LECTURE NOTES

ON

MODERN PHYSICS
B. Tech II semester

Prepared By
Mr. A Chandra Prakash Reddy

FRESHMAN ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

1
 UNIT – I

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Crystallography and crystal structures: Space lattice, unit cell, lattice parameters, crystal
systems, Bravais lattices, directions and planes in crystals, Miller indices, interplanar spacing
of orthogonal crystal systems, atomic radius, coordination number and packing factor of SC,
BCC, FCC, NaCl and diamond structures.

UNIT – II
X-RAY DIFFRACTION AND DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
X-ray diffraction: Bragg‟s law, Laue method, powder method and applications; Defects in
crystals: Concepts of point defects, vacancies, substitutional, interstitial, frenkel, schottky
defects, line defects and Burger‟s vector.

UNIT – III
LASERS AND SENSORS
Lasers: Characteristics of lasers, spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation, metastable
state, population inversion, lasing action, ruby laser, semiconductor diode laser and applications
of lasers.
Sensors: Introduction, basic principles, sensor materials and applications: principle of pressure,
optical, acoustic and thermal sensing.

UNIT – IV
FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics: Principle and construction of an optical fiber, acceptance angle, numerical
aperture, types of optical fibers (Single mode, multimode, step index, graded index), attenuation
in optical fibers, application of optical fibers and optical fiber communication system with block
diagram.
UNIT – V
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
Interference: Phase difference, path difference, coherence, conditions for constructive and
destructive interference, interference in thin films due to reflected light, Newton rings
experiment. Diffraction: Introduction, differences between interference and diffraction, types of
diffraction, Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit, N-slits, diffraction grating experiment.

Textbooks:
1. Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar, Dr. S. Chandralingam, “Modern Engineering Physics”,
Chand & Co. New Delhi, 1 st Edition, 2010.
2. V. Rajendran, “Engineering Physics”, Tata Mc Graw Hill Book Publishers, 1st
Edition, 2010.

Reference books:
1. P. K. Palanisamy, “Engineering Physics”, Scitech Publishers, 4th Edition, 2014.
2. R. K. Gaur, S. L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, Dhanpat Rai Publications, 8th
Edition, 2001.
3. A. J. Dekker, “ Solid State Physics”, Macmillan India ltd, 1st Edition, 2000.
4. Hitendra K. Malik, A. K. Singh, “Engineering Physics”, Mc Graw Hill
Education, 1st Edition, 2009.

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 INDEX

Unit Contents Page

I Crystallography and Crystal structures 4

II X-ray Diffraction and Defects in Crystals 19

III Lasers and Sensors 27

IV Fiber Optics 41

V Interference and Diffraction 51

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 UNIT-I
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Matter exists in three different states namely solids, liquids and gaseous states. In liquid
and gaseous states the atoms, molecules or ions move from one place to another and there is no
fixed position of atoms in the substance. In solids the position of atom or molecules are fixed
and they are may or may not be present at regular intervals of distances in three dimensions.
If the atoms or molecules in a solid are periodically at regular intervals of distances in 3
dimensions then such a solids are known as crystalline solids.
If the atoms or molecules does not have such periodicity in the substances is known as
Amorphous solid.

Fig: (a) crystalline solid (b) Amorphous solid

If the periodicity of atoms or molecules are extended throughout the solid such a solid
known as single crystalline solid.

Fig: Single crystalline solid

If the periodicity of atoms or molecules are up to small regions called grains. And these
grains are large in number of different sizes in the solid. Such a materials are known as
polycrystalline solids.

4
 Fig: polycrystalline solid.

Crystalline Solids Amorphous solids

The crystalline solids posses‟ regular These solids posses complete random
arrangement of ions or atoms or arrangement of ions or atoms or
molecules. molecules.

These solids have some physical

The solids have different physical properties in all the directions.
properties (thermal, electrical
conductivity, refractive index) in
different directions.
These are isotropic in nature.
These are anisotropic in nature.
These solids posses plasticity except
These solids posses elasticity. rubber.

These posses less density.

These posses more density.

Eg: calcite, quartz, gold, silver, Al etc...

Eg: glass, plastic etc.

Space lattice (or) Crystal lattice

The atomic arrangement in a crystal is called crystal structure. In crystalline materials,
the atoms or molecules are arranged periodically in regular intervals of distances. To explain
crystal symmetries easily, it is convenient to imagine a points in space about which these atoms
are located such points in space are called lattice points and the totality of all such lattice points
form space lattice or crystal lattice.
(or)

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 The geometric arrangement of lattice points, which describes the three dimensions
arrangements of atoms or molecules or ions in a crystal, is called space lattice or crystal
lattice.
If the points are arranged in a single or single column, then the lattice is solid to be
linear lattice. If it is arranged in a two dimension then the lattice is called planar lattice.

Basis:
The crystal structure is formed by associating with every lattice point a set of assembly
of atoms or molecules or ions identical in composition, arrangement, orientation is called as
Basis.
(Or)
A group of atoms or molecules identical in composition is called Basis.

Lattice + basis → Crystal structures

Fig: Space lattice + basis = crystal structure

In crystalline solids like aluminium, sodium, copper the basis is single atom. In case of
NaCl, NaBr, KCl, KBr the basis is diatomic and in CaF2 the basis is triatomic.

Unit Cell
The smallest portion of space which can generate the complete crystal structure by
repeating its own dimensions in various directions is called a “Unit Cell”.
(Or)
In every crystal some fundamental grouping of particles is repeated. Such fundamental
grouping of particles is called a “Unit Cell”.

Primitive Unit Cell

It is defined as Unit cell which contains only one lattice point per unit cell.

Multiple Unit Cell (or) Non-Primitive Cell

The unit cell which contains more than one lattice point per unit then it is known as
Multiple Unit Cell (or) Non-Primitive Unit Cell.

6
 Fig: Unit cell

Lattice parameters of a Unit Cell

The basic lattice parameters are interfacial angles and primitives.

Primitives:
The intercepts on x,y,z-axis in a unit cell are called primitives . They are denoted by
a,b,c. The primitives will give the knowledge of the size of the unit cell. The interfacial
angles give the shape of the unit cell.
α β γ ------> interfacial angles
a, b, c -------> primitives
X,Y,Z -------> crystallographic axis

Fig: Unit cell and its lattice parameters

Crystal Systems
The crystal systems are divided into seven typed based on the lattice parameters i.e.
primitives and interfacial angles,
The different crystal systems are
1). Cubic system
2). Tetragonal system
3). Orthorhombic system

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 4). Monoclinic system
5). Triclinic system
6). Trigonal system
7). Hexagonal system

1) Cubic system:- In this crystal system all the three edges of the unit cell are equal and right
angles to each other
a=b=c; α= β= γ=900
Eg :- NaCl , CaF2 etc.

Fig: Cubic Crystal Systems

2) Tetragonal system: -- In this system all the two edges of the unit cell are equal while the
third is different. The three axes are mutually perpendicular.
a=b≠c; α= β= γ=900
Eg: - TiO2, NiSO4, Sno4 etc.

3).Orthorhombic system:--In this crystal system the three edges are different but three axis are
perpendicular each other
a ≠ b≠ c ; α = β = γ =900
Eg: BaSO4, KNO3

4).Monoclinic system:-- In this system the edges of the unit cell are different , two axis at
right angles and third axis is obliquely inclined.
a ≠ b ≠ c; α = β = γ = 900 ≠ γ
Eg: Na2B4O710H2O (Borax), CaSO42H2O (Gypsum )

8
5).Triclinic system: In this system the edges of unit cell are different and the 3 axis are
obliquely inclined to each other
a ≠ b ≠ c; α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900
Eg : K2Cr2O7 ,CuSO45H 2O

6).Trigonal system: In this crystal system all the 3 edges of the unit cell are equal and are
equally inclined to each other at an angle other than 900.
a = b = c; α = β = γ ≠ 900
Eg: Bismuth, calcite.

