EASUREMENT AND

M
The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project GEOMETRY Module 23

INTRODUCTORY TRIGONOMETRY
A guide for teachers - Years 9–10 June 2011

910
YEARS
Introductory Trigonometry

(Measurement and Geometry: Module 23)

For teachers of Primary and Secondary Mathematics

510

Cover design, Layout design and Typesetting by Claire Ho

The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES)

Project 2009‑2011 was funded by the Australian Government
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations.

The views expressed here are those of the author and do not
necessarily represent the views of the Australian Government
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations..

© The University of Melbourne on behalf of the international

Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics (ICE‑EM),
the education division of the Australian Mathematical
Sciences Institute (AMSI), 2010 (except where otherwise
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 MEASUREMENT AND
The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project GEOMETRY Module 23

INTRODUCTORY TRIGONOMETRY
A guide for teachers - Years 9–10 June 2011

Peter Brown
Michael Evans
David Hunt
Janine McIntosh

910
Bill Pender
Jacqui Ramagge
YEARS
{4} A guide for teachers

INTRODUCTORY
TRIGONOMETRY

ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
• Familiarity with Pythagoras’ theorem.
• Basic knowledge of congruence and similarity of triangles.
• Knowledge of the basic properties of triangles, squares and rectangles.
• Facility with simple algebra and equations.
• Familiarity with the use of a calculator.

MOTIVATION
The word trigonometry signifies the measurement of triangles and is concerned with the
study of the relationships between the sides and angles in a triangle. We initially restrict
our attention to right-angled triangles.

Trigonometry was originally developed to solve problems related to astronomy, but

soon found applications to navigation and a wide range of other areas. It is of great
practical importance to builders, architects, surveyors and engineers and has many
other applications.

Suppose we lean a ladder against a vertical wall. By moving the ladder closer to the
wall, thereby increasing the angle between the ladder and the ground, we increase the
distance up the wall that the ladder can reach. Since the length of the ladder remains the
same, Pythagoras’ theorem relates the distance up the wall to the distance of the ladder
from the base of the wall. Trigonometry allows us to relate that same distance to the angle
between the ladder and the ground.
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {5}

To measure the height of a flagpole, an observer can measure a distance out from the
base and the angle made between the top of the pole and observer’s eye as shown in
the diagram.
Top of
flagpole

As with many topics in Mathematics, trigonometry is a subject which continues on into

the senior years of secondary school and well beyond into higher mathematics. Modern
telecommunications depend on an understanding and harnessing of signal processing,
which is modelled by the trigonometric functions.

Each right-angled triangle contains a right angle. The congruence tests tell us that
if either of the following pieces of information is known, then the triangle is
completely determined:

• one other angle and one side (by the ASA congruence test)
• two sides (by either the SAS test or the RHS test).

Trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem enable us to find the remaining sides and angles
in both cases.
{6} A guide for teachers

CONTENT
If we have two similar right-angled triangles (sometimes called right triangles), then the
angles of one match up with the angles of the other and their matching sides are in the
same ratio.

For example, the following triangles are similar.

B‘

B 10
8

5 4

A 3 C A‘ 6 C‘

Since the matching sides are in the same ratio,

BC AB 1
= = 2.
BC AB

This means that the ratio

BC BC 8 4
= = 10 = 5.
AB AB

Similarly, the ratio

AC AC 6 3
AB
= = 10
= 5
AB

and BC
= BC
= 8
6
= 43 .
AC AC

That is, once the angles of a triangle are fixed, the ratios of the sides of the triangle are
constant. In a right-angled triangle, we only need to know one other angle and then the
angle sum of a triangle gives us the third angle. Hence, in a right-angled triangle, if we
know one other angle, then the ratios of the sides of the triangle are constant.

This is the basis of trigonometry.

 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {7}

EXERCISE 1
Draw up an angle of 58° using a protractor. Place markers at distances of 3cm, 5cm and
8cm and draw perpendiculars as shown in the diagram.

h3

h2

h1

58°
O
8
5
3
h1 h2 h3
Measure the heights marked, h1, h2, h3 and calculate to one decimal place the ratios 3 , 5 , 8 .

Why are the ratios (approximately) equal ?

Naming the sides

In order to distinguish the various possible ratios in a right-angled triangle, we introduce

some names. We always refer to the longest side (opposite the right-angle) as the
hypotenuse.

We now choose one of the two acute angles and label it, often using one of the Greek
letters a, , g or . We shall call this angle the reference angle.

