard’s theory) as it is around confirmation of
influence and identity. More recent theories of development have extended Bennis and Shepard’s work to
suggest that subgroup formation may have more parameters than simply reactions to authority. In this
case, Ron looks like the best candidate to be the independent who catalyzes the group (sub-phase III).

The case highlights that it is usually difficult to clearly place a group in any one “stage” of development.
Behaviors from different stages are often apparent. It is probably more important to understand the basic
dynamics and logic of developmental flow than to worry about the stages themselves. Stages are just
arbitrary boundaries used by theories to help us make sense of the complexity of group development.

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Some students, especially those with little organizational experience, might feel that the case is artificial
or contrived or directionless. If this perspective surfaces, two things may be done. One could ask if there
are students with management experience in the class and solicit their views. The other alternative is to
ask students if their own experiences of working on group projects have any similarity with the case.
Why should they image that it would be any different in a business organization?

Question 2: Analyze the case from the perspective of leadership authority and influence. Describe how
these dynamics are played out over the course of the meeting.

From the outset we can see an influence struggle taking place between Eric, Paul and Wendy. Somehow
(we don’t know how) Eric has become the designated leader for the group. This is indicated by the fact
that Eric, at a previous meeting, was designated to talk to senior management and by Eric’s position at the
head of the table. In many respects, however, Eric has little influence over the group and appears to be
more of a pawn in the raging battle between Wendy and Paul. It’s as though Wendy and Paul court Eric’s
support by offering him, at different points, the chance to be “leader.”

Paul initiates the meeting by offering a specific course of action. Eric interjects with a proposal of his
own. Then Wendy steps in with a course of action of her own design (to go for outside help). Behavior
is individually oriented rather than group oriented. Since there appears to be no clear directives to follow,
three persons are making bids for leadership. Paul reacts by blaming the company. Eric and Wendy both
disagree with Paul’s anti-company position (and we can see Wendy’s attempts to seduce Eric into her
subgroup by suggesting Eric go talk to management, which he clearly enjoys). In agreeing with Paul’s
anti-company position, Sheila appears to take on a supportive role from the beginning, but not necessarily
an influential one as she does not offer anything new. Eric then tries to reconfirm his position by giving
directives to the group.” Well, look we’ve got a job to do . . .”

Wendy comes back with her original idea of outside consultants. “There’s obviously a lot of ways . . .
let’s face it, we need some expertise.” Here Paul reacts to Wendy and discredits the merits of her
suggestion. “Celanese! They’re losing money . . .” “Dumb quality is free hype.” Here Paul sees Wendy
as trying to take the lead and he decides to discredit her ideas to establish his own position. He won’t
accept her influence.

Paul brings back his suggestion on “making it on their own” and offers some reading material. Sheila and
Eric accept the idea. Paul seems satisfied that he has won them over to this position, “Good, I’ll have my
girl get the stuff.”

Wendy, now feeling threatened by Paul, tries to ridicule him with his use of the word “Girls.” With this
she wins over Sheila. A possible collusion is emerging here. They have found common grounds (both
women).

Eric again tries to establish his position by giving the group some direction. “Well, this is all good fun
but . . .”

Wendy now offers specific goals on what the P.A. should accomplish. Paul questions her and Sheila
comes in, in support of Wendy. The coalition Wendy-Sheila is now firming up.

Paul offers his view on the objective of the P.A. and when questioned by Sheila he gets very defensive.
“Well, what’s wrong with that?” Paul feels that Sheila has lined up with Wendy and feels threatened (his
position in the leadership hierarchy is threatened).

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Eric comes back with his idea on the objectives of the P.A., this time getting support from Wendy
(Wendy trying to win Eric over). Paul wants to add something and now Wendy questions him. Here
Wendy does a great job at “getting back” at Paul for his earlier intervention when he discredited her idea.
She simply destroys his idea. “Well, they tried it at National Semi . . . it created such a mess” and she
also takes a crack at him personally, “You know, Paul, you can’t believe everything you read.” Sheila
comes in, in support of her on the Japan issue. (Coalition getting stronger.)

Paul tries to regain some ground by questioning the reality of the Japan stuff with the actual task at hand.

Eric offers directions again to establish his role: “Ron, maybe you ought to . . .”

Paul shows his dissatisfaction with the proceedings (implying he knows better).

Wendy makes fun of him. “I’ve never been to a sewing bee.” Here she’s making points against Paul and
Sheila is supporting her. (Coalition firming up.)

Paul, still struggling to gain some higher level of influence, directs Eric to take over, implying that Eric is
not doing his job. Eric disagrees, implying that he is directing the meeting properly.

Paul, not satisfied, decides to attack the company (he’s running out of ammunition but is still striving to
some higher levels of influence).

Paul then tries to get some support from Eric, “Don’t you agree, Eric?” He is now looking for a coalition
with Eric.

Wendy cuts in and offers a firm opinion. Paul rejects it right away. He will not accept the influence that
she is now gaining. Sheila again defends Wendy’s position. Wendy then questions Ron who has
participated very little. This is probably an attempt to get Ron to join into her coalition.

Wendy then offers a new course of action “Maybe it will help if . . .” She gets support from Sheila
(subgroup now firm). Eric questions Wendy. Sheila again supports Wendy. Paul indicates his
disagreement (mutters). Eric now, seeing the influence that Wendy and Sheila are getting, objects to the
idea. Wendy gets back at Eric, “Are you advocating management by secrecy?” Until the end, it’s the
Wendy and Sheila team against Paul and Eric as individuals.

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Throughout the process we have seen a successful coalition built between Sheila and Wendy. At the
beginning it was “each man” (so to speak) on his own. Paul at a later moment tried to pull Eric over to
him, “Don’t you agree Eric?” “When guys like Eric and me joined . . .” but Eric was too busy
establishing himself to join in. Wendy appears to be winning out over Paul, but he has yet to accept a
lower position in the leadership hierarchy.

Activity 12-4: Values in Business

This activity can be used as either an in—or outside—class team assignment. If it is used as an outside of
class activity, the participants should be reminded that they should meet at a time when all members can
be present for at least a two-hour block of time. Both the team results and the team attendance sheet
(provided at the end of the module) are to be turned in at the next class meeting. Unless this is done,
some teams delegate the task to a couple of members who spend little time on it. Students will usually
respond well when they learn it is essential for full attendance in order to accumulate data for their
individual term papers.

Task 3: When the team representatives list the rank orderings on the blackboard, there is often a marked
contrast between teams. These represent differences in both the values of team members and the way the
listed values were perceived by the members.

Sometimes teams will say they answered the overall question from the standpoint of how a business team
would answer it, but most teams will have done the rank ordering of values from the viewpoint of their
own members. Among the latter group, an opportunity exists for you to explore the contrasts. For
instance, if the red team had ethics first and profits lower, while the blue team had the reverse, interview
each team during the class session to probe for the reasons they arrived at their ratings. Ask about the
background, experience, and interests of the team members that might account for the differences.

Activity 12-5W: A Card Game Called Norms

This activity is also self-explanatory. It is useful in relating teams’ prior experiences to their current
classroom team experience, and in identifying how norms can affect team performance. It provides them
with an opportunity to explicitly develop group norms that they can subscribe to and live with.

Activity 12-6W: Individual Role Assessment

This activity is self-explanatory. It can be assigned as a preface to the team’s final papers. Groups may
have some difficulty in identifying individual roles, particularly those which impede group performance,
and depending on the group’s stage of development, it may not be useful to force the teams to focus (at
least initially) on dysfunctional individual behavior, but rather to see the operation of task and relationship
roles.

Activity 12-7W: Status on the Campus

This activity is included because very often classroom groups have difficulty in identifying norms and
relative status in their groups. By using the campus in general as the basis for analysis, the concepts of
status and norms can be illustrated in a setting that is familiar to students. Of course, the status elements
will differ from campus to campus.

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Additional Activities

12-8IM: Exploring Team Effectiveness and Dynamics: A Winning Team

This activity provides an opportunity for the students to reflect on what does it take to become a winning
team. The 8 minute video can be rented through Pyramid Film & Video, (Box 1048, Santa Monica, CA
90406, Telephone number 213 828 7577). The video displays a sailing team that goes through team
development and becomes a worldwide winner in the specific sailing category. The video illustrated
nicely all of the features of a successful team. The students found it helpful to view the movie twice. The
first task is to identify the key features of the team. The second task is to analyze the sailing team. We
had two different designs that work well. The first is to ask the team to analyze the sailing teams
effectiveness, identify areas that can use some improvements and identify areas that they can improve
their own project teams in the course based on what they have learned from their analysis. The second is
to assign each team a specific topic/theme area that was studied in the course and analyze the sailing team
from that specific theoretical base. The work sheet on the web site provides the format for the analysis.

Upon the completion of the team analysis each team shares their analysis with the learning community
and based on the presentation a class discussion is facilitated by the instructor.

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Work Sheet:
1. The major characteristics of the team are:

2. Analysis

Theory Concept Identification Concept Definition Analysis

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Activity 12-9IM:
Exploring Team Effectiveness and Dynamics: Twelve Angry Men
This activity provides an opportunity for the students to reflect on group development, dynamics and
effectiveness. 12 Angry Men is an MGM/UA movie that can be rented. The movie lasts 1 hour and 33
minutes. If time allows we have rented the movie and viewed the movie with the entire class. If time
does not allow, students were asked to view the movie as a team or by themselves. The video illustrated
nicely the evolution of a group, some of the group development milestones, group dynamics and
performance. The first task is to identify and capture the major facts in the script. The second task is to
analyze the team. We had two different designs that work well. The first is to ask the team to analyze the
group’s effectiveness, identify areas that could have used some improvements and identify areas that they
can improve their own project teams in the course based on what they have learned from their analysis.
The second is to assign each team a specific topic/theme area that was studied in the course and analyze
the group from that specific theoretical base. The work sheet on the web site provides the format for the
analysis.

Upon the completion of the analysis each team shares their analysis with the learning community and
based on the presentations a class discussion is facilitated by the instructor.

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Study Questions
1. What is a Human System?

Comment: The human group concept was advanced by Homans 1 over fifty years ago as a framework for
investigating and understanding human dynamic in groups. His concern was to develop a set of concepts
that can capture the essence of human dynamics in everyday life. Homans’s framework consists of two
parts: part one includes three elementary concepts and the relationship between them and part two
includes more abstract concepts and the relations among these concepts and the first three elementary
concepts. He argued that when an individual seeks to describe the behavior of people in everyday life,
sticking closely to the behavior, they are likely to include three types of comments: activities, sentiments
and interaction. Activities refer to movements, action, work, typing, writing, and the like. These are,
basically, things people do. Sentiments, refer to feelings (happy, sad, angry, ….), to attitudes (this is her
job, he is liberal,….), or to beliefs. Sentiments constitute the inner state of the person, the things an
individual subjectively perceives. The third are statements about interaction, including working together
with someone, eating together, and the like. Activity, sentiments and interactions are dynamically related
so that a change in one will lead to a change in the others. Together they are viewed as the elementary
form of human behavior.

The behavior of group members must be considered as a system of behavior and not as discrete behaviors
unrelated to each other. The social system which develops is part two of Homans framework. The social
system constitutes two parts: an external system, the relations among interaction, activity, and sentiments
which are imposed on a group by forces external to it (such as a larger group, a manager, an organization,
or a course instructor who imposed rules and procedures); and an internal system, the relations among
interaction, activity, and sentiment which are spontaneously elaborated and standardized by the members
of the group. For any team at work, the external system is a given – it probably existed before the group
began, and it may well continue to exit even if the team is disband.

2. What is group dynamics? Why is an understanding of group dynamics essential to any team manager
or group member?

Comment: Group dynamics can be defined as recurrent patterns of behavior which develop in groups and
which can be described in terms of values, norms, roles, status differences, subgroupings and skills
processes. Over time, cohesiveness develops—the greater the group satisfies the needs of the members,
the greater the attractiveness of the group to its members, and the greater the cohesiveness.

Effective groups are those in which the values and norms are known and determined consciously by the
group. Skills and roles are developed so goals are more attainable. Managers and members who know
this are better able to influence the team’s actions. Groups can function as their members make them
function. Individuals can develop team skills that may improve their effectiveness in any group.

3. In what way can group norms be considered a part of group structure?

Comment: Norms are the shared expectations as to how people should behave in a particular group. As
such they are the unwritten rules upon which members come to depend. These may be contrasted with
the formal rules of the group which are perhaps even written out. The structure of group dynamics
spontaneously occurs and member awareness may be almost at the subconscious or unconscious level in
that their actions show they know these “guidelines” but, if asked, they could not describe them.

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4. Leadership is listed as a factor which influences team performance, and we said that the other factors
discussed are also influenced by team leaders. Develop an example of such influence for each of the
other factors.

Comment:

Context: An organization’s culture is often a result of the values of the organization’s founders or
top manager.

Purpose: The setting and communicating of the organization’s goals is a key function of top
management leadership.

Member Leaders in an organization often have the task of assigning individuals to teams or in
Composition: making the selection decision for individuals who are joining the organization.

Structure: Leaders often take the lead in establishing norms. Leaders often act to “protect”
individuals who are playing unpopular, but functional roles in the group.

Processes: The management of the boundary between a group and others in the organization is often
part of the leader’s job.

5. The disadvantages of groupthink are outlined in this module. Can you think of any advantages
arising from groupthink?

Comment: Absolutely. If athletic teams did not think they were invincible, they would not win many
games. The same is true for the battlefield (literally or figuratively), “Our cause is right and just.” Esprit
de corps’ is great, but it can be blinding, bringing about disasters in business, government and politics if
safeguards against groupthink are not included in the decision process.

6. What generalizations can be made concerning the relationship between homogeneity/heterogeneity

and team effectiveness?

Comment: For small groups in which idea generation and problem solving are essential, too much
homogeneity or too much heterogeneity of membership background, education, interests, abilities, and
attitudes can be dysfunctional. If there is too much similarity, the reservoir of knowledge and experience
may not be great enough. Too much dissimilarity may make it too difficult to work together.

7. Think of any team you are now or have been a member of. How would you rate it on the seven points
given on group maturity.

Comment: The answer will depend on the group, but to help the students to flesh out their answers they
can be asked to provide evidence supporting their ratings in the form of examples from the group’s
operation.

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8. Compare and contrast between the emotional model of group development and the performance model
of group development.

Comment: See table 12-1 for the comparison.

9. Reflect on your group experience in this course thus far. Identify the different factors that affected
the development of the group. What course of action would you take to improve the group’s
performance? Why?

Comment: Again, the answer will depend on the group. Any answer should include reference to the
factors which influence group development, and should any factor not be considered as having an impact,
the reasons why this is so should be sought out.

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MODULE 13*
Organization and Work Design

I. Module Overview

Module 13 has been extensively revised to show the evolution of organization design thinking, and to
provide an overview of comprehensive approaches to organization and work design.

This module, the first of four in the last part of the book that focuses on key organizational processes and
effectiveness, is centered on the exploration of the main features of the organization as well as work and
organization design. We begin with an exercise on designing the total organization. This exercise
provides an excellent link to Galbraith’s Star Model and the Information Processing approach to
organization design. Next we introduce factors affecting organization performance to further explore what
accounts for an organization’s behavior and productivity. We then explore traditional and emerging forms
of organization structure, and briefly cover contemporary theory on building the team-based organization.
We then pursue alternative approaches to organization design, with emphasis on the emerging perspective
labeled “Sustainable Work Systems.” At the end of the module, we offer a variety of activities that build
on the initial cognitive maps, allowing students to appreciate more complex issues in organization and
work design. Activity 13-3 allows students to pursue design at the job and team levels and nine web and
supplemental activities are included for those who wish to pursue aspects of design published in earlier
editions of this book

II. Module Learning Objectives

After completing this module, you should be able to

1. Understand the sustainability perspective applied to work and organization design

2. Use the star organization design model to create a new organization

3. Define and describe factors that influence organization performance.

4. Identify the different ways of grouping people into teams, departments, and organizational units.

5. Identify and understand both traditional and newer forms of organization structure.

6. Understand ways to build the team-based organization

7. Understand how to build enriched jobs within a team context

8. Appreciate that there are several academic-based approaches to organization design that can be used to
build effective organizations including the new Sustainable Work Systems design perspective.

*This module was revised and modified in collaboration with Professor Michael Stebbins, Emeritus Professor of Organization Design at the
Orfelea College of Business, California Polytechnic State University. We are grateful to Professor Stebbins.

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Comprehensive design approaches
Context
Core transformation process
Cross-Team Integrating Team
Differentiation
Dynamic network organization
External environment
Form of structure
Functional form
Hierarchy
Horizontal form
Hybrid form
Intensive Work Systems
Information processing approach
Integration
Job Engineering
Lean Production Team
Organization Design
Management support processes
Network organization
Organization
Purpose
Scientific management
Self-Design Approach
Self-directed work team
Stakeholders
Structural variables
Structure
Sustainable work systems
Sustainable Work Systems Approach
Task environment
Team-based organization
Transformation process
Transnational Structure
Wider environment
Work Design

III. Module Outline

Pre-module Preparation

Activity 13–1: Option 1: Designing a Student-Run Organization That Provides Consulting Services
Option 2: Designing a student-run organization that produces a school newspaper
Introduction
The Information Processing Approach
The Star Model
Factors Affecting Organization Performance Context
Purpose
Core Transformation Process
Structure
Management Support Processes
People

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Forms of Structure
Simple
Functional
Product or Self-Contained
Mixed or Hybrid Forms
Horizontal Forms
Building the Team-Based Organization
Forms for Global Competition
Network Organizations
Transnational Organizations
Comprehensive Approaches to Organization Design
The Information Processing Approach
The Self-Design Approach
The Sustainable Work Systems Approach
Work Design—A Closer Look at Processes, Teams, and Jobs
Self-Directed Work Teams
Lean Production Teams
Scientific Management
Intensive Work Systems Vs. Sustainable Work Systems
Work Design at the Individual Level
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 13-2. Colonial Automobile Association
Activity 13-3. The Woody Manufacturing Company

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 13–4W: A Comparative Exploration of Two Organizations: Sandlot and Little League
Activity 13–5W: Diagnosing an Organization—WWW Exploration Activity
Activity 13–6W: Learning from a Manager about an Organization Activity
Activity 13–7W: Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes: A Self-Design Simulation Activity
Activity 13–8W: Designing Parallelization of Product Flow
Activity 13–9W: SWOT Analysis
Other Activities:
Activity 12-10 IM - Participative Self-Design
Activity 12-11 IM - Work Design Simulation: Self-Managed Teams

IV. Alternative Session Sequencing

(See below)

V. Teaching Notes

This section includes notes on module activities as well as mini lectures that support a few of the
activities. Due to the diversity of materials, we provide brief guides and leave it up to the instructor to
choose the proper sequence. Activities 13-1 (options one and two) provide excellent initial experiences in
overall design, and activities 13-2 and 13-3 have been popular for examination of issues at the job and
work team levels. The Web and other optional activities have been included in past editions and are
provided as additional resources.

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This section includes teaching notes on the following:
• Activity 13–1: Option 1: Designing a Student-Run Organization That Provides Consulting
Services. Option 2: Designing a student-run organization that produces a school newspaper.
• Activity 13-2: Colonial Automobile Association
• Activity 13-3: The Woody Manufacturing Company: Start-up Design
• Activity 13-4W A Comparative Exploration of Two Organizations: Sandlot and Little League
• Activity 13-5W: Diagnosing an Organization—WWW Exploration
• Activity 13-6W: Learning from a Manager about an Organization
• Activity 13-7W: Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes: A Self-Design Simulation
• Activity 13-8W: Designing Parallelization of Product Flow
• Activity 13-9W: SWOT Analysis
• Two additional activities:
o Activity 13-10 IM - Participative Self-Design
o Activity 13-11 IM - Work Design Simulation: Self-Managed Teams
• Mini Lecture notes on “Phases in Participative Self-Design”
• Responses to the study questions

Activity 13-1 Option One: Designing A Student-Run Organization That Provides

Consulting Services

Overview
Designing a student-run organization is a good beginning activity, as it helps students realize that design
involves far more than an organization chart and job descriptions. Students find it easy to relate to the
task. We have found it useful to introduce the topic of organization design in the prior class session, by
showing Galbraith’s “star” model and discussing the importance of integrating multiple design
dimensions (Strategy, Task, Structure, Information Technology, and Decision Making, People, and
Rewards).

Activity Procedure
The following is the sequence of activities, the necessary time required and some tips.

Tasks 1 and 2: The activity takes little introduction, and in fact is helped if the instructor’s beginning
comments are brief. Announce that the entire class session will be devoted to this design activity. The
sequence will be instructions, working for 40-60 minutes in a group of (10-20) students, sharing the
results (20 minutes), and finally, instructor’s concluding remarks (10-20 minutes).

Read the learning objectives along with other objectives you may have for the session. Read the
background statement and be prepared to answer student questions about the task. Typical questions
including “Is the $20,000 separate from the space, equipment, and materials money?” (yes). “Can we
spend the money on anything we think is needed?” (yes, subject to faculty advisor approval). “Who do
we have to satisfy with this organization design?” (the dean).

We have found that it is important to emphasize that the task involves Total Organization Design. That
is, they are to brainstorm all design dimensions to be dealt with, before working on a single dimension,
such as organization structure. You can provide them examples, if needed, such as a mission statement
and set of goals.

Some Specific Suggestions:

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1. Ask them to appoint a facilitator and recorder.
2. Ask them to determine who will report out—the facilitator and recorder can do it as a team.
Regardless, assign responsibility ahead.
3. Visit each group during discussion. Give advice only if they are off track (for example, too narrow
concept of their task).
4. Make sure that the groups are ready to report out on time, and that they are building a product that can
be shown to the class (on the white board, chart pad, etc.).
5. If the room allows it, it is useful to have groups get up and move to the presenting group’s
location/board to hear the reports. Encourage questions and discussion with the audience, and
encourage other group members to chime in when elaboration is needed.

Merged Results From Several Student Groups – Designing the Total Organization
Consulting Services Provided to Nonprofit Organizations

Environment

• Scan the environment

• Assess community needs
• Assess competitor organizations
• Assess interest among undergraduates, graduate students

Strategy
• Learning experience, education as an overall theme
• Students will design the organization, and will create mission statement, vision, goals, guidelines
for consulting, and list of services to be offered
• To help nonprofit groups to be more successful and efficient
• The focus must be clear, such as supporting organizations that help youth, e.g., YMCA
• Nonprofit, student-run, offering low cost and innovative services

Transformation Process
• Based on a model of consulting – students take a course to select and modify the consulting
process
• Students from all programs and concentrations are involved to bring a variety of ideas to the
consulting process
• Generalists make initial contacts, followed by multifunctional teams which diagnose specific
client needs
• Faculty and community executives provide oversight during start-up and beyond
• Relies on unique college capabilities including information technology
• Relies on strong project management system, intranet and internet

Structure
• A flat organization with little or no hierarchy
• Based on a “club” concept, emphasizing fun activities and social support
• Links to existing functional clubs in the college, such as accounting, marketing
• Functional expertise and resources brought together based on project needs (matrix)
• A team leader is point of contact both internally and externally to the client, but otherwise,
leadership is shared

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 • Beyond the teams, support groups are needed to sustain this organization, such as internal fund-
raising, social events planning, advising, etc.
• Some jobs such as team leader require experience

People
• Recruitment of skilled personnel, resolution mechanisms needed for staffing
• Orientation, training issues
• Guidelines for gaining experience and for advancing in the organization
• Building a community – through work that is socially worthwhile, allowing creativity and
learning

Rewards
• Incentives to participate: course credit, internships, senior projects
• Challenging assignments, personal and professional growth
• Team and individual recognition
• Social events

Other
• Formal linkage to the college, legal liability considerations met, long term financial viability
considered
• Develop the actual start-up steps for establishment of this organization

Merged Results for Option Two: Designing a student-run organization that produces a
school newspaper

Activity 13-2: Colonial Automobile Association—Job Design Inventory

Overview
Activity 13-2 links job enrichment theory to a real life example. Students read a case describing Susan
Quayle’s job as claims adjuster for an auto insurance company. Based on the case material, they then list
the knowledge and skills they believe Susan must have to perform her job. The list of required
knowledge and skills is then grouped under five job dimensions (listed below and covered in the
textbook). Students are then asked to rate Susan’s job and predict her overall job satisfaction. Student
ratings are shared with other class members, and the instructor provides Susan’s self-ranking. Students
then have the opportunity to rebuild Susan’s job using job enrichment theory and other design concepts.

Learning Objectives
1. To analyze jobs on different job dimensions.
2. To involve students in a job enrichment opportunity.

Teaching Notes
The Job Characteristics Model is well-established in the literature, and the Job Diagnostic Survey that
measures job dimensions may already be available to the instructor. If so, the sequence outlined below
can be modified to substitute use of the Job Diagnostic Survey for the global ratings of each dimension.
That is, students can read the case, become familiar with Susan’s job, and then simply “be Susan” and
rate her job using the survey items.

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Assuming the steps outlined in the text, suggestions for each task follow.

Task1: Students read the Colonial Automobile Association case and identify knowledge and skills
required and related information. Sample student results are listed below by job dimension.

Skill Variety
crisis management skills
communication skills
computer skills
personal organization skills
interpersonal skills
knowledge of automobiles
knowledge vehicle codes
knowledge of insurance policies
must deal with medical, legal, rental agent, insurance agent personnel

Task Identity
Must start and finish client contact. Possible to do with simple claims. Other experts must give input on
complex claims
Provides continuity, integration for client

Task Significance
Clients likely value good adjuster performance
The service is important
Possibility to cut costs and recover money for the company

Autonomy
Being a self-starter, managing own time
Job requires ability to handle ambiguity
Little guidance beyond initial training

Feedback
Good opportunities to deal with others
Ability to learn by doing
Some feedback from supervisors, but often of negative nature

Overall Job Satisfaction

Consider pay, job security, satisfaction with supervisor, satisfaction with growth, and advancement
opportunities

Task 2: With the above information in mind, students are to assign a score for each job dimension plus
overall job satisfaction. Student evaluations of knowledge and skills required plus scores can be shared
and discussed in small groups or shared and defended in the open classroom. Scores can be entered on
the board.

Susan’s own scores can be shared as a point of comparison. They are as follows:

Skill Variety 6.3

Task Identity 4.6
Task Significance 5.0

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Autonomy 5.0
Feedback 4.3
Overall Job Satisfaction 3.3

Scale: 1 = Extremely low 5 = Somewhat high

2 = Very low 6 = Very high
3 = Somewhat low 7 = Extremely high
4 = Neither high nor low

While having some bright spots, Susan’s job clearly has opportunities for improvement. These
opportunities can be discussed, as well as the value of conducting job enrichment in this setting. Perhaps
work process reengineering or another comprehensive program needs to be done in this department and
organization before the company proceeds to change or enrich individual jobs.

It is sometimes useful to ask a few students to think of their best or worst jobs, and evaluate them using
the above scheme. The instructor can ask students to describe their jobs and subsequent evaluation
scores. This often provides a useful comparative perspective on Susan’s job, and reveals degrees of
opportunity for job enrichment.

At this point the instructor can introduce job enrichment theory or open discussion to consideration of
other work redesign options.

Other options might include:

• Self-Managing work teams handling a specific workload.

• Intensive training so that people can be self-managing.
• Continuous Quality Improvement or Total Quality Improvement programs.
• Computer assisted work process reengineering.
• An improved reward system.

Task 3: If job enrichment is considered, Task 3 instructions can proceed as indicated in the textbook. The
Hackman/Oldham model can be reviewed, showing the relationships among job dimensions,
implementing concepts, psychological states, and predicted outcomes.

Briefly:

Skill variety, task identity and task significance relate to feelings that the work is meaningful.

Autonomy relates to feelings of responsibility for outcomes.

Feedback contributes to knowledge of results of work activities.

The idea is to rebuild the job, or enhance it using the implementing concepts provided by the theory.
Students can brainstorm ideas, and group them under the following categories:

Combining Tasks
Forming Natural Work Groups
Establishing Client Relationships
Vertical Loading

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Opening Feedback Channels

Activity 13-3: The Woody Manufacturing Start-Up Design

Overview
This activity provides an opportunity to utilize a mini case to explore alternative work designs for a
successful start-up company. The learner is provided with an opportunity to investigate the potential
impact cause-and-effect between personality, motivation, communication, perception, and work design
strategy. Working on the activity as a team provides the opportunity to continue the development of the
team toward a more effective work unit.

Case Overview
The case, the situation and challenge faced by Mr. Woody are presented in a very short paragraph in the
textbook. Mr. Woody has a clear vision, has hired 32 new employees with different skills, has a
production process that includes 15 steps for making three different bar stools (his specialty product with
standing orders of $750,000), and has commissioned an organization design expert (the students) to help
him set up an optimal organization.

Procedure for Class Discussion

As the teams present their proposals, facilitate class questions that attempt to clarify the essence of the
proposals. Individuals are likely to try to challenge the proposed recommendations. Do not permit a
critique at this stage. After all the teams have presented their ideas, foster a discussion around the
following themes.

a. Compare and contrast between the proposed recommendations in terms of their overall strengths and
weaknesses, short-term, moderate-term, and long-term impact.

b. Explore the potential effects of the proposed designs on employee motivation and communication.

c. Explore the role of management in the proposed designs.

d. Examine the utilization of teams in the proposed design.

e. If some of the designs proposed are individual based and some are more team based, investigate the
differences and similarities between them.

Activity 13-4W: A Comparative Exploration of Two Organizations: Sandlot and Little

League Baseball*

*
These notes were contributed by Professors Fremont Kast and James Rosenzweig. We are grateful to
Mony and Jim.