7). Hexagonal system: In this system the two axes of the unit cell are equal in length lies in
one plate at 1200 with each other and the third axis is perpendicular to this plane .
a=b≠c; α=β= 900; γ=1200
Eg: SiO2, Mg, Zn

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Bravais Lattices
According to crystal system Bravais showed that there are 14 ways of arranging points
in space lattice such that all the lattice points have exactly the same environment. these 14
different lattice types collectively called as Bravais lattices. The different space lattice formed
by Primitive (P), Body centered (I), Face centered (F), Base centered(C).
S.No Crystal system Bravais No. of Axial Interfacial examples
lattice lattice length angles
system

1 Cubic P,I,F 3 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 NaCl,

2 Tetragonal P,I 2 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 TiO2

3 Orthorhombic P,I,F,C 4 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 KNo3

4 Monoclinic P,C 2 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 CaSo42H2o

5 Triclinic P 1 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 K2Cr2O7

6 Trigonal P 1 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 calcite

7 Hexagonal P 1 a=b=c α= β= γ=900 SiO2

𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐂𝐮𝐛𝐢𝐜 (𝐒𝐂) 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

The unit cell contains 8 atoms located at 8 corners is called simple cubic structure. In
this structure the all atoms touch each other at their edges. Effective number of atoms in unit
cell is 1. i.e. 8 corners have 8 atoms; each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell. So the share of
the each atom towards unit cell is 1/8.
Therefore n = 8x1/8
N=1.
If we consider an atom at one corner as centre it is surrounded by 6 equidistant
neighboring atoms. Hence the coordination number of simple cubic is 6.

Nearest neighbor distance:

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 In this structure atoms touch each other at their edges. Hence a‟=2r,
Where „a‟ is Lattice constant.

Packing fraction:
It is defined as the ratio of volume of all atoms in the unit cell to the volume of unit
cell.
Volume of the all atoms in the unit cell
Therefore packing fraction = -----------------------------------------------
Volume of the unit cell.

4
πr 3
= nx3 3
𝑎
4
πr 3
3
= 1x 3
8𝑟
𝜋
=
6
= 0.52
= 52%
Eg: polonium.

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure

The structure which 8 atoms are located at 8 corners and one atom is located at centre of
body i.e. unit cell such a structure is called body centered cubic structure (BCC). In this
structure the corner atoms may not touch each other. But they are in contract with the atom
which is located at the centre of the unit cell.
Effective number of atoms in BCC is 2 . i.e. 8 atoms are located at 8 corners; one atom
is located at centre of the body. So, share of each corner atom towards 8 unit cell is 1/8.

1
Therefore n = (8x8)+1
= 2.

Coordination Number: - If we consider one atom at the centre it is surrounded by 8

equidistant neighboring atoms. Hence the coordination number is 8.

Nearest neibhor Distance (a):

From the ∆ ABC,
(AC) 2 = (AB) 2 + (BC) 2
(AC) 2 = a2+ a2
(AC) 2 =2 a2
From the ∆ ACD,
(AD) 2 = (AC) 2 + (CD) 2
(4r) 2 = 2 a2+ a2
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 16r2 = 3 a2
4r = √3 a
r = √3 a/4
a= 4r/√3.
4
πr 3
3
Packing fraction = nx 3
𝑎
4
3
πr 3
= x
2 64 𝑟 3
3
3
3𝜋
= √
8
= 0.68
= 68%.
Eg: Na, Fe etc.

Face Centered Cubic (FCC) structure

The structure in which 8 atoms are located at 8 corners, 6 atoms are located at the centre
of the solids. Such a structure is called FCC. In this structure the corner atoms may not touch
each other but they are in contract with the atoms located on its faces.
Effective Number in F.C.C is 4. i.e. 8 atoms are located at 8 corners, 6 atoms on sides shared
by two sides. So they,
1
n = (8×8) + (6× ½) = 4.

Coordination number is 12. If we consider one atom at a face there are 12 atoms of same
distance. Therefore, Coordination Number in FCC is 12.
Nearest Distance (a):
From the ∆ ABC,
(AC) 2 = (AB) 2 + (BC) 2
16r2 = a2+ a2
16r2 = 2 a2
8r2 = a2
2√2r = a
r = a/2√2.
4
πr 3
3
∴ Packing fraction = nx
𝑎3
4
πr 3
3
= 4x
16 2𝑟 3
𝜋
=
3 2
= 0.74
12
 = 74%.
Eg: Cu, Al, Ag etc.

Miller Indices
It is possible for defining a system of parallel and equidistant planes which can be
imagined to pass through the atoms in a space lattice, such that they include all the atoms in the
crystal. Such a system of planes is called crystal planes. Many different systems of planes could
be identified for a given space lattice.
The position of a crystal plane can be specified in terms of three integers
called Miller indices.If these are enclosed in “( )” as (h, k, l) then it represent a plane. If they are
enclosed in “[ ]” as [h, k, l] then it represent the direction of crystal.Steps to determine Miller
Indices for a given plane as shown in the figure. Take a lattice point as origin „o‟ of
crystallographic axis x, y, z in a space lattice. Let A, B, C be the crystal plane intercepts there
axis of 4a, 4b, 3c.

s
Step (1): Determine the coordinate of intercepts made by the plan along the crystallographic
axis
x y z
4a 4b 3c
In general
x y z
pa qb rc (where p=4, q=4, r=3).
Step (2):-- Divide the intercepts with lattice point translational distances along the axis.
4a/a 4b/b 3c/c
4 4 3
In general
Pa/a qb/b rc/c
P q r
Step (3):-- Determine the reciprocals of these numbers
i.e. 1/4 1/4 1/3
In general 1/p 1/q 1/r.
Step (4):-- Reduce the reciprocals to smallest integers and enclosed them in “( ) “[by
multiplying with L.C.M]
1/4× 12 1/4× 12 1/3× 12
3 3 4
(3 3 4)
Miller Indices may be defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts may by the plane on
crystallographic axis when reduced to smallest numbers
Important features of Miller indices are,

1. When a plane is parallel to any axis, the intercept of the plane on that axis is infinity.
Hence its Miller index for that axis is zero.

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 2. When the intercept of a plane on any axis is negative, a bar is put on the corresponding
Miller index.
3. All equally spaced parallel planes have the same index number (h k l)
Ex: The planes ( 1 1 2) and (2 2 4) are parallel to each other

Distance of Separation between Successive planes

Let us consider a rectangular coordinate system with origin „o‟ at one of the lattice point.
Let (h k l ) be the miller indices of a plane A,B,C which makes intercepts at OA, OB, OC
along x, y, z axis respectively. Let OM be the normal passing through the origin and meet the
plane A, B, C at N. such that ON = d, the normal makes an angles α, β, γ along x, y, z axis
respectively.

Fig: Inter planar Spacing

The intercepts OA, OB, OC are such that OA = a/h, OB = b/k, OC = c/l →(1)
We have,
Cos α = ON/OA = d1/(a/h)
Cos β = ON/OB = d1/ (b/k) ` → (2)
Cos γ = ON/OC = d1/(c/l)
We know that,
Cos2 α + Cos2 β + Cos 2γ = 1 → (3)
Submit eq (2) in eq (3),
1
d12 a2 b2 c2
=1
+ 2 + 2 .
h2 k l

𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
d12 + + = 1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

1
d1 2 = 𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
[ 2 + 2 + 2 ]
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
1
d1 =
𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
+ 2 + 2
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑐

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Let ( h/2 k/2 l/2 ) be the miller indices of next plane A‟ B‟ C‟ making intercepts OA‟ OB‟
OC‟ along x, y, z axis respectively. The normal meets the 2nd plane A‟, B‟, C‟ at N‟ such that
ON‟ = d2. The extension of d1 to d2the normal makes the same along α, β, γ with x, y, z axis
respectively.
The intercepts of OA‟, OB‟, OC‟ are such that
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
OA‟ = 𝑕 OB‟ = 𝑘 , OC‟ = 𝑙
2 2 2

Cos α = ON‟/OA‟ = hd2/2

Cos β = ON‟/OB„= kd2/2b → (4)
Cos γ = ON‟/OC‟ = ld2/2c

We know that,
Cos2 α + Cos2 β + Cos 2γ = 1 → (5)

𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
d22 + +
4𝑎 2 4𝑏 2 4𝑐 2

2
d2 =
𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
+ +
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
Let the separation between the planes ABC & ABC be„d „.
d = d2− d1
= 2d1 − d1
= d1
1
d =
𝑕2 𝑘2 𝑙2
+ +
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
For cubic system a = b = c.
𝑎
d =
𝑕 2 +𝑘 2 +𝑙 2
For Tetragonal system a = b ≠ c.
1
d =
𝑕 2 +𝑘 2 𝑙2
+
𝑎2 𝑐2

Structure of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Sodium chloride crystal is an ionic one. In the NaCl lattice, positively charged sodium
ion and negatively charged chlorine ion are situated side by side. It consists of two FCC sub
lattices. One of the chlorine ion has its origin at (0, 0, 0) point while sodium ion has its origin
midway along the cube edge at (a/2, 0, 0) point as shown in figure. Due to the electro static
force between sodium and chlorine ions, the two ions are attracted towards each other. When
the two ions come closer their outer electron shells comes closer giving rise to strong forces of
repulsion when attraction and repulsion balance, equilibrium is obtained.

