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Soil Pollution-Major Sources and Types of Soil Pollutants
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Soil Pollution - Major Sources and Types of Soil Pollutants 53
1103
Soil Pollution - Major Sources

and Types of Soil Pollutants
ERNESTE HAVUGIMANA1, BALKRISHNA SOPAN BHOPLE2, ANIL KUMAR3,
EMMANUEL BYIRINGIRO4, JEAN PIERRE MUGABO5 AND ARUN KUMAR6
ABSTRACT
Although soil is a non-renewable natural resource, human has increasingly
used it as a contaminant sink since industrial Revolution. It is getting
polluted in a number of ways and there is urgency in controlling the soil
pollution in order to preserve the soil fertility and increase the productivity.
The soil pollution occurs when amounts of some soil elements and other
substances may exceed levels recommended for the health of humans, animals,
or plants. Certain chemicals occurred naturally in soils as components of
minerals may be toxic at certain concentration other harmful substances
may end up in soils through human activities, Such as industrial activities,
inadequate waste disposal, mining and by accident soil can be contaminated.
Detrimental effects of contaminants on soil may be directly related to loss of
biodiversity and functions such as the recycling of nutrients consequently
we are losing this important natural resource by the accelerated soil pollution.
The concept of soil pollution, sources and types should be clear and understood
in order to preserve the fertility and the productivity of the soil and to take
control measures in a herculean manner, thereby improving the health of
all living beings.
Key words: Soil pollution, Pollutant, Soil, Contamination, Pollution
control.
1,2,4,5,6
Department of Agronomy, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab-144411, India
3
Farm Science Centre, GAD Veterinary And Animal Sciences University, Tarn Taran,
Punjab, India
* Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
54 Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 11: Soil Pollution and Phytoremediation
INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution is being the burning challenge of current living

organisms on the earth. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into
an environment, may also defined as an undesirable change in the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil which affect
human life, lives of other useful living plants and animals, industrial
progress, living conditions and cultural assets[1]. Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy.
Pollutants as the main, element of pollution can be foreign substances or
energies, or naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when
they exceed natural levels. Air, water and soil are being polluted differently.
Soil being a “universal sink” bears the greatest burden of environmental
pollution[2].
The most soil contaminants are from human activity, including, industrial
processes, mining, household, business waste, human and animal
pharmaceuticals. Different overview of current research and presents case
studies are concerning on heavy metals and synthetic organic chemicals as
the major soil contaminants. Soil also contains a great number of biological
contaminants such as pathogens, (tetanus) and parasites, (hookworm) which
cause many well-documented impacts on human health[3].
The interactions between soil science and human health come from many
academic disciplines, including chemistry, geology, geography, anthropology,
biology, agronomy, sociology, public health and medicine. As a result, to
achieve a clear overview of how soil contamination affects our health
requires interdisciplinary teams, and good closed communication between
researchers from different fields.
POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS
A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that

has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A
pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage by changing the growth
rate of plant or animal species, by interfering with environmental good
health or interfering with human, comfort, health, or property values. Some
pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist for the long term
in the environment[4]. however the degradation products of some pollutants
are themselves polluting such as the products Dichlorodiphenildichloro-
ethylene DDE and Dichlorodiphenildichloroethane DDD produced from
degradation of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Human activities
directly or indirectly affect the environment negatively in different ways
and different manner[5] stone crusher adds a lot of suspended particulate
matter and noise into the atmosphere. Automobiles emit from their tail
pipes oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
and a complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons and black soot which pollute
the atmosphere. Domestic sewage and run off from agricultural fields, laden
with pesticides and fertilizers, pollute water bodies. Effluents from tanneries
contain many harmful chemicals and emit foul smell; these are only a few
examples which show how human activities pollute the environment. The
agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants
may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance unintentionally
released into the environment which is directly or indirectly harmful to
humans and other living organisms.
Major Forms of Pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular
pollutants relevant to each of them:
• Air pollution: The release of chemicals and particulates into the

atmosphere, common air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by
industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are
created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight.
• Water pollution: By the release of waste products and contaminants
into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into
groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, and eutrophication
and littering.
• Soil pollution: Occurs when chemicals are released by spill or
underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants
are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
• Radioactive contamination: Resulting from 20th century activities
in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear
weapons research, manufacture and deployment.
• Noise pollution: This encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise,
industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
• Light pollution: Includes light trespass, over-illumination and
astronomical interference.
• Visual pollution: This can refer to the presence of overhead power
lines, motorway billboards, and scarred landforms (as from strip
mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste.
• Thermal pollution: Is a temperature change in natural water bodies
caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power
plant.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,

chemicals, salts, Radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which
have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health[6]. Soil is the thin
layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth’s rocky surface.
The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants
and animal, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic
portion made up of rock fragments, was formed over thousands of years by
physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Productive soils are necessary
for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food[7].
Key Concepts in Understanding Soil Pollution and Its Effect to

Environmental Health
Soil horizons
Formation of soil from the parent material (bedrock): mechanical weathering

of rocks by temperature changes, abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers,
chemical weathering activities and lichens. Under ideal climatic conditions,
soft parent material may develop into 1 cm of soil within 15 years.
O & A-horizon: Contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms,

small insects, forms complex food web in soil, recycles soil nutrients, and
contribute to soil fertility.
B-horizon/(subsoil): Less organic material and fewer organisms than A-

horizon.
C-horizon: Consists of broken-up bedrock, does not contain any organic

materials. Chemical composition helps to determine pH of soil and also
influences soil’s rate of water absorption and retention.
R-horizon: The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the
other layers (Fig. 1).
Soil properties
Soil composition varies considerably across the world. This is more

significant to human health, because parent material (the weathered rock
materials from which soils are formed), topography, climate, organisms
and time will lead to soils with different physical and chemical properties. A
soil composition will affect how much water it can hold, the living organisms
it supports, which chemical reactions are likely to occur, and how it cycles
nutrients. All of these factors will determine what happens to potentially
harmful contaminants in soils, how they may be transported or transformed,
Fig. 1: Different superimposing soil layers[8]
and the extent to which they may be available in chemical forms that are
harmful to human health. Soil pH (acidity) is of particular importance
because it controls the behavior of metals and many other soil processes.
Heavy metal captions (positively charged metal atoms) are most mobile in
acid soils. This means that metal contaminants are more available for uptake
by plants, or to move into the water supply. Making soil less acidic, by
adding lime, is one way to reduce the bioavailability of metals[8].
Soil health
Soil is a dynamic living resource whose wellbeing is vital to both the

production of food and fiber for global balance and ecosystem function and
in that, it represents a unique balance between physical, chemical and
biological factors[9]. Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of the
soil to function as a vital living system, by recognizing that it contains
biological elements that are key to ecosystem function within land-use
boundaries to sustain biological activity, promote the quality of air and
water environments and maintain plant, animal and human health[10].
Farmers often use the term ‘soil health’, which is similar to the term ‘soil
quality’ used by soil scientists. A healthy soil has several physical, chemical
and biological properties: it needs to incorporate adequate organic matter,
have a good structure, and be home to a diverse mix of organisms. These
properties allow the soil to carry out important functions, and may be
achieved in a natural setting by a soil reaching equilibrium with its

surroundings, or in managed settings by human intervention to improve
the soil’s health. Agricultural soil health is linked to human health, as poor
soils yield fewer crops with decreased nutritional value. Healthy soils also
limit erosion, and help improve air and water quality[11]. Contamination
can seriously affect soil’s ability to perform some of its key functions in the
ecosystem. Soil is a living resource, but once contamination exceeds a certain
threshold, the soil may be considered functionally dead’. Pollution by heavy
metals and many organic contaminants is practically irreversible[12].
Path of Contaminants from Soils to Human Intake

