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Analysis and identification of Bitemarks in forensic casework

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Review Article Open Access

Analysis and Identification of Bite Marks in Forensic Casework

Sandeep Kaur1, Kewal Krishan1, Preetika M Chatterjee1 and Tanuj Kanchan2*
1
Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh–160 014, India
2
Department of Forensic Medicine, Kasturba Medical College (affiliated to Manipal University), Mangalore–575 001, India

Abstract
Analysis of bite marks plays an important role in personal identification in forensic casework. Bite marks can be
recorded in violent crimes such as sexual offences, homicides, child abuse cases, and during sports events. The
arrangement, size and alignment of human teeth are individualistic to each person. Teeth, acting as tools leave
recognizable marks depending on tooth arrangement, malocclusion, habits, occupation, tooth fracture, and missing
or extra teeth. Bite mark identification is based on the individuality of a dentition, which is used to match a bite mark
to a suspect. Bite marks are often considered as valuable alternative to fingerprinting and DNA identification in
forensic examinations. The present review describes the classification, characteristics, mechanism of production,
and appearance of bite mark injuries, collection of evidence, comparison techniques, and technical aids in the
analysis of the bite marks.

Keywords: Bite marks; Class characteristics; Individual victim by assailant) and defensive (upon assailant by victim) bite marks
characteristics; Forensic dentistry [14,15].

Introduction There are seven types of bite marks [16]; ‘Haemorrhage’ (a small
bleeding spot), ‘Abrasion’ (undamaging mark on skin), ‘Contusion’
“The criminal may lie through his teeth though the teeth themselves (ruptured blood vessels, bruise), ‘Laceration’ (near puncture of skin),
cannot lie” Furness [1]. Bite marks analysis is based on the principle ‘Incision’ (neat punctured or torn skin), ‘Avulsion’ (removal of skin),
that ‘no two mouths are alike’. Bite marks are thus, considered as and ‘Artefact’ (bitten-off piece of body). These further can be classified
valuable alternative to fingerprinting and DNA identification in into four degrees of impressions; ‘Clearly defined’ that results from the
forensic examinations. A bite mark is a mark created by teeth either application of significant pressure, ‘Obviously defined’ which is the
alone or in the combination with other oral structures [2,3]. In other effect of first degree pressure, ‘Quite noticeable’ due to violent pressure
words, a bite mark may be defined as a mark having occurred as a result and ‘Lacerated’ when the skin is violently torn from the body [17].
of either a physical alteration in a medium caused by the contact of
teeth, or a representative pattern left in an object or tissue by the dental The following classes that are of proven significance in practical
structures of an animal or human [4,5]. application regarding bite marks are:

Bite marks may be found virtually on any part of the human body, Class I: It includes diffused bite marks, which is having limited
common sites being the face, neck, arm, hand, finger, shoulder, nose, class characteristics and lacks individual characteristics. Such as bruise,
ear, breast, legs, buttocks, waist, and female genitals [6]. In cases of diffused bite mark, a smoking ring or, a faint bite mark.
sexual assault, face, lips, breasts, shoulder, neck, thigh, genitals and Class II: This pattern of injury referred to as a single arch bite
testicles are mostly involved [7,8]. Bite mark impression can be left on
or the partial bite mark as it has some individual and some class
skin, chewing gum, pencils, pens and may also be found on musical
characteristics.
instruments, cigarettes, cigar, food material like cheese, fruit, potato,
and chocolate etc. [9-11]. These are encountered in a number of crimes Class III: This classification includes both individual as well as class
especially in homicides, quarrels, abduction, child abuse cases, sexual characteristics. This bite has great evidentiary value and used mostly
assaults, during sports events and sometimes intentionally inflicted to for the comparison purposes. The main sites for this type of bite on the
falsely frame someone. While bite marks on the body are intentionally body are buttocks, shoulder, an upper arm or the chest. The pressure
caused, those found on food articles are usually unnoticeably left by the and deep penetration of tissue is held to record the lingual surface of
offenders at the scene of crime [12]. In order to identify the offender, anterior teeth.
the dental casts of suspected persons are prepared using dental material
Class IV: Mainly, avulsion or laceration of the tissues is caused by
and matched. Bite marks if analysed properly can prove the involvement
of a particular person or persons in a particular crime [13].
The present paper describes the classification, characteristics, *Corresponding author: Tanuj Kanchan, MD, Department of Forensic Medicine,
mechanism of production, and appearance of bite mark injuries, and Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore (affiliated to Manipal University), India, Tel:
91 9448252394; E mail: [email protected], [email protected]
collection of evidence, comparison techniques, and technical aids used
in the analysis of the bite marks. Received November 03, 2012; Accepted May 13, 2013; Published July 22, 2013