15
 Fig : Structure of Sodium Chloride

Each unit cell contains eight corner ions, six face centered ions, twelve ions at halfway
of the edges and one at the center of the body.
Number of Cl- ions per unit cell is (8X1/8) + (6X1/2) = 1+3 = 4 ions
Number of Na+- ions per unit cell is (12X1/4) + 1 = 3+1 = 4 ions
Each unit cell has four NaCl molecules. Each Na + ion has six Cl- and each Cl- has six
Na+ ions. The coordination number of NaCl for opposite kind is six and same kind is twelve.
The nearest neighbor‟s distance is a/2 for opposite kind and a√2 for the same kind. KCl, KBr,
MgO, AgBr etc., have the similar structure as NaCl.

Diamond Structure
Diamond possesses a structure which is a combination of two interpenetrating FCC sub
lattices along the body diagonal at a length of quarter of cube edge. One sub lattice, say x, has
its origin at the point (0, 0, 0) and other sub lattice has its origin quarter of the way along the
body diagonal i.e., at the point (a/4, a/4, a/4). The fractions such as ¼, ½, ¾ denote the height
above the base since the coordination number is 4, the structure is loosely packed. In the unit
cell, in addition to the eight corner atoms, there are six face centered atoms and four atoms are
located inside the unit cell. Each corner atom is shared by eight adjacent unit cells and each face
centered atom is shared by two unit cells.

Effective number of atoms per unit cell

In the unit cell in additional to the 8 corner atoms there are 6 face centered atoms and
four more atoms located inside the unit cell. Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells
and each face centered atom is shared by 2 cells hence the total number of atoms unit cell is
1 1
(8 ×8) + (6 ×2) + 4 = 8

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 Fig: Diamond Structure

Coordination number: In this lattice each atoms has 4 nearest neighbors with it forms
covalent bonds. Thus the coordination number of diamond crystal is 4.

Atomic Radius:
From the diagram
𝑎2 𝑎2
(XY) 2 = +
16 16
2𝑎 2 𝑎2
(XY) 2 = =
16 8
2= 2 +
(XZ) (XY) (YZ) 2
𝑎2 𝑎2
(XZ) 2 = + 16
8
2 3𝑎 2
4r = 16
2 3𝑎 2
r = 64
3𝑎
r =
8
8𝑟
a=
3

Nearest neighbor distance:

3𝑎
r = 8
3𝑎
2r = 4

Atomic packing fraction:

4
𝑛×3 𝜋𝑟 3
Packing fraction =
a3
4
8× 3 𝜋𝑟 3
= 8× 8× 8× 𝑟 3
3 3

17
 3𝜋
= = 0.34 = 34%
16

UNIT-II
X-RAY DIFFRACTION & DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
Introduction to X – ray Diffraction
X-Rays are electromagnetic waves like ordinary light, therefore, they should exhibit
interference and diffraction .Diffraction occurs when waves pass across an object whose
dimensions are of the order of their own wavelengths. The wavelength of X-rays is of the order
of 0.1nm or 10 -8 cm so that ordinary devices such as ruled diffraction gratings do not produce
observable effects with X-rays. Laue suggested that a crystal which consisted of a 3-
dimensional array of regularly spaced atoms could serve the purpose of a grating. The crystal
differs from ordinary grating in the sense that the diffracting centers in the crystal are not in one
plane. Hence the crystal acts as a space grating rather than a plane grating. There are 3 main X-
ray diffraction methods by which the crystal structure can be analyzed.
Laue Method – for single crystal
Powder Method- for finely divided crystalline or polycrystalline powder
Rotating crystal Method - for single crystal
Bragg′s Law
The monochromatic x-ray beam of wavelength λ is incident at an angle θ to Bragg‟s
planes. Let the inter planer spacing of crystal planes is„d‟. The dots in the planes represent
positions of atoms in the crystal. Every atom in the crystal is a source of scattering for the X-ray
incident on it.

Fig: X-Ray Scattering by Crystal

Apart of the incident x-ray beam AB incident an atom at B in plane 1 is scattered along
the direction BC. Similarly apart of incident x-ray DE fall on atom at E in plane 2 and is
scattered in the direction EF and it is parallel to BC. Let the beam AB and DE make an angle θ
with the Bragg‟s planes. This angle θ is called the angle of diffraction or glancing angle. If the
path difference between the rays ABC & DEF is equal to nλ, than the rays reflected from
constructive plane or phase. So constructive interference takes place among the reflected ray BC
and EF, then the path difference between the rays is,
PE+QE= nλ

18
From the Δle PBE,
𝑷𝑬 𝑷𝑬
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑩𝑬 = 𝒅
PE = d 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
le
From the Δ QBE,
𝑬𝑸 𝑬𝑸
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑬𝑩 = 𝒅
EQ = d 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
For constructive interference,
PE + EQ = nλ
d 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + d𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = nλ
2d 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = nλ
The above equation is called Bragg‟s Law.

Laue method
S1 & S2 are two lead screens in which two pin holes act as slits. X-ray beam from an X
–ray tube is allowed to pass through these two slits S1 & S2 . The beam transmitted through S2
will be a narrow pencil of X – rays . The beam proceeds further to fall on a single crystal such
that Zinc blended (ZnS) which is mounted suitably on a support . The single crystal acts as a 3 –
dimensional diffraction grating to the incident beam. Thus, the beam undergoes diffraction in
the crystal and then falls on the photographic film. The diffracted waves undergo constructive
interference in certain directions, and fall on the photographic film with reinforced intensity. In
all other directions, the interference will be destructive and the photographic film remains
unaffected.
The resultant interference pattern due to diffraction through the crystal as a whole will
be recorded on the photographic film (which requires many hours of exposure to the incident
beam). When the film is developed, it reveals a pattern of fine spots, known as Laue spots.

The distribution spots follow a particular way of arrangement that is the characteristic of
the specimen used in the form of crystal to diffract the beam. The Laue spot photograph
obtained by diffracting the beam at several orientations of the crystal to the incident beam are
used for determining the symmetry and orientations of the internal arrangement of atoms,
molecules in the crystal lattice . it is also used to study the imperfections in the crystal .

Powder Method (or) Debye Scherrer method

19
 X-ray powder method is usually carried out for polycrystalline materials. The given
polycrystalline material is grounded to fine powder and this powder is taken in capillary tube.
This tube is made up of non diffracting material, and fixed at the centre of cylindrical Debye
Scherrer cylindrical camera as shown in figure.
The principle under this technique is that millions of tiny crystals in powder have
completely random orientation all the possible diffraction phases are available for Bragg
reflection to takes place. All the orientations are equally reflected ray will form a cone. whole
axis likes along the direction of incident beam and whose semi vertical angle is twice the
glancing angle for that particular planes.

Fig: Powder method - apparatus

The different cones intercept the film in a series of concentric circular from the radial of
these arcs. The angle can be calculated and hence the spacing between the atoms can be
evaluated as shown in figure. The photographic film is in cylindrical shape, whose axis is
perpendicular to the beam.
Let s be the distance of particular arc from the centre. Let R be the radius of camera.
Then
𝑺
4θ =
𝑹
𝑺
θ = 𝟒𝑹
If S1, S2, S3, are the distances between symmetrical lines on the stretched film, then
𝑺𝟏
θ1 = 𝟒𝑹
𝑺𝟐
θ2 = ……………………….
𝟒𝑹
Using these values of θn in Bragg‟s equation
nλ =2d Sinθn.
Where,
n=1, 2, 3, … is the Order of diffraction
d= Interplanar spacing
θn = Angle of diffraction for nth order.
The inter-planar spacing d can be calculated.
Introduction to Defects in crystals
The structural imperfections of crystal can be classified on the basis of their geometric
structures as point defect, line defect, surface defect and volume defect.