The side opposite the reference angle is called the opposite side, generally referred to as
the opposite, and the remaining side is called the adjacent side, or simply adjacent, since
it is next to the reference angle.
C

hypotenuse
adjacent

B opposite A
{8} A guide for teachers

THE TANGENT RATIO

As mentioned above, once we fix the size of the reference angle in a right-angled triangle
then the ratios of various sides remain the same irrespective of the size of the triangle.
There are six possible trigonometric ratios we could use. We mainly work with just three
of them. The remaining three are their reciprocals.

The ratio of the opposite to the adjacent is known as the tangent ratio or the tangent of the
angle . (The name comes from an earlier time and involves the use of circles.) We write

opposite
tan  = adjacent
where 0° <  < 90°.

opposite

adjacent

EXAMPLE
Write down the value of tan .

a 9 b
40
26
10
41

24

SOLUTION
40 24
a tan  = 9 b tan  = 10
12
= 5

EXERCISE 2
By drawing an appropriate triangle explain why tan 45° = 1

h h h
From the first exercise above, you will have found that the ratios 31 , 52 , 83 were all
approximately 1.6. These ratios correspond to a tangent ratio, so tan 58° is approximately
1.6. The calculator gives tan 58° ≈ 1.6000334529...

The tangent ratio for other angles can be found using a calculator. Needless to say the
calculator does not ‘draw a triangle’ but uses clever mathematical algorithms to find the
value. It is important that students make sure their calculator is in degree mode.

We can use the tangent ratio to calculate missing sides in a right-angled triangle, provided
we are given the right information.
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {9}

EXAMPLE

a Find the length marked x in the diagram b Find x, correct to two decimal places
below, correct to two decimal places.

33°

13cm 11cm

43°
x cm x cm

SOLUTION
x 11
a tan 33° = 13 b tan 43° = x

Hence x = 13 tan 33° Hence x tan 43° = 11

11
≈ 8.44 so x= tan 43°

≈ 11.80

THE THREE BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

In addition to the tangent ratio, there are two other basic ratios that we use.
These are known as the sine and cosine ratios. We take  to be the reference angle
so 0° <  < 90°. The three ratios are defined by:
opposite adjacent opposite
sin  = hypotenuse , cos  = hypotenuse
, tan  =
adjacent

Students need to learn these definitions thoroughly. One simple mnemonic that might
assist them is SOH CAH TOA, consisting of the first letter of each ratio and the first letter
of the sides making up that ratio.

EXAMPLE
For the following triangle, write down the value of:

a sin  b cos  c tan 

26cm
10cm

24cm
SOLUTION
opposite adjacent opposite
a sin  = hypotenuse
b cos  = hypotenuse
c tan  = adjacent
10 24 10
= 26
= 26
= 24
5 12 5
= 13
= 13
= 12
{10} A guide for teachers

SPECIAL ANGLES

The angles 30°, 45° and 60° appear frequently in trigonometry and their sine, cosine and
tangent ratios can be expressed using rational numbers and surds.

EXERCISE 3
In the diagrams below, calculate all sides and angles and then fill in the table below.

2 2
1

2 1

 30° 45° 60°

sin 
cos 
tan 

We can use the trigonometric ratios to calculate missing sides in a right-angled triangle.

EXAMPLE
Find the value of x, correct to four decimal places.

a b
16° x cm
x cm
12cm

25° 9cm

8cm

35°
x cm
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {11}

SOLUTION
a This problem involves opposite and b This problem involves adjacent and
hypotenuse, so use sine. hypotenuse, so use cosine.

12 9
sin 25°= x cos 16°= x

x sin 25°= 12 x cos 16°= 9

12 9
x= sin 25° x= cos 16°

≈ 28.3944 ≈ 9.3627

c This problem involves adjacent and opposite, so use tangent.

x
8= tan 55° (55° is the complement of 35°)
8
tan 35°= x or
x = tan 55° ≈ 11.4252
x tan 35°= 8
8
x= tan 35° 55°

≈ 11.4252 8cm

35°
x cm

EXERCISE 4
Suppose that 0° <  < 90°.

a Explain why sin (90° – ) = cos , and simplify cos (90° – ).
sin 
b Prove that cos  = tan .

c It is standard notation to write (sin )2 as sin2 , and (cos )2 as cos2 .

Prove that cos2  + sin2  = 1.

d Explain why 0 < cos  < 1 and 0 < sin  < 1.