Contaminated Soil can enter our bodies via four main different routes:
eating, inhalation, through the skin and indirect contact:
Eating soil (geophagia)
Children under three, in particular, are very likely to eat soil while playing
outdoors. As they are considered particularly sensitive to contaminants,
young children are thought to be at highest risk from contaminated soils
for example, children absorb lead via their digestive system five times more
efficiently than adults. Accidental ingestion may occur in adults for example,
by eating vegetables with some soil still attached, but in some parts of the
world, adults also deliberately eat soil for a number of cultural reasons. It
is commonly believed that direct ingestion is the most important pathway
for human exposure to soil contamination, although other specific pathways
have some importance in certain situations. When consumed, some chemicals
are absorbed through the lining of the mouth, while others are swallowed
and move into the digestive system. From here, they may be absorbed into
the body and transported to the liver. Once in the liver, some chemicals are
largely returned to the digestive system via bile, but others will enter the
bloodstream. Some chemicals are broken down to a certain extent in the
liver before they reach the blood[13]. Where chemicals are not absorbed,
and remain in the gut, they generally do not cause an adverse response,
unless they have some direct toxicity to the gut lining.
Inhalation
Working with soil example, in agriculture, the release of particles into the
air may be inhaled by workers and others nearby. Very small particles may
lodge in the lungs, and there is a chance that contaminants may be absorbed
into the bloodstream. Compared to ingestion, this is a far less significant
source of exposure, but may be relevant to those exposed repeatedly over a
long time period.
Skin contact
Absorption through the skin tends to favour more volatile, organic

compounds. This is less of a problem for heavy metals, although some specific
forms like Cr(VI), the more toxic form of chromium, or inorganic mercury
can cause skin contact problems. Absorption of a chemical through the skin
is known as ‘dermal absorption’, or ‘cutaneous’ or ‘transcutaneous
absorption’.
Indirect contact
Soil contaminants may move from soils into ground or surface water, leading
to contaminated drinking water. They may also be taken up by plants which
are subsequently consumed, either by humans or by agricultural livestock,
causing contaminants to enter the human food chain. Some of these effects
may be quite significant, as in the case of dioxins accumulating up the food
chain, or large quantities of cadmium in crops grown in contaminated soils.
High levels of arsenic in drinking water supplies are often another significant
indirect result of soil contamination. Arsenic may also be naturally present
in groundwater. A contaminant becomes toxic in the human body once the
body’s own detoxification systems become overloaded[3]. At this point, the
body starts to be exposed to excess amounts either of the chemical itself or
of a metabolite produced when the body’s normal metabolic pathways (the
means of processing the toxic compound) are saturated. If a chemical
accumulates in tissues, reaching critical toxicity may be an event that results
from long-term accumulation. Factors that are relevant in this case are the
body’s rate of elimination and the overall ‘body burden’ and the quantity of
chemicals stored in body tissues[14]. Reliable data from human populations
exposed to known levels of chemicals are not common, with the exception
of human pharmaceuticals. For the majority of chemical contaminants,
levels likely to pose risks to human health are estimated from toxicology
studies on laboratory animals, and models (Fig. 2).
Causes of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or natural

alteration of soil in the environment. Generally soil contamination arises
from the rupture of underground storage links, application of pesticides,
and percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and
fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of
industrial wastes to the soil[15]. The most common chemicals involved are
petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals.
This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensities of chemical usage. A soil pollutant is any
factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the
Fig. 2: Pathways of radioactive contamination to agricultural products[13]
soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil.
Soil pollution may be classified into natural causes and man-made causes.
Natural causes
Some of natural causes of soil pollution are earthquakes, landslides,

hurricanes, and flood. Such natural disasters cause severe damage to the
composition of soil.
Man-made causes
Some of man-made causes of soil pollution are:
Industrial activity: Industrial activity has found to be the biggest contributor

of soil pollution in the last century, especially since the amount of mining
and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on
extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the by
products are contaminated and they are not disposed in a manner that can
be considered safe. As a result, the industrial wasteL lingers in the soil
surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use.
Agricultural activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since

technology provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full
of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by
it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and
slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage the
composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants
absorb many of these pesticides and when they decompose, they cause soil
pollution since they become a part of the land.
Indiscriminate use of fertilizers: The major nutrients like nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more must be
obtained from the soil. Farmers generally use fertilizers to correct soil
deficiencies. Fertilizers contaminate the soil with impurities, which come
from the raw materials used for their manufacture. Mixed fertilizers often
contain ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5, and potassium
as K2O. For instance, As, Pb and Cd present in traces in rock phosphate
mineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals are
not degradable, their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels due
to excessive use of phosphate fertilizers becomes an indestructible poison
for crops. The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and
crops grown on soil over the years. It also reduces the protein content of
wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The carbohydrate quality of
such crops also gets degraded[16]. Excess potassium content in soil decreases
Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits and these vegetables
and fruits grown on over fertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects
and disease.
Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides: Plants on which

we depend for food are under attack from insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses,
rodents and other animals, and must compete with weeds for nutrients. To
kill unwanted populations living in or on their crops, farmers use pesticides.
The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and
included DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects
soon became resistant to DDT and as the chemical did not decompose readily,
it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in fat rather than
water, it biomagnified up the food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism
in birds, causing eggshells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of
prey such as the brown pelican, ospreys, DDT has been now been banned in
most developed countries.but Ironically many of them still produce DDT
for export to other developing Nations whose needs outweigh the problems
caused by it[17].
Waste disposal: Subsequently a growing cause of soil contamination is how

we dispose our waste. While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination,
there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every human
produces a certain amount of personal waste products by way or urine and
feces. There is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in
the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the
biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are
full of toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing
pollution of soil. In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse
and discarded solid materials such as those from commercial, industrial
and agricultural operations[18]. They contain increasing amounts of paper,
cardboards, plastics, glass, old construction material, packaging material
and toxic or otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant amount of
urban solid waste tends to be paper and food waste, the majority is recyclable
or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most agricultural waste is recycled
and mining waste is left on site. The portion of solid waste that is hazardous
such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from smelting industries and
organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These
can in the long run, get deposited to the soils of the surrounding area and
pollute them by altering their chemical and biological properties[19].
OIL POLLUTION
It is for a long time that oil materials and its derivatives cause soil pollution
as a result of transportation or storage. Oil pollution is an inevitable outcome
as a result of rapid population growth and industrialization process, based
on which, soil pollution can be observed by oil hydrocarbon materials vastly
around exploration and refining installations typically via transfer of these
materials. In addition to the direct emission of these pollutants, dusts of
burning gases along with oil have managed to add toxic and harmful
substances to the soils of the region for long years. If more oil materials are
penetrated into the more depth of soil, removing its pollution is a difficult
task and will cost dearly[20].
Accidental Oil Spills

Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This can
be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel
deteriorate the quality of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation.
These chemicals can enter into the groundwater through soil and make
the water undrinkable.
Radioactive Wastes
Living organisms are continuously exposed to a variety of radiations called
background radiations. If the level of the radioactive radiations increases
above a certain limit it causes harmful effects to living beings. This harmful
level of radiations emitted by radioactive elements is called radioactive
pollution. There are two sources of radiation pollution, namely natural
sources and arthropogenic sources. Atomic radioactive minerals are one of
natural sources of radioactive pollution. During mining of uranium, radon
gas is constantly released into the air. The parent of radon 222 (t½ = 3.82
days) is radium 226 which has a half-life of 1602 years. Radium-226 is widely
distributed in rocks, sediments and soils along with isotopes of uranium[21]
radioactive radiations from these natural sources are known as natural or
background radiation.
Urbanization
Man is blamed for most of the land degradation, productive area is fast
reducing because of developmental activities such as human settlement,
industries, roads, railways, airports etc.[22]. Pollution of surface soils by
materials like vegetables, animal wastes, papers, wooden pieces, carcasses,
plant twigs, leaves, cloth wastes as well as sweepings and many non-
biodegradable materials such as plastic bags, plastic bottles, plastic wastes,
glass bottles, glass pieces, stone cement pieces. On a rough estimate Indian
cities are producing solid city wastes to the tune of 50,000–80,000 metric
tons every day. If left uncollected and decomposed, they are a cause of
several problems such as:
• Clogging of drains: Causing serious drainage problems including

the burst or leakage of Drainage lines leading to health problems.
• Barrier to movement of water: Solid wastes have seriously damaged
the normal movement of water thus creating problem of inundation,
damage to foundation of buildings as well as Public health hazards.
• Foul smell: Generated by dumping the wastes at a place.
• Increased microbial activities: Microbial decomposition of organic
wastes generate large Quantities of methane besides many chemicals
to pollute the soil and water flowing on its surface.
• When such solid wastes are hospital wastes they create many
health problems: As they may have dangerous pathogen within them
besides dangerous medicines, injections.
Mining
The main source of metal pollutants in soils is mining and smelting activities,
mining can contaminate soils over a large area. Agricultural activities near
a mining project may be particularly affected[23]. Mining operations routinely
modify the surrounding landscape by exposing previously undisturbed
earthen materials, Erosion of exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings,
and fine material in waste rock piles can result in substantial sediment
loading to surface waters and drainage ways. In addition, spills and leaks of
hazardous materials and the deposition of contaminated windblown dust
can lead to soil contamination[23]. Human health and environmental risks
from soils generally fall into two categories namely contaminated soil
resulting from windblown dust, and soils contaminated from chemical spills
and residues. Fugitive dust can pose significant environmental problems at
some mines. The inherent toxicity of the dust depends upon the proximity
of environmental receptors and type of ones being mined. High levels of
arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in windblown dust usually pose the greatest
risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills and residues at mine sites
may pose a direct contact risk when these materials are misused.
Deforestation
Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and
carried away by wind or water. Deforestation, agricultural development,
temperature extremes, precipitation including acid rain, and human
activities contribute to the soil pollution through this kind of erosion. Humans
speed up this process by construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping
and overgrazing. It results in floods and cause soil erosion. Forests and
grasslands are an excellent binding material that keeps the soil intact and
healthy. They support many habitats and ecosystems, which provide
innumerable feeding pathways or food chains to all species. Their loss would
threaten food chains and the survival of many species. During the past few
years quite a lot of vast green land has been converted into deserts. The
precious rain forest habitats of South America, tropical Asia and Africa are
coming under pressure of population growth and development especially
timber, construction and agriculture. Many scientists believe that a wealth
of medicinal substances including a cure for cancer and aids, lie in these
forests. Deforestation is slowly destroying the most productive flora and
fauna areas in the world, which also form vast tracts of a very valuable sink
for CO2[24].
Acid Rain
Acid rain is formed when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the
rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away
some of the important nutrients found in soil and change the structure of
the soil.
Pollution of Underground Soil
Many dangerous chemicals like cadmium, chromium, lead, arsenic, selenium

products are likely to be deposited in underground soil. Similarly
underground soils polluted by sanitary Wastes generate many harmful
chemicals. These can damage the normal activities and Ecological balance
in the underground soil. This is mostly caused by Chemicals released by
industrial wastes and decomposed and partially decomposed materials of
sanitary wastes.
SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION
In modern economies, various types of activity, including agriculture,

industry and transportation, produce a large amount of wastes and new
types of pollutants. Soil, air and water have traditionally been used as sites
for the disposal of all these wastes. For example, beef cattle in the United
States are estimated to produce 92 million mt/year of manure, while dairy
cattle produce 27 million mt/year[25]. Some of this manure may wash into
nearby streams, and pollute rivers, lakes and soil. The most common kinds
of waste can be classified into four types: agricultural, industrial, municipal
and nuclear[26].
Agricultural Sources
The main agricultural source of Soil pollution caused by the overuse of
fertilizers and pesticides Agricultural wastes include a wide range of organic
materials often containing pesticides, animal wastes, and timber by-products.
Many of these, such as plant residues and livestock manure, are very
beneficial if they are returned to the soil. However, improper handling and
disposal may cause pollution. A study carried out by Kasno et al.[27] in an
area of intensive lowland rice farming in West Java found that the levels of
lead and cadmium in the soil were fairly low. Lead was present in soil
samples in a range of 10–43 ppm, while the levels of cadmium were 0.19–
0.49 ppm. The content of lead and cadmium which were present may have
originated in applications of phosphate fertilizer. Phosphate fertilizer is
essential in intensive agriculture, with its high rainfall and rapid leaching.
These conditions result in a low soil pH and high levels of iron and aluminum
oxide. These in turn immobilize the phosphorus in the soil solution, and
hinder its uptake by plants. Based on the levels of lead and cadmium in
rice[27] found that intensive lowland rice areas could be divided into three
categories: Highly polluted soils, soils with medium pollution, and unpolluted
soils. These results indicate that after 30–40 years of phosphate application,
the productivity of these soils could still be sustained. Another study was
conducted in tea plantations in an area of West Java which is important for
agroforestry and tourism[28]. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect
of air pollution by automobiles on soil quality. The result of the soil survey
showed that the lead content of the soil in the plantations increased near
main roads. The level of soil pollution by lead, most of which was produced
by petrol combustion depended on the distance from the main road.
However, the cadmium content in soils was not influenced by the distance
from the main road. This indicates that the cadmium content in the soil
was not the result of air pollution, but may have resulted from the application
of high levels of phosphate fertilizer in these areas.
Non-agricultural Sources
Industrial waste
Products may be in gas, liquid or solid form. The most important gases are
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
sulfur dioxide (SO2). They are produced by combustion in industry and by
automobiles, and they pose a hazard to the environment. Food processing
plants produce both liquid and solid wastes. Another urban waste is municipal
garbage. This is made up of materials discarded by homes and industry. It
contains paper, plastic and organic materials. Some of these can be recycled
by composting or they may be burnt or disposed of in landfills. Sewage
sludge is the product of treatment plants and the materials processed in
the treatment plants are domestic and industrial wastes. They are usually
liquid mixtures, composed both of solids, and dissolved organic and inorganic
materials. The water is separated from the solid part by a number of
treatments before it is environmentally safe for discharge into streams or
lakes. The content of major nutrients and micronutrients in sewage sludge
varies depending on the source. Data indicates that the nitrogen content of
textile sludge is generally high. However, the heavy metal content is also
high. Some trace elements are required in small amounts by plants and
animals, whereas others are hazardous to human health.
Based to the result obtained on a study conducted to find industrial