20
Point defects
As the name indicates, these defects are at same point in the crystal .so these are called
as point defects point defects are also called as zero dimensional defects. The common types of
point defect in a solid material are grouped into 3 categories.
1. Lattice site defect
a) Vacancies (Schottky defect )
b) Interstitial vacancies (Frenkel defect )
2. Compositional defect
a) Substitutional impurity defect
b) Interstitial impurity defect
3. Electronic defect

1. Lattice site defects

In this type of defect, some atoms may not present in their regular atomic sites (or)
positions. They are,

a) Vacancies
As shown in the diagram at a point one or two or three atoms are missed. This is referred
as single or double or treble vacancies. The vacancies are formed due to imperfect
pattern during crystallization or due to thermal vibration at high temperature.

Fig: Vacancy

Schottky defect
In an ionic crystal if a action vacancy exist, then in the very nearby place. On anion
vacancy will also exist that is moved to surface of the crystal. So that change neutrality is
maintained in vacancy region as shown in diagram. This is known as Schottky defect.
Eg: Crystals such as NaCl, KCl, KBr etc,

21
 Fig: Schottky Defect

b) Interstitial vacancies
If an atom is moved to an interstitial space in the crystal then the defect is known as interstitial
defect.

Frenkel defect
In an ionic crystal, if a cation (positive ion) moves to an interstitial space so that a
vacancy is formed in its atomic position Here change neutrality is maintained in the defect
region as shown in the diagram.
This type of defect is known as Frenkel defect.
Eg; crystal such as CaF2, AgCl, AgI, AgBr etc.

2. Compositional defect
The presence of impurity atoms in the crystal leads to compositional defects. Impurity
atoms are present at the sites of regular parent atoms are in the sites of regular parent atoms
are in the interstitial spaces. These defects are described as follows.

a) Substitutional Impurity defect:

As shown in diagram during crystallization free foreign atoms occupies the regular
parental positions or atomic sites.
Eg: In extrinsic semiconductors either trivalent or pentavalent atoms he sites of silicon or
germanium atoms.

22
 Fig: Substitutional impurity

b) Interstitial impurity defect

The spaces between the parents the parental atoms in the crystal are known as interstitial
spaces small sized (lower atomic number) atoms, such as hydrogen etc. may fit in these
interstitial spaces. These atoms are known as interstitial atoms and the defect formed due to
presence of interstitial atoms is known as interstitial impurity defect.

Fig: Interstitial impurity defect

3. Electronic defect
At absolute zero in a purely covalent crystal (silicon) the electrons are tightly bound to the
core and all are set to be in the value band. Absolute zero sum of the electrons likely to
occupy. So in the crystal of pure silicon some temperature .so in the crystal of pure of silicon
some of the electrons from the covalent bonds get thermally released and become free to
move. In this way the deficiency of an electron creates a hole. Then the electrons & holes
give rise to electronic imperfection.

Line defects
If a crystal plane ends somewhere in the crystal, that along the edge of the incomplete.
Plane produces defect in the crystal called line defect the line defect is of two types,
a) Edge dislocation
b) Screw dislocation

a) Edge dislocation
23
 In a perfect crystal , the atoms arranged in both vertical and horizontal plane parallel to
the side faces as shown in figure if one of these vertical planes does not extend to full length
but ends in between within the crystal. Then it is called edge dislocation therefore in this
defect, a line of atoms is not in proper removed.

Figure: Edge dislocation

The following points are observed.

i) In the perfect crystal, the atoms are in equilibrium position.
ii) In the imperfect crystal, just above the discontinuity the atoms are prell hard and are
in a stat of completion.
iii) Just below the discontinuity, the atoms are pulled apart and are in a state of tension.
iv) This distorted configuration extends all along the edge inside the crystal,
perpendicular to the cross section.
v) Edge dislocations are represented by perpendicular or T depending on whether the
incomplete plane stale from the top or from the bottom of the crystal. These two
configurations are referred as positive or negative edge dislocation respectively.

Burger’s Vector
To understand the concept of burgers vector let us consider two crystal one perfect and
the other edge dislocation as shown figure

Figure: Burger‟s Vector

24
 The burgers vectors of a dislocation are determined by tracing a burgers circuit. Let us
consider the burgers circuit in case of perfect crystal. The burgers circuit is realized by drawing
a rectangular from point p. starting from point p, we go up by 6 steps to a point Q then move
towards right by 6 steps to a point R, further move down by 6 steps to a point S.
Finally move towards left by 6 steps to reach the starting point p. This gives a closed circuit
PQRS known as Burger circuit.

b) Screw dislocation
Figure shows when a part of the crystal is displaced relative to the rest of the crystal. It
is important to mention here that the displacement terminates with the crystal. Screw dislocation
is defined as displacement of the atoms in one part of a crystal relative to the rest of the crystal.
The screw dislocation forms a ramp around the dislocation line. The Buggers vector is also in
the figure. Buggers vector in parallel dislocation line. Normally the real dislocations in the
crystal are mixture of edge quell screw dislocation.

Figure: Screw dislocation

UNIT-III
LASERS & SENSORS

Introduction
LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. It is different
from conventional light (such as tube light or electric bulb), there is no coordination among
different atoms emitting radiation. Laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation)
through a process is called stimulated emission.

Spontaneous and stimulated emission

In lasers, the interaction between matter and light is of three different types. They
are: absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulates emission .Let E1 and E2 be ground and
excited states of an atom. The dot represents an atom. Transition between these states

25
 involves absorption and emission of a photon of energy E 2-E1=hν12. Where „h‟ is Planck‟s
constant.
(a) Absorption: As shown in fig (a), if a photon of energy hν12(E2-E1) collides with an atom
present in the ground state of energy E 1 then the atom completely absorbs the incident
photon and makes transition to excited state E 2.
(b) Spontaneous emission: As shown in fig (b), an atom initially present in the excited state
makes transition voluntarily on its own. Without any aid of external stimulus or an
agency to the ground. State and emits a photon of energy h ν 12(=E2-E1).this is called
spontaneous emission. These are incoherent.
(c) Stimulated emission: As shown in fig (c), a photon having energy hν12(E2-E1)impinges
on an atom present in the excited state and the atom is stimulated to make transition to
the ground state and gives off a photon of energy hν 12. The emitted photon is in phase
with the incident photon. These are coherent. This type of emission is known as
stimulated emission.

Fig. (a) Absorption ;(b) Spontaneous emission;(c) Stimulated emission

Differences between Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of

radiation

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. Polychromatic radiation 1. Monochromatic radiation
2. Less intensity 2. High intensity
3. Less directionality, more angular 3. High directionality, so less angular
spread during propagation spread during propagation.
4. Spatially and temporally in 4. Specially and temporally coherent
26
 coherent radiation radiation.
5. Spontaneous emission takes place 5. Stimulated emission takes place
when excited atoms make a when a photon of energy equal to
transition to lower energy level h ν12 (=E2-E1) stimulates an excited
voluntarily without any external atom to make transition to lower
stimulation. energy level.

Characteristics of Laser Light

(i). Coherence: Coherence is one of the unique properties of laser light. It arises from the
stimulated emission process. Since a common stimulus triggers the emission events which
provide the amplified light, the emitted photons are in step and have a definite phase relation to
each other. This coherence is described in terms of temporal and spatial coherence.
(ii). Monochromaticity: A laser beam is more or less in single wave length. I.e. the line width
of laser beams is extremely narrow. The wavelengths spread of conventional light sources is
usually 1 in 106, where as in case of laser light it will be 1 in 10 5.I.e. if the frequency of
radiation is 1015 Hz., then the width of line will be 1 Hz. So, laser radiation is said to be
highly monochromatic. The degree of non-monochromaticity has been expressed as
ξ = (dλ/λ) =dν/ν, where dλ or dν is the variation in wavelength or variation in
frequency of radiation.
(iii) Directionality: Laser beam is highly directional because laser emits light only in one
direction. It can travel very long distances without divergence. The directionality of a laser
beam has been expressed in terms of divergence. Suppose r1 and r2 are the radii of laser beam at
distances D1 and D2 from a laser, and then we have.
Then the divergence, ∆θ= (r1 - r2)/ D2-D1
The divergence for a laser beam is 0.01 mille radian where as incase of search light it is 0.5
radian.
(iv) High intensity: In a laser beam lot of energy is concentrated in a small region. This
concentration of energy exists both spatially and spectrally, hence there is enormous intensity
for laser beam. The power range of laser is about 10 -13w for gas laser and is about 109 w for
pulsed solid state laser and the diameter of the laser beam is about 1 mm. then the number of
photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is given by
N l =P/ hνπr2≈1022to1034photons/m-2-sec
By assuming h ν =10 Joule, Power P=10-3to109watt
-19
r=0.5×10-3meter
Based on Planck‟s black body radiation, the number of photons emitted per second per unit area
by a body with temperature T is given by
Nth= (2hπC/ λ4) (1/e(h ν/k T)-1) dλ≈1016photons/m2.sec
By assuming T=1000k, λ=6000A0
This comparison shows that laser is a highly intensive beam.

