2.

Polynomials
2.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied polynomials in one variable and their degrees.
Recall that if p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the
degree of the polynomial p(x). For example, 4 x+2is a polynomial in the variable
x of degree 1, 2 y 2−3 y +4 is a polynomial in the variable y of degree 2,
5 x 3−4 x 2 + x−√ 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 3 and
3
7 u6 − u4 + 4 u2 +u−8 is a polynomial in the variable u of degree 6. Expressions
2
1
like m√ x+ 2, 2 etc., are not polynomials.
x +2 x+ 3
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. For example, 2 x−3,
2 2
√ 3 x+5 , y + √ 2, x− 11 ,3 z+ 4 , 3 u+1, etc., are all linear polynomials. Polynomials
such as 2 x+5−x 2, x 3+ 1, etc., are not linear polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial. The name
‘quadratic’ has been derived from the word ‘quadrate’, which means ‘square’.
2 u
2 x2 +3 x− , y 2−2,2−x2 + √ 3 x , −2u 2+5 ,
5 3
√ 5 v 2− 23 v, 4 z2 +
1
7
are some examples of
quadratic polynomials (whose coefficients are real numbers). More generally,
any quadratic polynomial in x is of the form a x 2+ bx+ c , where a, b, c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.
Some examples of a cubic polynomial are 2−x 3, x 3, √ 2 x 3 3−x 2 + x 3,3 x 3−2 x2 + x−1.
In fact, the most general form of a cubic polynomial is
a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d
where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Now consider the polynomial. p ¿ Then, putting x = 2 in the polynomial, we get
p ( 2 )=22 – 3 ×2 – 4=– 6. The value ‘-6’, obtained by replacing x by 2 in x 2−3 x−4 is
the value of x 2 – 3 x – 4at x = 2. Similarly, p(0) is the value of p(x) at x = 0, which is
-4.
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained
by replacing x by k in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by
p(k).
What is the value of p ( x ) =x 2 – 3 x – 4 at x = –1? We have :
p ( – 1 )=( – 1 )2 – { 3× (−1 ) }−4=0
Also, note that p ( 4 )=42 – ( 3 × 4 ) – 4=0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial x 2 – 3 x – 4. More generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a
polynomial p(x), if p ( k )=0
You have already studied in Class IX, how to find the zeroes of a linear
polynomial. For example, if k is a zero of p ( x ) =2 x +3, then p(k) = 0 gives us
−3
2 k +3=0 , i.e.,k = ⋅
2
−b
In general, if k is a zero of p ( x ) =ax +b , t h en p ( k )=ak +b=0, i.e., k = a ⋅
−b
( −Constant term )
So, the zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is a = Coefficient of x
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this
happen in the case of other polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a
quadratic polynomial also related to its coefficients?
In this chapter, we will try to answer these questions. We will also study the
division algorithm for polynomials.
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial
You know that a real number k is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(k) = 0. But
why are the zeroes of a polynomial so important? To answer this, first we will
see the geometrical representations of linear and quadratic polynomials and
the geometrical meaning of their zeroes.
Consider first a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0. You have studied in Class IX that
the graph of y = ax + b is a straight line. For example, the graph of y = 2x + 3 is a
straight line passing through the points (-2,-1) and (2, 7).
x -2 2
y=2x+3 –1 7

From Fig. 2.1,

you can see that the graph of y=2 x +3 intersects the x - axis mid-way between
−3
x =-1 and x =-2, that is, at the point 2 ,0 ( )
−3
You also know that the zero of 2 x+3 is 2 Thus, the zero of the polynomial 2x +
3 is the x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = 2x + 3 intersects the x-
axis.
In general, for a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, the graph of y = ax + b is a
straight line which intersects the x-axis at exactly one point, namely, a , 0 ( −b )
Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the
x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis.
Now, let us look for the geometrical meaning of a zero of a quadratic
polynomial. Consider the quadratic polynomial x 2 – 3 x – 4. Let us see what the
graph* 1of y=x 2 – 3 x – 4 looks like. Let us list a few values of y=x 2 – 3 x – 4

1
* Plotting of graphs of quadratic or cubic polynomials is not meant to be done by the students, nor
is to be evaluated.


corresponding to a few values of y=x 2 – 3 x – 4corresponding to a few values for
x as given in Table 2.1.
 X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
y=x −3 x−4 6 0 -4 -6 - -4 0 6
6

Figure 2.2
If we locate the points listed above on a graph paper and draw the graph, it
will actually look like the one given in Fig. 2.2.
In fact, for any quadratic polynomial a x 2+ bx+ c , a ≠ 0, the graph of the
corresponding equation y=a x2 +bx +c has one of the two shapes either open
upwards like ∪or open downwards like ∩depending on whether a>0 or a < 0.
(These curves are called parabolas.)
You can see from Table 2.1 that-1 and 4 are zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial. Also note from Fig. 2.2 that -1 and 4 are the x-coordinates of the
points where the graph of y=x 2−3 x−4 intersects the x-axis. Thus, the zeroes of
the quadratic polynomial x 2−3 x−4 are x-coordinates of the points where the
graph of y=x 2−3 x−4intersects the x-axis. Thus, the zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial x 2−3 x−4 are x-coordinates of the points where the graph of
y=x 2−3 x−4 intersects the x-axis.
This fact is true for any quadratic polynomial, i.e., the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial a x 2+ bx+ c , a ≠ 0, are precisely the x-coordinates of the points where
the parabola representing y = y=a x2 +bx +c intersects the x-axis.
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y=a x2 +bx +c , the
following three cases can happen:
Case (i) :
Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A′.
The x-coordinates of A and A′ are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
a x 2+ bx+ c in this case (see Fig. 2.3).