Citation: Kaur S, Krishan K, Chatterjee PM, Kanchan T (2013) Analysis and

Classification of Bite Marks Identification of Bite Marks in Forensic Casework. Oral Health Dent Manag 12:
500. doi: 10.4172/2247-2452.1000500
Bite marks can be broadly classified as non-human (animal
bite marks) and those inflicted by humans. Based on the manner of Copyright: © 2013 Kaur S, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
causation, the bite marks can be non-criminal (such as love bites) as use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
well as criminal which can further be classified into offensive (upon source are credited.

Oral Health Dent Manag

ISSN: 2247-2452 OHDM, an open access journal Volume 12 • Issue 3 • 1000500
Citation: Kaur S, Krishan K, Chatterjee PM, Kanchan T (2013) Analysis and Identification of Bite Marks in Forensic Casework. Oral Health Dent
Manag 12: 500. doi: 10.4172/2247-2452.1000500

Page 2 of 5

the bite. In this class, class characteristics and individual characteristics individual tooth and makes one tooth different from the other [23].
are not present. This type of bite is commonly found where there is The teeth of different individuals differ from one another with respect
avulsion of an ear or finger [18]. to their size, their position in the dental arches and in their shape
(Figure 1). Individual differences may be formed by various physical
Characteristics of Bite Marks and chemical injuries affecting the teeth over the years like attrition,
Class characteristics abrasion, erosion, the teeth may be affected by caries due to poor oral
hygiene, and there may be restorations of the carious teeth [24]. The
According to the Manual of American Board of Forensic Odontology teeth are subjected to various insults such as sports injuries, chemical
(ABFO) [18], a class characteristic is a feature, characteristic, or pattern injuries, biologic attacks, motor vehicle accidents, workplace accidents,
that distinguishes a bite mark from other patterned injuries. It helps and caries. After such damages have taken place, the teeth often need a
to identify the group from which the bite mark originates. While restoration. These restorations or the injury itself produces distinctive
evaluating the bite marks, the first step is to confirm the presence of and unique features within a tooth.
class characteristics. The ‘tooth class characteristics’ and the ‘bite mark
Individual characteristics of bite marks may be affected by the
characteristics’ are the two types of class characteristics [19].
type, number and peculiarities of the teeth, occlusion, muscle function,
In a bite mark, the front teeth which include the central incisors, individual tooth movement and TMJ (Temporomandibular joint)
lateral incisors and the cuspids are the primary biting teeth according dysfunction in the perpetrator [25].
to tooth class characteristics [20]. Each type of tooth in the human
dentition has class characteristics (tooth class characteristics) that
Mechanism of Bite Marks
differentiate one tooth type from the others. Thus, the two mandibular Three predominant mechanisms associated with production of bite
central incisors and the two mandibular lateral incisors are almost marks are; tooth pressure, tongue pressure and tooth scrape. Tooth
uniform in width, while the mandibular cuspids are cone shaped [21]. pressure marks are caused by direct pressure application by incisal
The bite mark characteristics help in determining if the marks edges of anterior teeth/occlusal edges of posterior teeth [26]. Severity
were from maxillary teeth or the mandibular teeth. According to the of bite mark depends upon duration, degree of force applied and
bite mark characteristics, the maxillary central incisors and lateral degree of movement between tooth and tissue. Clinical presentation
incisors make rectangular marks of which the centrals are wider than of tooth pressure indicates pale areas representing incise edges and
the laterals and the maxillary cuspids produce round or oval marks. bruising that represent incisal margins. Tongue pressure is caused
The mandibular central incisors and lateral incisors also produce when the material taken into mouth is pressed by tongue against teeth/
rectangular marks but these are almost equal in width, whereas the palatal rugae and distinctive marks are present due to tongue sucking/
mandibular cuspids produce round or oval marks [22]. thrusting. Tooth scrape is caused by teeth scraping against tooth
surface commonly involving the anterior teeth. Clinical presentation
Individual characteristics can be in the form of scratches and abrasions. Scratches and abrasions
Individual characteristics are deviations from the standard that indicate irregularity and peculiarity of incisal edges are useful in
class characteristics. They are the specific features found within the identification [21].
class characteristics which can be a feature, a trait or a pattern that
represents an individual variation rather than an expected finding [18].
Appearance and Factors affecting Bite Mark Injuries
Dental patterns, features, or traits may be seen in some individuals and An ideal human bite mark is doughnut shaped which consists of
not in others such as rotation, buccal or lingual version, and mesial two ‘U’ shaped arches representing the mandibular and the maxillary
or distal drifting of teeth etc. Dental characteristic is specific to an arches separated from one another at their base. The individual arches