Einstein’s Coefficients
LetN1 be the number of atoms per unit volume with energy E1 and N2 the number of atoms per
unit volume with energy E2. Let „n‟ be the number of photons per unit volume at frequency ν
such that h ν=E2-E1. Then the energy density of interacting photons ρ (v) is given by
ρ(ν) = n h ν →(1)

27
When these photons interact with atoms, both upward (absorption) and downward (emission)
transitions occur. At equilibrium these transition rates must be equal.
Upward Transition
Stimulated absorption rate depends on the number of atoms available in the lower energy state
for absorption of these photons as well as the energy density of interacting radiation.
I.e. stimulated absorption rate α N1
α ρ (ν)
= B12N1 ρ (ν) → (2)
Where the constant of proportionality B12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption

Downward transition
Once the atoms are excited by stimulated absorption, they stay in the excited state for a short
duration of time called the lifetime of the excited state. After their life time they move to their
lower energy level spontaneous by emitting photons. This spontaneous emission rate depends
on the number of atoms in the excited energy state.
i.e., spontaneous emission rate α N2

=N2 A21 → (3)

Where the constant of proportionality A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission
Before excited atoms de excites to their lower energy states by spontaneous emission they may
interact with photons resulting in stimulated emission of photons. Therefore stimulated emission
rate depends on the number of atoms available in the excited state as well as energy density of
interacting photons
I.e. stimulated emission rate α N2
α ρ(ν)
=N2ρ (ν) B21 → (4)
Where the constant of proportionality B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
During stimulated emission, the interacting photon called the stimulating photon and the photon
due to stimulated emission are in phase with each other. Please note that during stimulated
absorption, the photon density decreases where as during stimulated emission it increases.
For a system in equilibrium, the upward and down word transition rates must be equal and
hence we have
N1 ρ (ν) B12= N2ρ(ν)B21 +N 2A21 → (5)
𝑁2 𝐴21
Hence ρ(ν) =𝑁 → (6)
1 𝐵12 −𝑁1 𝐵21

𝐴21 𝐵21
ρ (ν) = 𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1

The population of various energy levels in thermal equilibrium is given by Boltzmann

distribution law.

28
 Fig.Boltzmann distribution for several energy levels

Ni=gi No exp (-E i/KT)

Where Ni is the population density of the energy level E i, N0 is the population density of the
ground state at temperature T1, g i is the degeneracy of the ith level and k is the Boltzmann
constant (=1.38x10-23joule/k). The concept of degeneracy occurs since more than one level has
the same energy.
Hence N1=𝑔1 N o exp (-E 1/k T)
𝑁1 𝑔1 E −E
=𝑔 exp [ 2𝑘𝑇 1 ]
𝑁 2 2
𝑔1 𝑕𝜈
=𝑔 exp[𝑘𝑇 ] → (7)
2
𝐴
[ 21 𝐵 ]
Substituting e q (6) in e q (4) ρ (ν) = 𝐵 12 𝑔 1 21
𝑕𝜈 → (8)
[ exp [ ]
𝐵 21 𝑔 2 𝑘𝑇

From Planck‟s law of blackbody radiation, the radiation density is given by

8𝜋𝑕 ν 3 1
ρ(ν) = 𝑕𝜈 → (9)
𝐶3 exp −1
𝑘𝑇
Comparing equations (8) and (9), we get
𝐵12 𝑔1
=1
𝐵 𝑔 21 2

g1B12=g2B21
→ (10)
𝐴21 8𝜋𝑕 ν 3
And = → (11)
𝐵21 𝐶3
Equation‟s (10) and (11) are referred to as the Einstein relations.
The ratio of spontaneous emission rate to the stimulated emission rate is given by
𝑁2 𝐴21 𝐴21
R= 𝑁 ρ(ν)B = ρ(ν)B
2 21 21
From equation (9)
hν
𝐴21
R= = [𝑒𝑥𝑝[ k T ] -1] → (12)
ρ(ν)B 21
In practice, the absorption and emission phase occur simultaneously. Let us calculate the rates
of spontaneous emission and stimulating emission for a tungsten filament lamp operating at a
temperature of 2000k. Taking the average frequency to be 5x10 14Hz, this ratio is
6.6×10 −34 × 5×10 14
1.38×10 −23 ×2000
R= 𝑒 −1 → (13)
29
This confirms that under conditions of thermal equilibrium, even for sources operating at higher
temperatures and lower frequencies, spontaneous emission predominates.
From equation (12), we understand that to make R smaller ρ(ν) the energy density of interacting
radiation has to be made larger. Let us consider the relation of stimulated emission rate to
stimulated absorption rate
Thus at thermal equilibrium stimulated absorption predominates over stimulated emission.
Instead if we create a situation that N2>N1. Stimulated emission will predominate over
stimulated absorption. If stimulated emission predominates the photon density increases and
light amplifies the photon density increases and light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation (LASER) occurs. Therefore, in order to achieve more stimulated emission, population
of the excited state (N2) should be made larger than the population of the lower state (N1) and
this condition is called population inversion. Hence if we wish to amplify a beam of light by
stimulated emission, then we must create population inversion and increase the energy density
of interacting radiation.

Population inversion
Usually in a system the number of atoms (N1) present in the ground state (E 1) is larger than the
number of atoms (N2) present in the higher energy state. The process of making N2>N1 called
population inversion. Conditions for population inversion are:
a) The system should posses at least a pair of energy levels (E2>E1), separated by an energy
of equal to the energy of a photon (hν).
b) There should be a continuous supply of energy to the system such that the atoms must be
raised continuously to the excited state.
Population inversion can be achieved by a number of ways. Some of them are (i) optical
pumping (ii) electrical discharge (iii) inelastic collision of atoms (iv) chemical reaction and
(v) direct conversion

Helium-Neon gas laser

Helium-Neon gas laser is a continuous four level gas laser. It consists of a long, narrow
cylindrical tube made up of fused quartz. The diameter of the tube will vary from 2 to 8 mm and
length will vary from 10 to 100 cm. The tube is filled with helium and neon gases in the ratio of
10:1. The partial pressure of helium gas is 1mm of Hg and neon gas is 0.1mm of Hg so that the
pressure of the mixture of gases inside the tube is nearly 1 mm of Hg.
Laser action is due to the neon atoms. Helium is used for selective pumping of neon
atoms to upper energy levels. Two electrodes are fixed near the ends of the tube to pass electric
discharge through the gas. Two optically plane mirrors are fixed at the two ends of the tube at
Brewster angle normal to its axis. One of the mirrors is fully silvered so that nearly 100%
reflection takes place and the other is partially silvered so that 1%of the light incident on it will
be transmitted. Optical resources column is formed between these mirrors.

.
30
 Fig. Helium-Neon gas laser
Working
When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture, electrons are accelerated down
the tube. These accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
higher energy levels. The different energy levels of Helium atoms and Neon atoms is shown
in fig. the helium atoms are excited to the levels F2 and F3 these levels happen to be meta
stable energy states.
Energy levels and hence Helium atoms exited levels spend sufficiently large amount of
time before getting de excited. As shown in the fig (a), some of the excited states of neon
can correspond approximately to the same energy of excited levels F2 and F3. Thus, when
Helium atoms in level F2 and F3 collide with Neon atoms in the ground level E1, an energy
exchange takes place. This results in the excitation of Neon atoms to the levels E 4 and E6
and de excitation of Helium atoms to the ground level (F1). Because of long life times of the
atoms in levels F2 and F3, this process of energy transfer has a high probability. Thus the
discharge through the gas mixture continuously populates the neon atoms in the excited
energy levels E4 and E6. This helps to create a state of population inversion between the
levels E4 (E6) to the lower energy level (E3 and E5). The various transitions E6→E5, E4→E3,
E6→E3 leads to the emission of wave lengths 3.39mm, 1.15 um and 6328 A0. Specific
frequency selection may be obtained by employing mirrors
The excited Neon atoms drop down from the level E3 to the E2 by spontaneously
emitting a photon around wavelength 6000A0. The pressures of the two gases in the mixture
are so chosen that there is an effective transfer of energy from the Helium to the Neon
atoms. Since the level E2 is a meta stable state, there is a finite probability of the excitation
of Neon, atoms from E2 to E3 leading to population inversion, when a narrow tube is used,
the neon atoms in the level E2 collide with the walls of the tube and get excited to the level
E1. The transition from E5 to E3 may be non radioactive. The typical power outputs of He-
Ne laser lie between 1 and 50 mw of continuous wave for inputs of 5-10W.