(i), (ii)
Fig. 2.3
Case (ii)
: Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident
points. So, the two points A and A′ of Case (i) coincide here to become one
point A (see Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.4
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial a x 2+ bx+ c in
this case.
Case (iii)
Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the
x-axis. So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point (see Fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2.5
So, the quadratic polynomial a x 2+ bx+ c has no zero in this case.
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two
distinct zeroes or two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means
that a polynomial of degree 2 has atmost two zeroes.
Now, what do you expect the geometrical meaning of the zeroes of a cubic
polynomial to be? Let us find out. Consider the cubic polynomial x 3−4 x. To see
what the graph of y=x 3−4 x looks like, let us list a few values of y
corresponding to a few values for x as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
x -2 -1 0 1 2
3
y=x −4 x 0 3 0 -3 0
Locating the points of the table on a graph paper and drawing the graph, we
seethat the graph of y=x 3−4 x actually looks like the one given in Fig. 2.6.
We see from the table above that -2, 0 and 2 are zeroes of the cubic
polynomial x 3−4 x. Observe that - 2, 0 and 2 are, in fact, the x-coordinates of
the only points where the graph of y=x 3−4 x intersects the x-axis. Since the
curve meets the x-axis in only these 3 points, their x-coordinates are the only
zeroes of the polynomial.
Let us take a few more examples. Consider the cubic polynomials x 3 and x 3 – x2 .
We draw the graphs of y=x 3and y=x 3 – x 2 in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 respectively.

Fig 2.6
Fig. 2.7
Fig. 2.8
Note that 0 is the only zero of the polynomial x 3. Also, from Fig. 2.7, you can
see that 0 is the x-coordinate of the only point where the graph of y=x 3
intersects the x-axis. Similarly, since x 3 – x2 =x2 ( x−1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes
of the polynomial x 3 – x2 . Also, from Fig. 2.8, these values are the x-coordinates
of the only points where the graph of y=x 3 – x 2 intersects the x-axis.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic
polynomial. In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three
zeroes.
Remark :
In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects
the x-axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at
most n zeroes.
Example 1 :
Look at the graphs in Fig. 2.9 given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x), where
p(x) is a polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

(v)

(vi)
Fig. 2.9
Solution :
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point
only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3. (Why?)
(iv) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)
(v) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)
(vi) The number of zeroes is 4. (Why?)
Exercise 2.1
Question. 1
1. The graphs of y=p(x) are given in Fig. 2.10 below, for some polynomials p(x).
Find the number of zeroes of p(x), in each case.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

(v)

(vi)
Fig. 2.10
Answer. 1
(i) The number of zeroes is 0 as the graph does not cut the x-axis at any point.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at only 1 point.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3 as the graph intersects the x-axis at 3 points.
(iv) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at 2 points.
(v) The number of zeroes is 4 as the graph intersects the x-axis at 4 points.
(vi) The number of zeroes is 3 as the graph intersects the x-axis at 3 points.
point.
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial
−b
You have already seen that zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is a , We will
now try to answer the question raised in Section 2.1 regarding the relationship
between zeroes and coefficients of a quadratic polynomial. For this, let us take
a quadratic polynomial, say. p(x )=2 x 2−8 x +¿ 6 ¿ In Class IX, you have learnt how
to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting the middle term. So, here we
need to split the middle term ‘-8 x’ as a sum of two terms, whose product is
6 ×2 x 2 =12 x 2 So, we write
2 x2 −8 x+6=2 x 2−6 x−2 x+6=2 x ( x−3 ) – 2
¿ ( 2 x−2 )( x – 3 ) =2 ( x – 1 ) ( x – 3 )
So, the value of p(x) 2 x2 −8 x+6 is zero when x - 1 = 0 or x - 3 = 0, i.e., when x = 1
or x = 3. So, the zeroes of 2 x2 −8 x+6 are 1 and 3. Observe that :
−(−8) −Coefficient of x
Sum of its zeroes =1+3+4 =
2 Coefficient of x 2
6 −Constant of x
Product of its zeroes = 1 ×3=3= 2 =
Coefficient of x 2
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial, say, p(x) = 3 x 2+5 x – 2 By the
method of splitting the middle term,
3 x 2+5 x – 2=3 x 2 +6 x – x – 2=3 x ( x+ 2 ) – 1 ( x +2 )
¿ ( 3 x – 1 )( x +2 )
Hence, the value of 3 x 2+5 x – 2 is zero when either 3 x−1=0or x +2=0 , i.e., when
1 1
x= or x =-2. So, the zeroes of 3 x 2+5 x – 2 are and -2. Observe that :
3 3
1 −5 (Coefficient of x )
Sum of its zeroes = 3 +(−2)= 3 =
Coefficient of x 2
1 −5 Const ant term
Product of its zeroes ¿ 3 ×(−2)= 3 =
Coefficient of x 2
In general, if α * and β*2 are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
p(x )=a x 2+ bx+ c , a ≠ 0, then you know that x-α and x-β are the factors of p(x).
Therefore,
a x 2+ bx+ c=k (x−α )( x−β ), where k is a constant
¿k ¿
¿ k x 2−k (α + β )x +¿ k α β ¿
Comparing the coefficients of x 2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get
a=k
b=– k ( α + β )∧c=kαβ
−b
This gives α + β= a ,
c
αβ =
a

