N13: Planetary Motion

Outline
1. Philosophical foundation

2. Ellipses

3. Hyperbolas

4. Conservation Laws and Orbits

5. Solving Orbit Problems

6. References
 1. Philosophical Foundation
While Copernicus rightly observed that the planets revolve around the Sun, it was Kepler who
correctly defined their orbits. At the age of 27, Kepler became the assistant of a wealthy
astronomer, Tycho Brahe, who asked him to define the orbit of Mars. Brahe had collected a
lifetime of astronomical observations, which, on his death, passed into Kepler’s hands. (Brahe,
who had his own Earth-centered model of the Universe, withheld the bulk of his observations
from Kepler at least in part because he did not want Kepler to use them to prove Copernican
theory correct.) Using these observations, Kepler found that the orbits of the planets followed
three laws.

Like many philosophers of his era, Kepler had a mystical belief that the circle was the Universe’s
perfect shape, and that as a manifestation of Divine order, the planets’ orbits must be circular.
For many years, he struggled to make Brahe’s observations of the motions of Mars match up
with a circular orbit.

Eventually, however, Kepler noticed that an imaginary line drawn from a planet to the Sun swept
out an equal area of space in equal times, regardless of where the planet was in its orbit. If you
draw a triangle out from the Sun to a planet’s position at one point in time and its position at a
fixed time later—say, 5 hours, or 2 days—the area of that triangle is always the same, anywhere
in the orbit. For all these triangles to have the same area, the planet must move more quickly
when it is near the Sun, but more slowly when it is farthest from the Sun.

This discovery (which became Kepler’s second law of orbital motion) led to the realization of
what became Kepler’s first law: that the planets move in an ellipse (a squashed circle) with the
Sun at one focus point, offset from the center. Kepler’s third law shows that there is a precise
mathematical relationship between a planet’s distance from the Sun and the amount of time it
takes revolve around the Sun. It was this law that inspired Newton, who came up with three laws
of his own to explain why the planets move as they do.
2.Ellipses
A close curve consisting of points whose distances from each two fixed points (foci) all add up
to the same value is an ellipse.
An ellipse is the curve comprised of all points P on a plane whose distance r 1and r 2to two given
points F 1and F 2 add up to a constant greater than the distance between F 1and F 2.

Properties Of ellipse
1. Foci of an ellipse: Two fixed points on the interior of an ellipse ( F 1and F 2) (each point
individually is focus).
2. Ellipse’s center (c): a distance c from each focus.
3. Ellipse’s vertices ( P1and P2): The ellipse’s vertices P1and P2 are the points where it
crosses the axis.
4. Semimajor axis (a): The distance between either vertex and the ellipse’s center.
5. Semi minor axis (b): The semi-minor axis, b, is half of the shortest diameter of an
ellipse.
6. Eccentricity of ellipse (ε): The eccentricity of an ellipse is a measure of how nearly circular
the ellipse.
Note: r 1 +r 2=2a is constant for all points on the ellipse.

For example, at P2.

r 1=a+c

r 2=a−c

So, r 1 +r 2=2 a

Eccentricity ε of an ellipse

c
ε = (0 ≤ ε <1) .
a

When ε approaches zero, the separation of the foci becomes negligible compared to the
semimajor axis a, and the ellipse basically becomes a circle with radius a.
An ellipse with a small eccentricity, like 0.1 or 0.2, is almost as round as a circle. A long, thin
ellipse might have an eccentricity of 0.8 or 0.9. The eccentricity of an ellipse must always be less
than one, but it can be very, very close to one - like 0.99, 0.999, or even larger!

A circle has an eccentricity of zero. A circle is considered a special type of ellipse, in the same
way that a square is considered a special type of rectangle.

The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is very small, so Earth's orbit is nearly circular. Earth's orbital
eccentricity is only 0.0167. Mars has a somewhat larger orbital eccentricity of 0.0935. The orbits
of Mercury and Pluto have the largest eccentricities of planetary orbits in our Solar System;
0.2056 for Mercury and 0.2488 for Pluto. Comets often have extremely eccentric orbits. Halley's
Comet, for instance, has an orbital eccentricity of 0.967!

