ES3D1 Key Notes

Concrete Symbols and Definitions

FCK
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the compressive strength of 150x300mm size
cylinders of concrete specimens casted and tested as per given code of practice and cured for a
period of 28 days; 95% of tested cylinders should not have a value less than this value.
C25/30 means first, the cylinder strength of 25 N/mm2 followed by cube strength of 30 N/mm2

Fcm

The mean compressive strength fcm is related to the characteristic compressive strength fck as

follows:

fcm = fck + 8 MPa

Slab definition: Slab width at least 5 times larger than slab depth (h), smaller
than that than it becomes a beam.

Wall definition: Wall width at least 5 times larger than wall thickness (h),
smaller than that it is a column.

Modulus of elasticity Ecm
 Peak stress is fcm, (mean compressive
strength) as oppose to peak stress of fck

in idealized parabola-rectangle.

Dotted line is fck and solid line is fcd

fck = Concrete cylinder strength

fcm = Mean concrete strength
Ecm = Mean value of elastic modulus

fck,cube = Concrete cube strength

fctm = Mean concrete tensile strength
Actions
Actions (Loads) – Anything that induces a change in stress state of a structure. They are mostly
external forces but may also occur due to settlement.
Permanent Action: Force with minimal varying magnitude. Acts throughout lifetime of
structure.
If variation cannot be considered small  Two different values are determined, Gk,superior and
Gk, inferior. Gk superior has a 5% chance of exceedance and Gk,inferior has a 95% chance of
exceedance. Assuming that Gk follows a Gaussian distribution.
Variable Action: Force with varying magnitude and presence during lifetime of structure.
Combination factor 0 : When a number of variable actions act simultaneously in any load
combination, a leading action is chosen while the other variable actions are designated as
accompanying variable actions. The accompanying actions are reduced by a combination factor
(0.7 for office, shopping residential loads, 0.5 for wind loads, 1.0 for storage etc.)
This recognises the reduced likelihood that variable actions from different sources will be at their
maximum values simultaneously. (Eg. Beam that supports an area of different intended usage.)
Three types of combination factor for ULS:
 The combination value ψ0: Used in ULS when considering multiple variable actions.
The leading action is chosen as Qk,1 and the other accompanying actions are chosen Qk,i
and are reduced by an appropriate combination factor 0.
 The frequent value ψ1: Used when considering accidental and seismic design situations.
Used in SLS when considering the frequent combination for comfort criteria of users.
 The quasi-permanent value ψ2: Used when considering accidental and seismic design
situations. Used when considering SLS requirements of appearance and long-term
deflections.
Single source principle: All permanent actions that come from the same source are assigned the
same partial factor regardless of the load combination. The bigger partial factor of 1.35
(unfavourable load) used in the maximum loading calculation will also be used in the minimum
loading calculation. Only applies to STR and GEO limit states, not EQU.
A limit state: A state at which the structure no longer fulfils the design criteria.
Ultimate limit state: Associated with structural failure of the structure.
Three types of ULS are:
1. EQU: Addresses loss of static equilibrium of the structure as a rigid body (Eg.
Overturning, sliding, uplift
2. STR: Addresses the strength of the internal forces of the structure to prevent failure or
excessive deformation.
3. GEO: Addresses the failure or excessive deformation of the ground at which the
structure is supported.
All variable actions (leading or accompanying) are 0 when favourable in all three ULS checks.
Serviceability Limit State: Associated with the state of the structure that correspond to the
specified service requirements beyond which specified service requirements are no longer met.
For example:
Ensuring a beam is strong enough to carry the imposed loads without collapsing is a ULS check.
Ensuring a beam does not deflect beyond a specified limit is an SLS check. ULC checks precede
SLS checks.
Three types of SLS action combinations:
1. Characteristic combination: Used when considering damage to structural and non-
structural elements. ‘Characteristic adds character (cracks)’
2. Frequent combination: Used when considering comfort criteria for users. (Eg. Use of
machinery, to prevent water ponding) “Users frequent the buildings”
3. Quasi-permanent combination: Used when considering long-term deflections of the
structure.
When performing all SLS checks, the partial factors are all equal to one. However,
combination factors are still used.