2
* α,β are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will
use later one more letter ‘  ’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.
 −b −( Coefficient of x )
i.e., sum of zeroes = α + β= a =
Coefficient of x 2
c Coefficient term
product of zeroes = αβ = a =
Coefficient of x 2
Let us consider some examples.
Example 2 :
Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x 2 +7 x +10, and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution :
We have
x 2 +7 x +10=(x+ 2)(x +5)
So, the value of x 2 +7 x +10is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x =-2 or x
= -5. Therefore, the zeroes of x 2 +7 x +10are-2 and-5. Now,
−(7) −(Coefficient of x)
sum of zeroes = −2+(−5)=−(7)= 1 =
Coefficient of x 2
10 Constant term
product of zeroes ¿(−2)×(−5)=10= 1 =
Coefficient of x 2
Example 3
Find the zeroes of the polynomial x 2−3and verify the relationship between the
zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution :
Recall the identitya 2−b2=(a−b)(a+ b). Using it, we can write:
x 2−3=( x−√ 3 ) ( x+ √3 )
So, the value of x 2−3is zero when x=√ 3 or x=− √3
Therefore, the zeroes of x 2−3are √ 3 and −√ 3
Now,
−(Coefficient of x )
sum of zeroes =¿ √ 3− √3=0=
Coefficient of x 2
−3 Cons tant term
product of zeroes ¿ ( √ 3 )=( −√3 )−3= 1 =
Coefficient of x 2
Example 4
Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are - 3 and
2, respectively.
Solution :
Let the quadratic polynomial bea x 2+ bx+ c , and its zeroes be α and β.
We have
−b
α + β=−3=
a
c
and αβ =2= a
If a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2.
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x 2+ 3 x +2.
You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions
will be of the formk ( x 2 +3 x+2 ), where k is real.
Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds
between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients?
Let us consider p ( x ) =2 x 3−5 x 2 – 14 x +8.
1
You can check that p(x) = 0 for x = 4,-2, 2 Since p(x) can have atmost three
zeroes, these are the zeores of2 x3 −5 x 2 – 14 x +8. Now,
2
1 5 −(−5) −( Coefficient of x )
sum of the zeroes =4 +(−2)+ = = = 3
22 2 Coefficient of x
1 −8 −Const ant term
product of the zeroes =4 ×(−2)× 2 =−4= 2 =
Coefficient of x 3
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the
products
of the zeroes taken two at a time. We have
1 1
{ }{ }
{ 4 × ( - 2 ) }+ ( - 2 ) × + × 4
2 2
−14 Coefficient of x
¿−8−1+2=−7= =
2 Coefficient of x 3
In general, it can be proved that if α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic
polynomial
a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d , then
 −b
α + β+ γ = ,
a
c
αβ + βγ +γα= ,
a
−d
α β γ= ,
a
Let us consider an example.
Example 5*3 :
−1
Verify that 3,-1, 3 ,are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
p ( x ) =3 x3 −5 x 2 – 11 x – 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and
the coefficients.
Solution :
Comparing the given polynomial witha x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d , we get
a=3 , b=−5 , c=– 11, d=−3. Further
p ( 3 )=3 ×3 3 – ( 5× 32 ) – ( 11 ×3 ) – 3=81 – 45−33 – 3=0 ,
3 2
p ( – 1 )=3 × ( – 1 ) −5 × ( – 1 ) −11× ( – 1 ) – 3=– 3 – 5+11 – 3=0 ,
−1 −1 3 −1 2 −1
p ( ) ( )
3
−3×
3 ( )
−5×
3 ( )
−11 ×
3
−3,
1 5 11 −2 2
¿− − + −3= + =0
9 9 9 3 3
−1
Therefore, 3,-1 and 3 are the zeroes of.3 x 3−5 x2 −11 x – 3
−1
So, we take α =3 , β=– 1∧γ = 3
Now,
α + β+ γ =3+(−1)+( −13 )=2− 13 = 53 = (−53 ) = −ba
−1 −1 1 −11 c
αβ+ βγ +γα=3 ×(−1)+(−1)×(
3 ) ( 3 )
+ × 3=−3+ −¿ =
3 3 a
−1 −(−3) d
αβγ=3 ×(−1)× (
3 )
=1= =
3 a

3  * Not from the examination point of view.