Fig. Energy level diagram of He-Ne atoms.

Ruby Laser

Ruby Laser is a solid state pulsed, three level lasers. It consists of a cylindrical shaped
ruby crystal rod of length varying from 2 to 20cms and diameter varying 0.1 to 2cms. This end
faces of the rod are highly flat and parallel. One of the faces is highly silvered and the other face

31
is partially silvered so that it transmits 10 to 25% of incident light and reflects the rest so as to
make the rod-resonant cavity. Basically, ruby crystal is aluminum oxide [Al 2O3] doped with
0.05 to 0.5% of chromium atom. These chromium atoms serve as activators. Due to presence of
0.05% of chromium, the ruby crystal appears in pink color. The ruby crystal is placed along the
axis of a helical xenon or krypton flash lamp of high intensity.

Fig. Ruby laser

Fig. Energy level diagram of chromium ions in a ruby crystal

Construction:
Ruby (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is a crystal of Aluminum oxide in which some of Al+3 ions are
replaced by Cr +3 ions. When the doping concentration of Cr+3 is about 0.05%, the color of
the rod becomes pink. The active medium in ruby rod is Cr +3 ions. In ruby laser a rod of 4cm
long and 5mm diameter is used and the ends of the rod are highly polished. Both ends are
silvered such that one end is fully reflecting and the other end is partially reflecting.
The ruby rod is surrounded by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical
pumping to raise the Chromium ions to upper energy level (rather energy band). The xenon
flash lamp tube which emits intense pulses lasts only few milliseconds and the tube
consumes several thousands of joules of energy. Only a part of this energy is used in
pumping Chromium ions while the rest goes as heat to the apparatus which should be cooled

32
with cooling arrangements as shown in fig. The energy level diagram of ruby laser is shown
in fig.

Working:
Ruby crystal is made up of aluminum oxide as host lattice with small percentage of
Chromium ions replacing aluminum ions in the crystal chromium acts as do pant. A do pant
actually produces lasing action while the host material sustains this action. The pumping
source for ruby material is xenon flash lamp which will be operated by some external power
supply. Chromium ions will respond to this flash light having wavelength of 5600A0. When
the Cr +3ions are excited to energy level E 3 from E1 the population in E3 increases.
Chromium ions stay here for a very short time of the order of 10-8 seconds then they drop to
the level E2 which is mat stable state of life time 10-3s. Here the level E3 is rather a band,
which helps the pumping to be more effective. The transitions from E3 to E2 are non-
radioactive in nature. During this process heat is given to crystal lattice. Hence cooling the
rod is an essential feature in this method. The life time in mete stable state is 10 5times
greater than the lifetime in E3. As the life of the state E2 is much longer, the number of ions
in this state goes on increasing while ions. In this state goes on increasing while in the
ground state (E1) goes on decreasing. By this process population inversion is achieved
between the exited Meta stable state E2 and the ground state E1. When an excited ion passes
spontaneously from the metastable state E2 to the ground state E1, it emits a photon of wave
length 6943A0. This photon travels through the rod and if it is moving parallel to the axis of
the crystal, is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it stimulates an excited ion
in E2 and causes it to emit fresh photon in phase with the earlier photon. This stimulated
transition triggers the laser transition. This process is repeated again and again because the
photons repeatedly move along the crystal being reflected from its ends. The photons thus
get multiplied. When the photon beam becomes sufficiently intense, such that part of it
emerges through the partially silvered end of the crystal.

Drawbacks of ruby laser:

1. The laser requires high pumping power to achieve population inversion.
2. It is a pulsed laser.

. Fig. the output pulses with time.

Semi conductor laser

The semiconductor laser is also called diode laser. Among the different semiconductors
there are direct band gap semiconductors and indirect band gap semiconductors. In the case
of direct band gap semiconductors, there is a large possibility for direct recombination of
holes and electrons which emit photons. But in indirect band gap semi conductors like

33
silicon and germanium, direct recombination of holes and electrons is less possible and
hence there is no effective emission of photons. A well know example of a direct band gap
semiconductor is GaAs. Let E g be the energy gap of a material, then it emits a photon of
wavelength (λ) is given the relation
Ch
λ=𝐸 → (1)
𝑔
Where C is the velocity of light and h is the Planck‟s constant
The equation (1) is reduced to
1.24
λ= 𝐸 µm → (2)
𝑔

Where Eg is expressed in eV
As Eg increases, it emits shorter wavelengths. Diode lasers are always operated in forward
bias. If p and n type materials are prepared from the same material then the p-n junction, is
called as Homo junction semiconductor laser source. If p and n type materials are prepared
from different materials then they are called as Hetero junction semi conductor laser source.

Construction of GaAs Semiconductor diode laser

The basic mechanism responsible for light emission from a semi conductor is the
recombination of electrons and holes at p-n junction when a current is passed through the
diode. The active medium is a p-n junction diode made from crystalline Gallium Arsenide
(fig). The p-region and n-region in the diode are obtained by heavily doping with suitable do
pants. At the junction the sides through which emitted light is coming out are well polished
and parallel to each other. Since the refractive index of GaAs is high, the reflectance at the
material air interface is sufficiently large so that the external mirrors are not necessary to
produce multiple reflections. When a current is passed through a p-n junction p region being
positively biased, holes are injected from p-region into n-region and n-region being
negatively biased electrons are injected from n-region into p-region and is shown in fig.

Fig. GaAs semiconductor diode laser

The connections in this p-n junction circuit are called forward bias. The electrons and holes
recombine and release of light energy takes place in or near the junction. In the case of
GaAs homo junction which has an energy gap of 1.44ev gives a laser beam of wavelength
around 8600A0 the electron-hole recombination takes place in the active region of the
device. When the junction is forward biased, a large amount of the order of 104 amp/cm2 is
passed through the narrow junction. Thus the electrons (holes) are injected from n side to p
side (p side to n side) respectively.

34
 Fig (a)
Band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction in equilibrium.
(b) Band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction with forward bias

The electrons are minority charge carriers in p-side and holes are the minority charge
carriers in n-side. The continuous injection of charge carriers creates the population
inversion of minority carriers is n and p side respectively. The excess minority charge
carries diffuse away from the region recombining with majority carriers of the n and p type
material, resulting in the release of photons. Further, the emitted photons increase the
recombination of injected electrons from the n-region and holes in p-region by inducing
more recombinations thus the stimulated emission takes place more effectively. The
efficiency of a laser emission increases when the device is cooled.

The drawbacks of homojunction lasers

1. Only output is obtained
2. The threshold current density is very large(400amps/mm2)
3. Electromagnetic confinement is poor.
4. Output has more beam divergence, poor coherence.
To overcome these deficiencies, scientists have developed heterojunction laser sources like
GaAs/GaAlAs structures. The advantages of heterojunction laser structures are:
1. Low threshold current density(5-10amp/mm2)
2. The output is continuous
3. Carrier confinement is more effective there by less beam divergence.
4. High output power.
5. Narrow beam, high coherence, high mono chromaticity is achieved.
6. Long lifetime of the device
7. Very stable. Hence hetero junction laser diode used extensively in optical fiber
communication

Applications of Lasers
Lasers find applications in various fields. They are described below.

a) In Communications :
Lasers are used in optical fiber communications. In optical fiber communications, lasers are used
as light source to transmit audio, video signals and data to long distances without attention and
distortion.

b) The narrow angular spread of laser beam can be used for communication between earth and
moon or to satellites.

35
c) As laser radiation is not absorbed by water, so laser beam can be used in under water
(inside sea) communication networks.

