Transformer Winding Resistance Testing of Fundamental Importance

Winding resistance measurements in transformers are of fundamental importance for

the following purposes:
- Calculations of the I2R component of conductor losses.
- Calculation of winding temperature at the end of a temperature test cycle.
- As a base for assessing possible damage in the field.

Transformers are subject to vibration. Problems or faults occur due to poor design,
assembly, handing, poor environments, overloading or poor maintenance. Measuring
the resistance of the windings assures that the connections are correct and the
resistance measurements indicates that there are no severe mismatches or opens.
Many transformers have taps built into them. These taps allow ratio to be increased
or decreased by fractions of a percent. Any of the ratio changes involve a mechanical
movement of a contact from one position to another. These tap changes will also be
checked during a winding resistance test.

Regardless of the configuration either wye or delta, the measurements are made
phase to phase and comparisons are made to determine if the readings are
comparable. If all readings are within one percent of each other, then they are
acceptable. Keep in mind that the purpose of the test is to check for gross
differences between the windings and for opens in the connections. The tests are not
made to duplicate the readings of the manufactured device which was tested in the
factory under controlled conditions and perhaps at other temperatures.

Transformer Characteristics

A transformer is considered a passive device capable of storing and delivering finite

amounts of energy. Practically all transformers utilize magnetic material for shaping
the magnetic fields which act as the medium for transferring energy. The relationship
between the magnetic-field quantities and the electric circuits with which they
interact plays an important part in describing the operation of the device. The
magnetic material determines the size of the equipment, its capability, and
introduces limitations because of saturation and loss on the performance.

Essentially, a transformer consists of two or more windings interlinked by a mutual

magnetic field. These windings are simply coils of wires, inductors. Transformer
characteristics can now be analyzed using some simple formulas.

The voltage across an inductor is proportional to the time rate of change of the
current through it.

v = L di
dt

It should also be noted that an abrupt change in inductor current also requires an
abrupt change in the energy stored in the inductor, and this sudden change in
energy requires infinite power at that instant; infinite power is not part of the real
world. The inductor current must not be allowed to jump instantaneously from one
value to another. If an attempt is made to open-circuit a physical inductor through
which a finite current is flowing, an arc will appear across the switch. This is useful in
the ignition system of an automobile, but hardly an event to be witnessed during
testing of the windings in the transformer.

The energy stored in an inductor with a circulating current can be represented by the
formula:
w (t) = 1/2 I2L where,
w(t) = Energy as a function of time
I = Current in amperes
L = Inductance in Henries

Before the desired current will flow (for testing purposes), this energy requirement
must be met and implies that some time requirement will also be necessary before
the measurement can be made. This time requirement applies only to the charging
time. Additional time must be allowed to stabilize the current before a measurement
can be made.

The ultimate time required to make a reading is limited by an inherent time lag
between the application of a steady current and the time the magnetization of the
core becomes stable. Depending on the size and the construction of the transformer,
testing times could be very short for small transformers or very long for the larger,
highly inductive transformers.

Testing Equipment

Prior to modern digital electronic equipment, the Kelvin Bridge was used. Batteries,
switches, galvanometers, ammeters and slidewire adjustments were used to obtain
resistance measurements. Current regulators were constructed and inserted between
the battery and the bridge. Input voltage to the regulator of 12 volts dc from an
automobile storage battery provided output currents variable in steps which matched
the maximum current rating of the bridge on the ranges most used on transformers.
The current regulator increased both speed and accuracy of the bridge readings. The
approximate 11 volt availability was used to speed up the initial current buildup and
tapered off to about 5 volts just before the selected current was reached and
regulation started.

When the regulation began, the current was essentially constant in spite of the
inductance of the windings and fluctuation of the battery voltage or lead resistance.

The testing times have been greatly reduced using modern microprocessor based
test equipment. Direct readings are available from digital meters with automatic
indications telling when a good measurement is available. On some testers, two
meters are available allowing two resistance measurements at the same time.

Caution: Because of the enormous amount of energy that can be stored in a

magnetic field, precautions should be taken before disconnecting the test leads from
the transformer that is under test. Never remove the leads during the testing
process and always allow for enough time to completely discharge the transformer
being tested. Large transformers can require several minutes to discharge.

Most newer winding resistance testers today have indicators telling when it is safe to
remove the leads.
Principles of Operation

The basic idea is to inject a DC current through the winding to be measured, and
then read the voltage drop across that winding.