Pattern Loading
2 types of pattern loading for multi-span structures (one or two-way slabs):
Load set 1 – Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
1) Load alternate spans with design variable and permanent loads, while other spans carry
only the design permanent loads.
2) Load adjacent spans with design variable and permanent loads, while other spans carry
only the design permanent loads.
 Due to single source principle, the same value of G is to be used throughout the calculations.
Load set 2 – Alternate or all spans loaded
1) All spans carrying the design permanent and variable loads.
2) Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads while other spans carry
only the design permanent loads.
Due to single source principle, the same value of G is to be used throughout the calculations.
The design bending moments and shear forces should be obtained from the more onerous of 1) or
2) depending on which loading arrangement is chosen.

Bending Resistance of Reinforced Concrete

Theory
Stress-strain Behaviour
At Ultimate limit State
At concrete compression failure, concrete exhibits equivalent rectangular
stress distribution.
Plastic rotation would have occurred at this point. Strain increases as normal
stresses stays the same (assuming perfectly plastic)
At Serviceability Limit State

Use the triangular stress distribution as concrete is still in elastic region and
exhibits linear elastic stress-strain distribution. εc of extreme fibre is equal to
0.002. The strains have not reached their ultimate compressive strain of 0.00035
in the most extreme fibre at the surface.

The stress-strain relationship is a parabolic curve until a compressive strain of 0.002 is reached,
at a stress of 0.567 fck. This is the point at which strain increases with no further increase in
stress, modelled as perfectly plastic behaviour (straight line).

Balanced Section Design

Neutral axis depth
X = 0.617 d
When the beam is subject to its ultimate load, the concrete will crush in compression and the
steel will yield in tension simultaneously when x = 0.617d (with partial factors of 0.567 and 0.87
applied to fck and fyk respectively)
Eurocode 2 has limited x to 0.45d to allow some strain capacity for the concrete to plastically
rotate and redistribute moments within the structure before it crushes in compression.

In bending compression, extreme fibres yield first and exhibit plastic deformations. On
subjecting the member to increased load, plastic redistribution results in inner fibres taking up
the increase in stress due to increasing load. At a certain depth, the fibres would have reached the
strain of 0.002 with the associated stress of 0.567 fck. The rectangular section of the rectangular-
parabolic shape gets deeper as more fibres surpass εc = 0.002.
εc will eventually reach 0.0035 (extreme fibres fail) and cracks will develop leading to failure. It
is at this point that the stress distribution is rectangular-parabolic in shape. This is simplified to
the equivalent rectangular stress distribution.
Design Calculations and Analysis
Approach:
1) Stress/strain profiles
2) Neutral axis depth using equilibrium (Sum of horizontal forces = 0)
o Assumptions on steel strains
o Calculating ‘x’ (N.A depth)
o Verify assumptions – Has steel yielded?
3) MRd using Moment Equilibrium (Sum of moments = 0)
 For singly and doubly-reinforced beams, take moments about tensile
reinforcement.
 For columns, take moments about mid-section
Singly-reinforced beam
Take moments about tensile reinforcement.
Lever arm
Lever arm of balanced section according to EC2, where x = 0.45d (The case for doubly
reinforced beams):
z = 0.82 d
Calculation of lever arm using equivalent concrete stress block:
z = d – 0.4x
Maximum lever arm:
Z ≤ 0.95d
Doubly-reinforced beam and singly-reinforced beam
Take moments about tensile reinforcement to find MRd
Reinforcement
Top hogging reinforcement spacing should be bigger to insert vibrator (Try bigger than
25mm)

Always check maximum and minimum steel areas and minimum bar spacing:

For slabs: 0.04Ac ≥ As ≥ 0.26ctmbtd ≥ 0.0013btd

For beams: 0.04Ac ≥ As ≥ 0.26ctmbtd ≥ 0.0015btd

For slabs :As,min = 0.13% btd is not included in data sheet so must memorise

For beams :As,min = 0.15% btd is not included in data sheet so must memorise

Minimum bar spacing (clear distance)

b−2 ( cover +link dia. )−( No. bars x dia

¯ .)
Clear distance= > 25 mm
No. bars−1

Clear distance is the greater of:

o Maximum aggregate size + 5mm

 o 20mm
o The bar diameter

Cover
Cover to reinforcement is a function of:
1) Fire resistance
2) Durability
3) Bond between concrete and reinforcement
4) Exposure class
Cover to the main bar:
Cnom = Cmin + Cdev
Cdev is the likely deviation during construction and is usually taken as 10mm.
Cmin is the diameter of the bar for bonding and durability purposes.
Shear Design