2. Industrial Applications
a) Lasers are used in metal cutting, welding, surface treatment and hole drilling. Using lasers
cutting can be obtained to any desired shape and the curved surface is very smooth.
b) Welding has been carried by using laser beam.
c) Dissimilar metals can be welded and micro welding is done with great case.
d) Lasers beam is used in selective heat treatment for tempering the desired parts in
automobile industry
e) Lasers are widely used in electronic industry in trimming the components of ICs

3. Medical Applications
1. Lasers are used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery is an
example of precision surgery Birthmarks, warts and discoloring of the skin can easily be
removed with an unfocussed laser. The operations are quick and heal quickly and, best of all,
they are less painful than ordinary surgery performed with a scalpel.
2. Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sun spots, wrinkles, birthmarks and
hairs) see lasers hair removal.
3.Laser types used in dermatology include ruby(694nm),alexandrite(755nm),pulsed diode
array(810nm), Nd:YAG(1064nm), HO:YAG(2090nm), and Er:YAG(2940nm)
4. Eye surgery and refracting surgery.
5. Soft tissue surgery: Co 2 Er :YAG laser.
6. Laser scalpel (general surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic).
7. Dental procedures.
8. Photo bio modulation (i.e. laser therapy)
9. “No-touch” removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.
10. In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic, procedures, tooth whitening, and
oral surgery.

4. Military Applications
The various military applications are:
a) Death rays: By focusing high energetic laser beam for few seconds to aircraft, missile, etc
can be destroyed. So, these rays are called death rays or war weapons.
b) Laser gun: The vital part of energy body can be evaporated at short range by focusing
highly convergent beam from a laser gun.
c) LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging): In place of RADAR, we can use LIDAR to
estimate the size and shape of distant objects or war weapons. The differences between
RADAR and LIDAR are that, in case of RADAR, Radio waves are used where as incase of
LIDAR light is used.

5. In Computers: By using lasers a large amount of information or data can be stored in CD-
ROM or their storage capacity can be increased. Lasers are also used in computer printers.
6. In Thermonuclear fusion: To initiate nuclear fusion reaction, very high temperature and
pressure is required. This can be created by concentrating large amount of laser energy in a
small volume. In the fusion of deuterium and tritium, irradiation with a high energy laser beam
pulse of 1 nano second duration develops a temperature of 10 17 0c, this temperature is sufficient
to initiate nuclear fusion reaction.
36
7. In Scientific Research: In scientific, lasers are used in many ways including
a) A wide variety of interferometrie techniques.
b) Raman spectroscopy.
c) Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy.
d) Atmospheric remote sensing.
e) Investigating non linear optics phenomena
f) Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement
techniques.
g) Laser (LADAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and
atmospheric physics.
h) Lasers have been used abroad spacecraft such as in the cassini-huygens mission.
i) In astronomy lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference
objects for adaptive optics telescope.

UNIT-IV
FIBER OPTICS
Introduction
1. An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length.
2. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers.
3. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission
over long distances and at higher band widths (data rates) than other forms of communications.
4. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and
fiber lasers. Fiber optics, though used extensively in the modern world, is a fairly simple and
old technology.
Principle of Optical Fiber
Optical fiber is a cylinder of transparent dielectric medium and designed to guide visible
and infrared light over long distances. Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal
reflection.
Optical fiber is very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape consisting of three
sections
1) The core material
2) The cladding material
3) The outer jacket

The structure of an optical is shown in figure. The fiber has a core surrounded by a cladding
material whose reflective index is slightly less than that of the core material to satisfy the
condition for total internal reflection. To protect the fiber material and also to give mechanical
support there is a protective cover called outer jacket. In order to avoid damages there will be
some cushion between cladding protective cover.

37
 Fig..Structure of an optical fiber

When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer
medium the refracted ray bends away from the normal. When the angle of incidence is
increased angle of refraction also increases and a stage is reached when the refracted ray just
grazes the surface of separation of core and cladding. At this position the angle of refraction is
90 degrees. This angle of incidence in the denser medium is called the critical angle (θc) of the
denser medium with respect to the rarer medium and is shown in the fig. If the angle of
incidence is further increased then the totally reflected. This is called total internal reflection.
Let the reflective indices of core and cladding materials be n1 and n2 respectively.

Fig. Total internal reflection.

When a light ray, travelling from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer
medium is incident at angle greater than the critical angle for the two media. The ray is totally
reflected back into the medium by obeying the loss of reflection. This phenomenon is known as
totally internal reflection.
According to law of refraction,
n1 sinθ1= n 2 sinθ2
Here θ1= θc, θ2=90
n 1 sin θc =n2 sin 90
𝑛
Sinθc = 𝑛 2
1

38
 𝑛
θc = sinˉ¹( 𝑛 2 ) →(1)
1

Equation (1) is the expression for condition for total internal reflection. In case of total
internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy at the reflecting surface.
Since the entire incident light energy is returned along the reflected light it is called total
internal reflection. As there is no loss of light energy during reflection, hence optical fibers are
designed to guide light wave over very long distances.

Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone

Acceptance angle: It is the angle at which we have to launch the beam at its end to enable the
entire light to propagate through the core. Fig.8.12 shows longitudinal cross section of the
launch of a fiber with a ray entering it. The light is entered from a medium of refractive index n0
(for air n0=1) into the core of refractive index n1. The ray (OA) enters with an angle of
incidence to the fiber end face i.e. the incident ray makes angle with the fiber axis which is
nothing but the normal to the end face of the core. Let a right ray OA enters the fiber at an angle
to the axis of the fiber. The end at which light enter the fiber is called the launching pad.

Fig. Path of atypical light ray launched into fiber.

Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the refractive index of cladding be n2. Here n1>n2.
The light ray reflects at an angle and strikes the core cladding interface at angle θ. If the angle
θ is greater than its critical angle θc, the light ray undergoes total internal reflection at the
interface.
According to Snell‟s law
n0sinαi=n1sinαr → (2)
From the right angled triangle ABC
α r+θ=900

αr=900 –θ → (3)
Substituting (3) in (2), we get
n0sinαi =n1sin (900 –θ) = n1cos θ
𝑛
sinαi=(𝑛 1 ) cos θ →(4)
0
When θ= θc, αi= αm=maximum α value
𝑛
sinαm=(𝑛 1 ) cos θc →(5)
0
𝑛2
From equation (1) Sinθc = 𝑛 Type equation here.
1

39
 𝑛 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
cos θc= 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 θc = 1 − (𝑛 2 )2 = →(6)
1 𝑛1

Substitute equation (6) in equation (5)

𝑛 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
sinαm=(𝑛 1 ) = →(7)
0 𝑛1 𝑛0

If the medium surrounding fiber is air, then n0=1

sinαm= 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 →(8)

This maximum angle is called the acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half angle of the
fiber.
The acceptance angle may be defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have with
the axis of the fiber and propagate through the fiber. Rotating the acceptance angle about the
fiber axis (fig.) describes the acceptance cone of the fiber. Light launched at the fiber end within
this acceptance cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total
internal reflection. Larger acceptance angles make launching easier. Light gathering capacity of
the fiber is expressed in terms of maximum acceptance angle and is termed as “Numerical
Aperture”.

Fig. Acceptance cone

Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture of a fiber is measure of its light gathering power. The numerical
aperture (NA) is defined as the sign of the maximum acceptance angle.
Numerical aperture (NA) = sinαm= 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 →(9)

= (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
= ((𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) 𝑛1 ∆) → (10)

(𝑛 1 −𝑛 2 )
Where ∆= called as fractional differences in refractive indices 𝑛 and 𝑛2 are the
𝑛1
refractive indices of core and cladding material respectively.
As n1≈ n2, we can take n1+ n2= 2n1
Then numerical aperture= (2n12∆) 1/2= n1 (2∆) 1/2→ (11)
Numerical aperture is a measure of amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. From
equation (9) it is seen that numerical aperture depends only on the refractive indices of core and

40
cladding materials and it is independent on the fiber dimensions. Its value ranges from 0.1 to
0.5. A large NA means that the fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.
Proof:
We shall show that the light emitted by a small defuse source situated on the fiber axis near to
one end face, only a fractionNA2 can be collected by the fiber and propagated along the fiber.
Consider a small defuse light source such as the isotropic radiator in which the power radiated
per unit solid angle in a direction θ to the normal to the surface

is given by
Fig. Diffuse light source
I(θ) =I0Cos θ→ (12)
The total power φ0 emitted such source is obtained by integrating I (θ) over all forward
directions