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Name

Date

INDIVIDUAL COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SANDLOT AND LITTLE

LEAGUE
Sandlot Organization

Little League

1. Who are the participants? How are members of these organizations identified?

2. What are the goals of these organizations? Who identifies the goals?

3. What rules govern these organizations? Who makes the rules?

4. How structured are these organizations?

5. Who performs the managerial functions of planning, decision making, and control in these
organizations?

6. How would you describe the relationships among the people in these organizations?

7. What motivates people in these organizations?

8. What are the leadership and influence patterns in these organizations?

Copyright ©2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.

M12-5

341

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Sandlot Organization

Little League

9. What are some of the expectations in these organizations?

10. How do these organizations relate to their external environments such as other groups, organizations,
competitors, and resources?

11. Who are the customers in these organizations?

12. What is the nature of the technology used (for example, equipment and knowledge)?

13.

14.

15.

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M12-6

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Learning Objectives
1. To compare two different organization types—the informal and the formal.
2. To identify changes which occur in organizations and their management as they evolve from informal
to more formal.
3. To increase our understanding of managerial roles and processes in different situations.

There are several ways to learn about organizations and nature of the informal and formal organizations.
Many texts provide lists comparing the similarities and the differences of these two types using such
characteristics as formalization, structure, authority, and influence relationships, life-span, etc.
Management students typically learn the characteristics of the bureaucratic form and something about the
process of bureaucratization. However, these ideas are frequently quite abstract and not related to their
experiences. This activity attempts to develop some understanding of these issues by having students
look at organizational types that they are likely to be familiar with and then relate their own findings to
conceptual knowledge on informal and formal organizations. It also provides an opportunity for students
to think about and discuss their own attitudes and feelings concerning their relationships with different
types of organizations.

Procedure
This activity is not difficult and generates interest and a large number of ideas that can be explored in
later modules.

Step 1, preparation of the Individual Comparative Analysis of Sandlot and Little League Baseball, can be
done outside of class and should not take more than one hour.

Steps 2, 3, and 4, involving comparative analysis by groups and total class discussion, should take 30-90
minutes. An additional 30 minutes can be used to discuss some of the broader issues raised in the
activity.

After completion of the activity we have asked each group to turn in their “Group Composite of
Comparative Analysis of Sandlot and Little League Baseball” forms. This provides us with a perspective
on what they consider to be the important differences and the ideas for further class discussions.

We have also used this activity for individual Student Reports (3-5 pages) which they submit after the
activity is completed.

Outcomes
Student response to this activity is good and they can complete their comparative analyses without many
difficulties. Generally, there is substantial uniformity among the various groups and they see many of the
same differences between these two organizational types. Because of this, we generally have each group
report to the entire class only one organizational dimension (selected at random and after their group
meetings).

Once the class has completed this comparative analysis they usually want to explore some broader
questions. In some cases, where time permits, we have turned these questions back to the groups for
further consideration. Some of these questions are:

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1. What is the process by which we move from informal to more formal organizations?

2. What are the roles and functions of informal groups within the context of formal organizations?

3. Is it typical in informal organizations to have the management and doing functions performed by the
same people? Are these roles separated in formal organizations? Why the distinction?

4. How has the managerial role changed as we move from informal to more formal organizations?

5. Do Little League baseball and other formal athletic programs condition or socialize their members so
that later in life they are more effective participants in complex organizations?

6. Are there any examples in our society of where we have moved from the formal to less formal
organizations?

In addition to the class discussion we have had many insightful Individual Student Reports stemming
from this activity which are evidently written with enthusiasm and are interesting reading. One such
student report is included below.

Supplementary Materials
There has been many very interesting articles discussing Little League and other organized sports and the
impacts upon their members. We have developed a file on these which some students have found useful.
We had thought of including one of these in this manual but were concerned that one article alone might
reflect a specific viewpoint and would perhaps become outdated. If the class or individual students want
to explore these issues in more detail, they should not have any difficulty in obtaining information from
various sources. Just reading the daily newspaper and sports page will often provide new insights.

A Comparison of Sandlot and Little League Baseball

(Student Report)
The similarities between sandlot and Little League baseball enable both of them to fit the definition of an
organization. However, the differences which set them apart help to explain the distinction between
informal and formal organizations.

On first thought, one may not depict a group of kids playing baseball as an organization. The initial thing
that comes to mind is larger groups of organized individuals, such as businesses, schools, hospital, or
government agencies. Further consideration, however, suggests that most smaller groups of individuals
working or playing together can also be viewed as organizations.

A working definition that encompasses the entire spectrum of organizations is:

(1) A subsystem of its broader environment;

(2) Goal oriented—people with a purpose; including
(3) A technical subsystem—people using knowledge, techniques, equipment, and facilities;
(4) A structural subsystem—people working together on integrated activities;
(5) A psychosocial subsystem—people in social relationships; and coordinated by
(6) A managerial subsystem—planning and controlling the overall endeavor.

Both the formal Little League baseball and the informal sandlot baseball have these elements or
subsystems in common. There are, however, various degrees or levels of organized activity. Baseball

217
activity ranges from sandlot, to Little Leagues, through high school and college teams, and finally to the
professional or Major Leagues. As a general observation, the lower levels tend to be more formal.
Although Major League baseball is much more formal and organized than Little League, the distinction
between sandlot and little league is great enough to serve as a basis of comparison between informal and
formal organizations.

The primary difference between the formal and the informal organization is the degree to which each is
structured and formalized. This difference can be shown by comparing the subsystems.

The formal organization is likely to have well-defined goals, to use sophisticated techniques and tools, to
have a rigid structure, to modify and regulate the behavior of its members and to require considerable
managerial planning and control.

The informal organization, however, will usually have less well defined goals, an adaptive use of
available knowledge and techniques, a more flexible structure, less behavior modification and regulation,
and limited planning and control of activities.

Environment
Before comparing sandlot and Little League baseball, it is important to recognize that any organization is
a subsystem or an element of the environment in which it functions. In other words, there are
environmental inputs to organizations as well as organizational outputs to the environment.

The formal organization tends to have greater homogeneity of its environmental inputs and organizational
outputs. Kids wanting to join Little League must be of a certain age (8-12), general skill, and until
recently, male. This limited age spread leads to less diversity in skill and ability. Regulation-sized
equipment and fields, formal rules and procedures, as well as team uniforms add to this homogeneity. A
very important input to any baseball game is the weather. The game may have to be cancelled or
postponed to a later date if it is “rained out.”

Organizational outputs from Little League baseball may include, for example, reduced speed limit zones
for streets near game fields; paid advertising billboards around the field fences; and better business for the
local ice cream store. As Little Leaguers gain experience and age, they may become inputs to and outputs
from a succession of boys baseball leagues, from the Babe Ruth League (ages 13-15), to the American
Legion League (ages 16-17), and finally to the Minor or Major Leagues.

Sandlot will usually have a greater variety of inputs and outputs than Little League, its boundaries are
more open to environmental influences. Sandlot baseball is played on almost any vacant lot. The
existence, size, and condition of such play areas are environmental inputs to which this informal
organization must adapt. The neighborhood children play sandlot baseball may be a combination of boys
and girls with a wide range in ages and abilities. Virtually anyone around is an eligible member for the
team. Charlie Brown’s “team” is a good example of the variety of participants in a game of sandlot
baseball. There are “kids” of all ages—including a girl (Lucy), a toddler (Linus), and even a dog
(Snoopy).

Outputs from sandlot baseball include fun, health, recreation, friendship, and perhaps a raid on the
neighbor’s apple tree. An output from sandlot could become an input to Little League. For example, a
boy who has been playing sandlot baseball for some years may decide to join Little League. His decision
will most likely be influenced by his parents and friends. The majority of sandlot players, however, do
not join Little League; instead, they disperse into a variety of new interests.

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Goals
The main goal in Little League baseball is winning the game and having a successful won-loss record for
the season. The ultimate league champion. Players are coached to play their best. Often there is rigorous
competition and winning. In addition, parents want their child to play in a favored position. It is of
secondary importance for the children to have fun. The goals of Little League and other formal
organizations tend to be long-range, they continue to exist even after current members leave.

The goals of sandlot baseball are fun and recreation. Another objective, possibly more important, is that
of making friends. Most sandlot players just play for today and not for some future championship. Many
“teams” (usually there are not enough members to have nine-member teams) do not even bother to keep
score, but play “just for the fun of it.” There may be some light competition, but this depends on the
group members and their interpretation and formulation of group goals and informal rules. The sandlot
and other informal organizations are less well-defined and more subject to change.

Technical Subsystem
The technical subsystem of Little League is highly developed compared to that of sandlot. A good
knowledge of the game is required of team members. Each person must know what to do at the right
time. A great deal of time is spent in practice to learn the technology. A high degree of coordination is
involved. In addition to knowledge, the degree of coordination is involved. In addition to knowledge, the
technical subsystem of Little League includes prescribed rules and regulations, standardized equipment
and uniforms, as well as facilities such as designated Little League baseball fields, club houses, bleachers
and fences. The techniques and tools applied become increasingly sophisticated as the organization
becomes more formal.

Sandlot baseball must rely on the collective knowledge of its members in formulating the “Rules” of the
game. Seldom will they use correct baseball procedures; often rules will be made up as they go along. If
there are some new members who don’t know how to play the game, the others will show him or her. If
someone makes a mistake, it’s no big deal. Sandlot baseball has to make do with the equipment and
facilities available. For example, the vacant lot up the street is their field; stones, planks of wood, or
holes in the ground make do as bases; and one old glove, a cracked bat, and a warped ball is all the
equipment they need. Informal organizations, such as sandlot, usually display an adaptive use of
available knowledge and techniques.

Structure
One of the main structural aspects of Little League is its nine-member teams. In contrast to sandlot
baseball, Little League usually has more players than are needed. Thus, there may be top “A” and
secondary “B” teams. A few individuals may be substitutes or “bench warmers,” while others are
eliminated entirely. Little Leaguers are usually assigned to or advanced to the position in which they play
their best and do the most for the team effort. This specialization of individual players is a key aspect of
team success.

Even with changes in Little League members and organizers, its structure remains fairly stable. The Little
League handbook of formal rules and regulations perpetuates this stability. These rules and procedures
are provided to coaches by the national organization. The complexity of this organization, competing on
a national and international basis, requires a rigid adherence to formal rules and procedures. As is true of
most formal organizations, Little League is long-lived with a rigid, planned structure.

Sandlot is much less structured. In sandlot some general rules of baseball are in effect. However, they
are flexible and can be modified to fit the circumstances. Because the sandlot group doesn’t have to
interact with any other team it is free to modify it’s own rules. The number of participants per team is not

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fixed but varies from game to game. Often there will not even be teams only individual players trying to
maximize the time they spend at bat, such as in “rotation baseball.” It seems to me that most sandlot
players would prefer “rotation” to team play, especially if there are few players, since then each player
has a chance to play in each position during a game. There are no innings in rotation baseball; therefore,
as long as a batter is not tagged out or struck out, he or she may continue in this preferred position.

The structure of sandlot baseball is very flexible. Turnover in members means changes in rules and
procedures. There is no one set way to play sandlot baseball. Due to the spontaneous nature of informal
organizations such as sandlot baseball, they are often short-lived with flexible, unplanned structures.

Human Relationships
Motivation and leadership style are two important considerations of the psychosocial system of both
Little League and sandlot organizations. The goals of winning, the need for proving oneself, and
satisfying coaches and parents are prime motivational forces for Little Leaguers. Sandlot players are
motivated by the desire for fun and recreation and the need for friendship. The leadership style of Little
League is more autocratic. There is a great deal of supervision by the team managers, coaches, and
parents. In contrast, sandlot typically has a democratic-participative leadership style. If a player doesn’t
have a say and isn’t motivated he or she can always go home. The leader is most frequently chosen by a
group consensus.

Managerial System
The managerial systems are significantly different in these two organizations. In Little League the
managerial functions of planning, organizing, and controlling are performed by the coaches, parents,
umpires, and the regional and national organizations. Thus, management is separated from the players.
Because of the complexities of the organization and the need to coordinate with other segments of the
Little League system, it would be impossible for the players to perform these functions. In Little League
there is usually some form of management training. At least, coaches and umpires must learn the rules
and procedures. Frequently, being an assistant coach is the training ground for becoming a head coach.
Control of the game is in the hands of another specialized group, the umpires, who also receive special
training and are certified as having a level of competence.

In sandlot, the managerial functions are performed by the players themselves. The informal group leaders
are the managers and usually plan and organize the games. Depending upon who is present these
functions may be performed by various members. Thus, management is not a separate role but is an
integral part of playing the game.

Conclusions
Although both are organizations with some similarities, there are significant differences between Little
League and sandlot. Many of these differences come from the fact that Little League is a long-term,
permanent organization whereas sandlot is spontaneous, usually lasting for one afternoon. In Little
League the result is a longer exposure to the values of the team and the leadership, having a greater
probability of values of the team and the leadership, having a greater probability of value internalization
by Little League players. The players learn to be team members and play the game by established rules
set forth by others. What they really learn, in addition to baseball skills, may be quite different in the two
organizations. In sandlot they may be learning how to make friends, cooperate with other kids, and plan
and organize group activities. Cooperation and friendship are stressed. In Little League they may be
learning how to be good organization men, how to fit into roles prescribed by others (managers), and
competitive behavior. It is a question as to which type of learning experiences is most appropriate for the
player’s future lives.

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Activity 13-5W: Diagnosing an Organization—WWW Exploration
This activity provides an opportunity for the students to surf the internet and investigate two organizations
of their choice. The activity can be used as a homework assignment and can be assigned as an activity to
be completed prior to the session on “organizations”. The activity provides a way for the students to
understand and gain initial insight into the main features of organizations. The students are advised to
first read the chapter and then to surf the internet about two companies of their choice. At times students
will ask for a specific company WWW site. The approach that we found most meaningful is to tell them
that finding a company site is part of the assignment, and learning how to use the WWW search engine/s
is a part of the learning goal. If this issue is raised it gives you the instructor an opportunity to restate the
course motto—teach me to fish and I’ll eat for a lifetime, give me a fish and I’ll eat for a day.

If the activity is used as a homework assignment, you can choose to ask the students to turn in one page
that summarizes their findings. Integrating some of the individual learning into the class session helps the
students appreciate the need to have a clear mental model of what is an organization, what are some of the
key features of an organization, to see that there are many mental models of what an organization is and
to help them begin to refine their own mental model. Often, we have started the sharing of the mental
models in the small teams and then challenged each team to choose a model to be shared with the entire
learning community.

Activity 13-6W: Learning From a Manager About His/Her Company

The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the experience of learning with a manager
about the nature of his/her company. The students are asked to review carefully the module and develop
an interview guide for a semi-structured interview with a manager. Our experience tells us that this
activity provide a good opportunity early in the course for the students to see the relevancy of some of the
concepts in the courses. We usually instruct the students to contact a manager that they know and ask the
manager for 30 minutes of his/her time. The interview should start with the student spelling out the
purpose of the interview and how it will be used. The following is an example of the introductory
statements.

“I would like to start by thanking you for your willingness to take part of this learning assignment. The
assignment is part of the requirement of a course in Organization Behavior. We were asked to conduct a
30-minute interview with a manager in order to learn from him/her about the nature of their company. I
have a list of questions that I’ll try to follow and if it is OK with you I’ll take notes as we are progressing
through the interview. As a part of the assignment, I am expected to write a two page paper that
summarizes a managerial view of the topic. Your name and the name of the company will remain
confidential and will not be shared with anyone. Any questions at this stage? ….. Can we proceed?”

Activity 13-7W: Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes: Self Design*

Overview
This activity will involve role playing by all members of the group. The activity should take
approximately 1 1/2 hours to complete. Group size should equal 9-11 members with a minimum of two
groups. Members should attempt to involve themselves in their roles, using past experiences as a basis

*
Contributed by Anjali Saraf, Chris Roth, and Michael Stebbins

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whenever applicable. The group should be made aware of the importance of completing the entire
exercise and not getting bogged down on one area.

Following are the materials needed for the activity:

1. Blank name tags—one for each member.

2. Extra copies of Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes Cases and role descriptions.
3. A flipchart, white board, chalk board, or overhead.

Learning Objectives
1. To demonstrate the use of self-design theory within a familiar setting.
2. To provide students an experience in organizational problem-solving.
3. To demonstrate the iterative nature of self-design and the principle of continuous learning.

Task 1: This activity is based on a short case supplemented by role descriptions for people in the Kate
and Jake’s organization. You are to read the case plus an assigned role description, along with other
material provided by the instructor before attending class. Reading should be assigned one class session
before executing the activity. It is important for roles to be randomly distributed. This will better
exemplify the nature of iterative participation, which is a key element to self-design. Additional materials
which could be provided to the students include:

Mohrman, S. A., and Cummings, T. G. Self Designing Organizations: Learning How To Create High
Performance. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1988.

Weick, K. E. Organization Design; Organizations as Self-Designing Systems. Organizational Dynamics.

Autumn 1977, 31-46.

Weick, K. E. Edited by Huber, G. P. and Glick, W. H. Organizational Redesign as Improvisation.

Organizational Change and Redesign. 1993, 346-376.

Task 2: The instructor will introduce the activity, and will present materials on the self-design approach
including steps in the design process. [Five minutes] Additional materials the instructor may choose to
present include “The Lasagna Example (see below),” and “Self-Design Process Model.” The instructor
may choose to introduce these models one class session before the activity in order to give the students a
thorough understanding of these models and the theory of self-design.

“The Lasagna Example” was designed to illustrate how input from those members affected by the
outcome of the product yields the most desired effects. In Method One, members were not given a choice
as to the type of lasagna. In Method Two, members were able to tailor the lasagna to fit their needs.
Members were able to “self-design” the product in order to reach the desired outcome. The second
method has proved to be most successful and effective.

Groups will be formed with 9-11 members each. Participants should review the case and then each
person should read to the group his/her own responsibilities as covered in the role description, as well as
problems experienced in performing the work. [Fifteen minutes.] In performing this portion of the
activity, students will have completed the first third of “Identifying Design Criteria” as illustrated in the
“Self-Design Process Model.”

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Task 3: Each group should identify and agree on the main issues and write them down. [Fifteen
minutes.] Based on the information obtained during the students’ discussion in Task 2, students should
define the organizational issues, thereby fulfilling the second step in “Identifying Design Criteria” in the
“Self-Design Process Model.” One example of an organizational issue is as follows: The Baker and the
Decorator have a high number of special orders to fill.

The next step is to formulate design criteria. A list of criteria must be recorded before the group moves to
Task 4. In order to find a cure for the organizational issues found above, design criteria must be
formulated. An example of a design criteria is “The new design should support the custom-ordered cake
making process.”

BEWARE: Students often begin generating alternative DESIGNS at this stage rather than DESIGN
CRITERIA. Make sure students are aware of the difference.

Task 4: Taking all of the design criteria formulated in Task 3, the students may now generate ONE
alternative DESIGN based on these criteria. In realistic settings, a group would generate many alternative
designs with a list of pros and cons for each. However, due to time limitations, ONE alternative design
should be compiled.
The design should be summarized on flipchart, white board, or chalk board so that the rest of the class can
view it. The group should elect two people to act as spokesperson. [Twenty minutes.]
Following are three alternative designs compiled. These designs will likely be different from those
prepared by students. They are meant for the instructor’s purpose and should only be presented to the
group after the entire activity has been completed (if at all):

1. First-Order Change
a. Change from paper to computer system
b. Create standardized tagging system that stays with cake at all times
c. Customer Service Representatives should be team leaders
d. Increase storage area
e. Hire daytime baker
f. Move toward standardized cakes or custom cakes

2. Second-Order Change
a. Move to a location with bigger storage and kitchen area
b. Move to an area centrally located to customers
c. Train everyone to be multi-skilled
d. Create specific database for each job description that is linked and integrated within a larger
system

3. Imitating A Similar Organization

a. Baker and decorator are same person
b. Standardize invoices
c. Maintain minimal employees
d. Hire a manager
e. Provide pre-made cakes

Task 5: Spokesperson for each group will present their respective designs. If the room allows it, the rest
of the class can move to the group’s work station for the presentation. [Ten minutes per group.] After
each group presents, this group should invite reactions and questions from the audience. Instructor may
want to add any information, notes, and/or advice.

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Task 6: The instructor will lead a discussion on (1) the designs proposed and (2) learning about self-
design as a process. Included in this task can be a critique of self-design as an approach.

The Case: Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes

As tourists are drawn to the smell of fresh-baked cinnamon rolls and blueberry muffins, they discover
heaven on earth: Kate and Jakes.
Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes is nestled in a small seaside California town on the east end of a mini-
mall. The cinder block and glass facility has been the home of this local bakery for 20 years. The
original owners, Kathleen and Jackson Kitrell, retired to pursue their first love – sailing. Justin Redo, the
current owner, bought the bakery four years ago when he was lured to the area by the clean air and
luscious green countryside. However, Justin was new to baking and new to small business management.
Justin is ecstatic about the popularity of this bakery. It has a large and fairly complex menu that can
be tailored for custom-cake orders. Free menus can be obtained from news stands and flyers, resulting in
abundant phone orders and deliveries.
In recent times, inefficient operations have led to low profits despite the strong revenues. Orders
have been misplaced due to the frantic pace of the bakery during peak hours. For example, customer
service representatives field both walk-in and phone orders on 3 X 3 generic paper invoices. These
invoices are typically crumpled, smeared, splattered, and speared as they travel through the baking and
decorating processes, posing problems for customer service representatives and deliverers. Furthermore,
some order slips are lost before the completed cakes are placed in the storage refrigerators. In such cases,
customer service representatives must rely on memory, ask customers to reiterate the inscriptions on the
cakes (provided they remember them), or go through the baker’s file to find the right information. This is
not an easy task, and the wrong cake can be prepared for the customer.
Kate and Jake’s recently began supplying local markets and convenience stores with a large number
of cakes on a daily basis. This has increased deliveries tremendously. However, bills sent to these
customers are often incorrect due to problems such as lost delivery receipts, improper pricing, and
incorrect line items.
Justin Redo realized that his little company faced many problems. He decided to take a walk on the
beach to reflect on his business. As he dodged surging tides, he was startled by the sudden appearance of
a high-spirited golden retriever. The retriever nudged and circled Justin playfully. Shortly afterward, the
retriever’s owner ran up to apologize for the dog’s behavior. Justin and the man laughed and introduced
themselves. The owner turned out to be a business professor at the local university. As they walked and
talked, the subject of the company’s difficulties was discussed. After assessing the situation, the
professor suggested that Justin involve his employees in a creative management program called Self-
Design. Justin resolved to learn more about the approach and to discuss the idea with his staff the next
day.

Roles:

Owner: Justin Redo.

Mr. Redo purchased Kate and Jake’s Flaky Cakes four years ago, as he had the money to purchase the
business outright and loved the scenic setting. His lack of baking experience explains his hands-off
approach to day-to-day operations. He leaves decisions to his employees, who have been trained by the
previous owners.
Justin is a very outgoing and personable individual. He enjoys listening to people and discussing their
personal concerns. When at the bakery, he spends most of his day chatting with customers and resolving
customer problems.

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Purchaser:
The purchaser is responsible for replenishing inventory as requested by other employees. The baker,
decorator, and customer service representatives verbally communicate their inventory needs to the
purchaser. This communication usually takes place when employees find that supplies are running low.
The baker, decorator, and customer service representatives expect supplies to be replenished immediately,
and the purchaser finds this reactive approach to inventory control to be very stressful.
The purchaser also deals directly with vendors. He or she obtains bills from the vendors to give to the
accountant. Sometimes these bills are misplaced, causing the accountant’s records to be inaccurate and
bills to be overdue.

Accountant:
The accountant takes pride in balancing Kate and Jake’s books. The accountant works part time and is
responsible for billing customers, paying vendors, and creating monthly statements.
The accountant relies on the customer service representatives to provide a copy of the sales slips each
day. These sales slips are the sole pieces of information that generate bills for large-order customers.
Customer service representatives often misplace the sales slips or incorrectly complete slips, causing the
accountant to bill customers incorrectly.
The accountant relies on the purchaser to provide him or her with bills from the vendors. A misplaced
bill can cause the relationship between the vendor and Kate and Jake’s to deteriorate.
The accountant is responsible for creating monthly statements for Justin Redo. However, inaccuracies in
billing large-order customers and payment of bills to vendors create inaccurate monthly statements.

Bakers:
The baker takes pride in the taste, texture, and aesthetics of his or her creations. He/she is familiar with a
variety of recipes, allowing the company to cater to the most refined tastes. The baker’s daily duties vary
depending upon the complexity of orders, which can range from a simple sheet cake to a multi-tiered
wedding cake. He/she receives handwritten sales orders from the customer services representatives.
These orders are skewered on a corkboard directly above the baker’s work station.
To ensure maximum freshness, the baker only processes the next day’s orders. This results in
fluctuations in productivity. Next-day orders are found by searching through the numerous notes on the
board. This is time consuming and can result in overlooked due dates.
Once the baker completes the baking process, he/she places the cake in a traditional pink cake box. The
sales order slip is taped to the exterior of the box. This is placed on the “Baked Cakes” rack in the
refrigerator for the decorator.

Decorators:
The decorator takes pride in the artistic and creative appearance of his/her work. The decorator’s ultimate
responsibility is to give the final product the appearance of quality. This forces the decorator to be
creative and unique with every cake, especially those that are custom-ordered.
The decorator randomly retrieves the baked cakes from the refrigerator. The sales order slips for standard
cakes are easy for the decorator to interpret due to minimal information on the slip. However, custom-
ordered cakes are often difficult to interpret due to abundant information on the slips.
Occasionally, one custom cake can take the decorator’s entire shift to complete. In such instances, the
decorator must periodically be interrupted to complete other cakes to meet deadlines.
After cakes are completed, both store pickup and delivery cakes are placed on the “Frosted Cake” rack in
the refrigerator. Occasionally, due to overcapacity, frosted cakes are placed on the Baked Cakes rack,
causing confusion for the decorator, customer service representatives, and deliverers.

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Customer Service Representatives:
The customer service representatives are the first line of contact for customers both on the phone and in
person. Therefore, they must be both cheery and knowledgeable about Kate and Jake’s operations.
Customer service representatives take pride in the aesthetics of Kate and Jake’s environment. They are
responsible for arranging the cakes and pastries in the display cabinets, stocking drinks in the cooler,
preparing coffee drinks and cleaning tables after customers leave.
When taking cake orders, they attempt to place all orders (sales slips) in a box behind the counter
throughout the day. At the end of the day, one copy of each order is skewered on a corkboard above the
baker’s station and another copy is given to the accountant.
Customer service reps also retrieve cakes from the refrigerators when customers come in to pick up
orders. Many times a cake is difficult to find because the sales slip with the customer’s name is no longer
readable. Often reps find cakes on the Baked Cake rack instead of the Frosted Cake rack. Accordingly,
they must interrupt the decorators to find the cake. If cakes cannot be found, customer service reps
generally end up asking customers for the inscription on the cake, and then open cake boxes until the right
cake is found. This process is time-consuming and often irritates the customer.

Drivers
The drivers are responsible for delivering cakes to residential and business areas each day. Drivers are
expected to deliver all cakes on time.
Drivers are not given a delivery schedule, but are instead expected to go through the cakes in the
refrigerator each morning and locate cakes to be delivered that day. They divide deliveries in the manner
they find will work best for them. Drivers are only casually reminded of cakes that must be delivered to
big accounts each day.
Drivers must handle customer complaints that may arise when they deliver a cake. Since they are not the
ones who take cake orders, they are usually unable to solve problems for customers.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 12-8W: Designing Parallelization of Product Flows

No, you are not a technical designer, but a social scientist. Yes, you are in socio-technical systems design,
not in manufacturing technology or logistics. Why then this highly technical case exercise? The answer
is straightforward: In order to be able to create well-functioning self-managed work teams, you have to
assure that the ‘conditions’ are set well. More then once the organization of production, and the lay-out
of the production situation prevent semi-autonomous work groups from proper functioning. So, please
try for once in your lifetime to engage in a bit of technical re-design of production flows.

Stream-based Production

The idea is quite simple: Instead of organizing in the traditional functional way (organiz-ing by process:
preparation, production, finishing for all products), Dutch STS propagates the creation of parallel streams
to produce whole products (organizing by product: prep-aration, production, finishing for product family
1 = stream 1; for pf 2 = stream 2).

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 Figure 1 A Schematic Representation of
Organizational Structures
In the traditional production situation production orders will flow through the factory in a very complex
way. The same kinds of machines / processes are grouped together in a functional way. The physical
lay-out of such a system is very complicated, see Figure 2.

Figure 2 Lay-Out of a Functional

Production Organization
Legend: A = process 1 G = process 7
B = process 2 H = process 8
C = process 3 I = process 9
D = process 4 J = process 10
E = process 5 K = process 11
F = process 6

To better understand the complexity of the logistics, now we will look into the details of the actual
production schedule. This factory produces 19 different product groups, and in Figure 3 you can see the
routings of each of those.

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 Figure 3 Routings of 19 Different Products
So, product group 1 travels the following route: E, J, K, G, J; product group 19 travels K, K, J. Look in
Figure 2 how the products are actually moving through the factory. Look how often they go up and down
the production floor! Imagine how it is for 19 different product groups! The complexity of the flows is
astonishing...
You have to know that for each process there are different amounts of machines available. This is called
‘machine capacities’. You can see them in Figure 1, by simply looking at the number of letters in each
box. For your convenience, here is the list again, see Figure 4.

Figure 4 Machine Capacities for the Production Situation in Figure 2

Legend: Bewerking = Process

Aantal machines = Machine Capacity
∞ = Infinite Machine Capacity

In order to socio-technically re-organize such a production situation effectively, we definitely have to

simplify the product flows considerably, so that semi-autonomous work groups really are able to produce
‘whole products’, and have their own individual territories. Without changing the organization of
production and the actual production lay-out it is impossible to get there!