FINDING ANGLES

We have seen that in any right-angled triangle with reference angle , there are three basic
ratios associated with that angle and that the value of each ratio can be found using a
calculator. In order to use the trigonometric ratios to find angles in a right-angled triangle,
we need to reverse the process. Thus, given the sine, cosine or tangent of some angle
between 0 and 90 degrees, we want to find the angle with the given ratio.

We have seen that tan 45° = 1. We say that the inverse tangent of 1 is 45°. This is written
as tan-1 1 = 45°.

Students must not confuse this –1 index with its usual algebraic meaning of ‘one over’.
To help avoid this, it is best to read the symbol tan-1 as inverse tangent and not as tan to
the minus one.
{12} A guide for teachers

Similarly, since sin 30° = 0.5, we write sin-1 0.5 = 30° and say: the inverse sine of 0.5 is 30°.

To find, for example, cos-1 0.25, we use the calculator, which gives 75.52°, correct to two
decimal places.

EXAMPLE
Find each of the following, correct to the nearest degree.

a sin-1 0.6 b cos-1 0.412 c tan-1 2

d the angle  for which sin  = 0.8 e the angle  for which cos  = 0.2

SOLUTION
By calculator.
-1 -1
a sin 0.6 = 36.86989...° b cos 0.412 = 65.66946...°

≈ 37° ≈ 66°

c tan-1 2 = 63.43494...° d If sin  = 0.8

≈ 63° then  = sin-1 0.8
= 53.13...°
≈ 53°
e If cos  = 0.2

then  = cos-1 0.2

= 78.463...°
≈ 78°

The following exercise shows us how to find an angle from two given sides.

EXERCISE 5
a Find the angle between the diagonal and
the base of the rectangle, correct to the
nearest degree. 4cm

7cm

b Find the base angle in the isosceles triangle,

correct to the nearest degree.
7cm 7cm

10cm
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {13}

ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION

When an observer looks at an object that is higher than the (eye of) the observer, the
angle between the line of sight and the horizontal is called the angle of elevation.

On the other hand, when the object is lower than the observer, the angle between the
horizontal and the line of sight is called the angle of depression. These angles are always
measured from the horizontal.

object

line of sight

angle of elevation

horizontal

horizontal

angle of depression

line of sight

object

EXAMPLE
From the top of a cliff, 100 m above sea level, the angle of depression to a ship sailing past
is 17°. How far is the ship from the base of the cliff, to the nearest metre?

SOLUTION
The diagram shows the top of the cliff P, the ship S and the base of the cliff B.
Let SB = x m be the distance of the ship from the cliff. By alternate angles, PSB = 17°.
P
100
Hence tan 17° = x
17°

100
so x= tan 17°
100m

17°
= 327.085 S B
xm

The distance is 327 m (to the nearest metre).

In some problems several steps may be required to find the desired lengths.
{14} A guide for teachers

EXAMPLE
From a point A, 10 m from the base of a tree, the angle of elevation of the top of a tree is
36°. From a point B, x m further on from the base of the tree, the angle of elevation is 20°.

a Find the height of the tree to the nearest tenth of a metre.

b Find the distance x m to the nearest tenth of a metre.

SOLUTION
H

hm

36° 20°
O B
10m A xm

a Let the height of the tree be h metres

h
In OHA, tan 36°= 10

so h= 10 tan 36°

= 7.2654...

≈ 7.3 m, to the nearest tenth of a metre

Note: The approximation 7.3 is not used in part b. It leads to the wrong answer.

h
b In HOB, OB= tan 20°
h
hence OB= tan 20°
10 tan 36°
= tan 20°

= 19.96...

so x= AB

= OB – OA

= 9.96...
≈ 10.0 m to the nearest tenth of a metre

EXERCISE 6
E
Consider the diagram shown opposite.
1
a Prove that BD = 2 (AD + CD).

b Hence deduce that

A B C D
1 1
tan DEB = 2 tan AED + 2 tan CED
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {15}

TRUE BEARINGS

One of the early applications of trigonometry was to improve navigation. Bearings

are used to indicate the direction of an object (perhaps a ship) from a fixed reference
point (perhaps a light house). True bearings give the angle ° from the north measured
clockwise. We write the true bearing of ° as ° T, where ° is an angle between 0° and
360°. It is customary to write the angle using three digits, so 0° T is written as 000° T,
and a true bearing of 15° is written as 015° T.

We can use trigonometry to solve problems involving bearings.

EXAMPLE
Anthony walks for 490 metres on a bearing of 140° T from point A to point B.

Find to the nearest metre,

a how far east the point B is from the point A.

b how far south the point B is from the point A.