pollution in areas surrounding. These areas are being polluted by heavy
metals from sewage sludge produced by the textile industry. This waste is
often disposed directly into rivers, all of which can be used to irrigate crop
in agriculture. Soil surveys conducted by[29] revealed that there were very
high concentrations of boron, cadmium and lead. Falling soil productivity
in these areas caused a reduction in rice yields and farmers’ incomes. After
20 years of contamination, the average rice yield had decreased by about
80%. The initial rice yield of about 4-6 mt/ha had become 1 mt/ha. However,
the heavy metal content in the soil had increased by about 18–98%, compared
to unpolluted soil. A greenhouse study using polluted soil showed that high
concentrations of lead, cadmium, copper, chromium and boron were found
in the plant tissue, roots and grain of rice but generally the most of the
pollutants had accumulated in the root system.
Mining and smelting
Gold mining is carried out by individuals rather than companies especially

in developing countries; they use traditional methods for separating the
gold from the raw material. The main waste product from this process is
mud and rubble which contain a high concentration of mercury. These wastes
are disposed of directly in the river, which is also used as a source of
irrigation water or in domestic activities. A soil survey conducted in some
areas nearby mining site found that the soil surrounding the traditional
mining was polluted by mercury and the concentration of mercury in soil
near the mining was higher 3 times than in more distant soils[29].
Types of Soil Pollutants and their Impact on Ecological Health

Once contaminants are in soils, where they go as their destination and how
quickly they travel depends on many factors. Some organic contaminants
(carbon-based compound) can undergo chemical changes or degrade into
products that may be more or less toxic than the original compound. Note
that chemical elements such as heavy metals cannot break down, but their
characteristics may change so that they can be more or less easily taken up
by plants or animals[30]. Different contaminants vary in their tendency to:
• End up in water held in the soil or in the underlying groundwater by

leaching through the soil
• Volatilize (evaporate) into the air
• Bind tightly to the soil.
The soil properties also affect the rate of contaminants and whether
they can be readily taken up by plants or animals. Site management and
land use such as gardening practices can affect some soil characteristics.
Important soil characteristics that may affect the behavior of contaminants
include (Fig. 3):
• Soil mineralogy and clay content (soil texture)

• pH (acidity) of the soil
• Amount of organic matter in the soil
• Moisture levels
• Temperature
• Presence of other chemicals.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metal contamination refers to the excessive deposition of toxic heavy
metals in the soil caused mostly by human activities. Heavy metals in the
soil include some significant metals of biological toxicity, such as mercury
(Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), etc. They
also include other heavy metals of certain biological toxicity, such as zinc
(Zn), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), stannum (Sn), vanadium (V), etc. In recent
years, with the development of the global economy, both type and content
of heavy metals in the soil caused by human activities have gradually
increased, resulting in the deterioration of the environment[31–34]. Heavy
metals are highly hazardous to the environment and organisms. It can be
enriched through the food chain. Once the soil suffers from heavy metal
contamination, it is difficult to be remediated.
Fig. 3: Movement of pollutants through land, water and atmosphere (30)
In the past, heavy metal soil contamination was not considered as

important as air and water pollution, because soil contamination was often
with wide range and was more difficult to be controlled and governed than
air and water pollution. However, in recent years the soil contamination by
heavy metals in developed countries becomes to be serious and it is thus
paid more and more attention and became a hot topic of environmental
protection worldwide[35].
CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAVY METALS AS SOIL CONTAMINANTS
Wide Distribution
With the development of economy and society, heavy metal contamination
has become increasingly common in the world. It is almost a serious threat
to every country. In the world’s top ten environmental events, two events
have related to heavy metal contamination[36].
Strong latency
Heavy metal contamination is colorless and odorless, so it is difficult to be

noticed. It does not explicitly damage the environment in a short period.
Nevertheless, when it exceeds the environmental tolerance, or when
environmental conditions have changed, heavy metals in the soil may be
activated and cause serious ecological damage therefore, heavy metal
contamination is called chemical Time Bombs (CTBs)[37].
Irreversibility and Remediation Hardness

If the air and water are polluted, the pollution problem can be reversed
certainly by dilution and Self-purification after switching off the sources of
pollution. However, it is difficult to use dilution or self-purification techniques
to eliminate heavy metal contamination and to get soils improved. Some
soils contaminated by heavy metals are likely to take one or two hundred
years to be remediated[37]. Therefore, heavy metal contamination needs
relatively high cost of remediation and the remediation cycle is relative
with long period.
Complex Heavy Metal Contamination

In the past, soil contamination was mainly caused by a single heavy metal.
However, in recent years more cases are found to be caused by a variety of
heavy metals[38] the complex contamination caused by a variety of heavy
metals will always amplify the contamination by heavy metals separately[39].
Showed that in terms of the influence on soil respiration, Cu+ Pb > Pb >
Cu.
Sources of Heavy Metals

Excess heavy metals in the soil originate from many sources, which include
atmospheric deposition, sewage irrigation, improper stocking of the
industrial solid waste, mining activities, the use of pesticides and fertilizers
in agriculture etc[40]. The Table 2 describe different sources of heavy metal
contaminants of soils across the world.
Atmosphere to Soils Pathway

Heavy metals in the atmosphere are mainly from gas and dust produced by
energy, transport, metallurgy and production of construction materials.
Excepting mercury, heavy metals basically go into the atmosphere in the
form of aerosol and deposit to the soil through natural sedimentation and
precipitation, etc. For example, the lead pollution in a downtown, Central
Sweden, was reported mainly from the urban industrial copper plant,
sulfuric acid plant, paint factory, and the large amount of waste from mining
and chemical industries[41] Due to transporting by wind, these fine lead
particles spread from industrial waste heap to surrounding areas. The
superimposed chromium contamination by a heavy industrial factory
producing.
Chromium[42] in Nanjing was reported more than 4.4 times of the local
background value. The chromium contamination was centered on the
chimney of workshop, ranging up to 1.5 km2, and extending 1.38 km away.
A sulfuric acid production plant in Russia[43] was reported to contaminate

the environment because of the discharge of S, V, and As from the factory
chimneys. Transport, especially the automotive transport, causes serious
heavy metal contamination (Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Cu, etc.) of the atmosphere and
soils[44] Heavy metals come from burning leaded gasoline and the dust
produced by automobile tire wear. In the Nanjing section of Nanjing-
Hangzhou highway, the soil on both sides of the road had formed
contamination zone of Pb, Cr, and Co. And the contamination zone was
direction of the both sides of the highway. The amount of heavy metals
which went into the soil through natural deposition and raining
sedimentation are related to the level of development of heavy industry,
the city’s population density, land utilization and traffic level. Soil
contamination became to be heavier as closing to the city[45].
Sewage to Soils Pathway