Exercise 2.2
Question. 1.
Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x 2−2 x−8
Answer. 1
x 2−2 x−8=(x−4)( x +2)
The value of x 2−2 x−8is zero when x-4=0 or x+2=0, i.e., when x =4 or x=-2
Therefore, the zeroes of x 2−2 x−8are 4 and-2.
−(−2) of x
∑ of zeroes=4−2=2= 1 = −Coefficinet Coefficinet of x2
−(−8) −Const an t term
Product of zeroes=4 × (−2 )=−8= =
1 Coefficinet of x 2
(ii) 4 s 2−4 s +1
Answer. 4 s 2−4 s +1=¿
1
The value of 4 s 2−4 s +1 is zero when 2s-1=0, i.e., s= 2 Therefore, the zeroes of
4 s 2 4 s 2−4 s+1 are ½ and ½
1 1 −(−4) −( Coefficient of s )
Sum of zeroes ¿ 2 + 2 =1= 4 =
( Coefficient of s2 )
1 1 1 Constant term
Product of zeroes ¿ 2 × 2 = 4 =
Coefficient of s 2
(iii) 6 x 2 -3- 7 x
Answer. 6 x 2 -3 – 7 x=6 x 2−7 x−3=(3 x +1)(2 x−3)
The value of 6 x 2 -3 – 7 x is zero when3 x+ 1=0
¿ 2 x−3=0, i.e.,
−1 3
x= or x=
3 2
−1 3
Therefore, the zeroes of 6 x 2 -3−7 x are 3 and 2
−1 3 7 −(−7) −(Coefficient of . x)
Sum of zeroes ¿ 3 + 2 = 6 = 6 =
Coefficient of x 2
−1 3 −1 −3 Constant term
Product of zeroes¿ 3 × 2 = 2 = 6 =
Coefficient of x 2
(iv) 4 u2 +8 u
Answer, 4 u2 +8 u=4 u2 +0
¿ 4 u (u+ 2 )
The value of ¿ 4 u2+ 8 is zero when 4 u=0
oru+2=0, i.e.,
u=0
¿ u=−2
Therefore, the zeroes of 4 u2 +8 uare 0 and-2.
 −(8) −(Coefficient ot u)
Sum of zeroes¿ 0+(−2)=−2= 4 =
Coefficient ot u2
0 ¿
Product of zeroes ¿ 0 ×(−2)=0= 4 =Cons tant t erm ¿
Coefficient ot u 2
(v) t 2−15
¿ t 2−0 t−15
¿ ( t 2−√ 15 ) ( t+ √ 15 )
The value of t 2−15is zero when t−√ 15=0ort+ √15=0, i.e., when
t=√ 15or t=−√ 15
Therefore, the zeroes of t 2−15are √ 15and −√ 15
−0 −( Coefficient of t )
Sum of zeroes =√ 15+ (−√ 15 )=0= 1 =
( Coefficient of t 2 )
−15 Constant term
Product of zeroes = ( √ 15 ) (−√ 15 )=−15= 1 =
Coefficient of x 2
(vi) 3 x 2 - x – 4
Answer. ¿(3 x−4)(x−1)
The value of 3 x 2−x−4 is zero when 3 x−4=0 or x +1=0, i.e.,
4
when x= 3
or x=−1
Therefore, the zeroes of 3 x 2−x−4 are 4/3 and-1.
−(−1) −( Coefficient of x )
∑ of zeroes= 43 + (−1 )= 31 =
3
=
Coefficient of x 2
4 −4 Constant term
Product of zeroes= (−1 )= =
3 3 Coefficient of x2
Question. 2.
Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and
product of its zeroes respectively.
Answer. 2
1
(i) 4 ,−1
1
Answer. 4 ,−1
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β
1 −b
α + β= =
4 a
−4 c
αβ=−1= =
4 a
If a=4 ,t h en b=1, c=-a
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is 4 x 2−x−4
1
(ii) √ 2 , 3
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β .
 3 √2 −b
α + β=√ 2= =
3 c
1 c
αβ = =
3 a
Ifa=3, then b=−3 √ 2,c=1
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is3 x 2−3 √ 2 ×+1.
(iii) 0 , √ 5
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β .
0 −b
α + β=0= =
1 a
5 c
α × β=√ 5= √ =
1 a
Ifa=1, thenb=0, c= √5
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is x 2+ √5
(iv) 1, 1
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β .
1 −b
α + β=1= =
1 a
1 c
α × β=1= =
1 a
Ifa=1, then b=−1, c=1
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is x 2−x +1
−1 1
(v) 4 , 4
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β .
−1 −b
α + β= =
4 a
1 c
α × β= =
4 a
If a=, then b=1, c=1
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is 4 x2 + x +1
(vi) 4, 1
Let the polynomial be a x 2+ bx+ c and its zeroes be α and β .
4 −b
α + β=4= =
1 a
1 c
α × β=1= =
1 a
If a=1, thenb=−4,c=1
Therefore, the quadratic polynomial is x 2−4 x+1
2.4 Division Algorithm for Polynomials
You know that a cubic polynomial has at most three zeroes. However, if you
are given only one zero, can you find the other two? For this, let us consider
the cubic polynomial x 3−3 x 2 – x +¿ 3 ¿. If we tell you that one of its zeroes is 1,
then you know that x – 1 is a factor of x 3−3 x 2 – x +¿ 3 ¿. So, you can divide
x 3−3 x 2 – x +¿ 3 ¿by x-1, as you have learnt in Class IX, to get the quotient x 2 -2 x−3
Next, you could get the factors of x 2 -2 x−3 , by splitting the middle term, as
( x +1)( x −3) . This would give you
x 3−3 x 2−x+ 3=( x−1)( x2−2 x−3)
¿ ( x – 1 )( x +1 ) ( x – 3 )
So, all the three zeroes of the cubic polynomial are now known to you as 1, – 1,
3.
Let us discuss the method of dividing one polynomial by another in some
detail. Before noting the steps formally, consider an example.
Example 6 :
Divide 2 x2 +3 x +1by x +2.
2x 1
x  2 2 x2  3x  1
_2 x 2  4 x
 x 1
 x2
+ +
3