Figure 1: Images of different bitemarks on human skin.

Oral Health Dent Manag

ISSN: 2247-2452 OHDM, an open access journal Volume 12 • Issue 3 • 1000500
Citation: Kaur S, Krishan K, Chatterjee PM, Kanchan T (2013) Analysis and Identification of Bite Marks in Forensic Casework. Oral Health Dent
Manag 12: 500. doi: 10.4172/2247-2452.1000500

Page 3 of 5

are produced by the anterior six teeth. In practical scenario, human Collection of evidence from the suspect
bite mark is mostly circular to oval in shape as compared to an animal
Inanimate materials, food stuffs and objects on which test
bite which is usually ‘U’ shaped. When teeth of only one of the two
bites are taken are photographed precisely. Extra oral examination
arches come in contact with the skin during biting, then instead of
includes the examination of hard and soft tissues factors, TMJ status
the two ‘U’ shaped marks, only one ‘C’ shaped mark is produced by and facial asymmetry muscle zone. Maximum inter incisal opening,
biting. Such types of bite mark patterns provide very less information deviations in opening/ closing the jaws, occlusal disharmonies, facial
to the investigator. The diameter of the bite mark injury varies and is scars, evidence of surgery and presence of surgery should also be well
usually between 25-40 mm in diameter. The size of an injury allegedly photographed. Intra orally, salivary evidence, examination of tongue
caused by human bite must fall within the known parameters of the for size and function, abnormality in form of ankyloglossia, periodontal
human dentition. Due to the pressure created by the biting teeth and examination and condition of teeth are noted [35].
the negative pressure created by the tongue and suction effects, there
Two impressions of each arch with ADA (American Dental
is an extra-vascular bleeding which causes bruising in the centre of the
Association) specified material is followed by obtaining dental casts
bite mark injury. These bruising show colour changes over a period of
with type II stone called MASTER CAST. Duplicate casts can be
time as the injury undergoes a healing process in the skin of a living obtained from master cast [18]. Teeth and soft tissues should not be
individual [24]. altered by carving, trimming or making other alterations. Sample bites
Factors such as strength and force of the bite, intervening clothing, are made into appropriate material simulating the type of bite under
and relative movements or struggle posed by the victim have a bearing examination.
on the depth of penetration and can alter the appearance of the bite Bite Mark Analysis and Identification
marks [27,28]. Rarely atypical human bite presentations are reported
that need careful analysis and explanations regarding its production The exact identification of a living person using individual traits and
[29,30]. characteristics of the teeth and jaws is the basis of forensic science [36].
The bite marks left on a person may be used to identify the perpetrator.
The dermal properties, anatomical site of the bite, age of the Bite mark identification is based on the individuality of a dentition,
victim and weight are responsible for the distortion produced by bite which is used to match a bite mark to a suspected person. One can
marks [31,32]. Body parts with loose skin bruises easily due to excess exactly match the bite marks to the accused biter’s dentition [37]. The
subcutaneous fat, lesser fibrous tissue and muscular tone [13-15]. More most important step in bite mark analysis is to recognize a patterned
bruising is observed in children, females and elderly persons. More injury as a human bite mark followed by pattern analysis of the bite
bruising in children is attributed to delicate, loosely attached skin and mark which provide the individual information about the suspect or
presence of subcutaneous fat. In an old person, more bruising is due to an offender and relate the person who is involved in the crime. Bite
lesser elasticity and subcutaneous fat whereas easy bruising in females marks with high evidence value that can be used in comparisons with
is due to delicate skin with more subcutaneous fat. the suspects’ teeth will include marks from specific teeth that record
different characters. The surface abrasion or sub-surface haemorrhage
Collection of Evidence in Bite Mark Analysis caused by human bites appears as an arch. They are caused by the
Collection of evidence from the victim incisors, canines and premolars. Contusions are the most common
type of bite mark. It can be determined from the type of bleeding under
DNA present in salivary trace evidence can be obtained by swabbing the skin whether the victim was alive or dead at the time the bite mark
the bite site. The double swab technique [22] involves moistening the was delivered [38,39].
site with a swab, moistened with sterile saline, and then removing of
the moisture with a second dry swab and both swabs can be sent for It is important to have individual characteristics in the bite mark
analysis [33]. Then, DNA fingerprinting can be done from salivary to identify the perpetrator. Use, misuse, and abuse of the teeth result
trace evidence of biter’s exfoliated epithelial cells. in features that are referred to as accidental or individual traits. If
individual traits are not present in the teeth in the bite marks, the
An important element of dental forensic examination is forensic significance of the bite mark is reduced [38]. Sometimes,
photography [31]. Magistrates and investigators often require it, palatal rugae impressions obtained along with the impressions of teeth
because pictures are able to show the maxillary and mandibular teeth,
can also help in the identification of the individual involved in crime.
their characteristics, pathologies and dental treatment. Photographs of
These are present in the form of a crest and are usually three to seven
the bite mark surface are taken and tissue samples are collected from
in number [40].
the victim. Close up photographs of bite marks are taken under high
resolution and colour balance is maintained while using colour films. One of the most remarkable, difficult and sometimes troublesome
A colour photographic film is used whenever required [34]. A scale challenges in forensic dentistry is the identification, recovery and
should be kept in the same plane and adjacent to the bite marks and analysis of the bite marks with the suspected biters. In a study by Page
chances of distortion should be negated during photography of the bite et al. [41] on retrospective analysis of bite mark casework of 119 cases,
marks. Currently, photographic evidence is the most common initial it has been observed that the practice of bite mark analysis does not
method for recording the presence and the details of skin bite marks. much strengthen odontology evidence as well as position of forensic
The lighting conditions and reconstruction of the particular position practitioner in the courts of law. They further suggested that the forensic
of the body where the bite mark was given at the time of infliction of practitioners should be quite careful while giving opinion regarding the
bite to reduce the postural effects and photograph components of the origin of the bite mark and the identification of the criminal on the basis
secondary distortion should be properly managed. It is suggested that of bite mark evidence. The conviction whether the accused is the biter
the orientation of the camera should be set up at 90˚ to the centre of the or not is based on the expert testimony of the forensic odontologist
wound to reduce distortion. after matching a bite mark with that of the dentition of the accused. In