For beams: Shear stress vEd is calculated using z

For slabs: Shear stress vEd is calculated using d

 When deriving equation for VRd,max, partial factor of concrete is 1.5 is used without the
0.85 factor for long-term effects and difference between cylinder and cube.
 Partial factor of 1.5 is a partial material factor to represent the uncertainty of achieving
the stated characteristic strength of the material (steel or concrete)
 0.85 is only included when concrete undergoes bending as 0.85 is the factor for long-term
effects and the difference between the bending strength and the cylinder crushing strength
of the concrete

Step-by-step
1) Compression strut vertical resistance vRd is measured from face of support.
Using cross-sectional area of concrete compression strut using z cos theta multiplied by
width. Note that factor of 0.85 is not applied to fck, just 1.5.
If the compression strut is over stressed, then either increase beam dimensions or increase
concrete strength.

2) Shear reinforcement is calculated using vEd measured a distance d from face of support
Note that compression strut and shear reinforcement can be calculated independently.

Calculate shear reinforcement by calculating shear force resisted by a single plane of shear links.
Memorise this minimum Asw (shear link) requirement for beams:

Additional longitudinal reinforcement

There is a horizontal component of the inclined compression force in the inclined compression
strut that must be accommodated. The vertical component of the inclined compression strut VRd,
max = VEd. Therefore, we can state that the horizontal component is VEd cot θ. We make the
assumption that half of this horizontal component is resisted by the tensile reinforcement.
Thus, the additional tensile force due to shear is:
∆Ftd = 0.5VEd cot θ
High shear forces usually occur at the supports where bending moment is low. This additional
tensile force is accommodated by requiring the longitudinal tension steel to be embedded or
anchored further into the span than required by bending alone.

Slabs
Procedure
Loading
 Multiply UDL in kN/m2 by 1 metre width to get UDL acting on 1m width of slab.
Use effective length of slab to calculate self-weight of slab.

Fire resistance and detailing requirements

 The minimum area of primary reinforcement is given by As,min = 0.26fctmbtd/fyk ≥

0.0013btd where bt is the width of the tension zone. (1000mm for slabs)

 Minimum area of transverse reinforcement is 20% of As,min.

 The maximum area of reinforcement is As,max = 0.04 AC (same for beams, slabs and
columns)
 For slabs less than 200 mm thick the MAX clearance between main reinforcement = min
(400 mm or 3h(height))
 The MAX clearance of transverse reinforcement = min (450 or 3.5h (height))
 Refer to [2] for further detailed guidance. For slabs 200 mm and deeper, the usual
spacing rules (discussed previously) apply. (Use tables)
 Minimum distance between bars apply (max of 20mm, bar dia., and aggregate size
+5mm) to allow for concrete to flow and completely encase the reinforcement

Tables

One-way spanning slab (minimum 3 spans for continuous slabs)

 WEd is multiplied by area of a strip of (1m width multiplied by length) of slab to get a
Force in kN that acts on the entire strip
 This Force is used in the table that use F (kN)
Eg:
Simply supported one-way spanning slab  Use structural analysis (simply-supported beam
with UDL)

 Use the usual wl^2/8 equation to find maximum sagging moment

 w is in kN/m, which is WEd multiplied by the 1m width (for one strip) to the UDL

Simply supported two-way spanning slab

 Length of shorter side lx used throughout.

 αsx and αsy are the bending moment coefficients obtained from Fig. 7

 n is the design ultimate load per unit area (per m2)

 Where n = WEd in m2
Two-way continuous spanning slabs supported on 4 sides with torsion provision at corners
  Length of shorter side lx used throughout.
 βsx and βsy are the bending moment coefficients obtained

 βvx and βvy are the shear coefficients obtained

 n is the design ultimate load per unit area (per m2)

 Where n = WEd in N/m2

Continuous slabs and corner restraint

A two-way spanning slab will typically try to ‘curl’ upwards at its corner as the centre of the slab
deflects downwards. This is due to torsional moments at corners due to bi-axial bending.

 Anchorage length is 20% of the effective length of the span it is being anchored into
When finding area of As hogging and As sagging
 Calculate the individual values for d for each direction remembering that the longer span
(ly) reinforcement will have a smaller d as it will be placed under the short span
reinforcement as the short span will have a larger MEd, and therefore will need a larger
lever arm.