So, here is your assignment:

1. Try to develop independent families of products which can use their own machines.

2. Design a new lay-out (as in Figure 2) to show the new territories for the self-managed teams to
be formed.

Because you are not specialized in technical re-design, here are some guidelines to use:

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1. Start with rang-ordering the processes in terms of machine capacity (Figure 4). Put the processes in a
horizontal row. Start with the processes that have the least capacity: C and D. We call these the ‘critical
capacities’. Add to the row the remaining processes in this order: A, B, F, H, E, G, K, I, J. This will ease
the creation of the ‘parallel streams’.

2. Next, you are going to sort the 19 different product groups, starting with the products which use one or
more of the critical capacities C or D. The first Product group which uses C or D is Product group 2.
Start to make a table with as headings the processes (which is the result of step 1), and as columns the
Product groups. The first row will be formed by the routing of Product group 2, as follows: Put a check
in the columns C, A, H, and I (ignore the specific routings). The next Product group that answers the
criterium mentioned before is Product group 4. This becomes row 2 in your table: fill out the checks D, B,
F, and I, etc. Continue this process till no further C’s and D’s are found any more. The order of your
Product groups will be: 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 14, 18. And those will form your first product family, your first
‘parallel stream’.

3. Next, you are going to add the rest of the Product groups to the table (start with Product group 3, 6, 10,
16, 1, and 19. Remember, each time you have to place either one or two checks in the cells of the
appropriate columns, dependable on the number of machine capacities which are required. Here you have
your second parallel stream.

4. Finally, continue with Product group 7, 8, 12, 15, and 17: your third parallel stream. End with Product
group 13. Unfortunately, this Product group uses machine capacities in different streams.

5. Now, draw the new lay-out, based on your designed parallelization of the product flows. Start with
visualizing the lay-out of parallel stream 1: Draw the processes as boxes: C, D, A, B, F, H, and I, not
necessarily in a row. Make a nice rectangular area for this mini-factory. Now draw the different routings
for product group 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 14, and 18. Start with Product group 2, by placing arrows between the
boxes A, C, H, and I, see Figure 2. Do the same for the other product groups, always referring to Figure
2, which contains the respective order of the different product flows!

6. Continue drawing the lay-out for parallel stream 2, by drawing the lay-out for Product groups 3, 6, 10,
16, 1, and 19 (use Figure 2). Create another rectangular space for this mini-factory.

7. Finish with drawing the lay-out for parallel stream 3, drawing the lay-out for Product groups 7, 8, 12,
15, and 17. Finally draw the lay-out for Product group 13, and discover that the parallel streams 1 and 3
are not completely independent, because Product group 13 uses both.

8. Now you are finished. Reflect on what you have done so far. See how you have managed to re-
organize the technical system in order to get three separate territories for semi-autonomous work teams in
which they can produce ‘whole products’ independently from each other.

P.S. Have you checked whether you have used either all or too much machine capacities, compare Figure
2 or Figure 4?

Activity 13-9W: SWOT Analysis

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This activity is self explanatory. The activity can be used as an individual activity and/or a team
activity. If you chose either one as a team activity, after the individuals complete the self
assessment, ask the individuals to share with their teams the results. Each team is to identify
some common denominators and implications to managerial practice. Next, you can have a class
discussion when each team representative share the team’s ideas.

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13-10 IM - Participative Self-Design - Additional Activity: *

Overview
This activity can be used as alternative activity for Activity 13-5W. An instructor, workshop facilitator,
or consultant uses this activity in the context of teaching about the design of human systems and of de-
mystifying the design process. This activity could precede or follow theory related to: organizational
design; job design; systems for problem solving, decision making, and communication; forms of
redesigned sociotechnical systems.

Objectives
a. To understand the concept of participative self-design.
b. To identify situations in which one might use participative self-design in organizations.
c. To be aware of the phases basic to participative self-design.

Activities
A. Introduce this activity by suggesting that creating, recreating, and changing human systems is quite
common in organizational life. Define “design” and “human system”, for example: “to design” means
thinking and planning “a human system” means agreeing to a combination of policies, procedures,
guidelines, rules, and techniques which structure some aspect of human behavior. Offer some examples
of human systems in organizations. For example, compensation systems, communications systems,
decision-making systems, personnel systems, problem-solving systems, systems for getting work done,
etc. Ask the students, participants, or clients for their ideas for systems which structure their behavior in
their organization. Ask, “who thought out and planned these systems?” Push for specific people in
specific positions. Often we experience these systems as unplanned, unthought out, or as coming “from
above.” It is important that we begin to understand that real people create, maintain, and re-create these
systems, both formal and informal. Note any themes which emerge, for example: a particular level in the
hierarchy, a particular kind of position or occupation, individual or group design, and the sorts of feelings
and thoughts that are coming out as people answer this question.

Now, focus the discussion on a level of systems design which would be common to the students,
participants, or clients. In other words, make the idea that they think through and plan human systems
relevant to them and to the context in which this activity is being used. Brainstorm situations in which
they might be required to design systems which structure their own or other people’s behavior. Post this
list.

B. Present a design situation which will have particular relevance for this audience. Any situation which
presents a challenge to re-design a job, organization, or human system will do. Examples:

1. You are department head. You have been ordered by headquarters to cut your personnel by 30%.
How will you do so and still get the jobs done in your department?

2. There are major problems with communications among a small factory to which you consult.
How will you improve the way the different departments communicate?

*
Copyright 1991 by Jean E. Neumann. The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, The Tavistock
Center, Belsize Lane, London NW3 5BA, England. All rights reserved, and no reproduction should be
made without written approval from Professor Jean E. Neumann.

231
 3. As supervisor of a clerical pool, you must redistribute the type of work done by each secretary
and the method by which assignments are made. How will you do this so that the workloads are
manageable and assignments completed in a timely manner?

Have individuals work alone for 15 minutes listing the steps they would go through to re-design the
situation. Be sure that everyone understands that the focus is on the process for thinking and planning the
required changes—not on the specifics of change. This is crucial to this activity and a core problem that
often comes up for people. They confuse process and content of changes.

All individuals could work on the same situation or different situations. However, limit the number of
situations so that small groups can be formed of those individuals who have been thinking about the same
situation.

Form small groups in which members are to reach consensus on those steps which they would go
through. Depending on the size of the small groups, about 30 minutes should be sufficient to come to an
agreement and to raise some points of concern for the upcoming whole group discussion. Have them
write their steps on newsprint and pick a spokesperson.

C. The spokesperson for each small group reports on the steps agreed to by the small groups. After each
small group has reported, lead a reflection on differences and similarities in the design processes proposed
by each group.

At this point, also note the types of concerns, issues, and disagreements which came up or didn’t come up
in their small groups. Possibilities include: who should make the decisions, who should be consulted or
included and how, how much flexibility in re-designing is permitted, and the level of complexity of the
design process.

D. Present lecturette, “Phases in Participative Self-Design.” Relate this design process to the themes
which emerged in activity “D.” Lead discussion which results.

Mini Lecture notes on “Phases in Participative Self-Design”*

In order to design an organizational system, we go through many activities which can be clustered into
sequential phases. Often, however, someone charged with a designing task will undergo these activities
without awareness or in a different sequence. Some phases may be left out altogether.

By definition, the activities of participative self-design are done with full awareness by those most
affected by the system to be designed. This suggested seven-phase process helps to facilitate the tasks of
collecting information and making decisions which form self-design. By roughly following these phases
in sequential order, difficulties may be minimized at later phases.

Phase 1: Involve others.

*
Contributed by Dr. Jean Nemann.

232
Initial activities focus on involving appropriate people in the design process. People are involved in
various ways. Some engage directly in the activities of self-design. Typically although not necessarily, a
team forms. Members of the team attend meetings, collect information, and make decisions. These
people are the designers. Other people give their opinions or offer information to the designers. Still
others receive progress reports and hear the final results.

This phase is crucial to the successful implementation. Often, people who work in a job or an
organization which is targeted for re-design are left out of the thinking and planning processes. Or
someone with power to veto a design is not included early on. Many an excellent design goes unused or
evokes resistance primarily because the appropriate people were excluded or inadequately involved.

Participative self-design guards against these problems. As the title suggests, the people who have the
most information or whom will be most affected (i.e. the “self” or selves) participate actively in designing
the job, organization, or system.

Phase 2: Determine values.

Once the appropriate people are involved as designers, their next task is to develop a list of values which
should underlie whatever system they are creating or changing. Values are the ideals which they hope to
achieve: their vision about how they want the system to be. These values become the standards—the
rules or principles—by which they will judge the systems they design. These standards serve as criteria
for choices which they must make in later phases.

If this phase is short-changed, values clashes will emerge later down the road. While this is apt to happen
to some extent anyway, setting some ground rules early on helps clarify directions and identify probable
sources of conflict. Further, the list of values makes explicit assumptions which the designers themselves
may not be aware.

Phase 3: Identify givens.

The next set of activities lead to common understanding of current needs or functions which the design
must address. Designers must gather information about the people, tasks, and technology—the raw
materials—which influence the current job, organization, or system and which will do so in the future.
This is also the phase at which the designers must consider those stakeholders whose support and
resources are necessary to implement a new design—that is, if this consideration has not happened in an
earlier phase. The raw materials are the givens within which the designers must operate.

A danger at this phase is thinking something is a given which could be changed. The way something has
always been done or the people who have always done it limit the imaginations of designers. An
advantage of having a team of involved people lies in creative challenges to these limits. At the same
time, genuine givens must be clear and admitting them at this point decreases frustration later.

Phase 4: Evaluate options.

Activities in this phase feel like comparison shopping: scanning other organizations, publications,
periodicals, and personal experience to discover alternative approaches to the design problem. Shopping
around expands the designer’s notions of what is possible. As they compare alternatives with the values
and givens identified in previous phases, they begin, automatically, to think through the broad outlines of
a system which makes sense of their situation. This phase clarifies further what people want and do not
want or need. Evaluating the options discovered requires the designers to think about the various
alternatives, to pick and choose parts of other systems, and to create new parts themselves.

233
Some of the thinking undertaken in this phase may feel like rehashing the previous two phases. But that
is quite appropriate. Language becomes more precise and the values and givens become more focused.
People discover that earlier agreement was based on incomplete understanding. Some disagreement
about values and about real givens emerge at this phase.

Phase 5: Craft the specifics.

Now comes the most creative part of the design process: to decide, as specifically as this particular
situation requires, the details of this system. The journalistic questions of who, what, how, when, and
why must be answered. A combination of policies, procedures, guidelines, rules, and techniques become
the structure of the job, organization, or other human system.

Sometimes, the designers will have sailed smoothly through the previous phases only to discover
significant disagreements or design problems at this phase. What is logical or rational to one person may
be illogical, irrational, or simply not possible to another. Still more relevant information comes up as the
level of detail increases. This level of information and detail gives participative self-design its power.
Many possible implementation problems are ironed out now rather than later. Designs completed by
those outside a system usually lack this level of sensitivity to the actual work, to the people involved, and
to the adjustments possible.

Phase 6: Plan implementation.

Many questions must be answered concerning introducing the design to others in the organization,
training everyone necessary to use the system, and encouraging acceptance of the new design. A way
needs to be thought out for ongoing monitoring and adjustment of the new system. Further, if a new
system is replacing an old, the transition period must be carefully determined.

This phase brings the designers back to phase 1 in an important way. If others who are not on the design
team have been involved appropriately all along—say at the end of each of the previous phases, then
resistance to the new design will be lessened. This is because reactions would have been feedback to the
design team and used as information in the designing process. By consulting and informing others along
the way, non-designers will know that their concerns are being used and that they have had influence over
the design, albeit indirect. Springing a design full blown on an uninvolved but affected group will
probably lead to difficulties.

No matter what the previous level of involvement for those not on the design team, involvement of others
forms a core concern of this phase. Sometimes just in the thinking through of this issue, problems in the
design emerge. Considering “why won’t others like this design?” and “what do we have to do to get
others to buy this?” tend to be on the designers’ minds. These are good questions that sometimes point
out design flaws.

Phase 7: Implement the design.

This phase signals the launching of the new job, organization, or system. Again, more details must be
addressed. This is clearly not an abstract part of the process. Precisely who will do what, when, and how
leads to some form of a “to do” list or work plan. By this phase, people who will monitor the
implementation should be doing so. It is likely that still more information will emerge during
implementation which may need to be taken into consideration for re-adjustments and fine-tuning. This
phase then becomes a feedback loop into phase 5 as some of the specifics get re-crafted.

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In Summary
Participative self-design does not have to follow these particular phases in this particular order. In fact,
many human systems have been well designed by some other process or in some other sequence. This
one has been used in groups of workers and managers in both manufacturing and service organizations
with success. By moving through the phases, designers’ level of conversations move from abstract to
concrete. Their amount of relevance moves from ideal to utilitarian. And their activities move from
planning to doing. This particular model of participative self-design can facilitate that flow smoothly and
minimize getting struck or blocked in progress along the way.

Phases
of participative Direction of flow
self-design during the process:

Involve others

Determine values Level of

conversation from
abstract to concrete

Identify givens Amount of

relevance from
ideal to utilitarian

Evaluate options Activities of

designers from
planning to doing

Craft specifics

Plan implementation

Implement design

* Each of these pauses after the completion of a phase is a good opportunity for consulting and informing
those who are not directly involved in designing. Their reactions become valuable and, probably, critical
information for the design process.

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13-11 IM - Work Design Simulation: Self-Managed Teams - Additional Activity: *

Overview
This simulation was designed to illustrate the benefits and concepts of self managed teams. The
simulation demonstrates the basic concepts of self managed teams and has proven very beneficial as a
learning tool.

Objectives
1. To demonstrate the use of self managed teams in motivating a workforce.
2. To illustrate how different management interventions impact the performance of self managed teams.
3. To allow the participants to recognize the impact of the task with the use of self managed teams.

Group Structure
∗ The class needs to be divided into at least three groups of 4 to 5 participants each.
∗ An observer is assigned to each group (apart from the 4 to 5 group members).
∗ A theory X manager leads one group.
∗ A theory Y manager coaches another group.

Time Required
30 to 45 minutes from instruction to completion. Additional time requirements listed in the process.

Materials
1. Three identical bags of Legos (or any imitation construction set) containing at least 500 pieces.
2. One symmetrical object for each Lego set to act as a starting block (see Suggested Starting Block
Design).
3. Stop watch to time activity.

Physical Setting
Separate rooms are needed for each group to plan their strategy. Each room should be equipped with
sufficient table space and chairs. One room should be large enough to act as the general meeting room.
This room should contain equally sized tables and a sufficient number of chairs for all participants.

Process
1. Divide participants into three groups. Assign one member of Group One the role of manager (Theory
X), and provide him/her with the Manager Check List. Assign one member of Group Two the role of
supervisor (Theory Y), and provide him/her with the Supervisor Check List.

2. Assign each group an observer to observe the group’s interaction and productivity and to monitor the
time limits. Provide each observer with either questionnaire number one or two, labeled Observer Check
List (1) or Observer Check List (2), to be filled out during the group activity.

*
Copyright 1991 by Jean E. Neumann. The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, The Tavistock
Center, Belsize Lane, London NW3 5BA, England. All rights reserved, and no reproduction should be
made without written approval from Professor Jean E. Neumann.

236
3. Participants should be given the following instructions:

a. Each group will break up into separate rooms for ten minutes to plan the construction and
assembly of a block structure.
b. The starting block must be incorporated in each structure.
c. The final structure must be symmetrical along two axes. The top and bottom must be mirror
images as must be the left and right of the structure.
d. The team using the most Legos in the structure wins.
e. At the end of the ten minutes the groups will reconvene in the general meeting room. Then the
groups will have three minutes to reconstruct their structure.

4. Each group should be assigned a separate room (for privacy), and given a bag of Legos. Each bag of
Legos must be identical to each other in quantity and composition.

5. A hard copy of the instructions listed in step three should be placed in each bag of Legos.

6. Once each group gets to work in their respective rooms, the observer should begin timing.

7. After ten minutes of planning, the groups reassemble in the general meeting room. The bags are
collected and redistributed to different teams to discourage pre-assembly. All pieces should be
unassembled except the starting block.

8. The teams are given three minutes to assemble their symmetrical structures with as many Lego pieces
as possible. At the end of the three minutes, the team with the structure consisting of the most pieces
while still being symmetrical wins. The starting block must be incorporated in the design.

9. During the construction, the information obtained by the observers are tallied onto the Observation
Summary Sheet (1) or (2) for discussion purposes. It is recommended that the Observation Summary
Sheet be used as an overhead.

10. After the assembly exercise, each group member should submit a piece of paper with their rating of
the group’s productivity (Scale of 1-10). These figures should be tallied and averaged for a single group
rating.

Suggested Starting Block Design

Using basic Lego rectangle pieces:

237
Manager Check List
The manager does partake in the design and assembly phases. He directs all group activity, but does not
get his hands dirty. The manager has final approval on all decisions made by group members.

Assign each member a job duty and job description based on the following list:

Assemblers: Select two members to act as assemblers.

Checker: One member to act as the quality checker insuring symmetry is maintained.

Gatherer: One member to find and bring the Lego pieces to the assemblers.

As a manager you should make the members critically aware of the time constraint. You should control
the direction, by disallowing deviations from the above.

Supervisor Check List

The supervisor may join in the design and assembly phases. He encourages group members to direct their
own activities. The supervisor has final approval on all decisions made by group members.

Assign each member a job duty and job description based on the following list:

Assemblers: Select two members to act as assemblers.

Checker: One member to act as the quality checker insuring symmetry is maintained.

Gatherer: One member to find and bring the Lego pieces to the assemblers.

As a supervisor you should mention the time constraint to the group. You can allow group members to
deviate from the above if a consensus is reached. When conflict arises, attempt to focus group toward
consensus agreement.

238
Observer Check List (1)
Please do not participate in the activities. You are observing the interaction of the group, their overall
productivity, and their individual participation. Assign each member of the group a number and evaluate
each member from the following questions. Place member names in the following blanks.

1. ____________________________ 2. ________________________________

3. ____________________________ 4. ________________________________

5. ____________________________ 6. ________________________________

A. Did member’s participation increase, decrease or remain the same during the course of the activity?
Place an ‘X’ in the appropriate column.

Member # Increase Decrease Remain Same

1
2
3

B. Do you see a rivalry or struggle for leadership? Yes No. If yes, between member # ____ and
member # ____.

C. How do members react to conflict? Place an ‘X’ in the appropriate column.

Member # Withdraw Pick a Side Try to Mediate

1
2
3

D. What level of cooperation did group members possess. Place an ‘X’ in the appropriate column.

Forces their ideas Makes sure all

Member # on other members ideas included Follows the crowd
1
2
3

E. Describe work atmosphere.

Satisfactory Yes No
Playful Yes No
Resentful Yes No
Frustrating Yes No
Cooperative Yes No

239
F. Rate overall group productivity 1 to 10 (1 being the lowest).

G. Any additional observations:

240
Observation Summary Sheet (1)

A. Did member’s participation change during the course of the activity?

Group # Increase Decrease Remain Same

1
2
3

B. Do you see a rivalry or struggle for leadership?

Group # Yes No
1
2
3

C. How do members react to conflict?

Group # Withdraw Pick a Side Try to Mediate

1
2
3

D. What level of cooperation did group members possess.

Forces their ideas Makes sure all

Group # on other members ideas included Follows the crowd
1
2
3

E. Describe work atmosphere.

Group # Satisfactory Playful Resentful Frustrating Cooperative

1
2
3

F. Rate overall group productivity 1 to 10.

Rating Group #1 Group #2 Group #3

Observer
Group

241
Observer Check List (2)

Please do not participate in the activities. You are observing the interaction of the group, their overall
productivity, and their individual participation. Assign each member of the group a number and evaluate
each member from the following questions. Place member names in the following blanks.

1. ____________________________ 2. ________________________________

3. ____________________________ 4. ________________________________

5. ____________________________ 6. ________________________________

A. Participation

1. Who were the high participators?

2. Who were the low participators?

3. Did member’s participation change during the course of the activity?

B. Leadership

1. Did any members have a particularly high influence over the group?

2. Did any members have a particularly low influence over the group?

3. Was there a rivalry or struggle for leadership between members?

C. Cooperation

1. Did any member or members push decisions through over other members’ objections? Did they
call for a vote?

2. Were there attempts to get all members to participate in decisions? What effect did this have on
the group?

D. Group Atmosphere

Satisfactory Yes No
Playful Yes No
Resentful Yes No
Frustrating Yes No
Cooperative Yes No
Other

242
E. Rate overall group productivity 1 to 10 (1 being the lowest).

F. Any additional observations:

243
Observation Summary Sheet (2)

A. Participation

1. Who were the high participators?

Group #

2. Who were the low participators?

Group #

3. Did member’s participation change during the course of the activity?

Group #

B. Leadership

1. Did any members have a particularly high influence over the group?

Group #

244
 2. Did any members have a particularly low influence over the group?

Group #

3. Was there a rivalry or struggle for leadership between members?

Group #

C. Cooperation

1. Did any member or members push decisions through over other members’ objections? Did they
call for a vote?

Group #

2. Were there attempts to get all members to participate in decisions? What effect did this have on
the group?

Group #

245
D. Group Atmosphere

Group # Satisfactory Playful Resentful Frustrating Cooperative Other

1
2
3

E. Rate overall group productivity 1 to 10 (1 being the lowest).

Rating Group #1 Group #2 Group #3

Observer
Group

246
Observations/Conclusions

Check List (1) and (2)

The first question asks about each group member’s participation level. It is interesting to note the
different levels of participation with respect to the management intervention present in each group (i.e.
theory X, theory Y, no management),

Check List (1) and (2)

The second question determines if there was a struggle for leadership. This question can be omitted when
presenting the tallied results. However, it is a good measurement of how a manager or supervisor is
perceived by the group and how the presence or lack of management intervention affects relationships
between group members.

Check List (1)

The third question determines group member’s reactions to conflict. Individuals with more group
experience will tend to mediate conflict rather than withdrawal or pick a side.

Check List (1) and (2)

Through the measurement of group member’s cooperation, we are able to determine the members’
receptiveness to the group. If there is no conflict, this question will provide information as to the degree
of cooperation within the group. A typical theory X manager will force their ideas on the other members.
A typical theory Y supervisor will make sure all ideas are heard.

Check List (1) and (2)

The work atmosphere question gives an indication as to the impact group members’ interactions have on
the entire group.

Check List (1) and (2)

The final question, where the observers rating of the team’s productivity is compared to the average team
rating to show how group members and outsiders may view productivity.

247
VII. PowerPoint Slides

Refer to old chapter 12.

Keep old slide #1

Change the learning objectives in slide #2 to match the LO’s in the new chapter 13 (also found in new IM
chapter 13)
Change the key terms and concepts in old slides 3-4 to match the new ch 13 terms and concepts
Eliminate old slide #5 – module outline
Eliminate old slide #6 – premodule preparation
Eliminate old slide #7 – Introduction
Eliminate old slides 8 and 9 on the open systems view (they will be used in later modules)
Add new slide #5 – The Star Model (found at end of new module 13 – figure 1)
Include old slide #9 as new slide #6 – Factors Affecting Org Performance
Eliminate old slides 10-13
Include old slides 14-16, Comprehensive Approaches to Org Des, now new slides 7-9
Eliminate old slides 17-18, Work Design

248
VIII. Answers to Study Questions
1. Define sustainability. What does it mean in organization and work design?
Comment: A sustainable organization is one that has internal mechanisms to ensure its existence in the
short run, while providing the basis for renewal and regeneration of resources for the long term. This
requires balanced attention to the needs of different stakeholders, as well as balanced attention to efficient
production and dynamic renewal. In the emerging field of SWS design, sustainability is achieved by
including diverse stakeholders in the redesign change process so that the new design will achieve
balanced outcomes, for example high productivity, high customer satisfaction, and high employee quality
of work life and job satisfaction.

2. How does the Galbraith Star Model complement the second model, factors affecting organization
performance?
Comment: The Star Model considers many of the same dimensions covered in “factors affecting
organization performance.” The latter is more comprehensive in considering elements of the star model,
by elaborating what is included in the context, purpose, structure, and processes. For example, the
discussion of purpose includes specific attention to mission and vision while the star model focuses on
strategy. Also, the discussion of factors provides detail on the transformation process and alternative
forms of structure that Galbraith does not cover in the star model.

3. What are the common forms of structure for small- to medium-sized organizations?
Comment: When companies begin as small-scale startups, the owner or the partners typically choose a
simple structure without much role differentiation. The dental practice is an example of the simple
structure. At the outset, the dentist did nearly everything to get the practice up and running. In time,
employees joined the business, and the dentist transferred support activities to others. With growth in
revenues and customers, the firm often evolves into the functional structure. In the manufacturing
example, departments such as marketing, production, finance and human resources are created. The
functional form of structure often survives until a product division structure or other form can be justified.

4. List the main forms of structure, and describe their advantages and disadvantages.
Comment: The textbook module provides advantages and disadvantages for each basic form of structure
listed. Expanded treatment and lecture material on structure can be found in Richard L. Daft’s
Organization Theory and Design book, and David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman, Strategic
Organization Design. References on forms of structure for global competition are also documented
within the module.

5. List and discuss the main elements of a team-based organization.

Comment: This paradigm emphasizes internal and external cooperation and coordination, and the belief
that decisions are best made by teams having access to needed information. The organization is viewed
as “teams of teams” or the team-based organization. Voluntary, informal cooperation is preferred, but
there are many formal linking mechanisms that can be used if diverse teams must come together to solve
problems. Liaison roles, integrator roles, and other formal mechanisms are used if voluntary cooperation
is insufficient. The composition of teams is an issue, and solutions depend upon the complexity of the
task and the mix of specialists and support people needed to accomplish the work. The team-based
organization relies upon self-managing teams and a wide variety of roles that are different from
managerial roles in the traditional functional organization.

249
6. Why is the network organization well-suited to global competition?

Comment: Network structures allow companies to compete globally without owning and
controlling all the resources needed to produce a product or service. They rely heavily on
contracting out outsourcing in lieu of owning and operating different business functions.
Globalization and improvements in information technology allow companies in fashion, toy,
electronics, motion pictures, and other industries to act as brokers in establishing long-term and
temporary and relationships needed to complete different projects for customers.

7. Compare and contrast the information processing and sustainable work systems approaches to
organization redesign.
Comment: The Information Processing approach was established by Jay Galbraith in the 1970’s.
The star model focuses on five elements that must be created and combined if the organization is
to perform well. Decisions about strategy, structure, and managerial processes must be
compatible. Over the years, this approach has been elaborated to include a methodology to guide
the overall redesign change program (See Nadler and Tushman, 1988). The SWS approach is new
and extends beyond the organization to consider individual, organizational, and societal sustainability. It
is European-based, and carefully considers the country context. There is greater emphasis on quality of
work life for employees, and development of human resources. For total success, employees must have
the capabilities to cope with changing work demands. The SWS redesign process builds on other theories
such as Self-Design, and emphasizes reflection and course correction at different stages of the redesign
change process.

8. How are self-directed work teams different from lean production teams?
Comment: Self-Directed Work Teams have responsibility for a whole task. The team plans, regulates,
and monitors progress of the whole task, solves day to day problems, and improves the process without
depending upon the team leader or staff from service departments. Lean Production Teams (as with
Toyota’s manufacturing teams) incorporate a wide range of manufacturing concepts and methods. Team
members are trained in continuous improvement concepts to enhance quality, safety, productivity,
employee knowledge and skills. The Nippon-denso Manufacturing plant example provides examples of
the manufacturing methods. Lean Production Team members very likely have less discretion and control
over the work when compared to most Self-Directed Work Teams.