Solution :
Note that we stop the division process when either the remainder is zero or its
degree is less than the degree of the divisor. So, here the quotient is 2 x−1 and
the remainder is 3. Also,
( 2 x – 1 ) ( x+ 2 )+ 3=2 x 2+3 x – 2+3=2 x 2 +3 x+1
i.e., 2 x2 +3 x +1=( x +2 ) (2 x – 1 ) +3
Therefore, Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Let us now extend this process to divide a polynomial by a quadratic
polynomial.
Example 7 :
Divide 3 x 3+ x 2 +2 x+5 by x 2+ 2 x +1
3x  5
x  2 x  1 3x  x  2 x  5
2 3 2

3x3  6 x 2  3x
- - -
 5x  x  5
2

 5 x 2  10 x  5
+ + +
9 x  10

Solution :
We first arrange the terms of the dividend and the divisor in the decreasing
order of their degrees. Recall that arranging the terms in this order is called
writing the polynomials in standard form. In this example, the dividend is
already in standard form, and the divisor, in standard form, is. x 2+ 2 x +1
Step 1 : To obtain the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term
of the dividend (i.e., 3 x 3) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x 2). This
is 3x. Then carry out the division process. What remains is5 x 2−x+ 5.
Step 2 : Now, to obtain the second term of the quotient, divide the highest
degree term of the new dividend (i.e., −5 x 2) by the highest degree term of the
divisor (i.e., x 22). This gives-5. Again carry out the division process with
−5 x 2−x+ 5.
Step 3 : What remains is9 x +10. Now, the degree of 9 x +10is less than the
degree of the divisor x 2+ 2 x +1. So, we cannot continue the division any further.
So, the quotient is 3 x−5 and the remainder is9 x +10. Also,
( x 2+ 2 x +1)× ( 3 x – 5 ) + ( 9 x +10 )=3 x 3 +6 x 2+ 3 x – 5 x 2 – 10 x−5+ 9 x+10
¿ 3 x 3+ x 2 +2 x+5
Here again, we see that
Dividend =Divisor ×Quotient + Remainder
What we are applying here is an algorithm which is similar to Euclid’s division
algorithm that you studied in Chapter 1.
This says that
If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x ),
where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
This result is known as the Division Algorithm for polynomials.
Let us now take some examples to illustrate its use.
Example 8 :
Divide3 x 2−x 3−3 x+5 ,by x−1−x 2 and verify the division algorithm.
Solution :
Note that the given polynomials are not in standard form. To carry out division,
we first write both the dividend and divisor in decreasing orders of their
degrees.
So, dividend = ¿ – x 3 +3 x 2 – 3 x +5 and divisor¿ – x 2 + x – 1
Division process is shown on the right side.
x2
 x  x  1  x  3x  3x  5
2 3 2

 x3  x 2  x
 - +
2 x2  2 x  5
2 x2  2 x  2
- + -
3
We stop here since degree (3) = 0<2 = degree( – x2 + x – 1 ).
So, quotient = x -2, remainder = 3.
Now, Divisor × Quotient+ Remainder
¿ (−x 2 + x – 1 ) ( x – 2 ) +3
¿−x3 + x 2−x +2 x 2−2 x +2+3
¿−x3 +3 x 2−3 x +5
¿ Dividend
In this way, the division algorithm is verified.
Example 9 : Find all the zeroes of 2 x 4 – 3 x3 – 3 x 2 +6 x – 2, if you know that two of
its zeroes are √ 2 and −√ 2.
Solution :
Since two zeroes are √ 2 and −√ 2, ( x−√ 2)( x + √ 2)¿ x 2−2is a factor of the given
polynomial. Now, we divide the given polynomial by ¿ x 2−2.
2 x 2  3x  1
x 2  2 2 x 4  3x3  3x 2  6 x  2
2 x4  4x2
 +
3 x  x  6 x  2
3 2