Columns
Theory
Bending plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State
Calculating NEd and MRd(MEd)
NEd
The applied force (N) must be balanced by the forces developed within the cross-section:
N = FCC + FSC + FS
Usually Fs is -ve as steel will be in tension.
For balanced section:
When x = 0.617d
MRd(MEd)
Take moments about the mid-section of the beam to get moments in terms of h, s, d’ and d.

If the depth of x is such that 0.8x >> h, then the whole concrete is subject to a uniform
compressive stress of 0.567 fCK. This means that the concrete provides no moment of resistance
and therefore 0.567fckbs(h/2-s/2) = 0

Modes of failure

The relative magnitude (M) and the axial load (N) governs whether the section will fail in
tension or in compression.
Eccentricity = M/N
If Eccentricity is large, tension failure will occur.
If Eccentricity is small, a compressive failure will occur.
The magnitude of the eccentricity effects the position of the neutral axis and hence the strains
and stresses in the reinforcement.

Tension failure
Stress of tensile steel > Yield stress
Failure is associated with large eccentricities and x<0.617d (small depths of neutral axis)
Tensile reinforcement yields  Concrete crushes as tensile strains rapidly increase

Balanced Failure
Stress of steel = Yield stress

When x = 0.617d (balanced section)

Nbal = FCC + FSC + Fs

At point B, N = Nbal and M = Mbal.

When N > Nbal , the section will fail in compression.
When N < Nbal, the section will fail in tension.
Compression Failure
x > xbal = 0.617d and N > Nbal
The change in slope occurs when stress in compressive steel = yield stress in steel.
Column Design Step-by-step
1) Loading
 Determine distance of frame centres to calculate uniformly distributed load
(kN/m)
 Calculate WEd,max in kN/m2 which is multiplied by the distance of frame centres to
get a UDL which can be used in wl^2/12 to get fixed-end moments
 Calculate I of column and beam
2) Subframe analysis
 Calculate stiffness (remember beams’ stiffness are halved and fixed-end moments
(moment distribution method)
3) Calculate axial load NEd
 Remember to include partial factor (1.35) for columns’ self-weight above column
 Calculate load per floor remembering that half of load of adjacent slabs will be
supported by column
4) Determine ‘stocky’ column first-order moments first
 Determine emin to calculate Me
 Calculate first-order moments M02 and M01 which include the moment Me caused
by geometrical imperfections
5) Determine k (relative stiffness of end restraints (EI/Lclear for column and 2EI/L for beams)
 Remember that the stiffness of connected beams are 2EI
 Use clear height of column when calculating stiffness of column
 Don’t multiply by ¾ if restraint is pinned – only use for moment distribution. Just use
EI/clear height for column divided by the sum of 2EI/L for beam(s)
 6) Determine Slenderness γ
7) Calculate limiting Slenderness γlim
Skip to 10) if column is ‘stocky’

8) Section Design – Calculate d2 by d2 = Cnom + Link dia. + Main dia./2 (Distance to centroid
of compression reinforcement)
9) MEd = Max of {M0Ed + M2; M02; M01 + 0.5M2}

TO BE CONTINUED:

Column Classification
Column bent in single curvature (tension on the same side) – rm is positive
Column bent in double curvature (tension on opposite sides) – rm is negative
Column has zero moment on one end – rm is 0

rm is negative for column AB as tension on opposite sides

Draw the column’s bending moment diagram in the exam! If tension

on same side, then rm is positive.

In subframe analysis:
  The stiffness of beam is 0.5EI
 Use effective height of column including beam when calculating stiffness of column
In lo (effective height) determination:
 The stiffness of beam is 2EI
 Use clear height of column when calculating stiffness of column (column height – beam
depth)

Subframe analysis

The subframe analysis assumes that the sub-frame is part of a ‘braced’ structure. In such
a structure, lateral stability is provided by another stiff structure, eg. A cantilevering RC
core or an adjoining building. The RC frame has no lateral stability on its own.

Calculating k to find lo

When finding k1 and k2 (relative stiffness (NOT distribution factor) between column and
restraint on each end) to find lO, the equation is:

L is the clear height (column height – beam depth it is connected to)

If the column’s bottom support is pinned, the rotational resistance tends to zero, making k2
tend to infinity. Therefore that part of the equation becomes (1+1) = 2
This is conservative as any rotational fixity provided by foundation will reduce the effective
height of the column.