Wastewater can be divided into several categories, sanitary sewage, chemical
wastewater, industrial mining wastewater and urban mining mixed sewage,
etc. Heavy metals are brought to the soil by irrigative sewage and are fixed
in the soil in different ways[46] it causes heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, Cr, etc.)
to continually accumulate in the soil year by year. Sewage irrigation is a
feasible way to solve the problem of crop irrigation in the arid area. However,
heavy metal contamination caused by sewage irrigation must be paid enough
attention. Quality of irrigative sewage must be strictly controlled within
the national quality standard for irrigation water.
Solid Wastes to Soils Pathway

There are a variety of solid wastes which have complex composition of
which mining and industrial solid Waste contamination is the most serious.
When these wastes are in the process of being piled or governed, heavy
metals move easily due to the facilitation of sunlight, raining and washing.
And they spread to the surrounding water and soils at the shape of funnel
and radiation. With the development of industry and the acceleration of
urban environmental construction, sewage treatment is continuing to be
strengthened[42]. In general, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn and As in the sludge will exceed
the control standards easily.
Agricultural Supplies to Soils Pathway

Fertilizers, pesticides and mulch are important agricultural inputs for
agricultural production[40]. On the other side, the long-term excessive
application has resulted in the heavy metal contamination of soils. The
vast majority of pesticides are organic compounds, and a few are organic -
inorganic compound or pure mineral, and some pesticides contain Hg, As,
Cu, Zn and other heavy metals[47]. Heavy metals are the most reported
pollutants in fertilizers. Heavy metal content is relatively low in nitrogen
and potash fertilizers, while phosphoric fertilizers usually contain
considerable toxic heavy metals followed by compound fertilizers[48]. Cd is
an important heavy metal contaminant in the soil and is brought to soils
with the application of phosphoric fertilizers. In recent years, the mulch
has been promoted and used in large areas, which results in white pollution
of soils, because the heat stabilizers, which contain Cd and Pb, are always
added in the production process of mulch. This increases heavy metal
contamination of soils distributed along the direction of the highway[49].
Negative Impact of Heavy Metal Contaminants on Soils
Microorganisms and enzymatic activity in soil
Lee et al.[50] concluded that microbial biomass of the soil is an important

indicator of determining the extent of soil contamination and Microbial
activity is inhibited significantly in the heavy metal contaminated soil. The
microbial biomass in the soil contaminated by Cu, Zn, Pb and other heavy
metals are always inhibited severely[52]. The soil’s microbial biomass near
the mine was significantly lower than that far away from the mine. And the
effects of different concentrations of heavy metals and different heavy metals
on soil microbial biomass were different[52]. Studied the effect of different
concentrations of heavy metals on soil microbial biomass, and found that
only if the concentration of heavy metals in the soil was three times above
the environmental standard, established by the European Union, it could
inhibit microbial biomass. low concentrations of heavy metals could
stimulate microbial growth and increase microbial biomass; while high
concentrations could decrease soil microbial biomass significantly[53]. In
addition, the enzymes in the soil play an important role in the process of
organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Studies have shown
that the activities of enzymes in the soil are related to the heavy metal
contamination. The activities of almost all enzymes in the soil were
significantly reduced by 10 to 50 times with the increase of the concentration
of heavy metals[52].
Impact on the plants
The Low concentration of soil heavy metals, will not affect the growth of
plants in a certain range. But if the concentration is too high, the content of
heavy metals enriched by the plant exceeds its tolerance threshold, and
thus the plant will be poisoned and it even leads to death of the plant[54]. In
Florida, it was found that if the copper content in soil was more than 50 mg/
kg, it would affect citrus seedlings; if soil copper content reached 200 mg/
kg, wheat would wither[55]. Research found that the growth of cabbage and
bean seedling under Cd concentration of 30 µmol/ L was inhibited: the root

length decreased, and the plant height and leaf area dropped[56] Cd may
interfere with crop photosynthesis and protein synthesis, and may cause
membrane damage, etc.
Impact on Human Health

The preview research showed that heavy metals in urban soils may go into
the human body through skin absorption and inhalation of dust, etc., and
thus directly damage, especially children’s health. They also affect the urban
environmental quality and damage human health indirectly through
polluting the food, water and atmosphere. In a study carried out by Yabe et
al.[57] on the content of Pb in children blood, found that the contaminated
soil dust in the city was an important factor to affect human health. Cd may
damage the metabolism of calcium, which will cause calcium deficiency and
result in cartilage disease and bone fractures. Agency for Toxic Substances
Management Committee has listed Cd as the sixth most toxic substance
that damages human health. Pb mainly enters human body through the
digestive tract and respiratory tract, and then goes into the blood circulation
in the form of soluble salts, protein complexes or ions, etc. 95% of the
insoluble phosphate lead accumulates in bones. Pb is strongly pro-
organizational, It affects and damages many of the body organs and systems,
such as kidney, liver, reproductive system, nervous system, urinary system,
immune system and the basic physiological processes of cells and gene
expression. Cu, Zn and Ni are essential trace metals in the human body,
but if the body takes excessive Cu, Zn and Ni from the outside environment,
they will damage human health. Ni and Cu are tumor promoting factors,
people who are in direct contact with the Ni powder are more likely to
suffer from respiratory cancer, and the content of Ni in the environment is
positively correlated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma[58].
Classes of Soil Contaminated by Heavy Metal
The level of heavy metal contamination in the soil is analyzed and determined
by geoaccumulation index (Igeo), which was established by Muller[59]
geoaccumulation index is obtained by comparing the contamination levels
before contamination and present contamination. The computation of Igeo
through this following fulmula: Igeo= log2(Cn/1.5Bn) where Cn is the
measured mass fraction of the metal (mg/kg–1). Bn is the background mass
fraction of the metal (mg/kg –1) to calculate Igeo. Muller’s evaluation
method[59] can be used to evaluate the level of heavy metal contamination
in soils, as shown in Table 1 & 2 below:
Table 1: Geoaccumulation index classification
Geoaccumulation index Classification Level of contamination