3 x 3 +6x
+ -
2
x -2
2
x -2
- +
0

2 x4 2
First term of quotient is 2 =2 x
x
 −3 x3
Second term of quotient is 2 =−3 x
x
2
x
Third term of quotient is 2 =1
x
So, 2 x 4−3 x 3−3 x 2+ 6 x −2=( x 2 – 2 ) ( 2 x 2 – 3 x+ 1 ) .
Now, by splitting –3x, we factorise 2 x2 – 3 x +1as (2x-1)(x-1). So, its zeroes are
1
given by x= 2 and x = 1. Therefore, the zeroes of the given polynomial are √ 2,
1
−√ 2, and 1.
2
Exercise 2.3
Question. 1.
Divide the polynomial p(x) by the polynomial g(x) and find the quotient and
remainder in each of the following :
(i) p ( x ) =x3 −3 x2 +5 x – 3, g ( x )=x 2 – 2
Answer. 1
p ( x ) =x3 −3 x2 +5 x – 3
q ( x )=x 2 – 2
x3
2 3 2
x -2 x -3x +5 x – 3
x3 -2x
- +
3 x  7 x  3
2

3 x 2 +6
+ -
7x  9

Quotient=x−3
Remainder=7 x−9
(ii) p ( x ) =x 4−3 x 2 +4 x +5, g ( x )=x 2+1−x
Answer. p ( x ) =x 4−3 x 2 +4 x +5=x 4 +0. x3 + 4 x+ 5
q ( x )=x 2 +1- x=x 2−x+ 1
x2  x  3
x 2  x  1 x 4  0.x 3  3 x 2  4 x  5
x4  x3 + x 2
 + -
x  4x  4x  5
3 2

x3  x 2  x
 + -
3 x 2  3 x  5
3 x 2  3 x  3
 - +
8

Quotient = x 2+ x−3
Remainder=8
(iii) p ( x ) =x 4−5 x +6, g ( x )=2−x 2
Answer. p ( x ) =x 4−5 x +6=x 4 +0. x 2−5 x +6
q ( x)=2=x 2=−x 2+ 2
 x2  2
 x2  2 x 4 0.x 2  5 x  6
x4  2 x2
 +
2 x2  5x  6
2 x2 4
 +
5 x  10
________

Quotient =−x 2−2

Remainder = −5x+10
Question. 2
Check whether the first polynomial is a factor of the second polynomial by
dividing the second polynomial by the first polynomial:
(i) t 2 – 3 ,2 t 4 +3 t3 – 2 t 2 – 9 t – 12
Answer. 2
t 2−3 , 2t 4 +3 t 3 – 2t 2 – 9 t – 12
t 2−3=t 2 +0. t−3
2t 2  3t  4
t 2  0.t  3 2t 4  3t 3  2t 2  9t  12
2t 4  0.t 3  6t 2
  +
3t  4t  9t  12
3 2

3t 3  0.t 2  9t
  +
____________
4t 2  0.t  12
4t 2  0.t  12
  +
______________
0
_________________
Since the remainder is 0,
Hence, t 2−3 is a factor of 2 t 4 +3 t 3−2t 2−9 t−12
(ii) x 2+ 3 x +1 , 3 x 4 +5 x 3−7 x 2+ 2 x +2
 3x 2  4 x  2
x  3 x  1 3x  5 x  7 x 2  2 x  2
2 4 3

3x 4  9 x3  3x 2
  
___________________
4 x 3  10 x 2  2 x  2
4 x 3  12 x 2  4 x
 + +
_________________
2x2  6 x  2
2x2  6 x  2
___________
0
____________

Since the remainder is 0,

Hence, x 2+ 3 x +1 is a factor of 3 x 4 +5 x 3−7 x 2+2 x +2
(iii) x 3+ 3 x +1 , x5 −4 x 3 + x 2+ 3 x +1
Answer.
x2 1
x3  3x  1 x5  4 x 3  x 2  3 x  1
x5  3x3  x 2
 + -
________________
 x3 +3x+1
x 3
+3x-1
+ - +
__________________
2
___________________
Since the remainder ≠ 0,
Hence, x 3−3 x+ 1, is not a factor of x 5−4 x3 + x 2 +3 x+1
Question. 3
5
Obtain all other zeroes of3 x 4 +6 x 3−2 x2 −10 x −5, if two of its zeroes are
5 5
√ 3
and

√
− .and −
3
Answer. 3
3 √
p(x )=3 x 4 +6 x 3−2 x2−10 x−5
 5 5
Since the two zeroes are −
√ 3
.and −
√
3

( √ 53 )( x +√ 53 )=( x − 53 ) is a factor of 3 x +6 x −2 x −10 x −5

∴ x− 2 4 3 2

2 5
Therefore, we divide the given polynomial by x − 3
3x 2  6 x  3
5
x 2  0.x  3 x 4  6 x 3  2 x 2  10 x  5
3
3x 4  0 x3  5x 2
  +
_______________
6 x 3  3 x 2  10 x  5
6 x 3  0 x 2  10 x
  +
_____________
3x 2  0 x  5
3x 2  0 x  5
  +
________________
0
_________________

5
3 x 4 +6 x 3−2 x2 −10 x −5= x 2− ( 3 )
( 3 x 2 +6 x+ 3 )
5 2
(
¿ 3 x 2− )3
( x +2 x +1 )
We factorize x 2+ 2 x +1
2
¿ ( x+1 )
Therefore, its zero is given by x +1=0
Or x=−1
As it has the term( x +1 )2, therefore, there will be 2 zeroes at x=−1.
5 5
Hence, the zeroes of the given polynomial are
Question. 4.
√ √
3
,− −1 and −1.
3