Effective length decreases the more stiff the end support is (in terms of buckling)

Process of slender column

The key difference between short and slender column design is the need to estimate the lateral
deflection of a slender column at failure.

 Slender columns are susceptible to second order effects i.e Additional bending
moments developed due to lateral deflection of the column. (P-delta effect)

 The flexibility of slender columns also makes them susceptible to failure

 The stocky nature of short columns makes them more likely to fail by crushing in direct
compression

Slenderness will differ depending on the axis (z or x axis/(major or minor)) it is measured

in.

In addition to first order moments, a slender column must also resist nominal second order
moments. M2 = NEd e2

Where e2 is an estimate of the column’s lateral deflection at failure.

The design moment is:

MEd = Max of {M0Ed + M2; M02; M01 + 0.5M2}

 Where M0Ed is the equivalent first order moment at approximately mid-height, including the
geometric imperfections.
 M01 and M02 are the first order moments that include geometric perfections for short columns.
 M2 is the nominal second moment.

All three factors below are used to calculate k , which is the curvature of the beam which is

used to calculate the second order eccentricity e2

Factor Kr
 accounts for a smaller deflection due to second order effects if a large proportion of the
column cross section is in compression.
  Takes into account the possibility that the reinforcement has not yielded. Leads to a
curvature below the base curvature Kr <1
 Larger deflection is a sign of more steel yielding
Effective creep Φef
 The effective creep coefficient that is used to determine the effective secant modulus
during deflection calculations.
Factor KΦ
 A simplification factor, which takes into account creep and corrects for scenarios when
the base curvature would be below the real curvature.

Design Procedure for Slender Columns

Nominal second order moment due to lateral deflection: M2 = NEd e2

This is known as the P-∆ effect where P represents the applied axial load and ∆ refers to the
eccentricity.

M0,Eqp = 1st order moment due to quasi-permanent loads

MEd = Max of {M0Ed + M2; M02; M01 + 0.5M2}

Interaction Diagrams
If chart shows a value of zero, it means that the minimum area of reinforcement is to be
provided.

As,min= 409mm2 but there has to be at least 4 bars to make the cage therefore 4H12, 4H16 or
4H20 can be provided.

Will be best to redesign the column with factors to consider:

 Cost of steel vs cost of concrete

 Impact on floor space – loss of revenue over building design life

Detailing rules and reinforcement limits(columns):

 Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement is given by

 Bar diameter below 12mm should not be used as longitudinal reinforcement although
16mm is a more robust minimum.
 Columns require a minimum of 4 bars, one in each corner.
 The minimum clear distance should be the greater of 20mm, bar diameter, or aggregate
size + 5mm
  The minimum link diameter should be the greater of 6mm or 25% of the maximum
diameter of the longitudinal bar
 Maximum link spacing = min(12 x compression bar dia., 60% of smaller column
dimension, 240mm)

At a distance greater than the larger dimension of the column above or below an adjoining beam
or slab, these spacing may be increased by a factor of 1.67

 No longitudinal bar should be more than 150mm away from a link.

Concrete Lab Calculations

Only a reduction factor of 0.85 is applied to the concrete, no partial factors are used throughout
the calculations. Partial factors equal 1 but don’t forget 0.85 applied to fcc.

Due to this, in balanced design, x = 0.583 d

Do not use x = 0.45d in any calcs here.

Shear calculations in Design

Don’t use reduction factor of 0.85 on concrete. It applies to bending deflections only.

Design Size Assumptions:

Cnom = 30mm

Beam:

Main longitudinal reinforcement – 25mm diameter

Shear link – 10mm diameter

Slab:

Main longitudinal reinforcement - 10mm diameter

No shear link.

Column:

Main longitudinal reinforcement – 20mm diameter

Shear link: 10mm diameter

Why is measured different to predicted?

Calcs were done using strength from cube tests.

Instrumentation failure – poorly fixed gauges or excessive compression in the gauge

The properties of concrete are not uniform due to segregation and bleeding of the aggregate.

The reinforcement cage will move around during construction and compaction and therefore the
depth of the tensile reinforcement will change.
Different method of compaction – vibrator was used for the concrete beam and prodding with
steel rods is used to compact cube.