N
SOLUTION
a Distance east = 490 sin 40°

≈ 315 m (correct to the nearest metre)

A 140°
b Distance south = 490 cos 40°
40°
490m
≈ 375 m (correct to the nearest metre)

COMPASS BEARINGS

Navigational questions can also be given using compass bearings.

EXERCISE 7
From a point P, a ship sails N 20° E for 20km to the point Q. From Q the ship sails N 70° W
until it is at the point R directly north of P. Find the distance PR.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE

If we take any triangle with two given sides a and b about a given (acute) angle , then the
area of the triangle is given by
1
Area = 2 ab sin 
{16} A guide for teachers

EXERCISE 8
By dropping an altitude in the triangle shown below, derive the formula stated above.
B

c a

A b C

Note that the above formula works even in the case when  is obtuse. In the module,
Further Trigonometry, we will show how to define the sine of an obtuse angle.

LINKS FORWARD

SINE AND COSINE RULES

From the material developed so far it should be apparent that the trigonometric ratios are
a powerful tool for relating angles and sides in right-angled triangles. Not all triangles, of
course, possess a right angle. We can extend the angle/side connection to an arbitrary
triangle using two basic formulas known as the sine rule and the cosine rule.

The sine rule states that in the triangle shown,

a a b c

b
sin A
= sin B
= sin C
.

A c B

In words this says that in any triangle, any side divided by the sine of the opposite angle is
equal to any other side divided by the sine of its opposite angle.

The cosine rule states that in the triangle shown

b c c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C.

C a B

This may be thought of as Pythagoras’ theorem with a correction term.

You may care to derive these from the material established in this module. The sine rule
is relatively easy to prove. For the cosine rule, drop a perpendicular from A and apply
Pythagoras’ theorem to the two triangles. The details of the proofs are given in the
module, Further Trigonometry and in the module, Pythagoras’ Theorem.
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {17}

OBTUSE ANGLES

In general, a triangle may contain an obtuse angle as well as acute angles. Thus far we
have only defined the trigonometric ratios for acute angles.

The trigonometric ratios can be extended to include obtuse angles and this will be done
in the module, Further Trigonometry.

If  is an obtuse angle then the sine of  is given by

sin  = sin (180° – ).

Note that if  is an obtuse angle, then its supplement, 180° – , is acute.

Similarly, if  is an obtuse angle then the cosine of  is given by

cos  = – cos (180° – ),

and the tangent of  is given by

tan  = – tan (180° – ).

Thus, the sine of an obtuse angle equals the sine of its supplement and the cosine
and tangent of an obtuse angle equal the negative of the cosine and tangent of its
supplement, respectively.

In the module, The Trigonometric Functions we extend the definitions even further to
include all angles, including those greater than 180° and negative angles.

Once we are able to find the sine of all possible angles, we can plot the graph of the
function y = sin x. This leads us to study the trigonometric functions which are used to
describe wave motion and electronic signal processing.

THE RECIPROCAL RATIOS

There are six possible ratios that one might take between the three sides of a right-angled
triangle. We can take the reciprocal of the three ratios sine, cosine and tangent to produce
the remaining three.

These ratios are called: cosecant, secant and cotangent respectively. These are written as
cosec , sec , and cot .

Thus, if 0° <  < 90°,

hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1 adjacent 1

cosec  = opposite
= sin 
, sec  = adjacent
= cos 
, cot  = = tan 
opposite

The prefix co- is short for complementary, since the cosine of an angle is equal to the
sine of its complement. The cotangent of an angle is the tangent of its complement and
similarly the cosecant of an angle is the secant of its complement.
{18} A guide for teachers

We saw in the examples in this module, that we can get by with using only the sine,
cosine and tangent ratios in problem solving. However, the reciprocal ratios arise naturally
when we study the calculus of the trigonometric functions.

EXERCISE 9
Show that, if 0° <  < 90°,

a 1 + tan2  = sec2 . b cot2  + 1 = cosec2 .

HISTORY

BABYLONIANS

The Plimpton 322 tablet, believed to have been written about 1800BC, contains a table of
numbers in base 60 that are believed by some to be an early record of tangent ratios. This
remains controversial.

THE GREEKS

The Greeks developed a form of trigonometry based on chords in a circle. Hipparchus of

Nicaea (c. 180-125 BC), sometimes called `the father of Trigonometry’, came from near
present day Istanbul. He was an astronomer and he was able to calculate the duration of
the year to within 6 minutes. To assist with his astronomical calculations, he developed an
early form of trigonometry and drew up tables of chords. This table was later extended,
and used, by Ptolemy (c.90–160 AD).