On dividing x 3−3 x 2+ x +2by a polynomial g(x), the quotient and remainder were
x−2 and−2 x+ 4 , respectively. Find g(x).
Answer 4:
p ( x ) =x3 −3 x2 + x +2 (Dividend)
g( x ) = ? (Divisor )
Quotient = ( x−2)
Remainder = (−2x + 4)
Dividend = Divisor ×Quotient + Remainder
x 3−3 x 2+ x +2=g ( x)×( x−2)+(−2 x+ 4)
x 3−3 x 2+ x +2+2 x−4=g ( x)(x−2)
x 3−3 x 2+3 x−2=g( x )( x−2)
g (x) is the quotient when we divide ( x 3−3 x 2+ 3 x−2) by ( x−2)
x2  x  1
x  2 x 3  3x 2  3 x  2
x3  2 x 2
 +
_________
 x 2  3x  2
 x2  2 x
 
_________
x2
x2

____________
0
_______________
∴ g ( x)=(x 2−x +1)
Question. 5
Give examples of polynomials p(x), g(x), q(x) and r(x), which satisfy the division
algorithm and
(i) deg p ( x )=deg q ( x )
(ii) deg q ( x ) =deg r ( x )
(iii) deg r ( x )=0
Answer. 5
According to the division algorithm, if p(x) and g(x) are two polynomials with
g ( x ) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
P ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x ) ,
where r ( x )=0or degree of r ( x )< 0degree of g(x)
Degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable in the polynomial.
(i) deg p ( x )=deg q ( x )
Degree of quotient will be equal to degree of dividend when divisor is constant
(i.e., when any polynomial is divided by a constant).
Let us assume the division of 6 x 2+ 2 x +2 by 2.
Here, p ( x ) =6 x 2+2 x +2
g ( x )=2
q ( x )=3 x 2 + x+1 and r ( x )=0
Degree of p(x) and q(x) is the same i.e., 2.
Checking for division algorithm, p ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x )
6 x 2+ 2 x +2=( 2 ) ( 3 x 2+ x +1 ) + 0
Thus, the division algorithm is satisfied.
(ii) deg q ( x ) =deg r ( x )
Let us assume the division of x 3+ x by x2
Here, p ( x ) =x3 + x g ( x ) =x2 q ( x )=x and r ( x )=x
Clearly, the degree of q(x) and r(x) is the same i.e., 1. Checking for division
algorithm, p ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x )
x 3+ x=( x 2 )× x + x x 3 + x=x 3 + x
Thus, the division algorithm is satisfied.
(iii) deg r ( x )=0
Degree of remainder will be 0 when remainder comes to a constant.
Let us assume the division of x 3+ 1by x 2.
Here, p ( x ) =x3 +1 g ( x ) =x 2 q ( x )=x and r ( x )=1
Clearly, the degree of r(x) is 0. Checking for division algorithm,
p ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x ) x 3 +1=( x 2 ) × x +1 x 3 +1=x 3 +1
Thus, the division algorithm is satisfied.
Exercise 2.4 (Optional)*4
Question 1.
Verify that the numbers given alongside of the cubic polynomials below are
their zeroes. Also verify the relationship between the zeroes and the
coefficients in each case:
1
(i)2 x3 + x 2−5 x +2; 2 , 1,−2
(ii) x 3+ 4 x 2 +5 x−2 ; 2,1,1
Answer. 1
(i) p(x )=2 x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 2
1
Zeroes for this polynomial are 2 , 1−2
1 1 3 1 2 1
p
2() ()() ()
=2
2
+
2
−5
2
+2
1 1 5
¿ + − +2
4 4 2
p(1)=2 ×13 +12−5 ×1+2=0
p(−2)=2 ¿
¿−16+4 +10+2=0
Therefore, ½, 1, and −2 are the zeroes of the given polynomial.
Comparing the given polynomial witha x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d ,