When an object follows an elliptical path while orbiting a larger object, the larger central body is
not at the center of the ellipse. Instead, the central body is at a point called a focus of the ellipse
which is offset from the center. The larger the eccentricity, the more the focus is offset from the
center. This means that the orbiting object moves closer towards and further away from the
central body during the course of an orbit. The close point in an orbit around the Sun is called
the perihelion; the far point is called aphelion. More eccentric orbits lead to greater differences in
perihelion and aphelion distances. Earth is only 3% further from the Sun at aphelion than it is at
perihelion, while Pluto's aphelion distance from the Sun is 66% greater than its perihelion
distance.

The force of gravity dictates that a small body moving in the presence of a more massive body
(such as a planet, asteroid, or comet orbiting the Sun; or a satellite orbiting Earth) will follow a
trajectory with a shape called a "conic section". Image slicing a three-dimensional cone with
two-dimensional plane at various angles; the resulting "slices" are conic sections. Circles and
ellipses are conic sections; so too are parabolas and hyperbolas. A circle has an eccentricity of
zero. An ellipse has an eccentricity between zero and one. A parabola has an eccentricity of
exactly one, while hyperbolas have eccentricities greater than one. Parabolic and hyperbolic
trajectories are not orbits; they only result in a single close pass by the parent body, while orbits
result in repeated close approaches. Some comets (such as Halley's) follow elliptical orbits that
bring them back to the inner solar system again and again, though sometimes only after long
intervals (75 years for Halley's). Other comets are on hyperbolic trajectories, and only visit the
inner solar system once before being flung off into interplanetary space, never to return.
How calculate Semi minor axis (b)

Since the distance from point P3 on that axis to both F 1and F 2 are same and must add up to 2a,
the distance to each must be a.

Using Pythagorean theorem:

b=√ a2−c2

When ε approaches 1,

b=√ a2−c2 =√ ¿ ¿

b=√ a(1−ε 2 ¿ )¿
Useful formulas for calculating the nearest and farthest points from given focus.

From the above figure, the point P1on the semi major axis of the ellipse is the farthest point
(aphelion) on the ellipse from the focus F 2, while P2is the point closest (perihelion) to that focus.
If we define the distances to the close and far points to be r c and r f , respectively, then we can
easily derive these handy relations:
3. Hyperbolas

An hyperbola is the curve comprised of all points P on a plane whose distance r 1and r 2to two
given points F 1and F 2 have a difference is a constant less than the distance between F 1and F 2.

The two points F and F are the

1 2

foci of the hyperbola.

The point halfway between the

two foci is called the hyperbola’s
center.

The point where the curve crosses

the axis connecting the two foci is
called the hyperbola’s vertex.

Note: r 2−r 1=2a is same for all points on the hyperbola.

For example, at P2.

r 1=c−a

r 2=c+ a

So, r −r =2 a
2 1

As r2 grow large, the hyperbola

asymptotically approaches two lines
(dashed line shown in figure above) that
go through the hyperbola’s center and
make the same angle θ with respect to
the axis connecting the foci.
If we consider a point P on the hyperbola that is extremely far away, the lines that connect that
point to the foci become essentially parallel to each other and to the asymptote. Since r2 must be
2a longer than r1. The upper right leg of the colored triangle must have a length of 2a.

a
That means: cos θ=¿ ¿
c

c
Eccentricity ε = ( ε >1 )
a

1
This means cos θ=¿ ¿
ε

 When ε of the hyperbola approaches 1, sinθ= 0, the hyperbola becomes very thin
vertically, almost lying parallel to the axis through foci.

 When ε becomes large, cosθ=0 ,θ=90 °, the hyperbola essentially becomes a straight
vertical line.

4. Conservation Laws and Orbits

Consider first an object in an elliptical orbit around a massive object with mass M. At the closest
and farthest points of the orbit, the orbiting objects velocity is entirely perpendicular to the radial
direction, since at these extreme points, the orbiting object’s angular momentum around the
primary is simply

L=mag¿)= rmv sin 90° =rmv .

Conservation of angular momentum and conservation of energy for these extreme points imply
that

L
rc vc= =r v …………..(1)
m f f

2 GM 2 E 2 GM
v 2c − = =v 2f −
rc m r f ………….(2)

We know that r c =a (1−ε ) ∧r f =a(1+ ε )…………(3)

If one multiplies both sides of the equation (2) by r 2c and substitutes the information from
equation (3) and equation (1).