5 < I geo  10 6 Extremely serious
4 < I geo  5 5 Strong to extremely serious
3 < I geo  4 4 Strong
2 < I geo  3 3 Moderate to strong
1 < I geo  2 2 Moderate
0 < I geo  1 1 Light to moderate
I geo  0 0 Non contamination
Source: [60]
Table 2: Different sources of heavy metals contaminating soils annually in the world
(1000 t • a–1).
Source AS Cd Cr Cu Hg Ni Pb Zn
Agriculture 0~0.6 0~0.3 4.5~90 3~38 0~1.5 6~45 1.5~27 12~150
and food waste
Farmyard 1.2~4.4 0.2~1.2 10~60 14~80 0~0.2 3~36 3.2~20 50~320
manure
Logging 0~3.3 0~2.2 2.2~18 3.3~52 0~2.2 2.2~23 6.6~8.2 13~65
and timber
Industry 0.09~0.7 0.88~7.5 6.6~33 13~40 0~0.26 2.2~10 18~62 22~97
waste munici-
pal wastes
Municipal 0.01~ 0.02~ 1.4~ 4.9~ 0.01~ 5.0~ 2.8~ 18~
sludge 0.24 0.34 11 21 0.8 22 9.7 57
Organic 0~0.25 0~0.01 0.1~ 0.04~ _ 0.17~ 0.17~ 0.13~
wastes 0.48 0.61 3.2 3.2 2.1
Metal 0.01~ 0~0.08 0.65~ 0.95~ 0~0.08 0.84~ 4.1~11 2.7~19
processing 0.21 2.4 7.6 2.5
Solid wastes 6.7~37 1.5~13 149~ 93~ 0.37~ 56~279 45~242 112~484
coal ash 446 335 4.8
Fertilizer 0~0.02 0.03~ 0.03~ 0.05~ _ 0.20~ 0.42~ 0.25~1.1
0.25 0.38 0.58 3.5 2.3
Marl 0.04~0.5 0~0.11 0.04~ 0.15~ 0~0.02 0.22~ 0.45~ 0.15~3.5
0.19 2.0 3.5 2.6
Commodity 36~41 0.78~1.6 305~ 395~ 0.55~ 6.5~32 195~ 310~620
impurities 610 790 0.82 390
Atmospheric 8.4~18 2.2~8.4 5.1~38 14~36 0.63~ 11~37 202~ 49~135
deposition 4.3 263
Total 52~112 5.6~38 484~ 41~ 1.6~15 106~544 479~ 689~

1309 1367 1113 2054
Source: [61]
DIOXINS
The term “dioxin” refers to a group of chemical compounds sharing certain

similar structures and biological characteristics, Several hundred of these
toxic compounds exist and are members of three closely related families:
the chlorinated dibenzo–p–dioxins (CDDs), chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs)
and certain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Sometimes the term dioxin
is also used to refer to the most well–studied and one of the most toxic
dioxins, 2,3,7,8–tetrachlorodibenzo–p–dioxin (TCDD)[62]. Dioxin compounds
are not created intentionally, but are formed inadvertently by a number of
human and natural activities. These activities include combustion and
incineration, forest fires, chlorine bleaching of pulp and paper, certain types
of chemical manufacturing and processing, and other industrial processes
(2000) Burning materials that may contain chlorine such as plastics, wood
treated with pentachlorophenol (PCP), pesticide–treated wastes, other
chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), and even bleached paper
can produce dioxins[63]. Cigarette smoke, some home–heating systems, and
exhaust from vehicles using leaded and unleaded gasolines as well as diesel
fuels also produce small amounts of dioxins.
Sources of Dioxin Exposure

The largest source is past application of contaminated herbicides on
agricultural soils. Waste incineration, industrial processes and deposition
onto soils from atmospheric fallout are also significant sources, in addition
to sewage sludge application. When dioxins enter soils, they remain in the
very top layer at the top of 0.1 cm with a half–life of 9–15 years. At deeper
soil levels, dioxins can persist for 25–100 years. With dioxins persisting in
the human body with a half–life of up to 11 years, it can be quite difficult to
make direct correlations between concentrations of dioxins in human tissue
and local soils[3].
Although dioxins form locally, their environmental distribution is global

and are found throughout the world. The highest levels of these compounds
are found in some soils, sediments and food, especially dairy products, meat,
fish and shellfish. Very low levels are found in plants, water and air. Extensive
stores of PCB–based waste industrial oils, many with high levels of PCDFs,
exist throughout the world. Long–term storage and improper disposal of
this material may result in dioxin release into the environment and the
contamination of human and animal food supplies. PCB–based waste is not
easily disposed of without contamination of the environment and human
populations. Such material needs to be treated as hazardous waste and is
best destroyed by high temperature incineration.
Toxicity of Dioxins to Humans and Wildlife

Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental
problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones and cause
cancer. Dioxins are everywhere all humans have background exposure
leading to a body burden of these chemicals, which is not expected to affect
human health when low. But due to the highly toxic potential of this class
of compounds, reducing current background exposure is advisable. Once
dioxins have entered the body, they remain for a long time because of their
chemical stability and their ability to be stored in body fat[64]. Short–term
exposure of humans to high levels of dioxins may result in skin lesions,
such as chloracne and patchy darkening of the skin, and altered liver function.
Long–term exposure is linked to impairment of the immune system, the
developing nervous system, the endocrine system and reproductive
functions. Chronic exposure of animals to dioxins has resulted in several
types of cancer. TCDD was evaluated by the WHO’s International Agency
for Research on Cancer [64] and, based on animal data and on human
epidemiology data, was classified as a ‘known human carcinogen’. However,
it does not affect genetic material and there is a level of exposure below
which cancer risk would be negligible. Concerns about dioxins are often
centered on immediate effects rather than long–term effects (chronic).
Fetuses, infants, and children may be more sensitive to dioxin exposure
because of their rapid growth and development. Data on risks to children
are limited, however, and it is not known if children in the general population
are experiencing adverse effects from dioxin[62]. Based on data from animal
studies, exposure to low levels of dioxins over long periods or high level
exposures at sensitive times might weaken the immune system[65].
Asbestos
Asbestos is the generic commercial designation for a group of naturally
occurring mineral silicate fibers of the serpentine and amphibole series
with high tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to heat, chemicals,
and electricity. These include the serpentine mineral chrysotile (also known
as ‘white asbestos’), and the five amphibole minerals–actinolite, amosite(also
known as ‘brown asbestos’), anthophyllite,crocidolite (also known as ‘blue
asbestos’), and tremolite[66]. It was once used widely in the production of
many industrial and household products because of its useful properties,
including fire retardation, electrical and thermal insulation, chemical and
thermal stability, and high tensile strength. However, asbestos is recognized
as a cause of various diseases and cancers and is considered a health hazard
if inhaled[67].
Chemical and Physical Properties of the Agent