9. What is scientific management and why is it relevant today?

Comment: Scientific management or job engineering is devoted to finding “the one best way” to perform
the work. Emphasis is on efficient work procedures, determined by experimentation in the workplace.
F.W. Taylor’s concepts include specialization and standardization of tasks, methods, and time frames.
There should be a minimal number of tasks for each employee, and management should assure that work
is performed according to scientific methods

250
IX. T-F and Multiple-Choice Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Star Model is prominent in the organization design literature because it
A). points out that form of structure is only one area where choices are to be made.
B) identifies the one best way to organize
C) calls for designers to consider both formal and informal options
D) focuses on ways to create lateral organization capability
E) All of the above, except B

Answer: E Difficulty: Medium

2. In the Organization Performance model, all except ____________are factors that influence
performance.
A) purpose
B) structure
C) management support processes
D) context
E) None. They are all factors included in the model

Answer: E Difficulty: Easy

3. The dentist example used in the description of a simple form of structure was used to demonstrate
the concepts of _____________ and _____________.
A) Differentiation, Integration
B) Vertical Communication, Horizontal Communication
C) Specialization, Standardization
D) Centralization, Decentralization

Answer: A Difficulty: Easy

4. Structural variables include:

A) formalization
B) standardization
C) number of levels in the hierarchy
D) all of the above
E) a and b

Answer: D Difficulty: Medium

5. Form of structure refers to:

A) organizational processes such as reward systems that foster cooperation
B) the number of levels in the hierarchy
C) the method of grouping employees together into work units
D) standards that guide design activities

Answer: C Difficulty: Medium

251
 6. An organization goes from simple form to functional form when:
A) managers of specialty units are appointed and given some discretion to make decisions
B) managers of departments accept responsibility for unit performance
C) managers acquire assistants to operate the unit effectively
D) managers grow beyond the capability of owners of businesses as direct supervisors

Answer: A Difficulty: Easy

7. Organizations that group personnel on the basis of work process, and specialized knowledge,
training, or academic discipline have chosen what form?
A) product
B) function
C) self-contained
D) mixed

Answer: B Difficulty: Easy

8. As activities are delegated in an organization, what must still be achieved?

A) integration
B) differentiation
C) diversification
D) a stable environment

Answer: A Difficulty: Easy

9. As a company grows, what is usually created?
A) better interdepartmental cooperation
B) greater stability
C) better communication
D) additional hierarchy and differentiation

Answer: D Difficulty: Medium

10. What is an advantage to the functional form of structure?

A) interdepartmental cooperation
B) parochial viewpoints
C) efficiency during environmental stability
D) technological innovation

Answer: C Difficulty: Easy

11. When personnel are grouped according to product line, service performed or project, what kind of
organization has been created?
A) product
B) function
C) self-contained
D) mixed

Answer: C Difficulty: Easy

12. An advantage of the self-contained organization form is:

A) greater responsiveness to changing environment

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 B) improved cooperation and coordination among functional groups
C) duplication of resources
D) all of the above
E) a and b

Answer: E Difficulty: Medium

13. A disadvantage of the self-contained organization form is:
A) greater responsiveness to changing environment
B) improved cooperation and coordination among functional groups
C) duplication of resources
D) all of the above
E) a and c

Answer: C Difficulty: Medium

14. What does the matrix structure allow?

A) greater speed when used in aerospace firms
B) the opportunity for employees to work in self-contained units
C) to focus on two dimensions simultaneously
D) to be assigned to two or more project teams

Answer: C Difficulty: Easy

15. Lateral organization capability means:

A) the organization is decentralized with informal, voluntary cooperation
B) people get things done by working across organizational units
C) people do not rely on the managerial hierarchy
D) all of the above
E) b and c

Answer: D Difficulty: Medium

16. The primary organizing focus of process organizations is:

A) teams
B) hierarchy
C) function
D) networks

Answer: A Difficulty: Medium

17. How would one best define the network form of organization?
A) it blends traditional management concepts such as the value of management planning and
controls with market concepts such as exchange agreements
B) they rely heavily on contracting out and outsourcing in lieu of owning and operating
functions internally
C) they bring suppliers, producers, and distributors together in unique arrangements which
could be stable and long lasting, or be dynamic and exist for a single project
D) all of the above
E) a and b

Answer: D Difficulty: Hard

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 18. Comprehensive approaches to organization design covered in the text include all except:
A) information processing
B) self-design
C) job characteristics
D) none. They are all included

Answer: C Difficulty: Medium

19. According to the information-processing theory, organizational design is a:

A) strategic design process
B) comprehensive redesign program
C) way to create a new formal structure
D) decision-making process

Answer: D Difficulty: Hard

20. The macro organization design (information processing approach) model begins with analysis of:
A) communication patterns of employees
B) information overload in the system
C) goals and strategies
D) company business situation

Answer: D Difficulty: Medium

21. The self-design approach encourages:
A) more meetings between managers and employees before redesign attempts
B) managers to plan and implement their own strategy/structure programs
C) the adoption of an autonomous work group philosophy
D) examination of earlier attempts at quality of work life experiments

Answer: B Difficulty: Hard

22. What is done at the outset of the self-design approach?

A) quality of work life assessment
B) creation of autonomous work groups
C) training of participants
D) Sensing of all stakeholders

Answer: C Difficulty: Medium

23. In self-design, considerable attention is given to _______

A) form of structure
B) autonomous teams
C) design criteria
D) step-wise, sequential design process

Answer: C Difficulty: Hard

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24. The design approach that focuses on individual ability to cope with workplace stress and job
demands is called _____________
A) Sustainable Work Systems
B) Self-Design
C) Sociotechnical Systems
D) Information Processing

Answer: A Difficulty: Easy

25. Sustainable Work Systems is associated with all except:

A) reflective design
B) review of side affects or unintended consequences
C) quality of work life
D) job rotation

Answer: D Difficulty: Easy

26. Sustainable Work Systems values include all except:

A) regeneration and development of human resources

B) dual attention to quality of working life and competitive firm performance
C) building in capabilities for ongoing organizational renewal and learning
D) None. They are all SWS values

Answer: D Difficulty: Easy

27. Lean production systems emphasize:

A) just-in-time delivery between customers and suppliers
B) low internal inventory
C) reduced team responsibility for monitoring quality
D) all of the above
E) a and b

Answer: E Difficulty: Medium

28. The scientific management approach to job design is often referred to as:
A) a self-design approach
B) building in decision making discretion for employees
C) a focus on employee needs
D) a job engineering approach

Answer: D Difficulty: Easy

29. Major ideas about work design embodied in Taylor's comprehensive strategy include all except:
A) tasks should be specialized
B) work should be studied to determine how tasks should be done regardless of who does them
C) managers should supervise employees using efficiency methods and motivate them giving
monetary bonuses

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 D) None. All of the above are included

Answer: D Page: Difficulty: Medium

True-False Questions

30. Sustainable Work Systems design considers ways to design the organization so that
employees do not experience work intensity and undue stress. T F
Answer: T Difficulty: Easy

31. In considering a sustainable organization, we include balanced attention to the needs of

different stakeholders, including managers, employees, and customers. T F
Answer: T Difficulty: Easy

32. Organization design is a decision making process involving strategic choices.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

33. In organization design, Organization structure is only one of several areas where choices are to be
made.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

35. The example of producing cheese was provided to show that there are thousands of variances that
should be controlled during cheese production.

Answer: False Difficulty: Hard

36. Form of structure refers to the method of grouping employees into work units.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

37. Jay Galbraith is credited with establishing the information-processing orientation to design

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

38. Self-Design is a European-based approach to organization redesign.

Answer: False Difficulty: Medium

39. Self-design approaches require significant training and experience.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

40. A functional form of organization includes departments such as manufacturing, accounting and
R&D.

Answer: True Difficulty: Easy

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41. Advantages of the product form include coordination across products.

Answer: False Difficulty: Medium

42. Network organizations require stable environments to maintain their interactions.

Answer: False Difficulty: Medium

43: At SKF, the Swedish bearing company, each country subsidiary takes the lead on developing
a new product for its own country as well as for all other country subsidiaries. This is one aspect
of the Transnational model of organization. T F

Answer: T Difficulty: Medium

44. Business process engineering involves careful evaluation of whether a production step adds
value.

Answer: True Difficulty: Medium

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MODULE 14*
Creativity and Innovation

Module Overview
This module introduces students to creativity and innovation as two processes that are critical for
the effectiveness and survivability of organizations. The module examines the creative process,
explores the organizational characteristics and managerial actions that can foster creativity,
identifies the stages of the innovation process, describes the key organizational elements that
influence the innovation process, and examines the interplay between creativity, innovation and
human behavior.

Learning objectives
After completing this module you should be able to
1. Describe the creative process.
2. Identify the traits or characteristics that are related to individual creativity.
3. Explain the difference between creativity and innovation.
4. Describe the stages and the different types of innovation.
5. Gain insight into the key issues associated with the management of creativity and innovation
processes.
6. Understand the interplay among human behavior, group behavior, creativity, and innovation.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 14–1: Exploring Creativity in an Organizational Setting: 3M’s Post–it Note Pads
Introduction
What Is Creativity?
Distinguishing between Creativity and Innovation
The Creative Person
Emotional Intelligence and Creativity
The Organizational Context of Creativity
The Adaption–Innovation Model
Motivation and Creativity
Creativity and Commitment
Creativity and Social Influence
Developing the Creative Process within the Organization
Team Creativity
From Creativity to Innovation
Organizational Innovation
Types of Innovation
Stages of the Innovation Process
Key Elements That Influence the Innovation Process
Key Players and Roles
Atmosphere or Climate
Organization Design
Incentives, Rewards, and Evaluation
Job Design, Job Rotation, and Careers
Management’s Challenge
Cautions on Creativity
Summary

*
This module was revised by Dr. Carol Sexton. We are grateful to Carol.

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Study Questions Endnotes
Activity 14–2: Downsizing and Creativity
Activity 14–3: Organizational Innovation: Learning from the WWW
Activity 14–4: Making a Metaphor

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 14–5W: Fostering Creativity and Innovation in the Intercon Semiconductor Company
Activity 14–6W: Assessing Your Creativity Quotient

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on:
• Session design
• Mini-lectures
• Activity 14-1—Exploration of Creativity in Organizational Setting—based on “The 3M’s
Post-It Note Pads Case”
• Activity 14-2—Downsizing and Creativity
• Activity 14-3—Organizational Innovation
• Activity 14-4—Making a Metaphor
• Activity 14-5W—Fostering Creativity and Innovation—based on “The Intercon
Semiconductor Company Case,”
• Activity 14-6W – Assessing Your Creativity.

Session Design
The module provides a variety of options in the design of the teaching module. The following are
some designs that have worked well for our students:

1. Individuals are to prepare the “3M’s Post-It Note Pads Case” prior to the class session;
introduction to the module; Activity 14-1 in class; mini-lecture about creativity & innovation;
Activity 14-3 or 14-6W.
2. Students are to read the module and prepare “The Intercon Semiconductor Company Case”
prior to the class session; introduction to the module; Activity 14-5W; mini-lecture; Activity 14-4
or 14-6W
3. Students are to prepare Activity 14-3 and 14-6W; Introduction to the module; Activity 14-4;
mini-lecture.
4. If time permits and you have two two-hour sessions, you can spend the first session on
creativity (while using Activities 14-1 and 14-4) and the second on innovation (while utilizing
Activity 14-3 and 14-5W).

Activity 14-1: Exploring Creativity in An Organizational Setting: 3M’s Post-It Note

Pads Case
This activity provides an opportunity to utilize the case method combined with individual and
team activity both outside and during the class session. The objectives of the case are to examine
the organizational context of creativity, to identify the factors that foster the creative process and
to identify some of the skills and competencies involved in creativity

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Case Discussion Notes

Task 1: Students are asked to prepare the case and answer the questions at the end of the case.
The questions encourage each student to think through the phases of the creative process that
resulted in the “post it note pads.”

Task 2: This activity can take place either outside of class or in class. As the team members
share their answers and try to come up with team solutions, the groups’ synergy generates some
unique insights.
After small group sharing, the instructor facilitates the sharing of the teams’ responses to each of
the questions with the entire class. The instructor should board the teams’ input. You have a few
choices about the actual procedure of team sharing and class discussion. You can tailor the class
input into a mini-lecture on creativity. You can facilitate a case analysis and tailor mini-lectures
around each of the questions. (i.e., what is creativity, the creative person, organizational factors
that influence creativity). You can set the stage for a lecture on the topic after all the teams
provide their input.

Activity 14-2: Downsizing and Creativity

This activity is a follow-up activity to 14-1 that focused on 3M company. Students are instructed
to connect to the 3M web site, read on recent developments and address the two questions at the
end of the activity. This activity provides an opportunity to examine the effects of radical
restructuring on creativity and innovation.

Activity 14-3: Organizational Innovation: Learning from the WWW

This activity provides an opportunity to surf the WWW Web and explore the Innovation Network
Web. The web site includes a variety of short articles about innovations and description of
organizational innovations in different companies. This activity can be used as a team activity in
which the team studies the site and prepares a mini presentation to the learning community.
Individual teams may be assigned to various Land award winners and then debate the merits of
each and choose their own Land winner from the group. Land Winners can be found at
http://thinksmart.com/inmembership/g.land.html.

Activity 14-4: Making a Metaphor

Overview
This activity is excellent to illustrate the use of metaphors in unleashing creative energy.
Research indicates that breaking through old mental sets is required many times in order to get
creativity going. We recommend that you review the book by Von Oeck titled “A Kick in the
Seat of the Pants” out of which this activity was adopted before you teach this segment. We have
used this activity as an introductory activity to the topic and as an activity before the “Post-It
Note Pads case.”

Task 1: The sharing within the teams of the chosen metaphors and the rationale for their choices
stimulate a meaningful discussion. Following the sharing within the teams, you can proceed with

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a mini-lecture on metaphors and creativity; and/or challenge the students to come up with
additional metaphors in order to go beyond understanding better their use and help the teams
become more creative. In one class we have challenged the students to identify metaphors that
capture their team experience thus far in the course. In another class we have challenged the
students to come up with a metaphor that captures the way they work together.

Activity 14-5W: Fostering Creativity and Innovation

(Based on “The Intercon Semiconductor Company Case”)
The case study for this activity is unique and complex. We have used this case activity with
graduate classes. We have tried this case only once with an undergraduate class. The senior
students in the class seem to have gotten a lot from the case. If your class is advanced and is used
to case studies and/or has used some of the detailed Harvard case students in the past, this case is
likely to be very beneficial to their learning. Due to the complexity of the case we recommend
that in the preparations for the class discussion you try to analyze the case from a multiple
orientation (i.e., behavioral, decisional, system).

Some specific suggestions for use of the case with less experienced students follow:

Have the students analyze the case using one of the following specific models from the module:
1. the figure from the module: “Conceptual Links among Creative persons, Processes, Situations
and Products”
a. This is effective in creating a multi-level approach to solving the dilemma. Students can
identify the inputs at each of the three levels and the creative outcome that the president
hopes for
b. Focusing on the intervening factor, transformation, will help students determine what is
restraining innovation in this case in terms of people, processes and design, and develop
some strategies for change.
Or

2. Using “Characteristics of Innovators and Adaptors”

a. With some understanding of the difference between the two, ask students to identify the
adaptors and innovators in the case.
b. Students can be asked to develop a strategy for bringing these types together to resolve
the dilemma facing the organization.

Intercon Role Play

This is an effective way for students to experience some of the concepts from the module and
apply the understanding of these concepts to the case. Students engage in the various stages of
innovation, and experience the value of using teams in developing new ideas and strategies.

President Bergman (the facilitator) announces that s/he is looking for advice on thee three issues
stated as the Dilemma at the end of the case:
• How to develop a shared vision of the company’s competitive strategy?
• What can the company do to both foster and shorten the new product development
process?
• How to achieve optimal alignment of the competitive strategy, organization design and
new product development process while maintaining zero-defect production and
increasing bottom-line profit?

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 1. Students should first answer these three questions individually.
2. Divide the class into teams, using the current company divisions as a guideline. If there
are a large number of students, there are a variety of ways to group them: functional
specialty, divisions, departments etc.
3. Each group is given one, two or three of the concerns above.
4. The group brainstorms as many ideas as possible with one member recording the ideas.
(this can be described as the idea generation stage.
5. The group then arranges the ideas into themes.
6. If the case is studied in more than one class session, each student takes the list of themes
and ideas home. Subgroups may be assigned separate themes (this can be described as the
incubation period).
7. When the group comes back together, additional ideas or insights made by the students
are presented to the group.
8. Ideas are now combined or eliminated to produce the top three ideas to be presented to
the president on each question. Guidelines for selection might include:
--Is it realistic?
--Can it be implemented?
--How can it be evaluated?

9. After presentation, the president may decide to have one member from each team meet as
a group with the president to decide on the best idea for each question. The rest of the
class observes. When final decisions are made, discuss the following questions:
A) Were any of the final ideas originally generated by you? By your team?
B) Were the final ideas better than those generated by you and your team?
C) What does this tell you about using teams versus individuals to generate creative
ideas?
D) To what extent did this process use some of the concepts you have studied about
creativity and innovation?

Innovation Debate:
1. In this case, a variety of opinions about innovation are expressed. Students can be
asked to identify these viewpoints and then discuss their validily.
2. To make this activity particularly interesting, assign the viewpoints to different
groups of students and have a debate. This helps students uncover some myths and or
misconceptions about innovation, and develop their own understanding of the
complex processes involved.
3. At the end of the debate, discuss the implications of having conflicting viewpoints
about the innovation process and how they might most effectively be brought
together through leadership, organizational design and decision-making.

Activity 14-6W: Assessing Your Creativity

This activity is self explanatory. The activity can be used as an individual activity and/or
a team activity. If you chose either one as a team activity, after the individuals complete
the self assessment, ask the individuals to share with their teams the results. Each team is
to identify some common denominators and implications to managerial practice. Next,
you can have a class discussion when each team representative share the team’s ideas.

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Mini-Lecture Outlines

The power point slides that can be found on the book’s website can be used to guide the content
and flow of the mini lecture outlined below: We usually start with creativity and move to
innovation, based on the choices of activities. At times we provide two mini lectures on creativity
and the second on innovation.

A. Creativity
∗ Why study creativity in an OB course
∗ Defining Creativity
∗ The Creativity Context
∗ Creativity in Organizational Settings
∗ Individual Characteristics and Creativity
- Cognitive Abilities (i.e., intelligence, knowledge, cognitive styles, problem sensing)
- Personality
- Components of Individual Creativity
∗ The Imperatives of Creativity
∗ The Organizational Context of Creativity (i.e., Leadership, Work Design)
∗ The Organizational Support System
∗ The Conceptual links among Creative Persons, Processes, Situations and Products

B. Innovation
∗ From Creativity to Innovation
∗ Characteristics of Innovators
∗ Types of Innovation
∗ The Innovation Process: Some Key Phases
∗ The Organizational Context of the Innovation Process: Some Key Elements

Study Questions
1. Creativity and innovation are different parts of the same process. Can an innovation occur
without creativity? Why or why not?

Comment: The authors argue that much of the literature discussing application of creativity and
innovation uses the terms loosely and often interchangeably. The module refers to creativity as
the brain functions of acquiring and processing data for purposes of problem solving, whether it
be responses, answers, actions, or new ideas. This involves both unconscious and conscious
processes. Innovation is used more suitably when applied to decision-making processes; the
decision to search for a new useful idea and the decision of how to implement the chosen idea.

2. “The creative person is born, not made.” Do you agree or disagree? Why?

Comment: The literature suggests that expertise and intrinsic motivation are essential
components of creativity. Many other characteristics have been found that are related to

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creativity. However, no genetic elements have been identified that are correlated with creativity.
As such it will be hard to justify the argument that the creative person is born and not made.

3. Charlie likes to wrestle with a problem for several days or weeks, looking at it from all sides.
Janet focuses on solving the problem efficiently and doesn’t worry if she has considered all
possible solutions. Which of the two is likely to be more creative? Why?

Comment: Both have the potential of being just as creative. However, by focusing on efficient
problem solving, Janet is likely to limit her creative process. Furthermore, by wrestling with the
problem from all sides and allowing himself to have unlimited time, Charlie is in a better
psychological state that is likely to foster his creative energy.

4. Sam loves his job because it is open-ended and he decides what to do each day. He works
hard, often forgetting to quit at 5 p.m. Discuss Sam’s motivation.

Comment: Sam seems to be driven and motivated intrinsically. The degree of freedom in his job
is likely to create a psychological climate that fosters creativity.

5. List the five steps in the creative process.

Comment: The following are the basic steps in the creative process:

a. Studying the problem area to realize its different aspects

b. Saturating the brain with all available data
c. Allowing incubation time
d. Awaiting enlightenment (insight)
e. Hypotheses testing

6. Think of an innovation that you would consider radical. How does it differ from an
incremental innovation?

Comment: Incremental innovation is an improvement of an existing technology, process or

product while radical innovation is a series of incremental innovations or a breakthrough idea. In
the 3M case, the adhesive can be seen as an incremental innovation and the post-it-note-pad can
be seen as a radical innovation.

The following site offers a creativity test which measures your associative flexibility, or mental
plasticity. This concept of creativity suggests that it is our ability to make mental connections that
are neither logical nor obvious that makes us creative. This test can be done as a team or
individual activity or some combination of both. We have used this activity first individually,
then have team members combining their results. Generally, it is working as a team that results in
the most correct answers. This answers the question that students frequently have as to whether or
not a team can be creative.
http://enchantedmind.com/html/creativity/iq_tests/creativity_test.html

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MODULE 15
Organizational Culture

Module Overview
Choices made about work and organization design set the stage for the formation of
organizational culture. Module 15 focuses on the nature of organizational culture and its
relationships to organizational effectiveness. As such the module goes beyond an exploration of
the different views on the topic; the focus is on symbolism as a way of diagnosing organizational
culture in its business and organizational context. Organizational culture is a complex
phenomenon to map out, since culture is much like air; it is everywhere we look, and it touches
everything that goes on in organizations. Understanding the culture of the organization is critical
if the manager is to attempt to manage and/or try to shape the culture.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, the learner should be able to
1. Explain the nature of national and regional culture.
2. Describe a conceptual framework that can guide the assessment of a national culture.
3. Identify and define the key features of organizational culture.
4. Identify the relationship between symbolism and organizational culture.
5. Describe the key factors that affect organizational culture.
6. Identify the challenges in managing organizational culture.
7. Explain the relationship between organizational culture and organizational effectiveness.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 15–1: Exploring the Trouteville Police’s Culture
Activity 15–2: Slogan and Symbol Identification
Introduction
Culture, National Culture, and Regional Culture Defining Culture
Different Roadmaps to Understanding Culture
Organizational Culture
Defining Organizational Culture
The Individual Context
The Organizational Context
Symbol Sensitivity and the Management of Organizational Culture
Organizational Culture and Organizational Effectiveness
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 15–3: The Meaning of Your Symbols and the Organization as a Text

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 15–4W: Another Look at the Trouteville Police Department
Activity 15–5W: Symbol Generator

Other Activities:
Activity 15-6 IM - A Comparative Investigation between Two Systems Cultures

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Teaching Notes
• This section includes notes about alternative session designs,
• Activity 15-1—Exploring the Trouteville Police’s Culture,
• Activity 15-2—Symbol Identification,
• Activity 15-3—The Meaning of Your Symbols and the Organization as a Text,
• Activity 15-4W—Another Look at the Trouteville Police’s Culture,
• Activity 15-5W—Symbol Generator and, an additional activity,
• Activity 15-6IM - A Comparative Investigation between Two Systems Cultures (Google
vs. your Business/Management School).
• A handout that summarizes “How Can a Leader/CEO/Entrepreneur Influence Culture?”
.

Session Design
The module provides a variety of options in the design of the teaching module. For a one two-
hour session, the following designs have worked well:

1. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 15-1—Exploring the Trouteville
Police’s Culture and Activity 15-2—Symbol Identification prior to the class session. The session
can start with an introduction to the module, Activity 15-1, Activity 15-6IM, mini lecture about
culture and organizational culture and class discussion.

2. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 15-6IM and read the Trouteville
Police’s Culture Case prior to the class session. In class have individuals or teams present their
comparative analysis of Activity 15-6IM. Provide a mini lecture and move into a class analysis of
the Trouteville Police’s Culture Case using a organizational culture model of your choice. Finish
the session with a discussion about the implications for management practice.

3. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 15-1—Exploring the Trouteville
Police’s Culture and Activity 15-2—Symbol Identification prior to the class session. The session
can start with an introduction to the module, Activity 15-1, mini lecture about culture and
organizational culture, Activity 15-2 and class discussion.

4. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 15-1—Exploring the Trouteville
Police’s Culture and Activity 15-2—Symbol Identification prior to the class session. The session
can start with an introduction to the module, Activity 15-2, mini lecture about culture and
organizational culture, an overview of the results from Activity 15-1, Activity 15-4W and class
discussion.

5. Individuals are to read the module and prepare Activity 15-1—Exploring the Trouteville
Police’s Culture and Activity 15-2—Symbol Identification prior to the class session. The session
can start with an introduction to the module, Activity 15-2, mini lecture about culture and
organizational culture, an overview of the results from Activity 15-1, Activity 15-3 and class
discussion.

Activity 15-1: Exploring the Trouteville Police Department

This preview exercise provides an opportunity to begin the exploration of the organizational
culture concept. We have found that the activity works best after a short introduction to the topic.

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The objective of the exercise is to start the inquiry into the formation process of organizational
culture, its impact, and the difficulty of changing an existing organizational culture.

Case Overview
The city of Trouteville is located in a rural area, has a population of 35,000 people and has its
own police department that employs 70 individuals. John Stage recently retired after being the
police department chief for the last 17 years. Although he retired because of alcoholism
problems, Stage was highly regarded due both to his insistence on hiring qualified personnel and
to a “smoothly” run department. Larry Gaft was hired from a large metropolitan department to
replace Stage as the department chief. Gaft brought with him “the team policing concept” and
“tight control” management style. After an initial experimental implementation of the team
concept with “the traffic team,” the entire department was reorganized to formalize the team
policing structure. Several months after the reorganization, morale problems, a grievance
regarding pay dispute was filed, and attrition and general complaints increased and were reported
to Pete Martin, the Police Association President.

Case Analysis & Procedure

The notes that follow are in accord with the procedure outlined in the text.

Task 3: During this phase you are boarding the teams’ responses to Tasks 2a, 2b and 2c. Start by
examining the characteristics of the department under John Stage leadership (Task 2a). Although
limited information is given in the case, the following are some of the elements identified by
students: orderly, small; informal; high level of qualified personnel; chief with temper, personnel
hired from local community; clear role definitions and responsibility and accountability lines; …
Next get the team representatives to share the teams’ perceptions of the major characteristics of
the department under Gaft (Task 2b). The following are some of the elements usually identified
by students: highly structured department; bureaucratic; more paper work; unclear roles and jobs;
inefficient; job stress; pay system not clearly tied to responsibilities; morale problems; dissents,
high attrition rate; . . . .

Task 4: Facilitate a class discussion on some of the unique elements of the police department
culture under the two chiefs. At this stage we find it useful to begin to focus the discussion not
only on what are some of the main components of culture but on the role that leadership plays in
shaping up organizational culture. This leads nicely to a short lecture on organizational culture.

Activity 15-2: Symbol Identification

The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to investigate the
symbolic nature of the workplace. Individuals are asked, while focusing on an organization that
they are closely associated with, to generate a list of organizational symbols. The instructions ask
for 100 symbols. Some students might be overwhelmed with the task. If they need help, Activity
15-5W on the WWW has a symbols generator that we have used to trigger the creative process.

Task 2 is a team-based activity. In their teams, individuals are asked to read their lists to each
other. The team is given about 10 minutes to explore the choices of symbols and their meaning.
Next they are asked to explore some of the similarities and differences and identify possible
patterns/communalities.

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Following some sharing in the learning community, you can lead a discussion about the nature of
culture and provide a conceptual framework for the topic of organizational culture. The role that
symbols play as a reflection/diagnostic tool of organization culture can be explored.

Activity 15-3: The Meaning of Your Symbols and the Organization as a Text
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to go deeper into the
meaning of their symbols. Individuals are asked to go back to their list of symbols that was
generated in Activity 15-2 and pick up a few symbols that have particular meaning to them.
These should be more vivid, exciting or complex than the others. Then they are asked to pick one
symbol and imagine that it is speaking to them. They are to capture what it is the symbol is
telling them.

Task 2 is a team learning activity. Individuals are to read their paragraphs to each other. As a
team they are to discuss the meaning of symbols, identify some commonalities and differences
and possible patterns.

What follows is a personal reflection about the experience of sharing. Task 2b provides a good
set of guiding questions for personal.

At times we have asked the students to write a short paper based on the activity—see Task 3.
Sharing the papers within the team and discussing them brings the learning experience to a higher
level of learning and appreciative inquiry.

Activity 15-4W: Another Look at the Trouteville Police Department Organizational

Culture
The purpose of this activity is to provide the students with the opportunity to apply some of the
key concepts of organizational culture to analyze the Trouteville Police Department. This activity
should be assigned as a follow up to Activity 15-1. Students are asked to use the classification
scheme presented in the module and some of the relevant symbols and cultural dimensions to
diagnose the department. Next, they are asked to identify how the organizational culture might
effect individual, team and organizational dynamics and performance.

Task 2 is a team learning activity. Individuals are to share their analyses in teams and the teams
are to identify some common patterns among the analyses and explore the possible cause-and-
effect relationship between organizational culture and organizational effectiveness.

Activity 15-5W: Symbol Generator

The purpose of this activity is to help the learners’ creative process of generating symbols, as a
part of the assignment in Activity 15-2. The activity as described is self explanatory.

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Additional Activity

Activity 15-6 IM: A Comparative Investigation between two systems cultures

Objective
To apply a module of organization culture to the investigation of two different company cultures

Task 1: Ask the students, as individuals or teams, to connect to the website and conduct a
comparison between Google’s culture and their school of Business/Management Culture of which
they are an integral components. The students are to use any theoretical framework or model as
the basis for the comparison.

Task 2: Individuals or Teams are to present their analysis to the learning community.

Task 3: Class discussion - Student teams should ask each other questions about their analyses and
the professor should help guide student learning by clarifying any presentation/culture errors

We have found that it takes about 30 minutes for task 1, 15 minutes for task 2 and 15 minutes to
task 3. Following a few randomly selected presentations, we facilitate a class discussion and
provide a mini lecture on organizational culture.

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 Handout

How Can a Leader/CEO/Entrepreneur Influence Culture?

Culture is deep seated and difficult to change once it has been created, but leaders can influence or manage
an organization's culture. It isn't easy, and it cannot be done rapidly, but leaders can have an effect on
culture. Also, you should keep in mind that a leader is highly influential in determining an organization’s
culture early in an organization’s life. Schein outlines some specific steps leaders can employ.

• What leaders pay attention to, measure and control. Something as simple as what is
emphasized or measured, over time, can have an effect on an organization's culture. One example
of this is an emphasis on form over substance. If leaders pay more attention to form, an
organizational culture can develop where people start to believe that the substance of a
recommendation is less important than the way it is presented. For example, what if more attention
was paid to the format of viewgraphs used in a briefing than what was said?

Where do you think people will focus their effort once it becomes accepted that a slick
presentation is what the leaders are looking for? How could you go about changing that aspect of
the organization's culture? Consider cultural assumptions and beliefs underlying a "zero defects"
organizational mentality. "You must always be perfect; mistakes aren't allowed." If this
assumption reflects a dysfunctional aspect of an organization's culture, how would you go about
changing that perception?

• Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises. The way leaders react to crises
says a lot about the organization's values, norms and culture. Crises, by their nature, bring out the
organization's underlying core values. Often, this is where rhetoric becomes apparent. Reactions to
crises are normally highly visible, because everyone's attention is focused on the incident or
situation. Disconnects between actions and words will usually be apparent, and actions always
speak louder than words. Additionally, a crisis not only brings a great deal of attention, it also
generates a great deal of emotional involvement on the part of those associated with the
organization, particularly if the crisis threatens the organization's survival. This increases the
potential for either reinforcing the existing culture, or leading to a change in the culture. Such a
crisis can provide an opportunity for a leader to influence the organization's culture in either a
positive or negative way.

• Deliberate role modeling, teaching, and coaching. Nothing can take the place of leaders
"walking their talk." The personal example of a strategic leader can send a powerful message to
the members of an organization, particularly if it is ethical and consistent. Reinforcing that
example with teaching and coaching will help others to internalize the desired values.

• Criteria for allocation of rewards and status. The consequences of behavior-what behavior is
rewarded and what is punished-can significantly influence culture. If the organization reacts to
new ideas by ridiculing the ideas and those who propose them, it won't take long before people
believe that new ideas are not welcomed or desired. One belief of perceived organizational culture
is reflected in the statement: "Don't raise questions or suggest improvements, because nothing will
come of it and you will just get in trouble." If you were in an organization's strategic leader, what
steps could you take to alter the reward system to change this aspect of the culture?

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• Criteria for recruitment, selection, promotion, retirement and excommunication. One of the
powerful ways of changing an organization's culture is through the type of people brought into,
retained, and advanced in the organization. You should be able to establish a desired culture base
in an organization by bringing in and advancing individuals with the values you want, and
eliminating those with undesired value bases.

That is what organizations are attempting when they propose tightening up admissions standards
to screen out undesirables. This strategy is consistent with the belief that the problems experienced
by the organization result from a few "bad apples" and do not reflect systemic problems. However,
if a strong culture bias exists, it may be too strong to be changed by selection alone.

• Organizational design and structure. Modifying the organization's basic structure may be a way
of changing the existing norms, and hence the culture. For example, a culture of mistrust between
the leaders and the members of an organization may be exacerbated by a "line" structure that
discourages vertical communication. A decentralized organization may encourage employee
ownership and accountability because decision making capability is diffused throughout the
organization rather than solely controlled by senior employees.
• Organizational systems and procedures. The simplest definition of culture is "that's the way we
do things around here." Routines or procedures can become so embedded that they become part of
the culture, and changing the culture necessitates changing those routines. We can all think of
organizations where a weekly or monthly meeting takes on a life of its own, becomes more
formalized, lengthy, and elaborate, and becomes the only way information moves within the
organization. Changing the culture to improve communication may only be possible by changing
the meeting procedures or eliminating the meetings altogether.
• Design of physical space, facades, and buildings. The impact of the design of buildings on
culture can easily be illustrated by considering the executive perks in an organization. Which
organization do you think will have a more open and participative culture, one where top
executives have reserved parking spaces, top floor offices, a special elevator and an executive
dining room, or one where the executive offices are not separated from the rest of the company
and executives park and eat in the same place as their employees?
• Stories about important events and people. This is a way that culture is perpetuated in an
organization, in that it helps define and solidify the organization's identity. By what events and
stories they emphasize, leaders influence that identity.
• Formal statements of organizational philosophy, creeds, and charts. This is the way leaders
most often try and influence their organizations, and encompasses the vision or mission statement
and statements of the organization's (or the leader's) values and philosophy. By themselves,
however, formal statements will have little effect on the organization's culture. They must be
linked to actions to affect culture.

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Study Questions
1. Identify and discuss the key dimensions of culture using either the culture value orientation
model or Hofstede’s national culture model.
Comment: The essence of both models and specific dimensions of culture that they focus on are
captured in the textbook.

2. Identify and discuss the key dimensions of organizational culture based on Schein’s
definition.
Comment: The key dimensions are identified in Schein’s definition that can be found on the
bottom of page 405 and the relevant issues of the dimensions are summarized in Figure 15-2.

3. Identify and describe the key factors that shape organizational culture.
Comment: The key factors that shape organizational culture are clustered into five:
Environmental, Organizational, Dynamics between Groups and Departments, Leadership and
Managerial and, the Work Group. The factors are summarized in Figure 15-3.

4. Can organizational culture be taught to organizational members? Explain.

Comment: To preserve the stability and integrity of the internal work environment, the
organizational culture must be taught to new members. New members are “socialized” when
they accept the language, symbols, boundaries, power distribution, status distribution, intimacy
rules, reward and punishment system, and ideology/philosophy of the firm. New members can
often influence and build on the assumption being taught to them during the socialization process.

5. Discuss how symbols can help us understand organizational culture?

Comment: Most researchers agree that “symbols” are the building blocks of culture. Symbols are
also viewed as “tools” that can shape underlying values and behavior. However one defines
culture—whether in terms of values, rituals, ceremonies, corner offices, gold watches, stories
people tell at work, their dreams of the future, and so on—symbolism is pretty much at the basis
of everything. If one can develop a shared understanding of the organizational symbols—
whether they are a person, an object, or an event—one gains an understanding of what are some
of the basic assumptions at work, how organizational members view work and its meaning, how
things “get done”, how people relate to one another, how the organization functions, what are
some of the expectations, and how performance is viewed and rewarded.

6. What are some of the ways to manage organizational culture?

Comment: Key to managing any aspect of an organization is recognizing the underlying cultural
elements and processes. A place to start the investigation of culture, its meaning, the
management of organization culture, and the management of cultural change is by focusing on
symbols. Symbols are used to communicate corporate purpose, critique strategic plans, enhance
organizational control, harmonize intergroup relations, ease the pain of transitions, support
organizational ideologies, and understand subcultures. Understanding the above provides an
insight into how one should manage the current culture and how one should try to influence it.

7. Discuss the relationship between business strategy, organization design, and organizational
culture.

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Comment: The interplay or cause-and-effect between business strategy and organization design
was briefly discussed in Module 13. Business strategy sets the stage and many times dictates
specific organization design. Yet, the design of an organization often helps an organization to
explore new opportunities and reformulate alternative business strategies. Both business strategy
and organization design set in motion the evolution of a specific organizational culture. The
specific choices made about the organization design—the way of grouping people and tasks—is
likely to influence the dynamics between people, people and technology, and the subcultures that
will emerge.

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MODULE 16
Organizational Change, Development, and Learning

Module Overview
This module explores issues associated with organizational change, development and learning. Following
a brief discussion of organizational learning; its meaning; and its impact on individual, group, and
organizational effectiveness, we explore various organizational learning mechanisms. Managing
organizational learning, development, and change is a challenge that managers face on an ongoing basis.
The module presents two complementary ways to cluster the different change programs that have
emerged: target focus and consequence focus change programs.

Managing organizational change and development (OC&D) is described as planned change

organizational efforts that attempt to improve effectiveness. We provide an in-depth review and
comparison of three commonly used systemwide change programs—reengineering, total quality
management, and sociotechnical systems. The comparison provides an insight into the complexity of
managing change and development. In concluding the book, we reiterate our view that an integration of
important aspects of the traditional and the behavioral models is essential for organizational effectiveness.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module you should be able to:
1. Explain the phenomenon of organizational learning and its underlying dimensions.
2. Describe the alternative organizational learning mechanisms.
3. Describe the relationship among organizational learning, change, development, and effectiveness.
4. Define the field of organizational change and development (OC&D).
5. Compare and contrast any two of the systemwide OC&D interventions.
6. Describe the different types of change programs.
7. Explain some of the challenges that OC&D faces in the global arena.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 16–1: The Management of Change at FoodCo, Inc.
Introduction
Organizational Learning
Defining Learning Organizations and Organizational Learning
Organizational Learning Mechanisms
Organizational Change and Development (OC&D)
Change Orientation
Defining Organization Development
Diagnoses in Organization Development
Organization Development Strategies
Types of Organization Development Interventions
Systemwide Approaches to Change and Development
The Sociotechnical System (STS)
Total Quality Management
Reengineering
A Comparative Examination

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Toward an Eclectic Planned Change Approach
Planned Change and Organizational Effectiveness
Organizational Change and Development in the International Context
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 16–2: Planned Change at General Electric
Activity 16–3: Custom Nests Simulation
Activity 16–4: Analyzing the Team Climate
Activity 16–5: Team Feedback Discussion
Activity 16–6: Feedback on Effectiveness of the Course and the Instruction

Optional Activities on the WWW

Activity 16–7W: Andersson’s Challenge at Berol Kemi
Activity 16–8W: Revisiting the Paper Mills Corporation
Activity 16–9W: Bill (or Bonnie) Dawson’s Challenge at Crofts Products Company

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on session design
Activity 16-1: Planned Change at General Electric
Activity 16-2: The Management of Change at Food Co. Inc.
Activity 16-3: Custom Nests Simulation
Activity 16-4: Analyzing the Team Climate
Activity 16-5: Team Feedback Discussion
Activity 16-6: Feedback on Effectiveness of the Course and the Instruction.
Activity 16-7W: Anderson’s Challenge at Berol Kemi
Activity 16-8W: Revisiting the Paper Mills Corporation
Activity 16-9W: Bill (or Bonnie) Dawson’s Challenge at Crofts Products Company.
Notes for mini lectures on the topic.

The material provided in this module can be the basis for one, two, three, four, five or six sessions. A
variety of thoughts about how much of OC&D to cover in a basic OB course can be found. In our own
school we find that while some faculty devote up to six sessions to the topic, others devote one or two
sessions only. As such, you need to make your own decision about both the overall coverage of the topic
and accordingly, the specific material that you would like to use. We have provided you with a rich and
diverse set of activities to choose from.

Activity 16-1: The Planned Change Program at General Electric; The Work-Out Program
This activity provides an opportunity to begin the exploration of organization change and development
via the examination of the change program that was implemented at GE. The students can be encouraged
to read more about this change program in the popular press. Students that ask for a special assignment
can be asked to write a synopsis and critique of any one of the books that were written about GE (the
references can be found at the bottom of the first page of the case in the textbook) and/or give a mini
presentation to the class about the chosen book. The tasks and the role that you can play in facilitating the
class discussions are self explanatory.

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Introducing the Topic of OC&D
There is always a confusion in the minds of many students—and many professionals—as to what OC&D
is. One helpful way to introduce the subject is to talk about management development programs as they
have long existed and to show that OC&D can be seen as an extension of these; OC&D does provide
methods that attempt to remedy some of the problems arising from the emphasis upon individual
development which exists in the management development approach.

OD as an Extension of Management Development

Management development programs are designed to provide managers with continuing education,
training, and experience opportunities. They may include the following phases:

1. Selection programs to hire the best talent.

2. Initial orientation training.
3. Career planning, including rotational assignments.
4. Performance appraisal and promotion systems.
5. Basic supervisory, communication, and other training programs.
6. Midcareer education: in-house management courses, out-house residences at universities (M.I.T.,
Harvard).
7. Executive renewal education, both in-house and out-house.

The emphasis is upon individual development (ID). The assumption is that through this route,
organizational excellence will be achieved along with managerial excellence. Although this assumption
is not being challenged here, there are some serious problems in relying on ID alone.

Problems of Individual Development

A Piecemeal Effort: Managers near the top are inclined to believe that people lower in the hierarchy need
development more than they do. Supervisory and middle-management training is apt to be stressed.
Those attending supervisory courses often respond to the learning with enthusiasm but insist the people
who really need it are their bosses. As a consequence, new learning does not get spread throughout the
structure.

Content, Not Process, Learning: New information and technical skills typically have been the subject of
ID efforts. The process learning method used in this text is a more recent development.

One-at-a-time Training Does Not Get Into the Work Group: Even if all members of the team have had
individual training, further learning and practice are necessary to get this learning into interaction
patterns, as was indicated in the module on team building. Some management workshops are designed
for boss-and-subordinate pairs to help overcome this.

“Reentry” Can Negate New Learning: Training most often takes place outside the ongoing system; this
is true even if it occurs on the company’s premises. The newly trained supervisor may be eager to apply
what he has learned back home, only to find his boss and peers unreceptive. As a result, individuals may
become more negative about human relations principles than they would be if they had not had the
training. We have often had feedback from former participants (even from executives) complaining that
they were greeted back home with, “All right, you have had your vacation, get back to work.”
Management seminars sometimes include a concluding session on handling reentry frustrations to help
the individual control his own attitudes and find ways to try new ideas so others will not turn him off.

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Organizational Style Can Be in Conflict with Ideal Models: The reentry difficulty is part of a larger
problem related to the leadership style of organizations. One of the assumptions of ID is that the manager
can learn to be “a real professional.” But the ideal models of the professional used by those designing the
training program are in all likelihood going to be different from the organizational style the participant
knows. Workshops on behavior explore models in which employees participate in decision making and
practice more self-management. If the workshop participant returns to a great-man style company and
attempts to manage in this new way, his behavior will run directly into conflict with the ongoing human
system.

Activity 16-2: The Management of Change at Food Co., Inc.*

Make certain students read only one part of the case at a time.

Part A

In addition to discussing the answers to the three questions, you may wish to consider the following
discussions:

a. A general discussion of the sociotechnical systems approach (a good review of sociotechnical systems
theory is provided in Pasmore, W., Francis, C., Haldeman, J., & Shani, A., “Sociotechnical systems: A
North American reflection on empirical studies of the seventies,” Human Relations, 35, 12, pp. 1179-
1204, 1982, and in the Walton article referenced in the case.

b. A discussion of how to deal with traditional (theory X) managers as clients or superiors during efforts
to improve organizational performance.

c. A force field analysis of the situation, as follows:

Forces driving change: Forces restraining change:

Corporate pressure Mr. Williams
Saratoga’s success Poor relations with union
Positive survey results Existing facility
Dick Harold The union contract
Competitive pressure Supervisory skills/attitudes
Lack of understanding of STS

d. A discussion of Mr. Williams’ political position (on the one hand, if he doesn’t try to change, the
corporation may feel compelled to remove him; on the other hand, if he tries to change and fails—which
is very possible given the situation here—he could wind up making things even worse).

*
Contributed by William A. Pasmore

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Answers to the three questions:

1. The corporation is justified since costs must be lower than competitors’, or there is no reason to
produce the product in the first place. Furthermore, it is apparent that Williams will not innovate on his
own. However, the corporation does not recognize the differences between Saratoga (new plant, hand
picked labor force, non-union, theory Y supervisors) and the Cleveland plant. The differences would
make the exact duplication of Saratoga difficult. The corporation expects change to occur instantly—
when the complexity of the process would appear to call for a more gradual effort that is both more
participative and educational.

2. Williams has little choice but to proceed. He needs to work more cooperatively with Harold and the
union than he has in the past. He also needs to discuss his situation with corporate headquarters so that
they understand he will need to adapt Saratoga’s plan to fit Cleveland. In particular, he may wish to
avoid forcing employees to rotate shifts, rotating people between the warehouse and production, and
forcing senior employees to perform low-level jobs. The most important thing the consultant can do is to
suggest that the various parties come together to discuss what would need to be done to make the change
process succeed. He should also see that key players receive enough information about the STS approach
to enable them to make intelligent decisions about it.

3. The key point here is to recognize what will happen to Williams regardless of how the vote turns out.
If the vote is positive, he will have no reason for delaying the change process further, even though he
feels that it will fail. If the vote is negative, corporate headquarters may lose patience with him and have
him replaced by Harold. If Williams wishes to keep his job, he has to stop resisting the change and start
to plan steps that will make it successful.

Activity 16-3: Custom Nests Simulation*

Instruction Sheet

Introduction
This activity has two phases, each depicting a different organizational structure. The first phase is
designed to provide participants with the experience of working in a traditional organization in which
members have little information about work in functions other than their own. In phase two, participants
from various functions work in a group to produce birdhouses. The shift from phase one to phase two
represents a sociotechnical change in the design and structure of work.

Objectives
a. To help participants become aware of the differences between sociotechnical design principles, and
traditional bureaucratic principles.
b. To develop participants’ appreciation for sociotechnical system approach to organizational
development and effectiveness.

Material Required (based on group of 27):

1. 4 x 6 white index cards,
2. masking tape (5 rolls),
3. staplers (12-18),

*
Contributed by Barry Morris.

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4. staples (several boxes),
5. rulers (6),
6. 50 drinking straws,
7. scissors (grade school type) (12-18),
8. copies of all roles and case description,
9. a sample of the finished product,
10. pens.

Time Required
2 to 3 hours (dependent on size of group).

Preparation
1. Each individual in the class should be assigned a specific role. As an example, in a group of twenty-
seven people, the following number of people in each role would be appropriate: Cutters (6), Tapers (6),
Staplers (6), Supervisor (1), Quality Control (3), R&D (1 or 2), Maintenance and Supply (2), Accounting
(1). Each production employee needs an employee number placed in a space on their role description.
For example, if there are six Staplers, number the role description from 1-6 before they are distributed.

2. Prepare name tags with the names of the various roles already printed on each.

3. The room should be arranged so that the production functions are separated from one another. Other
departments should be spread out in the room, or in another room. It would be acceptable to put some of
the production functions in other rooms or to somehow (partitions, distance) create barriers to
communication between functions. Provide ‘function’ or ‘department’ signs to be placed at the center of
each table. For instance, fold a piece of cardboard in half and write “STAPLER” on it.

4. Have the production area supplied with the tools required for each function. Below is a list of each
function and the tools they need. The number of tools for each function is based on a group of 27 people.

Function Tools Amount

Cutters Scissors 6
Pens 4
Tapers Tape 3 roles
Pens 4
Staplers Scissors 4
Staplers 6
Pens 4
Quality Control Rulers 4
Maintenance/Supply 4 x 6 cards 300
Staplers 12
Staples 8 boxes
Scissors 8
Tape 2 rolls
Straws 100
R&D Ruler 1
Tape 1 roll
Stapler 1
Cards 75
Scissors 1

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NOTE: Additional supplies should be kept by facilitator to be used in phase two of the process if they are
needed.

Phase I
1. Distribute the case description to all participants and read the entire case out loud.

2. Assign the roles (with name tags attached) to each participant. Roles may be pre-determined by the
facilitator or can be distributed so that participants choose their roles without knowing what they will be.
Simply hold the roles face down and have people take one as you go around the room. The spontaneity of
anonymous roles can create energy and fun, while pre-selected roles reduce confusion, but leave
participants wondering why they were selected to be a supervisor or a stapler.

3. Immediately send people to their work stations, and have them begin their work as it is stated in their
role descriptions.

4. Provide the Supervisor or Quality Control with the sample birdhouse.

5. Make sure that the maintenance/supply personnel understand their function.

6. Facilitator should act as the external environment by pushing for increased production, quality . . . .

7. Facilitator should not respond to the questions of participants. Simply direct them to their
supervisors.

8. Stop production after 25 minutes.

9. At the end of the production period, have the accounting clerk collect the data from
maintenance/supply personnel, and from Quality Control, and record the data on newsprint.

10. Facilitator should lead a brief discussion about the experience of work in phase one. Discussion
questions might include: What was it like being a stapler, supervisor, etc.? How was this organization
like others you have worked for, and how was it different?

Between Phases: Clean each table by removing all production material: cards, used tape, finished
products, prototypes, etc. Distribute various tools evenly on each table. In other words, in preparation for
phase II, each table should have scissors, tape, ruler(s), staplers, staples, pens.

Phase II
1. Break each functional area up from phase I so that each function is represented at three different
production tables. Each new production area would have (assuming 27 participants) 2 Cutters, 2 Staplers,
2 Tapers, 1 Quality Controller. The remaining participants can spread themselves out among the
production groups or maintain their original roles. For example, maintenance/supply and accounting
personnel can each take a group and share the maintenance/supply/accounting function.

2. Allow 5 minutes of planning time for each production team. During this time, participants can
prepare prototypes for the final product.

3. Allow 25 minutes for production.

4. Facilitator should continue to act as the external environment.

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5. Following the production period the maintenance/supply or accounting personnel should collect
production and supply data and add it to the newsprint data from phase I.

6. A discussion should follow phase I comparing this experience of work with the experience of phase I.
The discussion should address the personal/affective reactions of participants to phase II, the implications
of the phase II design for their own organizations, and the impact of social systems on technology and
technology on social systems.

Summary of time intervals:

1. Set-up and distribution of roles 5 minutes
2. Phase I Production 25 minutes
3. Data sharing and discussion 10 minutes
4. Re-distribution of personnel 5 minutes
5. Phase II, Planning 5 minutes
6. Phase II, Production 25 minutes
7. Data sharing and discussion 35 minutes

Activity 16-4: Analyzing the Team Climate

When to assign this activity: This activity appears here as one of the key activities toward the end of the
course. Although this activity is located in Module 15, it must be assigned earlier. For teams following
the Term Paper About Team Dynamics, it needs to be assigned two weeks before certain papers are due:

a. Based on your choice, the Individual Team Paper might be the only term paper they will turn in
during the course.

b. If your course design calls for three papers, this will be their third paper, i.e., they will have done (1) a
Team Term Paper on the Task Project; (2) an Individual Paper on Team Dynamics written without having
discussed the subject with group members; and, finally, (3) a Team Term Paper on Team Development.

This activity will provide:

a. Data to write the Team Term Paper on Team Development.

b. Data to prepare the Individual Term Paper.

c. Each individual will have kept his own journal of what happened in the group and presumably there
will be some differences between team members in ways of analyzing their interactions which they have
not yet shared. The purpose of Activity 16-4 is to provide them a framework for coming together and
sharing their understanding, thereby, hopefully, enhancing the learning processes. The instructions in the
activity are complete; read them aloud to the class to see if they understand what is to be done. You
should emphasize that teams will require a good block of time for this and perhaps even several meetings.

In regard to Task 2c, Feedback Sessions (An Optional Activity), there is one caution here. Do not
pressure the students to have an intense feedback session. Do not make them feel they must confront one
another as to how they feel about each other’s behavior. Ask them to simply do the best job they can in
fulfilling the requirements of Activity 16-4 and in preparing their report. Let them know that they have

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the control over what is to be done in their outside sessions when preparing for the reports and that you
are not pressing them to do anything they do not wish to do. The reason this is important is that these
sessions usually go well if they know they have full control. The pressure of the professor could make
some students push more than would be helpful to the team. Make sure teams turn in Team Meeting
Sheets.

When introducing Activity 16-6, you might want to call their attention to the fact that you will be getting
feedback from them on your strengths and where you could be stronger in teaching effectiveness when
you complete Activity 16-6, Feedback on Effectiveness of the Course and the Instructor.

Make sure teams know they are to turn in Team Meeting Sheets to make sure they meet for purposes of
generating data for the papers required, even if they do not do the feedback.

Activity 16-5: Team Feedback Discussion

Preparing the activity: You will be able to conduct this better if you know what has happened in each
group and the degree to which groups have developed an open and committed climate. This will permit
you to determine which group should start the feedback. The information you need can be obtained best
from the individual term papers. If you will read all the individual papers for a team, you will get a
comprehensive view of what happened during the course and the degree it has been a good learning
experience. If you have six teams, the notes you assemble on each team from the individual papers will
give you some idea on the order of presentation for the teams. Select the team to be first that has had the
best learning experience, in terms of team development, openness of communication, and willingness to
give one another feedback so they will set the climate for the others. Rank your teams in terms of the
experience from best to least best and have them report in that succession. When this is done, those teams
that were not so effective sometimes become very open in the classroom and the entire feedback session
can be greatly enhanced.

Another source of this data, of course, is to keep in casual touch with individuals of the team during the
term and ask how things are going. You can get a feel if they are really involved or just going through the
motions.

A third source of information on the teams is the team term paper on Team Development. If these are
turned in a day or two before the feedback session, they may provide you with the information you need.
However, do not have students turn their papers in too far in advance; the advantage of having them turn
them in at the last moment in that the teams will meet and work up to that point and their feedback in the
classroom will be fresher in their minds.

Arranging the time block: If it is possible, arrange a time period long enough for all teams to report at the
same session. If you have six teams and they each are to have thirty minutes for their discussion, a three-
hour block is usually sufficient. If your class is meeting in one-hour sessions three times a week, perhaps
you can arrange for one three-hour session during an evening or on a weekend (they are usually glad not
to have to go to class three times that week). The advantage of the single feedback session is that the first
team discussion can stimulate all others and the openness becomes infectious. When two teams report in
one session and two at the next session perhaps two days later, some of the spontaneity can be lost.

Instructions to the participants prior to the session: Tell the students in the session previous to this that
they are not to prepare for the session other than completing the team development paper for Appendix A.
They are just to come and talk spontaneously and informally. This is important because otherwise some
will show up and put on a very formal report.

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Conducting the Feedback Sessions—Tasks 1 and 2

Introducing the session: Arrange a circle (fishbowl) of six chairs in the center of the classroom and ask
the team you have selected to go first to occupy the chairs, facing one another. The other participants
arrange themselves around the outside of the circle. After all are seated, setting the climate for sharing
the experience is most important. Tell the students to recall the “Dialogue Sequence” used in the course
when communication was studied. The first phase of the sequence on “listening skills” is what you are
trying to achieve here, i.e., all the participants are trying to be “radio receivers” so they can understand
what experience the other team had and what they learned. This is not a time for teams to get into the
confrontation stage.

Task 1b: The team in the fishbowl should carry on a dialogue spontaneously for about twenty or twenty-
five minutes, unless they run out of things to say before the allotted time. They should not be interrupted
by participants or professor during their discussion. Not more than thirty minutes should be used for each
team’s turn in the fishbowl, including the final question-answer period to follow, or the exercise can
become too drawn out.

Task 1 c: When the team in the fishbowl has finished, the other participants should be given a few
minutes to ask questions. It should be emphasized that the questions are for information only, i.e., their
radio receiver may not have picked up all the data and clarification is needed. Questions can become
tricky at this point. The intergroup dynamics can become aroused very quickly, particularly if a team in
the fishbowl made some remark about another team. Questions frequently can be an attack on the group.
For instance, “Don’t you think you would have done a much better job if you had been more open?” This
is saying you did not do well, which is a judgmental factor and not a question for information or
clarification. If there are women on the teams, they can become the subject of attack sometimes, if they
show leadership potential or if they assert themselves about what happened to them. Males frequently
perceive this as aggressive and threatening. If a male-female confrontation starts, the professor should
step in immediately and say, “All that we are trying to do is hear how each team and team member feels
about what happened to them. They are sharing their feelings with us and we must respect them for doing
so.”

The role of the professor during feedback: Attempt always to be supportive and protective of the team
and individuals in the fishbowl, as indicated in the above paragraph. You have asked them to be open and
when they do so they earn and expect your support. Never be critical of a team during the session; you
will not be carrying out the listening model you have asked them to follow and will be in the evaluative,
judgmental realm. Let the fishbowl and the questions from the participants carry the session so you are in
low key, low profile. Never push teams to talk about their feelings or anything else if they do not want to;
remember, they should remain in control of what they discuss. (On only one occasion, with hundreds of
teams, has the author had a team refuse to talk about their experience. If the experience has not been a
particularly good one, a team will usually discuss it in a very superficial manner. Respect them for doing
what they perceive to be the best solution to the situation you have put them in.)

Never get defensive: For instance, a team may be saying they did not really get too involved in the
outside experience because the professor did not tell them what to do, was vague or did not give them
enough support. This can be handled in several ways. Let it go, you are just a listener. If you feel the
team may be creating a negative attitude in the class that may affect the reports to follow, you might say
to the rest of the class after they have finished their discussion, “Let’s talk about what they said about lack
of support from the professor for a few minutes. How do the rest of you feel about that?” Usually, some
students will say that the design of the course is to let the students and teams learn in a self-directing
manner. They are to explore the ambiguities they are confronted with and use course theory and

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techniques and their own approaches to cope with it. You can say that was the intent and move along
with the feedback. If there is general agreement that you did not give enough guidance (which is
unlikely), accept the feedback with a comment that you “hear” them. Be sure and control the time, one-
half hour for each team.

The entire session is almost always a great learning experience. Participants frequently say it really pulls
the learning all together and leave feeling good. At worst, it can be a rather bland experience.

Activity 16-6: Feedback on Effectiveness of the Course and the Instructor

The instructor should decide whether he/she wishes to have a feedback session. Students are usually
appropriate in presenting their opinions, doing so in a way they hope will be acceptable to the instructor.
However, if the professor feels he/she might become defensive, it may be better to eliminate this activity.

The advantage of the feedback is that the teams do critique what they have learned and they respect any
system that permits them to evaluate the teacher. (The author is currently doing this at final time, the
course grade having already been determined from tests and term paper. Instead of giving a final
examination, the two-hour period is used for two purposes: to have this team exercise evaluating the
course and the instructor during the first hour, and to hand back and discuss their individual term papers
on the team and their team reports, during the second.)

This can be an excellent learning experience. Students frequently come up with better ways of handling
the course and the activities. Much of this textbook has been designed from what the authors learned
from their students.

FINAL COURSE GRADES

In business and government, most management workshops are operated without evaluating the
participants. It has been found that adults work best when they are assured that no report is going back to
their boss and that they are there to get what they can out of the experience. With students in a university
setting, this is not usually possible, since grades are a part of academic life at most schools. This can be
an advantage, however, if professors use grades to reinforce the behavior they are attempting to help the
participants learn. Since behavior change cannot be graded, courses of this type can afford to be more
generous than those in accounting, for instance.

Some instructors inform students that if they come to all sessions, and all their written work shows they
are making a serious effort to apply course concepts, they will receive a “B.” Those who get an “A” will
have been judged to have applied course concepts thoroughly, extensively, and meaningfully. The “C” or
lower is given for absences from class, complaints from team members that the individual did not attend
meetings or do his/her share of the work (the attendance sheets also may show this), or for poor written
work. If an individual’s term paper is totally inadequate, he/she can get a “D” in the course. A preferable
alternative is to make the student do the paper work over even if he temporarily receives an “incomplete”
in the course.