Electrical testing instruments apply the dc current through the winding and an
internal standard current shunt. After both DC voltage drops are measured they are
ratioed and the display is read as resistance on the front panel meter. This method
allows for the lead resistance to be omitted since the reading is independent of the
current. In addition, no multiplication factors will be needed when changing current
ranges.

The DC current source must be extremely stable. Refer to formula for DC voltage
across a transformer below:
v = I * R + (L di/dt)where,
vdc = voltage across transformer winding
I = DC current through transformer winding
R = resistance of the transformer winding
L = inductance of the transformer winding
di/dt = changing value of current (ripple)

Assume that the tester has a very stable current source (i.e., no ripple), then di/dt is
zero and the term L di/dt becomes zero.

Tap Changers

Tap changers are divided into two types: On-load and Off-load. The on-load tap
changer allows section of ratio change while the transformer is in service. This would
mean the ratio of a transformer can be changed while power is still passing through
it. The most common example of this type of on-load tap changer is a Voltage
Regulator.

On-Load Tap Changer

The Adwel International Ltd. (ETI) Model WRT-100 resistance tester is ideally suited
to test on-load tap changers because the instrument can be left on while changing
from tap to tap. This allows the operator to take measurements very quickly without
discharging, then re-charging the transformer for every tap. The winding resistance
tester will rebalance after every tap change.

If the tap is defective (open) or if there is even a fraction of time when the circuit is
open, the winding resistance tester will automatically go into its discharge cycle. This
gives the operator a clear indication by a panel light of a possible fault within the tap
changer. For this open condition, no damage will be done to the transformer by the
test set.

Off-Load Tap Changer

This style tap changer requires that the tap changer must be discharged between tap
changes. In order to change taps, the transformer has to be taken out of service or
at least disconnected from the load. This type of tap changer may typically go bad
faster than an on-load because of inadvertent changing of the taps while still in
service.

The resistance tester will still work on this changer but it must be discharged
between tap changes.

Safety

Although some items of inspection may be accomplished without de-energizing the

transformer, the winding resistance measurement is not one of them. To provide
maximum safety to the worker, both the high-voltage and low-voltage leads should
be disconnected from the transformer. Preferably, there should be a visible break
between the transformer terminals and the high- and low-voltage lines.

Conclusion

Transformers are very reliable devices and can provide service for a long time if
maintained and serviced regularly. Transformer failures, when they occur, are
usually of a very serious nature, which may require costly repairs and long
downtime. The best insurance against transformer failure is to ensure that they are
properly installed and maintained.

Make sure that the winding resistance test is included when a transformer is tested.
Modern self-contained instruments make testing easy and accurate.

Keep good records on the values of resistance found and compare them with
previous readings for deviations.

From Adwel International Ltd. For more information visit www.adwel.com. ET

Case History: Overheated Joints

This case history involves a 17.9/22.4 MVA - 34.5 - 13.8 kV autotransformer with all
aluminum windings.

Unfit for Service

Abnormal D.C. resistance measurements were obtained between high voltage

terminals during routine maintenance testing. All other routine test results were
normal.

This utility checks D.C. resistance as a routine maintenance test on all transformers
with tap changers to determine if contact problems exist.

Data Collection

The following measurements were recorded:

Terminals D.C. Resistance
H1 - H2 0.142
H2 - H3 0.153
H3 - H1 0.153
H1 - H0X0 0.072
H2 - H0X0 0.072
H3 - H0X0 0.084

Similar measurements were recorded on all tap changer positions. All tap changer
contacts were inspected and found to be in good condition. It was then determined
that a bad connection in the H3 winding was the problem.

The transformer manufacturer was consulted to determine possible locations for the
bad connection. The manufacturer sent an Internal Assembly drawing for the specific
transformer and indicated which connections to check.

A defective crimped joint was found at the connection of the H3 winding neutral-to-
neutral bus lead. The joint had overheated to the extent that the conductors and
connector fell apart when the insulating tape was removed.

Analysis

The electrical tests indicated that the H3 winding had a high resistance connection.
This was confirmed by the internal inspection.

Repairs were done. The damaged conductors were removed and new conductor
spliced in place to remake the connection. The conductors were reinsulated with
paper tape.

The following measurements were recorded:

Terminals D.C. Resistance
H1 - H2 0.1410
H2 - H3 0.1406
H3 - H1 0.1433
H1 - H0X0 0.0714
H2 - H0X0 0.0712
H3 - H0X0 0.0716

The transformer was cleaned, refilled, retested and returned to service.

Case History Source: IEEE C57.125-1991.