L 2 2 E 2( 2 E 2(
( )
m
−2 GMa ( 1−ε ) =
m
a 1−ε 2 ) =
m
a 1−2 ε +ε 2) ………..(4)

Similarly, the right equality in equation (2) yields

L 2 2E 2(
( )
m
−2 GMa ( 1+ ε )=
m
a 1+2 ε +ε 2) …………………….(5).

If we subtract equation (4) and rearrange terms, we find that

−2 E 2
4 GMa ε= a 4ε
m

−GMm
= E= ………….(6)
2a

−GMm
 The link between energy and semi major axis: E=
2a

The total conserved energy of an object in an elliptical orbit depends on the orbit’s semimajor
axis alone (i.e., not an object’s angular momentum or the orbit’s eccentricity), and that the
energy gets larger (less negative) as the semimajor axis increases.

 Relationship between the orbit’s eccentricity and conserved energy and angular momentum
of the orbiting object.
Now if we add equation (4) and (5), we get,
 L 2 2E 2 (
2 ( )
m
−4 GMa=
m
a 2 1+ ε 2 )…………. (7)

−GM
a=
If we divide this equation through by 2 and plug in 2 E (from equation (6) and rearrange
( )
m
things, we find that

L 2 2 E −GM 2
( ) ( 1 +ε 2)
2
m
−4 GMa=
m 2E
m(( ))
2E
Multiplying both sides of this by m yields
( GM )2
2
1
2( ) ( 2mE )+2=( 1+ ε )
( GM ) m
L 2

2
1
ε 2=1+
( GM )( ) ( 2mE )…………… (8).
2
L
m

This equation gives us the relationship between the orbit’s eccentricity and the conserved energy
and angular momentum of the orbiting object.

We can do the same kind of analysis for hyperbola orbits as well. This is somewhat trickier
because a hyperbolic orbit does not have an easily analyzed for point. However, we can use the
limiting behavior as the object goes to very large r as the equivalent of the far point in the
elliptical orbit calculation.

An important result linking an orbits energy to its shape.

 If E < 0 then ε < 1 (the orbit is elliptical)
 If E > 0 then ε > 1 (the orbit is hyperbolic).
 The case of E=0 corresponds to the crossover between the two cases. This is of
mathematical interest only (no real orbit will have its total energy exactly equal to zero),
but the orbit in this case would be parabola.

5. Solving Orbit Problems.

 2E L
Knowing the values of and for a system involving a satellite orbiting a massive primary
m m
allows us to calculate a and ε, which in turn completely specify the shape of the satellite’s orbit.
The table below summarizes the crucial equations regarding orbits.

Problem: Imagine that a strange object is discovered 22 AU from the sun. Measurements show
its velocity to be 11.2 km/s in a direction 169.7° from the line between the object and the sun
(meaning that the velocity vector points mostly towards the sun). Is this a previously
undiscovered member of the solar system, or is it an interloper from outside? How close will it
get to the sun?

Translation and Model: The below figure shows the situation. We can answer both questions if
2E L
we can calculate the quantities and from the information given.
m m
Since we are given the object’s distance r from the sun and its speed v, and since we can easily
2E Gm
calculate GM for the sun, we ca easily calculate =V 2− . We also know the angle
m r
θ=169.7 °, that the object’s velocity makes with the object’s position vector ⃗
r , so we should be
L
able to calculate =rvsinθ as well.
M
Problem: A certain asteroid in an elliptical orbit is a distance r c =3.5 AU from the sun at the
closest point in its orbit and a distance r f =4.5 AU at the farthest point. What is the period of its
orbit in year?
1
Solution: The semimajor axis of the orbit is a= ( r c +r f )=4.0 AU . The semimajor axis of the
2
3
earth’s orbit a e =1 AU (by definition). Since Tα a 2

T 4.0 AU 2
3

Te
=¿ =( 1.0 AU
¿ =8.
Since the period of the earth’s orbit T e =1 y by definition, the period of the asteroid’s orbit must
be 8.0 y.
References
Moore, T. A. (2017). Six ideas that shaped physics, Unit: Conservation laws constrain
interactions. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Moore, T. A. (2013). Six ideas that shaped physics, Unit N: The laws of physics are
universal(2ed.), New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

Przyborski, P. (2009). The earth observatory: The science: orbital mechanics. Retrieved from
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/OrbitsHistory/page2.php on 13th May,2020.

Russell, R. (2005). Windows to the universe: Eccentricity of an orbit. Retrieved from

https://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/physics/mechanics/orbit/eccentricity.html
&edu=high on 14th May,2020.