Oral Health Dent Manag

ISSN: 2247-2452 OHDM, an open access journal Volume 12 • Issue 3 • 1000500
Citation: Kaur S, Krishan K, Chatterjee PM, Kanchan T (2013) Analysis and Identification of Bite Marks in Forensic Casework. Oral Health Dent
Manag 12: 500. doi: 10.4172/2247-2452.1000500

Page 4 of 5

a recent communication, Pretty and Sweet [42] described the current 12. Madea B, Brinkmann B (2004) Handbuch gerichtliche Medizin (Volume 1).
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We would like to thank the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi 23. Knight B (1996) Forensic Pathology. Arnold Publishers, London.
for awarding Junior Research Fellowship to the first author (SK) for carrying out
24. Clark DH (1992) Practical Forensic Odontology. Elsevier-Butterworth
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and TK wrote, reviewed, added their experiences and edited the whole manuscript.
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the authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. improved method to recover saliva from human skin: the double swab
technique. J Forensic Sci 42: 320-322.
Conflict of interest statement
30. Pretty IA (2006) The barriers to achieving an evidence base for bitemark
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Manag 12: 500. doi: 10.4172/2247-2452.1000500

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41. Page M, Taylor J, Blenkin M (2012) Reality bites--A ten-year retrospective 42. Pretty IA, Sweet D (2010) A paradigm shift in the analysis of bitemarks.
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