Some instructors chose to be more rigorous with their grading schema. The most important part is for the
instructor to choose a grading schema that he or she is comfortable with. A more rigorous grading
schema can be found in this manual as a part of a proposed course syllabus at the end of Module 1. Our
approach with MBAs has been more towards the rigorous side.

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Specific examples of grading systems for the three course plans are as follows:

PLAN A

Points given for attendance and participation 33.3%

Mid-term examination 33.3%
Final 33.4% 100%

In Plan A no team projects or papers are required and teams are usually reformed three times during the
quarter or semester. An absence does not depreciate the learning experience as much as would be the
case when the individual is undertaking a team project. Therefore, a positive approach is used to
encourage student attendance by earning points.

PLAN B

Team Reports
Task paper 25
Team development paper 20 45%

Individual Activity
Term paper on team 30
Other 25 55% 100%

Absences—Drop one grade on final grade for each three hours missed.

PLAN C

Mid-term 33.3
Individual term paper on team 33.3
Final 33.4 100%

Absences—Drop one grade on final grade for each three hours missed.

In Plans B and C attendance is required. An absence means not only that the individual has missed the
experience but also he/she has deprived the others of his/her interaction input. Therefore, attendance is
required and can result in the final grade being lowered. (Only on rare occasions is this necessary.)

Optimal Final Examination: In a course design that focuses on “The Team Dynamics Paper”, the
primary learning will come from the term papers on the teams. One way to focus on this aspect is to
make the final examination optional. For example, in Plan C, inform the participants that they have this
choice: If they have an “A” or “B” on the mid-term and the individual term paper, they do not have to
take the final. But an “A” and a “B” would give them a “B” in the course. However, anyone going into
the final with an “A” and “B” or two “B’s” will receive a final grade of “A” if an “A” is attained in the
final examination. This puts pressure on the students to do a thorough job on the individual term paper
and the group learning.

Weekly or Pop Quizzes: Originally, we assumed students would read the assignments of the text each
week. However, many good students complained that they did not wish to take part in team activities
when many of the participants were not doing their reading and were often unprepared for discussions.

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Asked what the instructor should do about this, participants said they would like weekly quizzes so
everyone would keep up with their assignments. A large majority voted for this. We regret using time
for so much testing but under these conditions it appears to work. We prefer to give one five-minute
essay-type question, at the beginning of the hour, and grade it on a credit/no-credit basis. Only if
individuals receive many no-credit grades does it influence the final grade. Many of you will feel your
students are sufficiently scholarly not to warrant pop quizzes.

Examination Questions: Essay questions for the mid-term and final are more consistent with the spirit of
the course than objective-type questions. One of the best learning approaches is to pass out at the
beginning of the semester twenty to forty essay questions covering the course. From these, some will be
selected for the mid-term and final. Since instructors sometimes have too many students to allow them
time to read so many bluebooks, objective questions can also be used. Questions appearing at the end of
each module in the textbook can be used for essay examinations. The Test Bank Supplement includes
few additional essay questions.

PLAN “B”

Understanding Team Action

These notes provide all the information for conducting the Plan B version of the course, and for using the
material contained in different parts of the book for this purpose.

Objectives of the Team Action Assignment

1. Develop abilities to analyze the group dynamics as it evolves in the activities of his team members’
interactions.
2. Learn skills such as communicating, problem solving, decision making, and team building in small
groups.
3. Gain awareness of attitude survey problems and how that topic area is related to the organizational
behavior field.

Assumptions about the Method

This activity is self-directing. The idea is to put six strangers together, give them a task project to
complete which is somewhat vague and for which they have little preparation or knowledge, and to let
them struggle. They must organize themselves, do the necessary research to gain the knowledge they
need, complete the project, and at the same time observe the interactions within their teams. The
assumption is that students will learn more if they are first put into an ambiguous problem situation and
allowed to explore it before they are given needed skills than if they are trained in the skills first, and
given problems on which to apply them afterwards. The latter spoon-feeding approach has the
disadvantage of students believing topics such as communications are simple, which is a terrible
misconception. They also do not know what to do when confronted with situations where the tools and
skills do not work too well. Starting with some ambiguity provides for the exploration of alternatives and
learning from mistakes. As the course progresses, they accumulate organization behavior knowledge and
skills that can apply to their interactions.

The Role of the Instructor in Managing the Teams

Since this is a self-directing activity, the best role for the instructor is to keep out of individual team
activities and to provide all guidance during the regular classroom sessions. The instructor is almost
never required to meet with individual teams outside the classroom. Teams have problems of two types.
The first is related to their student attitude survey. They find it ambiguous at the start and sometimes
want to meet with the instructor to see if their ideas are all right. If these questions come up, the
instructor can frequently handle them in class or meet with the team for a few minutes after class to give

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them guidance. Sometimes after a team has completed the student survey team project report and the
instructor has given it a lessor grade than the team expected, they will want to meet for discussion. This
usually requires a separate appointment so that a detailed discussion of their project can take place.

A second type of problem is when conflict arises in the group and they ask the professor to come in and
see if he can help resolve it. An outside meeting is necessary in this case. (Note: This has happened to
the author only three times in the past five years, so the probability is extremely good that they can use
the guidance provided by the activities during the regular course to solve their own difficulties.)

Avoid meeting with an individual representative of a team. If he/she is there saying his/her team wants
him/her to get your guidance on a matter, it is usually best to say you will meet for a few minutes with the
team. The reason for this is that an individual doing this has been found sometimes to have a “hidden
agenda” and will return to the group with an interpretation that meets his/her own needs.

Self-direction can be a misleading term. How much self-direction are the students ready for? Most do
need real structure and support in order to be self-directing, and that is why the course design is so
carefully planned and articulated. Make sure the eleven points in the sequence on this team activity listed
in the section immediately above are understood early by the class and reviewed periodically during the
course. The weekly one-minute progress reports each team makes to the class generates the pressure
needed for teams to meet regularly. Remind the teams several times early in the course that they can “fire
an employee” if he does not show up for meetings, is not doing his share of the work, or is causing too
many problems for the team to handle. All they have to do is tell the professor a team member has been
fired. (See guidance on handling team deviants in the introduction part of this manual). (Note: This
rarely happens, but occasionally a student cannot take group life; be supportive of that person and assign
him a term paper to be done from library reading. All of these measures have been recommendations of
the students themselves and they do help.). One additional potential weak point is that students
sometimes do not keep their journals, resulting in a four-page term paper at the end of the course. How to
keep a journal should be discussed from time to time. Ask students to volunteer in class to describe how
they are keeping a journal and several who are doing it conscientiously will describe their methods; you
can add to it.

Task 1: The student survey is the best vehicle to use for the team task project. Groups sometimes want to
do other things which can complicate managing the activity, such as evaluating the faculty. Tell them
they cannot possibly do a completely valid survey under these conditions and therefore it would be
irresponsible to evaluate the faculty. Studies such as library reviews of energy crises or other topics will
result in too little group interaction and should be avoided. Sometimes participants have access to
employees where they work and want to try an attitude survey. Under some conditions this is all right as
long as the result are not fed back into that organization, because it will probably not be valid.

It is well to discourage too ambitious a project because it may become more than the students can handle;
they also can become so involved in the survey that they neglect their major project of working on team
actions and effectiveness. The two-page summary of their project proposal allows the instructor to
control many of these factors at the time he approves them.

Task 2: The main thing to emphasize in the Team Term Paper on the Task Project is Task 2 (6),
concerning what they learned from the study. Recognizing that they cannot do a very good survey in the
time available, they can learn from their mistakes. Once they have completed it, what would they have to
do to make it a completely valid survey if they were to do it over? This portion of the group paper can
carry a lot of weight in the grade. The students should do some intensive library work to answer this.

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Tasks 3 and 4: The Individual Term Paper should be turned in after the Team Term Paper on the Task
Project (Task 2) and before the Team Term Paper on Team Development (Task 4). The design is for the
team to complete the survey and then for the individual to write the analysis of the group dynamics
development based upon his/her journal. This the individual does without consulting the team members.
After the students have turned in their papers, they come together in Activity 15-4 and analyze their
teams. During this session they will find that each person has seen the group action somewhat differently
and some synergistic learning should take place. Be sure and tell the students they are not to have a group
meeting to determine what goes into their individual papers. This would be apparent to the instructor if
he reads all the papers for one team at the same time. Be sure and return the term paper on the Task
Project (Task 2) before the team starts on the Team Development paper (Task 4), so they will have
feedback on all the mistakes they made. This is important when they consider their effectiveness and how
they were affected by “groupthink.”

What Participants Should Learn from the Student Survey

Although the survey assignment is primarily just a task for the team to carry out so data will be generated
on interaction dynamics, it provides for content learning relevant to organizational behavior; it should
also make them aware of the type of questions managers should ask about surveys. It is not the intent of
the exercise to train them in survey research techniques.

1. Perception: An attitude survey is basically a means of determining how a population perceives issues,
actions, and people. Organizations often do need this type of information.

2. Validity: A survey is either meaningless or misleading unless precise scientific methods are used in
planning, gathering, and analyzing the data. This is the most important, since students almost always
think they have completed a valid survey and most often do not.

3. Defining the Problem to Be Surveyed: Students almost never do this with any degree of precision or
completeness; consequently they usually wind up with data which they find difficult to interpret.
However, they are almost never aware of this failure until they get feedback from their instructor on the
term paper they have turned in on the survey. (Their survey paper, in fact, usually can be described by
the old phrase, “A camel is a horse put together by a committee.” When the team fully realizes the
product they thought was great was not, they become aware of many of the factors of “groupthink” which
characterized their group actions. This also illustrates that action orientation most often takes precedence
over planning and goal setting is needed.)

4. Questionnaire Design and Sentence Construction: These have to be formulated from the definition
of the problem and are highly subject to problems of bias.

5. Selection of Sample Population: Randomness and representatives are crucial.

6. Use of Statistical Methods in Data Analysis: This cannot be done if certain assumptions are violated;
among these is the assumption of randomness.

7. The Responsibility for Handling Survey Data: Invalid data can create considerable harm if it is
assumed to be valid; valid data misused can also. An excellent example would be student-evaluation-of-
faculty questionnaires sometimes hastily put together and administered by untrained students; faculty
members could be hurt from the invalid data.

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To repeat, the purpose of this review is not to develop students’ expertise in survey methods but to make
them aware of some of the major questions managers should be asked concerning survey data presented
to them.

Participants’ Reports to the Class on Their Student Attitude Surveys

Students usually want to report on these once they have been completed and it does add something to
group identity to allow them to do so. The learning points outlined immediately above do come out in
these; however, by the time two teams have reported, most of the points have been made. So it is well not
to allow them too much time for class reports—twenty to thirty minutes per team is enough. It is
important that all teams have turned in their Task Project reports (Task 2) prior to the class presentation;
otherwise the teams learn from the professor’s comments on the first report and turn in far superior
papers—this to the complaint of the other teams.

Be sure and be supportive of your teams. Avoid attacking, criticizing, or provoking them. For instance,
in giving them feedback on their student surveys in class be sure they realize that most all teams make the
same mistakes under these conditions and that is part of the learning process. Teams that feel they are
being criticized unjustly by the instructor can develop very negative and defensive norms toward
him/her—almost instantaneously.

Activity 16-7W: Anderson’s Challenge at Berol Kemi

This preview activity provides an opportunity to begin the exploration of the organizational culture
concept. We have found that the activity works best after a short introduction to the topic. The objective
of the activity is to start the inquiry into the formation process of organizational culture, its impact, and
the difficulty of changing an existing organizational culture.

Case Overview
Berol Kemi, with 1100 employees and sales of $100 million, was losing $30 million in 1978. A new
manager—Mr. Edebo was hired and charged with turning the company around. The case describes the
change process and activities that Edebo facilitated which led to the transformation of the company. A
new organizational culture emerged. In the late 1980s a new manager with a different philosophy and
style was hired. The case ends with a short description of the culture under the new manager.

Case Analysis & Procedure

The notes that follow are in accord with the procedure outlined in the text.

Task 3: During this phase, you are boarding the teams’ responses to Tasks 2a, 2b, and 2c. Start by
examining the characteristics of the company under Rolf Edebo’s leadership (Task 2a). Next, get the
team representatives to share the teams’ perceptions of the major characteristics of the company under
Anderson (Task 2b). Next, facilitate a comparative discussion of the planned change orientations that
were followed by both Edebo and Anderson.

Task 4: Facilitate a class discussion on some of the unique elements of the company culture under the
two chiefs. At this stage we find it useful to begin to focus the discussion not only on what are some of
the main components of culture but on the role that leadership plays in shaping up organizational culture.
This leads nicely to a short lecture on organizational culture.

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Activity 16-8W: Revisiting the Paper Mill Corporation
This activity provides an opportunity to apply concepts from Modules 13, 14 and 15 to a specific case—
The Paper Mill Case. The activities outlined in this activity assume a basic familiarity with the content,
and challenge the learner to apply the concepts in this part of the book.

Activity 16-9W: Bill (Bonnie) Dawson’s Challenge at Crofts Products Company (An In-
Basket Case Study)
This In-Basket is most useful at the end of the course for application and the integration of the concepts
covered in the course. It is a good idea to have the students read the case early in the course so they will
have an idea of what skills they will need to acquire; some students will want to work on it from time to
time on their own. There is considerably more work here than there appears to be. Executives and
managers who have done this In-Basket as prework for a one-week managerial workshop have often
reported spending up to twelve hours on it.

Use as a Written Assignment

It makes an excellent take-home final examination, but requires considerable time for the professor to
read and grade. If this is done, it is well to have the students complete it early and turn it in at the class
meeting. They can meet at the final examination time and get the advantage of feedback on the case.

One caution on requiring written work on this In-Basket. If you do this, do not let them have their papers
back; let them see the papers in class when it is discussed, but have them turn the papers back in. The
reason for this is that any college or university has an informal system where papers of this type are
passed on to the future classes; fraternity houses regularly stock such items. In-Baskets are very difficult
to come by and if you want to continue to use this one, retaining the write-ups will reduce the probability
of having solutions in circulation. Of course, different questions can be written for each class but the
number of new questions becomes limited. One way to avoid this problem is not to require written work
on the In-Basket. Have the students make notes on it for class discussion. If this is done, it is a good idea
to have them turn in their notes for credit only (no grading) if no notes are required, a number of students
will probably not spend any time on the exercise and come unprepared.

Objectives of the Assignment

For students to learn:

1. That the analysis of problems and causes is difficult and may lead to action decisions not related to
the primary goals. Starting with a goal analysis, and analyzing the problems and causes as barrier,
enables planners to establish priorities better.
2. To apply course concepts in the analysis of goals and barriers and in the design of a strategy.
3. That “management is situational.”
4. Implications and methods of handling a personal problem of an employee using the “open-door”
alternative to get a hearing from the boss.

Conducting the Class Sessions

Two or three hours are needed to cover this case thoroughly in class.

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First Hour
Have the teams in the classroom work on Questions 1 and 2 of the assignment; their spokesperson should
be prepared to present the team’s position on what the priority problems are which Dawson faces and also
their causes. Fifteen minutes is enough time for them to get started on this, and the reports of the
spokesperson will show that there were many different views in the class. The professor should list on
the board the first two or three priority problems and causes of each team. This array will indicate that
there is considerable confusion about how to go about defining the problems and causes. Many of the
same items will appear on both lists. However, there will be a tendency to say that getting the PQS
matching progress report out is what everyone in the case is talking about so it is the most important. Tell
them you are not satisfied with this answer. Ask them where they would turn for guidance on Dawson’s
potential number one problem. They usually decide on Dawson’s boss. Ask them to turn to Pat
Harrison’s letter and have someone read it. The first paragraph indicates hardline products are stressed;
the PQS is secondary. Ask the students why they did not see this. One possible reason: students and
managers are inclined to be task-oriented and prefer to deal with the definite and the concrete, instead of
the less definite and abstract. In this case the PQS was easy to target in on but the hardline plans are
vague and there is little data presented on them.

It is well to indicate that the problems and causes they have come up with can be classified as immediate
and longer range; there also appear to be personal (Dawson’s), task, and people problems. This
differentiation sometimes aids students when they are working on the goals.

Second Hour
Have the teams come up with their answer to Question 3 concerning the goals Dawson wants to
accomplish (fifteen minutes). Here again the PQS progress report will be emphasized above other items.
The goal of this hour is to have them realize that the Goal Setting approach and the problem-solving
model bring order into determining the causes and their priority. A school solution to the first three
questions, which can be formulated and put on the board from students’ suggestions, is as follows:

Goals: There are three types here: personal, task, and people/team goals.

Personal Goals: It is important for Dawson to know what he wants to achieve for himself in the
organization. From the information presented in the case, he wants to advance further into the Lilliwhite
Corporation, thus doing well at Crofts is only an intermediate objective.

1. First priority goes to preparing plans on new hardline productions for the Thursday meeting with the
Lilliwhite people. This is Dawson’s first opportunity to show them what he can do.
2. Second priority is getting the PQS progress report out. (See rational in the First Hour discussion, on
previous page.)
3. The list could continue, but the primary points are those made above.

Task Goals (longer range): There are a number that could be listed, among which would be:
1. Increase profits.
2. Have all activities carried on against a set of objectives that can be evaluated periodically (MBO).
3. Design the organizational structure, and define roles so objectives can be best achieved.

People/Team Goals
1. Teamwork by the management team is needed to achieve the above.

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2. Management development and career planning are needed, e.g., Rita Lanstrom’s problem.
3. Other.

Barriers to the Achievement of the Goals: Now that the goals have been established, the problems can be
defined as the barriers that are preventing the achievement of these: No planning for new products, the
PQS report is overdue, there is disagreement over goals, there is a lack of coordination and underlying
conflict between units, ideas are not being utilized, etc. The three core concepts—communication,
perception, and motivation—can be seen to clearly apply here.

Causes: Alvin Alberts’ managerial style was a major factor. He was primarily a retired-on-the-job
manager. He was making no decisions. His one-to-one relations with his managers were causing
conflict, perceptual distortion, communications breakdowns, etc. He had not clearly defined the roles of
the individuals or units and he had no meaningful executive meetings. Staff meetings were for trivia.
Cause—poor management.

There are other ways of analyzing the above. The major points are to show that a problem and cause
orientation can frequently lead to considerable confusion. If objectives, or goals, are defined and rank
ordered, the problems become barriers to be overcome in achieving the goals. The case provides some
idea as to why the barriers exist and what might be done.

Third Hour

Strategy: Question 4 asks the student what strategy she/he will use to deal with the goals, problems, and
causes in the coming week. The primary purpose here is to see if the students can apply the concepts
studied to a strategy, now that they have made their analysis. The primary goal of coming up with a new
hardline-products plan for the Thursday meeting provides Dawson with the opportunity to start team
action among the managerial staff. Most of the managers are saying in their memoranda that they have
ideas or plans they want to discuss with Dawson; perhaps these are relevant.

Dawson could call the team together (both line and staff) early in the week and tell them of Harrison’s
letter. He could set a meeting up that would last at least three hours so plans could be discussed. The
idea of synergy in group problem solving is being applied here. At the end of the meeting, each manager
could be assigned a piece of the report to prepare covering his area. He would go back to his own
department, get ideas from his people, and then submit a more comprehensive report to Dawson. Ideally,
the team should come back together for discussion of the more expanded reports. If Dawson continues
this way of planning in the future, an opportunity for team development will exist and many of the
problems of communication, motivation, and perceptual distortion can be overcome or at least worked
upon. The PQS machine progress report would be a part of the above discussion and how to handle it
could be decided in the team meetings. It should be made apparent to the students that the disagreement
over the PQS machine is the result of not doing what Dawson would be doing in developing his team.

Students will often object to the above approach. They will say there is not time, and that he should just
tell the managers what he wants to do. Others will say he should see each manager individually and not
bring them together until he knows them and their problems; there is too much conflict to bring them
together.

The main point to stress is that the company cannot overcome the problems it faces unless a good
management team is formed that is capable of team action, planning, decision making, and problem
solving. Just how any particular manager goes about it is going to depend upon many factors. The
“management is situational” approach is applicable here. M = f (l, etc.). Some managers working on

352
this problem insist that they would call the team together early Monday morning and keep them working
on the planning. Their personality and self-confidence with people make them feel it is the only route.
Others say they would spend time reading up on the PQS files and past plans before they saw anyone.
There is no definite answer as to strategy except that it should be designed to achieve the goals and
overcome the barriers.

How to Handle Rita Lanstrom: This is Part II of the case. Students get quite involved in this since they
can identify with Rita better than they can with managers. (You may want to use this portion for a fourth
hour, depending upon how well the In-Basket has gone with your class.) Students frequently indicate
Dawson should spend a good deal of time with Rita and some want to give her an important role, such as
special assistant. Others do not want to see her until they have read her personnel file or checked her out
with Rita’s boss, Lynn Joseph.

It is important to point out that you really do not know much about Rita other than what was in her letter
and what Barbara Lonski said. She may not have the great potential many students assume. One way of
interpreting her letter is that she is trying to bring herself to the attention of the new boss; and would
apparently like more authority than she has. Further, if she is one of the five MBA’s recently hired, is she
trying to get a step ahead of them?

Another consideration concerns the “open-door” policy of the boss. Many organizations have it
indicating that if any employee, however humble, really feels he must talk to the big boss, an appointment
can be made. (Of course, not many employees do take advantage of this, so it does not get out of hand.)
An employee who has a grievance will typically believe an open-door policy means he will get a fair,
unbiased hearing. If the employee finds out that Dawson, in this case, has checked with Rita’s boss and
read the files, would she believe she got a fair, unbiased hearing? In all likelihood she would not. Her
views could later be expressed to the MBAs and others, and cause some distrust.

Another factor to consider is that the reasons many people give for wanting to see the boss are not the real
reasons; they are the so-called “presenting problem.” Why spend time checking on her until you
determine from her what her problem is?

With the above considerations in mind, Dawson should see Lanstrom “cold,” i.e., without any
preparation. He can tell Lanstrom he will be glad to hear what she has to say and that he will look into
anything that needs to be looked into, but that he will not respond to her at this time. When the interview
is over, Dawson can paraphrase the problem and indicate that he will get back to her at some later time.

Some students question whether Dawson really has time to see her in view of all the other priorities.
Some suggest that Dawson phone her, saying he has some urgent matters facing him and would like to
wait until Friday to talk to her. The main point is that concern be shown to the employee as a value and
norm the professional manager wants to create in the organizational climate.

After Dawson has discussed Rita with Lynn Joseph, what should be done? It depends upon what he finds
out. If there is a conflict between the two, perhaps Dawson will want to talk to each alone and bring them
together for further discussion in confronting and resolving it. This is advocated by many consultants.

353
Study Questions

1. Discuss the key concepts that are embedded in the definition of organizational learning.
Comment: Organizational learning is defined in terms of continuous development of knowledge and
capacity. Becoming a knowledge-based society requires organizations to develop mechanisms that will
enhance the organizational capacity of learning. Mechanisms are viewed both in terms of structural
arrangements and organizational processes. As such, organizational learning has become an integral part
of managerial thinking and practice in business strategy, organization design and organization
development and change. The discussion on the variety of learning mechanisms is summarized in Table
16-1. A much more comprehensive cover of the topic can be found in the power point slides package.

2. Discuss the relationships between organizational learning, organizational culture, and organizational
development and change.
Comment: Organizational culture develops from the shared experience of a given group and provides a
set of mechanisms for dealing with the environment. Organizational learning can be seen as a system of
principles, activities, processes, and structures that enable an organization to realize the potential inherent
in the knowledge and experience of its human capital. Organization development focuses on improving
the effectiveness of organizations. Any organization development intervention must be based in the
understanding of the organizational culture and the organizational learning processes that emerge over
time to foster certain cultural characteristics.

2. Discuss the relationships between organizational learning mechanisms and organizational

performance.
Comment: Organizational learning mechanisms are viewed as one of the two more critical components of
most OD interventions, the second one being Action Research. Three types of learning mechanisms were
identified in the text each of which was found to have an impact on organizational performance and
sustainability. Within the power point slides one can find many relevant slides that capture both the
specific nature of learning mechanisms and their respective impact on performance. The GE case is an
illustrative case in which the causality between the two is demonstrated.

4. Identify and discuss the key elements in the definition of Organization Development.
Comment:
∗ “planned” effort, that is not haphazard or spontaneous but well thought out and with specific
objectives.
∗ “organizationwide” means that it requires changes at all levels in the organization, not just isolated
areas.
∗ “managed from the top,” stresses the importance of top management support for an intervention to
work.
∗ “increase organizational effectiveness and health” because they are the key to competitive strength in
the market.
∗ “Cultural change” is part of such a planned process because it involved changes in values, norms and
roles of the members.

5. Compare and contrast the target-group-based and the consequence-based typologies of change
programs.

354
Comment: The essence of both typologies can be found on in the text. Figures 16-2 and 16-3 provide
examples of both typologies.

6. What are the major phases of an OC&D program?

Comment: Some differences can be found between the different OC&D Programs. For the purpose of
this question (for illustration) we would like to focus on the major phases of an STS OD program:

Phase I: Preparation of Organization and Top Management

A. Entry, Scanning, Contracting

B. Formation of a Steering Committee
C. Analysis of Business Situation
D. Analysis of Business Results
E. Formulation of a Business Vision, Strategy and goals

Phase II: Formation, Education and Analysis by the AR System

A. Analysis of Technical, Social Environment and Design

B. Recommendations for Organizational Redesign
C. Approval and Prioritizing of Recommendation for Joint Optimization
D. Planning for Experimental Implementation

Phase III: Experimental Execution

A. Assess and Modify Changes, If Necessary

B. Refine Vision Statement
C. Formulate the Total System Change Strategy
D. Identify Criteria for Effectiveness Assessments

Phase IV: Implementation of New Design

A. Implementation Process
B. Re-examination of Business Situation
C. Refinement

7. Compare and contrast any two planned change interventions described in this module.
Comment: Table 16-2 provides a comprehensive comparison between TQM, STS and Reengineering
planned change programs.

355
PART FIVE:
ADVANCED MODULES

UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING EMERGING COMPLEX PROCESSES

1
MODULE 17
Stress and the Management of Stress

Module Overview
This module is a continuation of the module on personal effectiveness. In this segment we define stress,
emphasize the consequences of prolonged stress, identify some of its sources in personal and work life,
and conclude with some suggestions for coping with stress from the view of self-help and management
practices.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, the learner should be able to
1. Describe the phenomenon of stress and its consequences.
2. Diagnose the sources of work–life stress.
3. Explain the relationship among stress, health, and performance.
4. Appreciate the role you can play in dealing with your own stress.
5. Describe the methods of coping with stress both at the individual and organizational levels.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 17–1W: Sources of Stress
Introduction
What Is Stress?
The Fight-or-Flight Syndrome
The General Adaptation System
Stress Defined
Sources of Stress
Critical Life Events and Challenges
Personality Characteristics of the Stress–Strain Relationship
Work-Related Stress
Workplace Stress Audit
Consequences of Stress
Physical Outcomes
Psychological Outcomes—Burnout Behavioral Outcomes—Performance
Coping with Stress
Individual Strategies—Self-Help
Managerial Practices and Stress Reduction
Organizational Strategies—Toward a Sustainable Work System
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 17–2W: The Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Activity 17–3W: Methods of Coping with Stress
Activity 17–4W: What Is Your Communication Style under Stress?

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on session design
Activity 17-1W: Sources of Stress
Activity 17-2W: The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, and Self-Evaluation: The Glazer-Stress Control
Life-Style Questionnaire.
Activity 17–3W: Methods of Coping with Stress
Activity 17–4W: What Is Your Communication Style under Stress?

2
Based on time constraints, two-hour and one-hour modules can be organized:

Alternative 1 (Two-hour module):

1. Assign Task 1 of Activity 11-1 and Activity 11-3 as homework.
2. Lecture. Your introductory lecture can include the material in the early part of the module:
importance of stress; what is stress, which includes the fight-and-flight syndrome, and the General
Adaptation System; and the consequences of stress.
3. Sources of Stress: Start with Task 2 of Activity 11-1 and get team reports. Have them complete the
Social Readjustment Scale and go over the interpretation on the back. Follow this with the
completion and discussion of Self-Evaluation: The Glazer Life-Style Questionnaire in which it is
assumed that personality (Type A) is a source of stress proneness.
4. Coping with Stress: Have them complete Task 2 of Exercise 11-3. They will come up with quite a
comprehensive list. Present your own material on coping, guidance for which will be included later
in this section.

Alternative 2 (One-hour module):

Similar to Alternative 1 with two exceptions: Shorten the lecture and assign the questionnaires as
homework.

Activity 17-1W: Sources of Stress

When you assign Task 1 as homework, be sure and tell them not to read the module on stress prior to
coming to class. Emphasize that learning will be enhanced if we examine class perceptions before
making a substantive input and later to contrast them with what we know from the literature. There is
little to be added here that is not already covered in the exercise instructions. The major concern you will
have is how much time to give teams for discussion of Task 1 in class before you have them report their
conclusions. You can let the teams have as little as ten minutes, but if you have a lot of time to devote to
the topic, it’s easy to use a half-hour. Even with ten minutes, your two-hours will be tight if you use all
the material in this unit.

Sources of Stress
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Activity 11-2-A). Have them complete this in class and turn to the
back of the form for an interpretation. Point out that some research has been done to support this scale,
but the percentage figures are probabilities to be applied to groups and may not apply to an individual.
That means you as an individual may have a score over 300 points, which carries a probability of 80
percent that you would be expected to get sick in the near future, but it may not have any application to
you whatsoever. If you take 100 people with that score, it may apply to them as a group; some specific
individuals may never get sick even under prolonged stress. However, the important idea here is that if
you are under prolonged stress, you may be more susceptible to illness. When we think back on our
illnesses, or those of family and friends, many of us recognize this to have some validity. For example,
how many students come to final examinations with colds, fevers, or other illnesses or symptoms?