The silicate tetrahedron (SiO4) is the basic chemical unit of all silicate
minerals. The number of tetrahedra in the crystal structure and how they
are arranged determine how a silicate mineral is classified. Serpentine
silicates are classified as ‘sheet silicates’ because the tetrahedra are arranged
to form sheets. Amphibole silicates are classified as ‘chain silicates’ because
the tetrahedral are arranged to form a double chain of two rows aligned
side by side. Magnesium is coordinated with the oxygen atom in serpentine
silicates. In amphibole silicates, cationic elements such as aluminium,
calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and sodium are attached to the
tetrahedra. Amphiboles are distinguished from one another by their
chemical composition. The chemicalformulas of asbestos minerals are
idealized. In natural samples, the composition varies with respect to major
and trace elements[66] . Asbestos fibres tend to possess good strength
properties (e.g., high tensile strength, wear and friction characteristics);
flexibility (e.g., the ability to be woven); excellent thermal properties (e.g.,
heat stability; thermal, electrical and acoustic insulation); adsorption
capacity; and, resistance to chemical, thermal and biological degradation[66,68].
Natural Occurrence
Asbestos minerals are widespread in the environment, and are found in

man y areas w here the origin al r ock mass h as underg one
metamorphism[66,69]. Examples include large chrysotile deposits in the Ural
Mountains in the Russian Federation, in the Appalachian Mountains in the
USA, and in Canada[70]. They may occur in large natural deposits or as
contaminants in other minerals (e.g., tremolite asbestos may occur in
deposits of chrysotile, vermiculite, and talc). The most commonly occurring
form of asbestos is chrysotile, and its fibres are found as veins in serpentine
rock formations. Asbestiform amphiboles occur in relatively low quantities
throughout the earth’s crust and their chemical composition reflects the
environment in which they form[71].
Asbestos can enter the soil and sediment through natural (e.g.,
weathering and erosion of asbestos–bearing rocks) and anthropogenic (e.g.,
disposal of asbestos–containing wastes in landfills) sources. The practice of
disposing asbestos–containing materials in landfills was more common in
the past, and is restricted in many countries by regulation or legislation[69].
Uses
Today, however, asbestos is recognized as a cause of various diseases and
cancers and is considered a health hazard if inhaled. The current survey
estimates that over the last several decades 100,000 deaths globally have
been due to asbestos exposure, and the WHO states that 90,000 people die
a year globally because of occupational asbestos exposure. As described

above, asbestos has several chemical and physical properties that make it
desirable for a wide range of industrial applications. By the time industrial
and commercial use of asbestos peaked, more than 3000 applications or
types of products were listed[68]. Over 90% of asbestos 5 fiber produced today
is chrysotile, which is used in asbestos–cement (A–C) construction materials:
A–C flat and corrugated sheet, A–C pipe, and A–C water storage tanks.
Other products still being manufactured with asbestos content include vehicle
brake and clutch pads, roofing, and gaskets. Though today asbestos is hardly
used in construction materials other than asbestos–cement products, it is
still found in older buildings in the form of friable surfacing materials,
thermal system insulation, non–friable flooring materials, and other
applications. The maintenance and removal of these materials warrant
special attention.
Negative Impact on Human Health

Information on the health effects of asbestos in humans comes mostly from
studies of people who were exposed in the past to high levels of asbestos in
the workplace. These asbestos workers were found to have increased chances
of getting two types of cancer: cancer of the lung tissue itself, and
mesothelioma, a cancer of the thin membrane that surrounds the lung and
other internal organs. Both lung cancer and mesothelioma are usually fatal.
These diseases do not appear immediately, but develop only after a number
of years. There is also some evidence from studies of workers that breathing
asbestos can increase the chances of getting cancer in other locations (e.g.,
stomach, intestines, esophagus, pancreas, kidneys), but this is less certain.
Members of the public who are exposed to lower levels of asbestos may also
have increased chances of getting cancer, but the risks are usually small
and are difficult to measure directly[64]. the epidemiological evidence showed
a high incidence of lung cancer among workers exposed to chrysotile,
amosite, anthophyllite, and with mixed fibres containing crocidolite, and
tremolite. Pleural and peritoneal mesotheliomas were reported to be
associated with occupational exposures to crocidolite, amosite, and chrysotile.
Gastrointestinal tract cancers were reported to have been demonstrated in
groups occupationally exposed to amosite, chrysotile or mixed fibres
containing chrysotile. An excess of cancer of the larynx in occupationally
exposed individuals was also noted. Finally the Monograph points out that
mesothelioma may occur among individuals living in neighbourhoods of
asbestos factories and crocidolite mines, and in persons living with asbestos
workers[67]. Dioxins can alter the fundamental growth and development of
cells in many ways. For example dioxins may:
• Cause cancer,
• Disrupt the endocrine system, and
• Cause reproductive and developmental effects
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS PESTICIDES, FERTILIZERS AND OTHER

AGRICULTURE PRODUCT
Organic (carbon–based) pollutants include pesticides, fertilizers. All those

once released into air or water will end up in soils, with the exception of
those that are deposited at the bottom of oceans. Among organic pollutants
some are referred to as ‘POPs,’ or persistent organic pollutants, which do
not break down quickly in the environment. Types of organic pollutants
found in soil include:
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

• Polybrominated biphenyls
• Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs)
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides (pesticides)
• Herbicides
• Organic fuels (gasoline, diesel)
• Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites
Health effects of organic pollutant exposure
The health effects of organic pollutants could include the following[13,72]:
• Individuals with increased exposure to pesticides (e.g., farmers,

landscapers) appear to be at greater risk of non–Hodgkin lymphoma.
Studies have also shown a greater risk among children from homes
where pesticides are frequently used, or otherwise subject to higher
exposure.
• Some studies have linked leukaemia, particularly in children, with
insecticides. Timing of exposure is significant, with children exposed
in the womb most likely to be affected. Pesticides have also been
linked to brain cancer in children whose parents are exposed to high
levels of pesticides, for example, through work.
• Some studies have linked pesticides to breast cancer and benign breast
changes, although other studies have produced findings that disagree
and pesticide exposure to kidney cancer and pancreatic cancer.
• Several studies have linked pesticides to increased risks of prostate
cancer, particularly relating to the fumigant methyl bromide. Links
have also been made between stomach cancer and atrazine[72].
• Long–term effects of pesticides on the nervous system include cognitive
and psychomotor dysfunction, and neurodegenerative and
neurodevelopmental effects. Pesticide poisonings result in well
described acute and chronic neurotoxic syndromes. Chronic effects
from low or moderate exposures have been less well documented.
Many studies have shown that occupational pesticide exposure could

increase the risk of later developing Parkinson’s disease.
• Those exposed to pesticides also had a greater frequency of
chromosome aberrations (genotoxic effects), although it is hard to
separate these effects from other sources of genetic damage, such as
smoking, alcohol or radiation[13] . Overall, few studies have been
conducted on the toxicity of complex chemical mixtures in soils. The
effects of the soil and organisms within it upon organic pollutants are
unknown. The data that do exist tend to be on short–term, high level
exposure of these chemicals, which is less relevant to the potential
low–level, long term health impacts from living near to contaminated
soil (soil).
The chemical industry creates (or previously created) these compounds

in very large quantities, to use in a wide range of products including plastics,
refrigerants, preservatives and pesticides. Many POPs are actually by–
products of these processes, and are not useful in their own right. Examples
include dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs).
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
Effect on Human Health

The human life depends upon the soil health and we consider soil as the
first resources of our everyday life consequently its contamination has major
consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb
much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could explain the
sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses. Long term exposure to such
soil can affect the genetic make–up of the body, causing congenital illnesses
and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can
sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over
a long period of time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines
if the plants are unable to grow in it.
Effect on Growth of Plants