4  *These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

we obtaina=2, b=1, c=−5, d=2
1
We can take α = 2 , β=1, γ =−2
1 −1 −b
α + β+ γ = +1+(−2)= =
2 2 a
1 1 −5 c
αβ+ βγ +αγ= × 1+1(−2)+ (−2)= =
2 2 2 a
1 −1 −(2) −d
αβγ= × 1×(−2)= = =
2 1 2 a
Therefore, the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients is verified.
(ii) p(x )=x 3−4 x2 +5 x−2
Zeroes for this polynomial are 2, 1, 1.
p(2)=23−4 (22)+5(2)−2
¿ 8−16+10−2=0
p(1)=13−4 ¿
¿ 1−4+5−2=0
Therefore, 2, 1, 1 are the zeroes of the given polynomial.
Comparing the given polynomial witha x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d ,
we obtaina=1, b=−4, c=5 ,d=−2.
Verification of the relationship between zeroes and coefficient of the given
polynomial
−(−4) −b
Sum ot zeroes =2+1+I=4 = =
1 a
Multiplication of zeroes taking two at a time
(5) c
= (2)(1)+(1)(1)+( 2)(1)=2+1+2=5= =
1 a
−(−2) −d
Multiplication of zeroes = 2 ×1 ×1=2= =
1 a
Hence, the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients is verified.
Question 2.
Find a cubic polynomial with the sum, sum of the product of its zeroes taken
two at a time, and the product of its zeroes as 2 ,−7 ,−14respectively.
Answer. 2
Let the polynomial be a x 3 +b x 3+ cx+ d and the zeroes be α , β , and γ
It is given that
2 −b
α + β+ γ = =
1 a
−7 c
αβ+ βγ +αγ= =
1 a
−14 −d
αβγ= =
1 a
Ifa=1 , then b=−2 , c=−7, d=14
Hence, the polynomial is x 3−2 x 2−7 x+14
Question 3.
If the zeroes of the polynomial x 3−3 x 2+ x +1 area−b, a , a+ b, find a and b.
Answer. 3
p ( x ) =x3 −3 x2 + x +1
Zeroes are a−b , a+a+b
Comparing the given polynomial with P x3 + q x2 +rx +t , we obtain
P=1, q=−3 , r =1, t=1
Sum of zeroe=a−b+a+ a+b
−q
=3 a
p
−(−3)
=3 a
1
3=3 a
a=1
The zeroes=a−b+a+ a+b
Multiplication of zeroes =1(1−b)(1+ b)
−t
=1−b2
p
−1
=1−b 2
1
1−b2=−1
1+1=b 2
b=± √ 2
Hence, a=1 and b=√ 2
Or
−√ 2

Question 4.
If two zeroes of the polynomial x 4 −6 x3 −26 x2 +138 x−35are 2 ± √3find other
zeroes.
Answer. 4
Given 2+ √ 3and 2− √3are zeroes of the given polynomial.
So, 
2  3  ( 2− √3 )
is a factor of polynomial.
Therefore [ x−( 2+ √ 3 ) ][ x−( 2−√ 3 ) ]=x 2 +4−4 x−3
¿ x 2−4 x+1 is a factor of the given polynomial
For finding the remaining zeroes of the given polynomial, we will find
 x 2  2 x  35
x  4 x  1 x  6 x  26 x  138 x  35
2 4 3 2

x 4  4 x3  x 2
 + 
____________________
2 x 3  27 x 2 +138x  35
2 x 3 +8x 2  2 x
  +
___________________
 35 x 2  140 x  35
 35 x 2  140 x  35
+  +
___________________
0
__________________
Clearly, x −6 x3 −26 x2 +138 x−35=( x 2−4 x+ 1)( x 2−2 x−35)
4

( x 2−2 x−35) is also a factor of the given

It can be observed that polynomial ( x 2−2 x−35)=( x−7)( x+5)
Therefore, the value of the polynomial is also zero when - x−7=0
or
x +5=0
Or x=7
Or −5
Hence, 7 and −5 are also zeroes of this polynomial.
Question 5.
If the polynomial x 4 −6 x3 +16 x 2−25 x +10is divided by another polynomial
x 2−2 x+ k the remainder comes out to be x +a, find k and a.

Answer. 5
By division algorithm,
Dividend = Divisor ×Quotient+Remainder
Dividend −Remainder=Divisor × Quotient
x 4 −6 x3 +16 x 2−25 x +10−x−a=x 4 −6 x 3+16 x 2−26 x +10−a
divisible by x 2−2 x+ k
Let us divide x 2−6 x 3+ 16 x2 −26 x+10−a
by x 2−2 x+ k
 x 2  4 x  (8  k )
x 2  2 x  k x 4  6 x 3  16 x 2  26 x  10  a
x 4  2 x3  kx 2
 + 
______________________
4 x 3  (16  k ) x 2  26 x
4 x 3  8 x 2  4kx
  +
______________________
(8  k ) x 2  (26  4k ) x  10  a
(8  k ) x 2  (16  2k ) x  (8k  k 2 )
 + 
________________________
 10  2k  x   10  a  8k  k 2 
_________________________

It can be observed that (−10+2 k ) x+ ( 10−a−8 k +k 2 ) will be 0

Therefore, (−10+2 k ) =0 and ( 10−a−8 k +k 2) =0
For (−10+2 k ) =0,2 k=10 And thus k =5
For ( 10−a−8 k +k 2) =0
10−a−8× 5+25=0
10−a−40+25=0
−5−a=0
Therefore, a=−5
Hence,k =5 and a=−5
2.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic
polynomials respectively.
2. A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form a x 2+ bx+ c ,
where a, b, c are real numbers witha ≠ 0.
3. The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points,
where the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x -axis.
4. A quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial
can have at most 3 zeroes.
5. If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomiala x 2+ bx+ c , then
−b
α + β= ,
a
c
αβ = ,
a
6. If α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomiala x 3 b x 2 +cx +d , then
−b
α + β+ γ = ,
a
c
αβ + βγ +γα= ,
a
−d
and αβγ= a .
7. The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and any non-
zero polynomial g(x), there are polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p ( x ) =g ( x ) q ( x ) +r ( x ) ,
w h ere r ( x )=0
Or degree r ( x ) <degree g ( x )