Hipparchus divided the circumference of a circle into 360° (as the Babylonians had done)
and the diameter into 120 parts.

Then for a given arc AB subtending an angle a at the centre, he gives the length of the
corresponding chord crd(a), as shown in the diagrams below.

O crd ( ) = AB

B
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {19}

Note then that crd (60°) = R and also crd (90°) = 2R.

The length of the chord is related to the sine ratio as the following diagram shows.

2
O

a
AB = crd(a) = 2R sin  2 .

Hipparchus did his calculations with R = 60. Algebraic notation was not available at this time.

INDIANS AND ARABS

With the decline of civilisation in the West, Indian and Arab mathematicians built on the
work of the Greeks. In about the 5th century AD, in a work known as Surya Siddhanta,
a table of sines appeared. The Arabs also developed spherical trigonometry, again to be
used in astronomy.

As we saw above, the sine is related to half a chord, and the word sine itself, arose
from a series of mistranslations of a Sanskrit word for half-chord. The Indian word was
transliterated into Arabic and then misunderstood as a word meaning breast. This in turn
came to mean curve and hence bay or gulf which is sinus in Latin.

REGIOMONTANUS

The motivation for much of early trigonometry was astronomy. The first pure
trigonometrical text written in Europe was De triangulis Omnimodis (‘On all sorts of
triangles’) by Johann Müller (1436 – 1476), alias Regiomontanus. His work was motivated
by his translation of Ptolemy, in which he realised that a more systematic treatment of
trigonometry was required. He wrote:

You who wish to study such great and wonderful things, who wonder at the
movement of the stars, must (first) read these theorems about triangles!

In his work, he derives and proves the sine rule.

{20} A guide for teachers

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

The cosine was defined by cos  = sin (90° – ). This is the sine of the complement of
the angle.

The terms tangent and secant were introduced by T. Fink (1561 – 1656) while cotangent,
(the complement of the tangent), was introduced by by E. Gunther (1581 –1626).

The following diagram shows how the names tangent and secant arose:

sec

tan

O A AB = tan a, OB = sec a.
1

If the radius of the circle is 1, then AB, which has length tan a, touches the circle at A
(Latin tango – I touch) and OB, which has length sec a, cuts the circle (Latin seco – I cut.)

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1
The right-angled triangles are similar to each other.

EXERCISE 2
Draw a right-angled isosceles triangle. The equal angles are each 45°.

Therefore tan 45° = 1.

EXERCISE 3
 30° 45° 60°
1 1 3
sin  2 2  2

3 1 1
cos  2 2  2

1 1
tan  3 
3 
 The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project {21}

EXERCISE 4
a, b and c are the side lengths of triangle ABC. C = 90° and A = °.
a a
a sin  = c and cos B = c . But B = 90° – °. Therefore cos (90 – ) = sin .
a a b sin 
b tan  = b = c ÷ c = cos 
2 2 a2 b2 a2 +b2
c sin  + cos  = c2
+ c2
= =1
c2
a b
d The hypotenuse is the longest side and so sin  = c < 1 and cos  = c < 1.

EXERCISE 5
a 30° b 44°

EXERCISE 6
a BD = AD – AB
BD = BC + CD

Adding gives 2BD = AD + CD

1
BD = 2 (AD + CD)

BD
b tan DEB = ED

= AD + CD
2ED
1 1
= 2 tan AED + 2 tan CED

EXERCISE 7
21.28 km

EXERCISE 8
Draw BD perpendicular to AC with D on AC.

1
Area =2 b × BD
1
=2 ab sin 

EXERCISE 9
sin2  + cos2  = 1

a Divide both sides by cos2  to obtain the result.

b Divide both sides by sin2  to obtain the result

The aim of the International Centre of Excellence for
Education in Mathematics (ICE-EM) is to strengthen
education in the mathematical sciences at all levels-
from school to advanced research and contemporary
applications in industry and commerce.

ICE-EM is the education division of the Australian

Mathematical Sciences Institute, a consortium of
27 university mathematics departments, CSIRO
Mathematical and Information Sciences, the Australian
Bureau of Statistics, the Australian Mathematical Society
and the Australian Mathematics Trust.

The ICE-EM modules are part of The Improving

Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project.

The modules are organised under the strand

titles of the Australian Curriculum:

• Number and Algebra

• Measurement and Geometry
• Statistics and Probability

The modules are written for teachers. Each module

contains a discussion of a component of the
mathematics curriculum up to the end of Year 10.

www.amsi.org.au