The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread
contamination of the soil. Most of plants are unable to adapt when physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil changes so radically in a short
period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together
begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion, The
soil fertility decrease slowly, making land unsuitable for agriculture and
any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of
land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for
its native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.
Decreased Soil Fertility

The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and
therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to
produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain
some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people
consuming them.
Toxic Dust
The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment
and causes serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell
causes inconvenience to other people.
Changes in Soil Structure

The death of many soil organisms such as earthworms and microbes in the
soil can lead to alteration in soil structure. Apart from that, it could also
force other predators to move to other places in search of food.
A number of ways have been suggested to control the current rate of

pollution. Such attempts at cleaning up the environment require plenty of
time and resources to be pitched in. Industries have been given regulations
for the disposal of hazardous waste, which aims at minimizing the area that
becomes polluted. Organic farming as agriculture method is being supported,
which do not use chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers. Use of plants that
can remove the pollutants from the soil is being encouraged. However, the
road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil pollution will take many
more years.
Control of Soil Pollution

The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help
prevent soil erosion, we can limit construction in sensitive area. In general
we would need less fertilizer and fewer pesticides if we could all adopt the
three R’s: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us less solid waste.
Extraction and Separation Techniques

In solvent extraction, the contaminated and oil is mixed with an extracting
agent in general (an aqueous solution but preferably an organic solvent).
Potential applications include the removal of metals such as cadmium,
copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, arsenic, antimony and lead using a mineral
solution, zinc lead, organo–metallic compounds and some cyanides using
sodium hydroxide solution. Hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons

can also be removed[73]. Contamination is often preferentially present in
the finer or coarser fraction of the soil or the organic components like
humus, contamination can therefore, be removed in some cases using a
process which separates the soil into fractions on the basis of specific gravity
or particle size or settling velocity.
Thermal methods (physical method)
In thermal methods, there are two ways of heat treatment; removal of

contaminants by evaporation either by direct heat transfer from heated air
or an open flame or by indirect heat transfer, and destruction of the
contaminants directly or indirectly at an appropriate temperature. The gas
leaving the heating appliance must be treated to destroy or remove any
contaminants or unwanted products of combustion. A related process is
stream stripping in which steam is injected into soil to aid evaporation of
relatively volatile contaminants which may be water soluble or insoluble.
Chemical methods
Treatment of the soil in suspension in a suitable liquid and without sludging

is the two possible methods. In these, intimate, contact between soil and
chemical is essential and should be frequently done so that the process of
detoxification is complete.
Microbial treatment methods
The microbial treatment methods appear to be more promising which can

deal with whole range of organic contaminants including phenol,
polychlorinated hydrocarbons, oil and oil products, dioxins, etc. There are
two different ways of approaching the problems.
1. A community of microbes already existing on the site is collected and

cultured in the Laboratory.
2. Strains of microbes are developed in the laboratory that is capable of
metabolizing particular chemicals.
Excavation of the soil prior to treatment offers the greatest scope for
creating optimum conditions. The excavated soil can be placed on thin layers
to various depth using standard earth moving techniques and microbes and
nutrients applied using standard agricultural techniques such as fertilizing,
ploughing, harrowing, etc.
Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
Applying bio–fertilizers and manures can reduce chemical fertilizer and

pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the use of
pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
Reusing of materials
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be
reused at domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste
pollution.
Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as

paper, some kinds of plastics and glass can and are being recycled. This
decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the conservation of natural
resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
Reforestation
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring
forest and grass cover to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop
rotation or mixed cropping can improve the fertility of the land.
Solid Waste Treatment

Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal.
Industrial wastes can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until
they are less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized;
the insoluble material if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under
controlled conditions before being disposed. As a last resort, new areas for
storage of hazardous waste should be investigated such as deep well injection
and more secure landfills. Burying the waste in locations situated away
from residential areas is the simplest and most widely used technique of
solid waste management.
CONCLUSIONS
Soil pollution is a result of many activities and experiments done by mankind

which end up contaminating the soil. Industrial wastes such as harmful
gases and chemicals, agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides are
the most common causes of soil pollution. The othersare ignorance towards
soil management and related systems, unfavorable and harmful irrigation
practices, improper septic system and management and maintenance of

the same, leakages from sanitary sewage. Soil pollution by different kind of
pollutants is a matter of rising importance. Reclamation of contaminated
soils is expensive, energy consuming and laborious, Phytoremediation may
be a promising low cost alternative. Support of natural decomposition
processes (natural attenuation) carries the potential to serve as a cost
efficient method to reduce the risks of contaminated soils.
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Soil Pollution-Major Sources and Types of Soil Pollutants

Chapter · December 2017

Balkrishna Bhople Anil Kumar

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Soil Pollution - Major Sources

Environmental pollution is being the burning challenge of current living

POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS

A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that

Major Forms of Pollution

• Air pollution: The release of chemicals and particulates into the

Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,

Key Concepts in Understanding Soil Pollution and Its Effect to

Formation of soil from the parent material (bedrock): mechanical weathering

O & A-horizon: Contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms,

B-horizon/(subsoil): Less organic material and fewer organisms than A-

C-horizon: Consists of broken-up bedrock, does not contain any organic

Soil composition varies considerably across the world. This is more

Fig. 1: Different superimposing soil layers[8]

Soil is a dynamic living resource whose wellbeing is vital to both the

achieved in a natural setting by a soil reaching equilibrium with its

Path of Contaminants from Soils to Human Intake

Eating soil (geophagia)

Absorption through the skin tends to favour more volatile, organic

Causes of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or natural

Fig. 2: Pathways of radioactive contamination to agricultural products[13]

Some of natural causes of soil pollution are earthquakes, landslides,

Some of man-made causes of soil pollution are:

Industrial activity: Industrial activity has found to be the biggest contributor

Agricultural activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since

Indiscriminate use of fertilizers: The major nutrients like nitrogen,

Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides: Plants on which

Waste disposal: Subsequently a growing cause of soil contamination is how

Accidental Oil Spills

• Clogging of drains: Causing serious drainage problems including

Pollution of Underground Soil

Many dangerous chemicals like cadmium, chromium, lead, arsenic, selenium

SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

In modern economies, various types of activity, including agriculture,

Based to the result obtained on a study conducted to find industrial

Mining and smelting

Gold mining is carried out by individuals rather than companies especially

Types of Soil Pollutants and their Impact on Ecological Health

• End up in water held in the soil or in the underlying groundwater by

• Soil mineralogy and clay content (soil texture)

Fig. 3: Movement of pollutants through land, water and atmosphere (30)

In the past, heavy metal soil contamination was not considered as

CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAVY METALS AS SOIL CONTAMINANTS

Heavy metal contamination is colorless and odorless, so it is difficult to be

Irreversibility and Remediation Hardness

Complex Heavy Metal Contamination

Sources of Heavy Metals

Atmosphere to Soils Pathway

A sulfuric acid production plant in Russia[43] was reported to contaminate

Sewage to Soils Pathway

Solid Wastes to Soils Pathway