Self-Evaluation: The Glazer-Stress Control Life-Style Questionnaire (Activity 11-2-B). There is nothing
to add to what is already in the interpretation. It is most important to emphasize, however, that this

3
questionnaire is only a training instrument that comes without data or research support. It is a way of
bringing out some of the dimensions of stress prone personalities (Type A).

After discussing the two questionnaires, you can talk about Lazarus’ work on life hassles as a contrast to
the Holmes and Rahe findings on stress and illness.

Job Stressors: Start your discussion of these by asking the question:

Activity 17-2W: The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, and Self-Evaluation: The Glazer-
Stress Control Life-Style Questionnaire.

What levels of the occupational hierarchy are apt to experience the most stress in their work?
The American Management Association study showed that top and middle management people reported
only an average self rating of 2.6 on a 4-point scale on degree of job stress. The public most typically has
the impression that the greatest stress is in the executive suite. However, studies have generally reported
that there is greater stress in middle management which experiences pressures from above and below (and
where movement toward the top is uncertain) than among top executives. One reason is that top
executives find great satisfaction in their jobs to balance off stress—there is probably also a selective
personality factor in those making it to the top. Also, the University of Michigan studies found the
greatest stress among the lower occupational levels, where boredom and job uncertainty were greater and
satisfaction less.

Activity 11-3W: Methods of Coping with Stress

Task 1 will have been completed as homework. Task 2 should be completed at this point in your class
session. There is nothing to be added that is not already in the instructions. As you get the team reports,
make a list of their suggestions on the blackboard. Here is a compilation from some of our past classes:

Coping with Stress Strategies and Methods

1. Physical exercise program.
2. Nutrition.
3. Self-understanding/feeling good about self:
a. Competencies, personality strengths and weaknesses;
b. Values clarification;
c. Expression of feelings; assertiveness training;
d. Dialoguing, not judging others, tolerance for ambiguity, handling conflict, etc.;
e. Other.
4. Problem-solving behavior, e.g., Karen Horney’s personal styles of responding to stress (moving
toward, away from, and against) and need to develop problem-solving mode as alternative.
5. Talking it out:
- With friend or spouse;
- Sharing;
- Co-counseling.
6. Varied interests, hobbies, etc.

4
7. Planning, goal-setting, setting priorities, problem-solving methods.
8. Time management, pacing, work habits.
9. Relaxation exercises, mediation.
10. Biofeedback.
11. Behavior modification.
12. Desensitization.
13. Other: (Nancy Reagan says she cries every day).
14. Pitfalls of too high expectations for self. Burnout candidate. Need to make decision on what you
want out of life. Many overachievers finally pick a style of life with less income and more simple
rewards.
15. Have some fun.
16. Living in the here and now versus in the future and past.
17. Increase your aloneness time—if you are not already either lonely or schizoid.
18. Learn how much sleep you need for optimal functioning.

Coping with Stress—Your Response to Participant’s List of Coping Methods

Self-Help—Have the class turn to page 322 and go over the three points: Prevention and treatment for
stress have to be custom-tailored by the individual.

Use of the Body’s Natural Responses

The Relaxation Response—Most stress programs sponsored by corporations emphasize the value of
learning to relax. There is some reason to believe that the fight-or-flight response can be countered by
eliciting other bodily responses. Benson reports experiments in which stimulation of one part of the
hypothalamus (an area of the brain) of cats produced changes associated with the fight-or-flight syndrome
while stimulating another area of the hypothalamus produced physiologic changes opposite to the fight-
or-flight reactions?* This he referred to as the Relaxation Response. Benson’s studies showed that
meditation produced responses opposite to the fight-or-flight and he believes the process is eliciting the
body’s natural reactions to reduce stress. People can be trained to perform exercises which bring on
relaxation. Biofeedback has been very successful for some on learning to relax and control involuntary
body processes which are high blood pressure, rapid pulse, etc.

Exercise—Most stress-reduction programs have exercise as a major activity. Currently, exercising to

keep your heart rate up to a certain level (depending upon your age) for thirty minutes a day is frequently
recommended. Exercise has the advantage of keeping many bodily processes in first-rate condition, but
there are also certain natural responses elicited which reduce stress. The brain produces its own opiates in
the form of endorphins which give the individual a natural high. Further, exercise is said to produce good
cholesterol which is known as high density lipoproteins (HDL). It has been shown to be of possible
importance in transporting fat away from body cells, thus preventing the accumulation of cholesterol and

*
Herbert Benson, The Relaxation Response (New York, New York: Avon Books, 1975), pp. 96-97.

5
other fats within the artery walls.** HDL is to be contrasted with LDL (low density lipoproteins) which is
considered a factor in the accumulation of fatty materials in the artery walls.

Alcohol—This is brought up by students as a means of reducing stress. In response, it is well to point out
the problems of addition, particularly when there is considerable support for proneness having a genetic
basis. Also, high alcoholic intake is associated with body abuse, elevating the blood pressure among
other things. However, there is some evidence (lost my reference on this) that moderate amounts of
alcohol taken daily are associated positively with longevity. Also, moderate amounts elevate the HDL
count. But the important thing to point out here is that all those with genetic proneness can easily take
these conclusions (and research conclusions do sometimes tend to change with the accumulation of more
evidence) as a rationale for drinking and thus possibly being trapped into addiction.

Endorphins—Students often bring up drugs in the context of stress reduction. One response is to
emphasize the “brains own morphine.” “Studies have shown that various endorphins are produced by the
brain, the pituitary gland, and other tissues in response to physical stress such as strenuous exercise.”*
Ask the class how many have felt high from participation in athletics and you will get a good showing of
hands.

In conclusion, learn to relax and exercise daily and the body’s natural response will carry a major part of
stress reduction.

Activity 11-4W: What is Your Communication Style under Stress

This activity is self explanatory. It can be used as an individual activity and/or a team activity. If you
chose this one as a team activity, after the individuals complete the self assessment, ask the individuals to
share their communication styles under stress. Each team is to identify some common denominators and
implications to managerial practice. Next you can have a class discussion when each team representative
provides the teams’ ideas.

**
The American Heart Association, Heartbook (New York, New York: E. P. Dutton, 1980), p. 4.
*
Agu Pert, “The Body’s Own Tranquilizers,” Psychology Today, September 1981, p. 100.

6
Study Questions
1. “Stress should be a concern for every manager at the workplace.” Do you agree? Why?
Comment:
a. Stress is a major health hazard.
b. Stress is counter-productive. Managers should be aware of the dynamics and consequences of stress
and adopt practices for ameliorating it—be aware of vulnerability to stress when making the supervising
assignments. Managers should be concerned about human resources as much as any other resources.
c. High cost of absenteeism, turnover, etc. . . .

2. Describe the three stages of the general adaptation system.

Comment: Our body’s response to stressful incidents follows a three-stage pattern:
1. Alarm—in the alarm stage, the external stressors elicits body defense mechanisms and the
coordinated changes described under “fight or flight.”
2. Resistance—the tendency of the body to have the exact opposite reactions to the alarm response and
seek homeostasis.
3. Exhaustion—under prolonged exposure to the source of stress, the ability to resist is lost.

3. What do personality and/or personality type have to do with stress dynamics?

Comment: One source of work-related stress is at the individual level in personality type. Whether or not
an event is stress producing will depend upon how it is experienced by the individual. It is generally
accepted that Type A personalities—the chronic, compulsive over-achievers—are more prone to stress-
related heart disease. In their drive for perfection, these people are also more susceptible to “burnout.”
Recognizing these personality types may help managers prevent matching stressful assignments with
stress-prone individuals or provide the incentive for creating stress outlets.

5. Discuss the relationship between life change, personality, and environment.

Comment: Research tends to support the theory of a correlation between life changes and stress. The
more changes that occur to a person over a short period, the more likely it is that stress will be
experienced. If the personality is toward Type A behavior, the person may be even more susceptible to
illness due to stress. If the work environment is also not geared toward stress reduction—with the
organizational structure very centralized, work conditions and job characteristics rigid and frustrating—
the potential for harmful stress is greatest. These three stress sources—work, personality, and life
changes—all interact with and have a significant impact on each individual.

6. What does the American Management Association list as the leading causes of stress among middle
and top managers?
Comment:
1. Heavy workload/time pressures/unrealistic deadlines.
2. Disparity between what I have to do on the job and what I would like to accomplish.
3. The general political climate of the organization.
4. Lack of feedback on job performance.

7
However, the survey also indicated that these managers did not perceive themselves to be under constant,
hectic stress. In fact, the most stressful factor was Heavy Workload, which was rated as medium level.
The conclusion was that managerial work characteristics are viewed as challenges, and that job stressors
can also be the source of greater job satisfaction.

7. How do managers cope with stress in their working life?

Comment: The majority of all coping responses utilized fell into five categories:
A. Talking to others.
B. Working harder and longer.
C. Changing to an engrossing non-work or play activity.
D. Analyzing the situation and changing the strategy of attack.
E. Withdrawing physically from the situation.

Effectiveness of the choice of response depends on the individual. The most effective techniques for
coping were:
A. Build resistance by following good health, exercise and sleep habits.
B. Compartmentalize work and non-work life.
C. Engage in physical exercise.
D. Talk through problems with co-workers.
E. Withdraw physically from the situation.
These techniques highlight the importance of physical fitness and its relationship to stress. B and D
involve stress management.

9. What are the major strategies that organizations can utilize in coping with stress? What would be
some of the potential roadblocks in the implementation of each?
Comment: Any one or combination of the following strategies:
1. Changing organizational structures and processes. Problem: Redesign of an organization creates
change-demands that may result in decreased managerial power and privilege. Since such changes
begin with the leadership itself, it may be difficult to elicit support.
2. Changing role characteristics or conditions. Problem: Role changes upset the status quo, and can
contribute to job anxiety.
3. Changing job/task characteristics. Increasing the predictability of work can eventually lead to
boredom if there is no room for creative outlets included.
4. Incorporate physical wellness programs into organizational life. Problem: Participation in such
programs may be seen as compulsory and arouse resentment by some individuals. It may be too
structured and conforming for independent types.
Organizational effectiveness can be optimized at many levels. By facilitating the human interaction
component and creating a healthful climate for employees, managers can reduce and prevent the stress
that results in suboptimal performance.

8
MODULE 18

Career Planning and Development

Module Overview
This module introduces the topic of career development. It covers the steps individuals go
through in planning careers and discusses the changing role of organizations in assisting
individual career planners. Several reasons for change are articulated, and the responsibility of
immediate supervisors in career development is emphasized. Organization-provided support
interventions are listed, and a number of specific career development issues are discussed,
including anticipated changes in labor market demographics, implications of team-based
organization structures, competitive pressures to downsize, and efforts to effectively manage a
global enterprise.

Learning Objectives
1. Explain the relationship between continuous learning, managing change and career planning
and development.
2. Explore individual and group differences in career interests, needs and values.
3. Develop a personal 5-year career plan.
4. Gain an understanding of ways the organizations can assist individuals in pursuing their
career goals.
5. Evaluate the implications of various career management activities for organization
effectiveness.
6. Gain an appreciation of emerging issues in the management of careers.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 18-1W: Perspectives on Career Development
Introduction
Individual Career Planning
Career Planning Process
Protean Careers
Spiral and Transitory Careers
Organization Structures, Competencies, and Career Planning
Psychological Success
The Impact of Technology on Career Planning
Organizational Career Management
Role of the Supervisor in Career Management
Mentoring
Organizational Support Systems
Managing Career Development and Change: Issues for the 21st Century
Dual Career Couples
The Aging Labor Force
Alternative Work Arrangements
Downsizing, Offshoring and Outsourcing
Career Development in a Team Environment

9
Managing Workforce Diversity: Glass Ceiling Initiatives
Succession Planning
Careers in a Global Environment
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Study Questions
Activity 18-2W: Career Planning Using the Internet
Activity 18-3W: Managing the Aging Workforce
Activity 18-4W: Mentoring
Activity 18-5W: Stages of the Strategic HRM Planning Process
Notes

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on alternative sessions for the module on Career Planning and
Development, specific notes on Activity 18-1W—Perspectives on Career Development, Activity
18-2W—Career Planning, and Activity 18-3W—Managing the Aging Labor Force, and answers
to study questions. It also includes an alternative exercise, “Developing Career Paths,” and mini-
lecture notes.

Alternative ways to teach the module on Career Planning and Development

I. Class Session 1: Introductory lecture on Individual Career Planning. Students complete

Career Planning Questionnaire (Activity 18-2W, Task 1) as homework. Class Session 2: Activity
18-2, Task 2 (Task 3 as homework). Class Session 3: Lecture on Organizational Career
Management. Students complete Activity 18-1 (Field exploration) as homework. Class Session
4: Open class discussion of findings from field study (Activity 18-1); Concluding lecture on
Career Development Issues of the 21st Century.

II. Students complete Activity 18-1 before class. Class Session 1: Lecture/discussion of Field
Study findings. Class Session 2: In-class workshop; Alternative Activity, Developing Career
Paths. Class Session 3: Case Study: Managing the Aging Workforce (Activity 18-3). Wrap-up
lecture on Career Development Issues of the 21st Century.

Activity 18-1W: Perspectives on Career Development

Overview
This activity allows students to collect information about the career planning processes of other
students (Task 2), and about career management practices in organizations (Task 1). In Task 3,
the instructor acts as discussion facilitator, comparing and contrasting the findings students have
uncovered in their interviews.

Learning Objectives
1. To develop an awareness of the importance and complexity of career development issues.
2. To familiarize students with the nature and extent of career management programs currently
available in organizations.
3. To compare and contrast the perspectives of students and practicing managers regarding the
career development process.

10
How to facilitate
When discussing Task 1 results (interview students conduct with line managers), the instructor
will probably find that a wide range of different “most important” career development issues will
have been identified. Differences across organizations may be linked to particular organizational
strategies or characteristics (e.g., size, structure, technology, stage in the life cycle). Growing
firms, for instance, may see filling new job vacancies as the major issue, while downsizing
organizations may be more concerned with outplacement. Other linkages may stem from
economic, social or demographic characteristics of the firm’s workforce, or the labor market from
which it draws new employees. Try to help students explicitly identify these contingent linkages,
so that they can appreciate the wide range of environmental and specific organizational influences
on the nature of career management practices.

In discussing Task 2 results (interviews of fellow students), the instructor will want to compare
and contrast the relative realism of student career perceptions and the amount of actual career
exploration that students from different major fields have conducted. Are there any
generalizations that appear across major fields? (e.g., are engineers and accounting majors more
focused in their career exploration activities, while those in liberal arts are more variable in the
amount and type of exploration conducted?) Another basis for comparison might be individual
student characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, race, and grade-point average. Try to get
students to differentiate career exploration activities or strategies that they believe are particularly
effective, or ineffective. It may be easier for them to critique the realism of other students’ career
planning efforts than to focus on what they themselves have done in this area.

Potential mini-lectures that might follow: Human Resource Planning.

Activity 18-2W: Career Planning

Overview
This activity guides students through the first four major steps of systematic career planning:
1. assessing one’s own strengths and weaknesses,
2. exploring/evaluating career opportunities,
3. developing career goals, and
4. devising concrete action plans.

It is intended to stimulate thinking about specific career exploration activities students might
beneficially engage in, and to provide a little “reality checking” on the current stage of their own
career planning effort.

Learning Objectives
1. To actively engage in self-assessment.
2. To expose students to use of the Internet as a career planning tool.
3. To demonstrate the steps in individual career planning.

11
Teaching Notes
Students work independently on Task 1 (self-assessment of interests and abilities, checklist of
career exploration activities, short-term goal-setting). The instructor may want to have students
turn in written statements of their short-term goals, in order to comment individually on student
goal clarity, specificity, relevance and measurability.

In conducting Task 2 (team discussion of individual team member’s goals), the instructor should
emphasize the need for constructive criticism and non-defensive receipt of feedback. Encourage
students to share their knowledge of specific cases where career strategies (of their own or others
they know) have subsequently been shown to be unrealistic/overly optimistic. The instructor will
probably want to circulate around the room making sure team feedback on individual plans is
truly realistic, but also non-threatening.

Instructors will want to provide written comments on the individual action plans submitted for
Task 3. Action plans should not be graded, though the instructor may wish to point out: a) gaps
in the plan (e.g., overly optimistic time lines) and b) additional resources that may not have
occurred to students.

Potential mini-lecture that might follow: Assessment Centers; mentoring.

Activity 18-3W: Managing the Aging Labor Force

Overview
This case illustrates a multitude of issues involved in both downsizing, and in managing older
workers. It emphasizes individual differences in the abilities, needs and interests of older
workers, and shows how an organization’s career management practices are likely to have a wide
range of organizational as well as individual impacts. It emphasizes the need for an integrated
approach to career management, as opposed to the adoption of single components on an “as
needed” basis.

Learning Objectives
1. To illustrate the wide range of individual differences in the career needs of older workers.
2. To gain an understanding of the organizational consequences of early retirement programs.

Answers to Case Questions

(1) Organizational objectives served by the early retirement program include:

∗ Elimination of a labor surplus

∗ Reduction of labor costs/improved competitiveness
∗ Freeing up of career channels for younger workers

Potential problems may include:

∗ The loss of valued employees

∗ Lowered morale among older workers who perceive themselves as no longer valued by the
organization
∗ Anxiety among retained workers who fear additional cutbacks

12
∗ Insufficient numbers of early retirees attracted to the program, thereby necessitating
additional retirement incentives/increasing costs or additional programs to eliminate the
surplus

(2) Chris could reassure Will of his continued importance to MI under the reorganized structure
and make sure Will is aware of the company’s high evaluation of his contribution. Chris might
also investigate what, if any, sources of job or organizational dissatisfaction Will is experiencing
that might push him toward leaving. However, this situation certainly illustrates the point that
valued employees may be lost in a “blanket” early retirement offer. It might have helped to speak
to Will before the program was announced, to emphasize MI’s intentions regarding his career
prospects. It is also possible that Will might be encouraged to phase into his new venture
gradually, or continue to work with MI on a project basis while planned for and starting up his
own shop. Had MI engaged in career counseling with employees, it might have known earlier on
about Will’s career goal, and perhaps found some way to incorporate it within the company. A
practice of identifying and developing backups for key managers would also help MI deal with
the sudden or unexpected loss of key employees.

(3) Possible causes of poor performance are legion: a lack of specific abilities or skills (e.g.,
interpersonal skills), low motivation (e.g., fear of change, fear of obsolescence, defensive or
dogmatic attitudes), poor fit to the new job requirements, uncertainties about the supervisor’s
expectations, personality clashes with particular team members or the supervisor, or inadequate
training (in team building, quality control, etc.) are all possibilities. Chris needs to be more
certain of the actual cause for Bill’s behavior before designing any strategy for dealing with the
problem, as an appropriate solution (e.g., transfer, retraining, discipline, and discharge) is
dependent on the specific cause. However, Chris should be aware that the company does have
the legal right to fire poor performers; as long as poor performance can be documented, there is
no need to “buy them out.”

Training may not be an answer if Bill is not motivated to learn (or practice) new behaviors. Some
employers would see this incident as a catalyst in confronting potential employee obsolescence:
Bill might be asked to formally agree to undergo retooling/skill building and make specified
improvements in team contributions over a specified time interval, or choose to leave the
organization voluntarily, if he cannot make such a commitment. Alternatively, the organization
may decide to “negotiate a termination:” instead of firing Bill for cause, a voluntary agreement
may be worked out whereby outplacement assistance, etc., is given in exchange for a legal waiver
on specific rights to sue the employer (for age discrimination, wrongful discharge, etc.). Clearly,
the organization needs to obtain advice from a competent labor attorney in developing
termination procedures.

The incident helps illustrate the close connection between various human resource subsystems,
such as performance appraisal, supervisory coaching, subordinate goal-setting, and employee
training.

(4) Alternatives to early retirement:

∗ Phased retirement
∗ Job sharing
∗ Part-time, or project work
∗ Telecommuting
∗ Flexible work schedules

13
∗ Leave of absence
∗ Sabbatical

Other organizational programs that might have helped:

∗ Wellness programs, health screens, stress management courses

∗ Early career planning for retirement: investment counseling, profit-sharing and deferred
compensation in the benefit plan
∗ Pre-retirement seminars addressing economic, social and psychological issues of
disengagement
∗ Potential mini-lecture following the activity: Mentoring

Activity 18-4IM: Developing Career Paths

Objectives
1. To identify career pattern characteristics in a set of data describing internal job movements.
2. To evaluate existing career paths in terms of their potential influence on organizational
behavior.
3. To propose and evaluate alternative career paths in light of skill and training requirements.

Task 1:
a. Participants will form work groups of five to seven members (no larger).
b. Using data from the transition probability matrix in Figure 18A, members of each group will
first work independently to answer the questions below, and then check their answers with
the group at large to make sure all group members have identified the same career patterns.

1. On which jobs in this organization is there the highest probability of job change? The
lowest?
2. Which jobs allow for promotion within the function? Promotion to a different function?
3. From which jobs can lateral transfers (same hierarchical level, different function) be made?
What functions are possible destinations for each lateral transfer?
4. In which jobs do demotions occur?
5. For which jobs is the turnover rate (probability of exit) highest? Lowest?

Task 2: Using the descriptive data from Task 1 above, and additional information about average
employee age, length of service, race and gender provided in Figure 18B, below, each group
should identify potential career management or organizational effectiveness problems (e.g.,
career blockages, staffing inflexibilities, etc.)

Task 3: Assume this organization has an objective of developing well-rounded General Managers
with cross-functional experience to meet the changing needs of their complex business
environment. (1) Where/how might you recommend expanding existing career paths? (2)
Evaluate the long and short run feasibility of your proposed path expansion (e.g., Which
additional skills would be needed? Can all of these skills be learned, or are there some innate

14
abilities/traits? How long might it take to develop the needed skills? Should learning take place
on- or off-the-job? Use the Sample Job Description for a General Manager included with this
activity to help evaluate training needs.

Each group should present its proposal and rationale to the class.

Class members will critique each group’s proposal.

15
 Figure 18A
TRANSITION PROBABILITY MATRIX FOR THE TECHNICAL
WORKFORCE FROM 1998 TO 1999

Distribution of
Personnel in 16 8 19 13 18 14 45
1999

Manufacturing

Manufacturing

Organizational
Professionals

Professionals
Professionals
Supervisors

Supervisors

Supervisors
Engineering

Engineering
Managers

Marketing

Marketing
Distribution of

General
Personnel in

Exit
1998

General 14 .86 .14

Managers
Marketing 8 .13 .75 .12
Supervisors
Marketing 16 .13 .75 .12
Professionals
Engineering 12 .08 .84 .08
Supervisors
Engineering 18 .10 .06 .56 .06 .22
Professionals
Manufacturing 17 .12 .82 .06
Supervisors
Manufacturing 50 .04 .80 .16
Professionals
Number of New 17 3 2 8 4
Hires During
1988
Adapted from John A. Hooper and Ralph F. Catalanello, “Markov Analysis Applied to Career
Management,” unpublished paper, 1981, p. 15.

Figure 18B
Technical Workforce Demographics

Length
Average of
Jobs Age Service % Minority % Female
General Managers ..................... 49 15 0 0
Marketing Supervisors .............. 41 10 5% 10%
Marketing Professionals............ 36 4 10% 30%
Engineering Supervisors ........... 47 13 0 0
Engineering Professionals ......... 28 5 2% 0
Manufacturing Supervisors ...... 52 16 0 0
Manufacturing Professionals .... 33 9 5% 5%

16
 Sample Job Descriptions
GENERAL MANAGER BRANCH: Directs production, distribution, and marketing operations
for a company product. Coordinates production, distribution, warehousing, and selling activities
in accordance with policies, principles, and procedures established by corporate headquarters.
Confers with customers and industrial representatives to evaluate and promote possibilities for
improved and expanded services in area. Develops plans for efficient machine, manpower, and
material utilization. Reviews and alters production costs, quality, and inventory control programs
to maintain profitable operations of division. Plans and directs sales program by reviewing
competitive position and developing new markets, using sales aids, advertising, promotional
programs, and field services. Directs personnel program. Directs preparation of accounting
records. Recommends budgets to management.

ENGINEERING SUPERVISOR: Directs, coordinates, and exercises functional authority for

planning, organization, control, integration, and completion of, engineering project within area of
assigned responsibility: Plans and formulates engineering program and organizes project staff
according to project requirements. Assigns project personnel to specific phases or aspects of
project, such as technical studies, product design, preparation of specifications and technical
plans, and product testing, in accordance with engineering disciplines of staff. Reviews product
design for compliance with engineering principles, company standards, and customer contract
specifications. Coordinates activities concerned with technical developments, scheduling, and
resolving engineering design and test problems. Directs integration of technical activities and
products. Evaluates and approves design changes, specifications, and drawing releases. Controls
expenditures within limitations of project budget. Prepare interim and completion project reports.

MANUFACTURING SUPERVISOR: Directs and coordinates, through subordinate

supervisory personnel, activities of production department(s) in processing materials or
manufacturing products in industrial establishment, applying knowledge of production methods,
processes, machines and equipment, plant layout, and product capacities of each department:
Reviews production orders or schedules to ascertain product data, such as types, quantities, and
specifications of products and scheduled delivery dates in order to plan department operations.
Plans production operations, establishing priorities and sequences for manufacturing products,
utilizing knowledge of production processes and methods, machine and equipment capabilities,
and manpower requirements. Prepares operational schedules and coordinates manufacturing
activities to insure production and quality of products meets specifications. Reviews production
and operating reports and resolves operational, manufacturing, and maintenance problems to
insure minimum costs and prevent operational delays. Inspects machines and equipment to insure
specific operational performance and optimum utilization. Develops or revises standard
operational and working practices and observes workers to insure compliance with standards.
Initiates personnel actions, such as promotions, transfers, discharges, or disciplinary measures.
Resolves worker grievances.

ENGINEERING PROFESSIONAL: Conducts logical analyses of scientific, engineering, and

other technical problems and formulates mathematical models of problems for solution by digital
computer: Analyzes assigned problem, such as optimal design configuration of ballistic missile or
computer system for industrial process control. Consults with engineering or scientific personnel
to refine definition of project and prepare mathematical simulation of physical system under
study. Searches library for applicable mathematical formulations and data pertinent to problem.
Prepares mathematical model of problem area, such as set of partial differential equations to

17
relate constants, and variables, restrictions, alternatives, objectives, and their numerical
parameters, and inserts relevant data. Reduces problem to computer-processable form, utilizing
knowledge of numerical analysis. Confers with originator of problem, using knowledge of
subject sciences and their language, to discuss adequacy and applicability of computer output or
need for reformulation of model. Prepare reports.

MANUFACTURING PROFESSIONAL: Directs and coordinates manufacturing processes in

industrial plant: Determine space requirements for various functions and plans or improves
production methods including layout, production flow, tooling and production equipment,
material, fabrication, assembly methods, and manpower requirements. Communicates with
planning and design staffs concerning product design and tooling to assure efficient production
methods. Estimates production times and determines optimum staffing for production schedules.
Applies statistical methods to estimate future manufacturing requirements and potential.
Approves or arranges approval for expenditures. Reports to management on manufacturing
capacities, production schedules, and problems to facilitate decision-making.

MARKETING PROFESSIONAL: Researches market conditions in local, regional, or national

area to determine potential sales of product or service: Establishes research methodology and
designs format for data gathering, such as surveys, opinion polls, or questionnaires. Examines
and analyzes statistical data to forecast future marketing trends. Gathers data on competitors and
analyzes prices, sales, and methods of marketing and distribution. Collects data on customer
preferences and buying habits. Prepares reports and graphic illustrations of findings.

Teaching Notes: Interpreting the Transition Matrix

Cells in the transition probability matrix display the one year probability of movement from any
given origin job (row job title) to a destination job (column job title). Empty cells imply a zero
probability of movement. Example: the one year probability of movement (promotion) from a
marketing professional job (row title) to marketing supervisor is .13 or 13%.

Notice that the matrix also displays the one year probability of a marketing professional leaving
the organization (.12) or staying on the same job (.75). The sum of probabilities across each row
should equal 1, once all possible destinations have been accounted for. In general, the main
diagonal of the matrix displays the probability of staying in a given job over the time period,
while off-diagonal elements show the probabilities of promotion, demotion, lateral transfer and
organizational exit. For each job, it is then relatively easy to construct a diagram of existing
career paths. Figure 18C below, shows the paths that might be followed by an engineering
professional.

Students should be advised that analyses such as this are easy to perform and increasingly
common in organizations with computerized Human Resource Management Systems, and that a
rapidly increasing number of organizations have found it cost-effective to install an HRMS.

18
 Figure 18C
Career Paths for Engineering Professionals

General
Manager

Engineering Marketing
Supervisor Supervisor

Manufacturing Engineering Marketing

Professional Professional Professional

Notice that this career path allows for cross-functional movement (lateral transfers from
engineering to marketing or manufacturing) as well as progression within a single functional
specialty.

Mini-lecture Outline
Human Resource Planning
I. Forecasting Labor Demand
A. Statistical Approaches
1. Productivity ratios
2. Regression Analysis
3. Time Series Analysis
B. Judgmental Approaches
1. Unit demand forecasts (bottom up)
2. Delphi

II. Forecasting Labor Supply

A. Individual supply forecasts (e.g., succession planning)
B. Aggregate supply forecasts (e.g., Markov Analysis)

III. Reconciliation

IV. Human Resource Programming

A. Labor Surplus Activities
B. Labor Shortage Activities

Assessment Centers
I. Purposes of Assessment Centers
A. Employee development
B. Managerial Selection

19
 II. Structure of Assessment Centers
A. Multiple dimensions of assessee performance
B. Multiple methods of assessment
1. Written tests
2. Group exercises
3. Simulations
C. Multiple (trained) raters
1. Outside professionals (e.g., clinical, industrial, organizational psychologists)
2. Insiders (upper level managers)

III. Validity Evidence

A. Incremental contribution to prediction
B. Possible criterion contamination
C. Potential for situation—specific validity

Mentoring
I. Career Outcomes Provided by Mentoring
A. Sponsorship
B. Coaching
C. Protection of the colleague
D. Exposure to important contacts and resources
E. Assignment of challenging work

II. Psychosocial Outcomes

A. Role modeling
B. Counseling
C. Acceptance and confirmation of the colleague
D. Friendship

III. Impacts on the Mentor

A. Increased job involvement
B. Increased satisfaction
C. Potential transfer of new technology/reduced obsolescence

IV. Formal Mentoring Programs

A. A means to develop minorities and women
B. Questions about effectiveness
C. Alternatives/cautions
1. Create more communication/interaction opportunities, for both work-related and
social reasons
2. Encourage employees to seek out multiple mentors

20
Study Questions
1. “Individuals should be primarily responsible for developing their own careers.” Do you
agree? Why?
Comment: This question asks for student opinions; there is no “right answer”. It should be noted,
however, that more and more organizations are assigning employees primary responsibility for
their own development. Advantages to holding individuals primarily responsible for their own
development include the fact that they may be more knowledgeable about their own strengths and
weaknesses, needs, interests and values. Disadvantages include the possibility that individuals
are not realistic in their self-assessment, may be unaware of potential openings in the
organization, and/or may not know what sort of developmental activities are
available/appropriate.

2. Describe the five steps in the career planning process. What step do you think is likely to be
the most difficult for individuals to implement? Why?
Comment: The five basic steps in career planning include:
a. self-assessment
b. assessment of labor market opportunities
c. goal setting
d. action planning
e. evaluation

3. Describe ways that organizations can assist individuals in pursuing career goals. Which of
these may also enhance organizational effectiveness? How?
Comment: Ways the organization can assist individuals?
∗ Provide interest and self-assessment inventories or tests
∗ Provide job descriptions that list the skills and training needed for the organization’s jobs
∗ Develop career paths linking logical sequences of jobs
∗ Post job openings
∗ Publicize strategic goals of the firm, and projected future needs for human resources
∗ Encourage supervisor coaching, mentoring
∗ Train supervisors in career counseling roles
∗ Hold career planning seminars
∗ Conduct assessment centers and share results with attendees
∗ Develop computerized skills inventories, Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS)
∗ Expand on- and off-the-job training programs
∗ Adopt a career counseling program
∗ Encourage retirement planning throughout employee’s careers

All of these efforts, in one way or another lead to both organizational as well as individual
effectiveness.

4. What can organizations do to prevent employee obsolescence or ineffective plateauing?

Comment: Continued training and employee development throughout the career span, including
often neglected “solid citizens” is perhaps the best way to avoid employee obsolescence.
However, it is important for management to correctly diagnose the causes of ineffective
performance. Employees must have the motivation to keep their skills up to date, and the ability

21
to master new techniques. Otherwise, retooling will be unsuccessful. In some cases,
management may need to make the choice very clear to target employees: if they are unwilling to
accept change or unable to master new skills, then perhaps outplacement assistance can be called
upon to help them identify organizations where their existing skills are still valued.

5. What career management components should an organization have in place before

implementing a major downsizing effort?
Comment: Identification of redundant employees must be based on legitimate, non-
discrimination reasons, therefore selective layoffs not involving the shutdown of an entire
business unit must be based on results from an objective, valid performance appraisal system (or
a bona fide seniority system).

Ongoing, honest communication is essential, both with employees who will be laid off and those
who will be retained.

Career and job search counseling, interviewing practice, resume preparation workshops and other
outplacement benefits can be helpful in convincing employees that the RIF was “fair”.

6. Discuss the five different roles that a supervisor might adopt in career development of
subordinates. Are there any conflicts among these roles or between these roles and other roles
that supervisors must adopt with subordinates? How might conflict be minimized?
Comment: Supervisor roles: coach, appraiser, adviser, agent. The major conflict arises because
supervisors also have reward power over subordinates, and subordinates desire to obtain valued
rewards may conflict with developmental objectives of openness, willingness to confront
weaknesses. It has been suggested that feedback for employee development be provided at a
different time than information/justification for administrative reward decisions such as salary
increases.

As a practical matter, separate feedback sessions are often unfeasible, and preliminary research
suggests that separating the two may not be necessary. Apparently, frank early presentation of
reward decisions helps focus employees on ways to improve appraisal results.

7. Should mentoring be an informal program that is totally voluntary, or should the organization
try to formally assign mentors to protégés? Why?
Comment: Voluntary mentoring programs may lead to a natural “fit” between mentor and mentee
as well as the highest mentor motivation, but many potential mentees may be overlooked unless
formal assignments are made. Informal mentor programs have been criticized for perpetuating an
“old boy network.”

Because mentoring programs aid in the development of both mentor and protégé, several
organizations have sought to formalize these typically informal, voluntary relationships. Kram
(1985) among others, argues that formal systems may be less beneficial than naturally occurring
relationships, if there are personality conflicts or lower levels of commitment between mentor and
protégé. Some research supports this view, as Noe (1988) found assigned protégés experienced
limited career outcome improvement, although they did report positive psychosocial (e.g.,
counseling) outcomes.

22
8. Discuss the relationship between managing change, career development, and continuous
improvement.
Comment: Career development may be part of an organizational development effort which itself
may have been undertaken with the objective of effectively managing organizational change.
Organizations that espouse a continuous improvement philosophy/strategy are likely to be
interested in promoting career development, to maximize the potential long-run contributions of
individuals to the firm.

23
MODULE 19
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES1

Module Overview

Learning Objectives:
After completing this module, you should be able to
1. Describe the knowledge management processes.
2. Understand and differentiate between knowledge and knowledge
management.
3. Explain the differences among the various kinds of knowledge.
4. Describe the stages in the development of a knowledge management
system.
5. Understand how knowledge management can be used as a
competitive weapon.
6. Understand the interplay among individual and corporate knowledge.
.

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 19–1W: The Skandia Case: Appearance and Reality
Introduction
What Is Knowledge Management?
Definition
Key Features
The Second Generation
Knowledge Management System
Technologies: Driving Business Knowledge
Economies: Managing Change
Developing the Knowledge Management System within the Organization
Knowledge Creation and Acquisition
Knowledge Experts and Enablers
The CKO
The IS Group
The Team
The Right Option

1
This module was contributed by James Sena, Professor of Management, Orfalea College of
Business, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407. We are grateful
to him for this contribution.

24
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS
Knowledge Life Cycle
Knowledge Management Tools
Knowledge Management Centers
Deploying and Using the Knowledge Management System
Business Intelligence
Integrating Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning
Job Design, Job Rotation, and Careers
The Virtual Office
Outsourcing and Contract Workers
The New Knowledge Positions
Managerial Challenges
New Opportunities
New Security Issues
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes

Activity 19–2W: Knowledge Management: Learning from the Web

Activity 19–3W: Avici Systems: A Grass Roots Example

Premodule Preparation

The instructor may assign the following activity.

Teaching Notes
This segment includes notes on segment design, mini-lecture outlines, and
Activity 19-1W: Exploring Knowledge Management in an Organizational Setting
at British Petroleum.

Segment Design
This module includes a variety of options in the design of the teaching module.

For one two-hour session the following design is suggested: 1. Individuals are to
prepare the “Knowledge Management: Learning from the Web” case prior to the
class session; Introduction to the module; Activity 19-2W in class: Mini-lecture
about knowledge management processes. 2. Students are to read the module
and prepare “Exploring Knowledge Management in an Organizational Setting at
British Petroleum” case and complete the first task of Activity 19-1W prior to the
classroom session: Introduction to the module; Class case analysis of
“The Skandia Case: Appearance and Reality”, mini-lecture.

25
Activity 19–1W: The Skandia Case: Appearance and Reality {This is the
same activity as 17-2W in previous edition. Please use the same format and
layout that was used in the 8th edition. RS}

The students are asked to prepare the case and answer the questions at the end
of the case. This case is interesting because Skandia has been typified as the
leader and innovator of knowledge management deployment – at least in the
first generation of knowledge management systems. Managers interested in
getting their arms around intellectual capital are searching for ways to describe,
measure and manage their intangible assets with particular emphasis on
capturing their favorable effect on the bottom line and on shareholder value. Of
particular interest is the pioneer work described by Edvinssson’s experience at
Skandia. The questions are intended to encourage students to critically assess
the way a company views itself and how it is viewed by others.

Task 2:
Class Discussion can be either individual or in small groups. The small groups or
teams can share their answers and try to derive team solutions. The instructor
facilitates the sharing of the teams’ input. In the class design this could be a focal
point for introducing the mini-lecture on knowledge management processes.

Questions:
1. Do some research on the web to determine the financial health of Skandia
today. Compare it with the companies cited by the Opinion. What would
you conclude about the opinion?

Comment: In 2006 the Skandia Group was purchased by Old Mutual plc an
international savings and wealth management company based in the UK.
Financial performance is portrayed before the purchase on Skandia’s web
site and on Old Mutual thereafter. There are a number of places to examine
the financial data for firms. The Opinion only examined the ROE – there are
other indicators that could be used as well. What this question is asking the
student to do is to verify the financial health of Skandia today and since 1998
in contrast with its competitors.

2. What were the steps and process that Skandia went about to create its
knowledge management system? How do these steps contrast with those
discussed in this module?

Comment: It is not explicitly clear from the case what the steps and
processes were. Primarily though, Skandia has attempted to examine the
intellectual capital. Intellectual capital resides in the knowledge of its workers

26
 and managers. The creation and use of the Navigator, a software tool, could
be both a plus and a detriment.

The steps to create a KMS – steering committee, knowledge assessment,

knowledge transfer, formalization, resource allocation, etc. are most likely part
of Skandia’s system. It could be fruitful to assign the students the task of
investigating Skandia’s system further to gather more details.

Later research has suggested modifying the Skandia model to include social
capital – this would consider such factors as intra social , intersocial
(customers and partners), and social innovation capital, It might do well to
suggest that the students McElroy’s Modified Intellectual Capital mapping.

Discussion Questions

1. Describe the process of work redesign and the cultural transformations that
took place in the modern workplace.

Comment: Many firms have used process re-engineering and re-design as a

means of downsizing and divestiture (outsourcing) various components of the
organization. This introduces anxiety into any movement on the part of
management to address work redesign. The objective of work redesign can be
multi-fold – collaboration was fostered, technology was enhanced, endemic and
made a way of life. Foremost was the goal of knowledge sharing and transfer.

Foremost today and into the future is the virtual workplace – this includes the
introduction of the web, the mobile worker and the many forms of telecommuting
and teleworking.

2. Discuss any by-products or unexpected benefits of the work redesign.

Comment: One key aspect is the co-location and openness of the work place.
Unintended interactions were by-products of the design. In effect, an informal
system of communication was provided and nurtured. There is also the possibility
of worker’s lack of engagement and socialization with the company. There may
be limits on too much autonomy.

3. Discuss the statement: Having a computer and using word processing

software does not make you a better writer. Similarly, just buying new
information technologies does not make an organization better at managing
knowledge

27
Comment: Knowledge management mechanisms should be intended and
purposive – management needs to have its integrated workforce function
cohesively. Technology can be pervasive and a given; the open workspace
fostered and encouraged face-to-face communication; and, the virtual workspace
provided by the technology enabled communication globally, requires a clear set
of directions.

Study Questions
1. Visit the web site www.brint.com. This web site contains an extensive amount
of reference material. Construct your own definition of Knowledge
Management from at least three different sources and be prepared to discuss
it with your classmates.
Comment: Some of the definitions and discussions about knowledge
management in this module were taken from this site. The site itself not only
contains discussions about knowledge management; but includes papers,
references and discussions about virtually every information technology-related
topic.
2. How could you apply a community of practice to this class? What about a
social networking system?
Comment: Students today have experienced the web as a vital part of their life.
They have multiple email accounts, chat forums, and are accustomed to
participating in all sorts of online discussions, downloads, and interactive games.
Most classes today use some form of online support such as Blackboard which
provides a built-in system for dialog and sharing.

Social networking has moved from being just a vehicle for students to
communicate in a recreational fashion to a tool for many companies to model
project activity, build teams, and provide an arena for testing ideas.
3. Describe a knowledge management system in an organization that you are
familiar with. How would you classify the system?
Comment: The key word in this question is “organization”. Students may not
have worked for any large firm but in reality may interface with many, many
organizations such as the entertainment industry, sports, media, and so forth.
Most have had part-time jobs and the service providers, food vendors, and retail
stores are all sources that have and use knowledge management systems.
4. As you may note in your examination of knowledge management literature
there appears to be a negative reaction to the term knowledge management.
Can you think of some reasons why there is such a reaction? What is industry
doing to address this?

28
Comment: Any term that gets over used in business becomes a target. Of
concern is not only the over use but the mis-use. Just like the term re-
engineering became a subterfuge for downsizing and rightsizing so too has
knowledge management become the term for any type of competitive
engineering.
5. Try to visualize the organization of the future – ten, twenty or more years –
what role to you see virtual teams and other such innovations taking place?
Comment: In module 20 we introduce the concept of “no place”. A worker, a
manager does not have to be someplace to work. We are not just talking about
virtual work teams today we also are talking about virtual spaces. In twenty years
we probably have no idea of what new technologies will be available but the
physical workspace will definitely not be a factor.
6. Differentiate the terms, data, information, knowledge and wisdom. How would
they apply to this class? To the college? To the University?
Comment: Wisdom is the natural transition or next step as we move from data to
information to knowledge and onto wisdom. Knowledge is taking organized data
to make decisions. Wisdom is making the right decision (the mark of the expert
or the good manager.)
Applying this to the class is a judgment factor. The college and university part of
this study question could just as easily be any organization, such as a hospital
that has a hierarchy. Students identify with the class data, the college and the
university – therefore this is a readily addressable response for them.

29
Activity 19-3W: Knowledge Management: Learning from the Web

Activity Discussion Notes

Task 1 (Individual):
Students are asked to go to their favorite search engine and type “knowledge
management”. Most of them will go to “Goggle” or use a product that is part of
their service provider product. The responses will not be what they expect or
anticipate because most search engines are designed to make a profit and will
provide links to businesses that provide KM services.

The students will see a myriad of web sites. They are asked to classify them into
such categories as companies offering Knowledge Management consulting
services, Knowledge management software products, and so forth. This should
be a relatively straight forward task.

Earlier in this module the student was asked to go to the Brint web site so they
should have some ideal what is contained there. What they will see is a vast
array of information systems sources. Going to knowledge management again
will give them a much different classification than that of the search engine.

Task 2 (Team):
Each team is to share its learning and prepare a three-minute presentation based
on its collective learning. Three minutes may not be enough – you may want to
ask them to organize their answers in the form of a table or chart as opposed to a
general presentation.

30
Activity 19-4W: Avici Systems: A Grass-roots Example

Case Discussion Notes

Task 1 (Individual):
The student is asked to read the case, connect to the Avici Web site, and answer
the questions at the end of the section.

Task 2 (Team):
Meet with your team and prepare a three-minute presentation.

In way of follow-up – in February 2007 Avici Systems formed a new business

unit, Soapstone Networks™, to leverage their deep knowledge of carrierworld
transport elements and take advantage of their leadership role in industry forums.
The Soapstone solution was designed to enable carriers to bring orderly,
predictable, business-driven behavior to their networks, regardless of vendor or
technology composition.

In the case example Avici’s new training and knowledge sharing system had
been in place for 10 months. Although the company had not assessed how
financially beneficial the system has been, Perron says 90 percent of employees
are using the Avici Knowledge Network.

That acceptance didn’t come all at once. Initially, he and executives had to
convince staff members to use the network. They also pushed it during employee
orientation, with the result that new employees would use the system and pass
along their experiences to colleagues who had been at Avici longer.

Avici’s knowledge specialists aren’t through yet. They’re working on additional

Web-based training courses and will extend beyond technical training to include
courses for managers and general business courses for all employees. And by
the end of the year, Avici plans to offer its customer.

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Discussion Questions

1. Given what you have learned about the knowledge creation and transfer
process and the steps to create a knowledge management system how
would you contrast these with what is being done at Avici?

Discussion: Although much of what was accomplished at Avici was done

without senior management knowledge and initial approval the results appear to
be favorable. Avici considers knowledge management tools, which could help to
capture what employees knew and make it accessible to others. Instead of
employing steps to create a knowledge management system they built a new
training and knowledge sharing system onto a Human resource software
package. Students begin to see that there are many views and approaches to
building a KMS.

2. Now further contrast from an overall organizational management

perspective. How do you think you would react if you were Steve Kaufman
to the activities of the three knowledge specialists?

Discussion: Surprisingly Kaufman supported this effort. In many companies

the chief executive would not be as open. Ask the students to apply all of the
principles that they have learned to date to this situation. This could be a very
good introduction to the course flow and integration.

3. Did you find Avici on the WWW? If so, how is its performance today?

Discussion: Based on their 2006 financial statement Avici Systems has

moved into the black in profitability – as quoted by their president, William
Leighton:
The year 2006 was characterized by significant changes at Avici Systems.
We substantially restructured our business to focus on our primary
customer, AT&T, and significantly reduced our costs. We attained record
revenue levels. We achieved and maintained profitability
for the first time in the Company’s history. We were the first Company to
deploy terabit routers in a production network with our Quad-Bay systems.
We went from burning an average of $5 million in cash per quarter in 2005
to generating an average of $5 million in cash per quarter in 2006.,

Their performance in a market dominated by Cisco Systems continues to be

impressive.  

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Module 20W
Technology and Computer-based Technology1

Module Overview
This module introduces students to technology and information technology as two
interrelated processes that are critical for the effectiveness of the organization. This
module examines the major features of technology and information technology and their
interdependent relationship with human behavior.

Learning Objectives
After completing this module you should be able to
1. Describe the roles of technology and its affects on behavior in organizations.
2. Describe the various kinds of technologies used by organizations.
3. Understand the effect of technology on individual and group behavior.
4. Understand the effect of computer-based technologies on the organization.
5. Gain an insight into the Computer-based technology issues of the Future

Module Outline
Premodule Preparation
Activity 20–1W: Technology, Information Technology, and Human Behavior: An
Exploratory Investigation
Introduction
Technology
Technology as the Defining Feature of Organizations
Operations Management
Sociotechnical Systems and the Workplace
A Classification of Business-related Technologies
Computer-Supported Technologies
Business-Supported Technologies
Mini-Case: Virtual Strategy Session
Communication Technologies
Computer-based Technology
Toward a Computer-based Technology Framework
The Information–Processing Engine
Back Office, Front Office ad Way Back Office Systems
Mini-Case: Challenges Faced by Utility Companies
Business Intelligence – Using what you’ve got

1
This module was contributed by James Sena, Professor of Management, Orfalea College of Business,
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407. We are grateful to him for this
contribution.

33
 The Knowledge Center
Advances in Information Technology
Information Technology and Organizational Behavior
Case: Digital Decisions
Information Technology, Work Design, and Organizational Flexibility
Managerial Issues and Concerns for Technology now and in the Future
Case: The Disruptive Power of Networks
Summary
Study Questions
Endnotes
Activity 20–2W: Management Challenge of the Software Development Firm

Premodule Preparation
The instructor may assign the following activity.

Teaching Notes
This section includes notes on:
• Segment design
• Mini-lecture outlines
• Activity 20-1W—Technology, Information Technology and Human Behavior: An
Exploratory Investigation
• Activity 20-2W—Management Challenge at the Software Development Firm.

Segment Design
For one two-hour session the following design has worked well: 1. Individuals are to
prepare the “The Software Development Firm: Technology Issues Case” prior to the
class session; Introduction to the module; and, Activity 20-2W in class: Mini-lecture
about technology and information technology.

Activity 20-1W: Technology, Information Technology and Human Behavior: An

Exploratory Investigation
This activity is excellent to introduce the topic of the module. The activity is based on a
library assignment prior to the class session.

Task 1: The Students are asked to review current business publications, identify a
company that is reported to currently address issues of technology and information
technology. After the individual identification of a company, the students are to meet in
teams and decide which company to focus on. Once a team decision is made, each

34
individual is asked to go review independently the recent business publications and
perform web search about the company. Following the fact-finding phase, the team is
asked to get together and address a few themes and prepare written responses to the
four questions listed in the activity.

Task 2: We have used this task as a way to both introduce the topic and begin a
systematic investigation of its main features. During the first part of the session—that
focuses on Technology—team spokespersons are asked to share their findings starting
with the identification of the chosen company, its main characteristics, and their
responses to the first two questions. The instructor should try to capture the essence of
the teams’ input on the board. Class discussion should be followed by a mini-lecture on
Technology, Information Technology, Human Behavior, and Effectiveness.

Activity 20-2W: Management Challenges of the Software Development Firm

This activity provides an opportunity to utilize the case method combined with individual
and team activity both outside and during the class session. The objectives of the case
are to examine the technical system and its impact on human behavior.

Case Discussion Notes

Task 1: Students are asked to prepare the case and answer the questions at the end of
the case. The questions encourage each student to think through the main feature of
technical system and the potential cause-and-effect relationship between technology
and human behavior.

Task 2: This activity can take place either outside of class or in class. As the team
members share their answers and try to come up with team solutions, groups’ synergy
generates some unique insights. The instructor facilitates the sharing of the teams’
responses to each of the questions with the entire class. The instructor should board
the teams’ input. You have few choices about the actual procedure of team sharing and
class discussion. You can tailor the class input into a mini-lecture on technology. You
can facilitate a case analysis and tailor mini-lectures around each of the questions. You
can set the stage for a lecture on the topic after all the teams have provided their input.
The following are answers to the questions listed at the end of the case.

Study Questions
1. Describe the major characteristics of the technical system at the software
development firm.
Comment: The technology centered about the use of a local area network [LAN] and
the associated computer software. The major concerns facing this new technology was
the shift from stand-alone systems to shared systems. Today most of us have home
networks connected to a router and linked either wireless or wired to several household
computers. Thus, the concept of a shared resource is very understandable.

35
Software concerns centered about first the use of shared databases and the viability of
network software especially for accounting. The next issue was the use of off-the-shelf
software and/or the decision to develop custom software. With the predominance of
Microsoft office many of these decisions are now non-decisions. The array of total office
solutions has been reduced to a few but solid solutions.

For most of the work staff there is a high degree of familiarity with the use of computer
systems, networks, and associated software products. Not only is the staff users of the
technology but to some extent they are part of the development efforts. The overall
corporate culture at SDF is one of computer talk—markets, products, services.

Other firms with the same kind of computer hardware and software that produced a
product or service not of a computer-related nature would most likely not have the same
level of expertise and/or the availability of experts to assist them when computer-type
problems arose.

2. How did the implementation of the LAN seem to affect the other subsystems in the
organization?
Comment: The results were electrifying. Specialized software for Product tracking was
introduced for Marketing. Previously all Product managers pretty much did their own
thing—now each product or major product change is tracked from inception in
Engineering, through field testing, promotion, and production. The selection and
introduction of specialized software is still a problem for most organizations.

For the sales staff the introduction of a common database combined with the ability to
jointly view all of the distributor’s history of communication with SDF provided salesman
with improved information prior to any sales call or discussion. In both the marketing
and sales staffs the work design underwent change with the introduction of the network.
The sales department changed its whole approach to sales calls, follow-ups, and
expanded its record-keeping procedures.

3. How does the LAN system seem to affect human behavior?

Comment: The LAN system fosters open-communication. It allows everyone to share
their ideas and communicate on issues and concerns vital to the organization. The
specificity of tasks at SDF has come into question in that transactions entry and control
processes (e.g., Order Entry) had to be addressed to insure that only authorized
personnel could initiate and access proprietary data.

To a great extent the network interface would not appreciably differ from users of a
mainframe or minicomputer system. From a stand-alone personal computer use, the
difference is profound. For the secretary or manager accustomed to using the system
for personal information management, they now are entering a world of shared
information management. New products and new ways are introduced that compel
them to learn new software products and concepts of computer operation.

36
4. What impact would the introduction of the LANs have on the planning and control
process? work design? creativity and innovation?
Comment: The planning and control process became more uniform. Initially, there was
some resistance among the various managers because they felt that Accounting was
dictating the way that they were running their department operations. Senior
management had to intervene and mandate cooperation to quell the discontent. In the
long run, the planning operation has been improved once the managers and their staff
became accustomed to the new operational process.

5. How would the use of the network influence individual and organizational
performance?
Comment: For the individual worker the use of the LAN technology would not
necessarily improve their performance. Accounting, Production, and Engineering would
undergo some changes but not necessarily a significant increase in performance. The
departments that had external interfaces (e.g. Sales, Marketing, and Technical Support)
exhibited improvements in performance. As a result, overall organizational performance
was increased.

Study Questions
1. Although some argue that the technical system is the defining feature of
organizations, others state that the technical system is only one of the many features
that define organizations. State your position and provide your rationale.

Comment: The choices made about the technical system—the tools, techniques,
methods, devices, configurations, knowledge, procedures, . . . would determine the
characteristics of the organization. The fact that the technical system affect most
aspects of the organization as illustrated in Figure 20-1 support the position that at the
most basic level technology is the defining feature of organizations. However, one can
argue that since human beings are the ones that make the decision about which
technology to develop or acquire they are the ones that actually determine the character
of an organization.

2. Compare and contrast two of the classifications of technology.

Comment: A variety of classifications of technology are offered in the book: small

batch, large batch and continuous process: operational, material and knowledge
technology; long linked, mediating and intensive technology; routine, craft, engineering
and nonroutine technology . In this revised addition we added process and service
technology – the service processes are becoming more important due to the increased

37
use of knowledge based systems and the migration in the U.S. to a service-based
economy.. .

3. Describe a technical system in an organization that you are familiar with. How would
you classify the technical system? How would Woodward, Perrow, Thompson, and Daft
classify the same technical system?

Comment: The discussion in the textbook about the multiple perspective of technology
identifies the different orientations that should help in the examination of the chosen
technological system.

4. Describe a technical system in an organization that you are currently working in or

that you have worked in the past. Describe the relationship between the technical
system and human behavior. Examine how the technical system affected human
behavior.

Comment: Following the description of the technical system, Figure 20-6 can be used
as the framework for the examination of the impact of technology on the human
behavior.

5. Discuss and contrast the relationship between technology and information

technology.

Comment: Following the system approach presented in Module 4, information

technology is viewed as a subset of the technical system of an organization. The text
explores the relationships between technology and human behavior

6. Describe an information technical system in an organization that you are currently

working for or that you have worked for in the past.
Comment: Information technical systems are abundant in the workplace. Such a
system could be as basic as Income Tax preparation or online ordering on the web;
within the organization, self-driven pension and health benefit selection and inquiry and
other personnel type systems are often used by most anyone within an organization.

7. Describe the relationship between the technical system and the use of information
technology. Examine how the information technical system affects the business unit
or group.
Comment: The technical system is the infrastructure that supports the information
system. It could be the routers, the communication lines, the interface to the internet,
and the software complex for a few. The information technology is the “glue” that holds
the disparate parts of the technical system together. For the business unit or group the
ability to communicate and share information in a variety of modes provides a
competitive advantage to the firm.

38
8. Review selected articles from Business Week or Fortune that deal with information
technology. Describe the company and its use of these information technologies in
terms of adopters, adaptors, or inventors.
Comment: Recall that adaptors of IT are developers and users who have already made
IT an essential element of their value–based planning. Adopters, on the other hand are
using technologies developed outside the organization and may not have the vested
interest and ownership attributed to adopters. Inventors is a term that may not be easily
found in business-related articles.

Mini-Lecture Outlines
A. Technology

∗ Why study technology in an OB course

∗ Technology as a key subsystem of an organization—based on general view of
organizations as systems that are composed of few key subsystems
∗ Technology as a defining character of organizations
∗ Defining technology
∗ The multiple perspective of technology
∗ Technology in Organizational Settings
∗ Technology and behavior

B. Information Technology

∗ Information Technology as a subset of Technology

∗ Selected sample of Information Technology Innovations
∗ Information technology and the organization
∗ Information technology and the future

Study Questions
1. Although some argue that the technical system is the defining feature of
organizations, others state that the technical system is only one of the many features
that define organizations. State your position and provide your rationale.
Comment: The choices made about the technical system—the tools, techniques,
methods, devices, configurations, knowledge, procedures, . . . would determine the
characteristics of the organization. The fact that the technical system affect most
aspects of the organization as illustrated in Figure 15-1 support the position that at the
most basic level technology is the defining feature of organizations. However, one can
argue that since human beings are the ones that make the decision about which
technology to develop or acquire they are the ones that actually determine the character
of an organization.

39
2. Compare and contrast two of the classifications of technology.
Comment: A variety of classifications of technology are offered in the book: small
batch, large batch and continuous process: operational, material and knowledge
technology; long linked, mediating and intensive technology; routine, craft, engineering
and nonroutine technology . . .

3. Describe a technical system in an organization that you are familiar with. How would
you classify the technical system? How would Woodward, Perrow, Thompson, and Daft
classify the same technical system?
Comment: The discussion in the textbook about the multiple perspective of technology
identifies the different orientations that should help in the examination of the chosen
technological system.

4. Describe a technical system in an organization that you are currently working in or

that you have worked in the past. Describe the relationship between the technical
system and human behavior. Examine how the technical system affected human
behavior.
Comment: Following the description of the technical system, Figure 16-5 can be used
as the framework for the examination of the impact of technology on the human
behavior.

5. Discuss and contrast the relationship between technology and information

technology.
Comment: Following the system approach presented in Module 4, information
technology is viewed as a subset of the technical system of an organization. The text
explores the relationships between technology and human behavior. The essence of
the discussion is summarized in Figures 16-5 and 16-6.

40