П/2
φ0 = 0 𝐼0 Cosθd θ → (13)
Where dΩ=small element of solid angle=2πSinθ dθ → (14)
П/2
φ0 = 0 𝐼0 Cosθ2πSinθ d θ
П/2
= 0 𝜋𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛2θdθ =πI0 → (15)
But the power from such source that can be collected by an adjacent fiber whose core diameter
is greater than the diameter of the source is given by φ, where
𝛼𝑚
Φ= 0 𝐼0 Cosθ2ПSinθ dθ
=П𝐼0sin2αm
(Φ /φ0)= (sinαm) 2= (NA) 2=2n12∆ → (16)
(𝑛 1 −𝑛 2 )
Where ∆= 𝑛
1
Equation (16) represents the light gathering power of the fiber. In order to collect as much light
as possible it is necessary to make n1 and ∆ large.
In some cases it is customary to use ∆n which can be defined as ∆n = n1- n2
(𝑛 −𝑛 ) ∆n
But ∆= 1𝑛 2 = 𝑛
1 1
(Φ /φ0)= (sinαm)2=(NA)2=2n1∆n→(17)
NA= (2n1∆n) → (18)

Step index fibers and graded index fiber -transmission of signals in them:
Based on the variation of refractive index of core, optical fibers are divided into: (1) step index
and (2) graded index fibers. Again based on the mode of propagation, all these fibers are
divided into: (1) single mode and (2) multimode fibers. In all optical fibers, the refractive index
of cladding material is uniform. Now, we will see the construction, refractive index of core and
cladding with radial distance of fiber, ray propagation and applications of above optical fibers.
i. Step index fiber: The refractive index is uniform throughout the core of this fiber.
As we go radially in this fiber, the refractive index undergoes a step change at the core-
cladding interface. Based on the mode of propagation of light rays, step index fibers are

41
of 2 types: a) single mode step index fiber & b) multimode step index fibers. Mode
means, the number of paths available for light propagation of fiber. We describes the
different types of fiber below
a) Single mode step index fiber: The core diameter of this fiber is about 8 to
10µm and outer diameter of cladding is 60 to 70 µm. There is only one path for
ray propagation. So, it is called single mode fiber. The cross sectional view,
refractive index profile and ray propagation are shown in fig. (i). In this fiber, the
transmission of light is by successive total internal reflections i.e. it is a reflective
type fiber. Nearly 80% of the fibers manufactured today in the world are single
mode fibers. So, they are extensively used.

Fig (i).Single mode step index fiber ;( a) Cross sectional view and refractive index
profile ;( b) Ray propagation
Multimode step index fiber: The construction of multimode step index fiber is
similar to single mode step index fiber except that its core and cladding diameters
are much larger to have many paths for light propagation. The core diameter of this
fiber varies from 50 to 200 µm and the outer diameter of cladding varies from 100
to 250 µm. The cross-sectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagations
are shown in fig 2. Light propagation in this fiber is by multiple total internal
reflections i.e it is a reflective type fiber.
b) Transmission of signal in step index fiber: Generally the signal is
transmitted through the fiber in digital form i.e. in the form of 1‟s and 0‟s. The
propagation of pulses through the multimode fiber is shown in fig (i)(b). The
pulse which travels along path 1(straight) will reach first at the other end of fiber.
Next the pulse that travels along with path 2(zig-zag) reaches the other end.
Hence, the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened. This is known as
intermodal dispersion. This imposes limitation on the separation between pulses
and reduces the transmission rate and capacity. To overcome this problem, graded
index fibers are used.
42
2) Graded index fiber: In this fiber, the refractive index decreases continuously from
center radially to the surface of the core. The refractive index is maximum at the center and
minimum at the surface of core. This fiber can be single mode or multimode fiber. The cross
sectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagation of multimode graded index fiber are
shown in fig .(ii)(a). The diameter of core varies from 50 to 200µm and outer diameter of
cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm.
The refractive index profile is circularly symmetric. As refractive index changes continuously
radially in core, light rays suffer continuous refraction in core. The propagation of light ray is
not due to total internal reflection but by refraction as shown in fig. (ii)(b). in graded index
fiber, light rays travel at different speed in different paths of the fiber. Near the surface of the
core, the refractive index is lower, so rays near the outer surface travel faster than the rays travel
at the center. Because of this, all the rays arrive at the receiving end of the fiber approximately
at the same time. This fiber is costly. .
Transmission of signal graded index fiber: In multimode graded index fiber, large
number of paths is available for light ray propagation. To discuss about inter modal dispersion,
we consider ray path 1 along the axis of fiber.

Fig. (ii).Multimode step index fibre(a)Cross sectional view and refractive index profle(b)Ray
propagation
As shown in fig. (ii)(b) and another ray path 2. Along with the axis of fiber, the refractive index
of core is maximum, so the speed of ray along path 1 is less. Path 2 is sinusoidal and it is longer,
along this path refractive index varies. The ray mostly travels in low refractive region, so the ray
43
2 moves slightly faster. Hence, the pulses of signals that travel along path 1 and path 2 reach
other end of fiber simultaneously. Thus, the problem of intermodal dispersion can be reduced to
a large extent using graded index fibers

Differences between step index fiber and graded index fibers:

Step index fiber Graded index fiber

1.The refractive index of core 1.The refractive index of core is non uniform,
Is uniform and step or abrupt the refractive index of core decreases Para-
Change in refractive index Felicity from the axis of the fiber to its
Takes place at the interface of core surface.
and cladding in step index fibers

2. The light rays propagate in zigzag manner 2. Light rays propagate in the form of skew
inside the core. The rays travel in the fiber as rays or helical rays. They will not cross the
meridional rays they cross the fiber axis for fiber axis
every reflection.

Difference between single mode fibers and multi mode fibers:

Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
1. In single mode fiber there is only one 1. In multimode fiber, large number of
path for ray propagation paths is available for light ray
propagation.
2. A single mode step index fiber has less 2. Multi mode fibers, large number of
core diameter (< 10 µm) and the paths are available for light ray
difference between the reflective propagation.
indices of core and cladding is very
small.

3. In single mode fibers, there is no 3. There is signal distortion and

dispersion. dispersion takes place in multimode
fibers.

4. The band width is about 50 MHz for 4. The band width of the fiber lies in
multimode step index fiber where as it between 200 MHz km to 600 MHz km
is more than 1000 MHz km in case of even though theoretically it has an
single mode step index fiber. infinite bandwidth.
5. NA of multimode step index fiber is 5. NA of graded index fibers is less.
more where as in single mode step
index fibers, it is very less.
6. Launching of light into single mode 6. Launching of light into multimode
fibers is difficult. fibers is easy.
7. Fabrication cost is very high. 7. Fabrication cost is less
Advantage of optical fibers in communication:
Let us see the advantages of optical fiber communication over conventional communication
system.

44
 1. Enormous bandwidths:

The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly proportional to the

carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optimal carrier frequency is in the range
of10 ¹⁴ Hz while the radio frequency is about 10⁶ Hz and microwave frequency is about
10¹⁰ Hz. Thus the optical fibers have enormous transmission bandwidths and high data rate.
2. Low transmission loss:

Due to the usage of ultra low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica fibers as optical
amplifiers, one can achieve almost loss less transmission. Hence for long distance
communication fibers of 0.002db/km are used. Thus the repeater spacing is more than
100km.
3. Immunity to cross talk:

Since optical fibers are dielectric wave guides, they are free from any electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). Since optical interference among
different fibers is not possible, cross talk is negligible even many fibers are cabled together.
4. Electrical isolation:
Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator. Therefore they do not
pick up any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightening. It is also suitable in
explosive environment.
5. The size and weight:
The size of the fiber ranges from 10µm to 50µm which is very very small. The space
occupied by the fiber cable is negligibly small compared to conventional electrical
cables. Optical fibers are light in weight. These advantages make them to use in air
craft‟s and satellites more effectively.
6. Signal security:
The transmitted signal through the fiber does not radiate. Unlike in copper cables, a
transmitted signal cannot be drawn from a fiber without tampering it. Thus, the optical
fiber communication provides 100% signals security.
7. Ruggedness and flexibility:
The fiber cable can be easily bend or twisted without damaging it. Further the fiber
cables are superior than the copper cables in terms of handling, installation, storage,
transportation, maintenance, strength and durability.
8. Low cost and availability:
Since the fibers are made of silica which is available in abundance. Hence, there is no
shortage of material and optical fibers offer the potential for low cost communication.
9. Reliability:
The optical fibers are made from silicon glass which does not undergo any chemical
reaction or corrosion. Its quality is not affected by external radiation. Further due to its
negligible attenuation and dispersion, optical fiber communication has high reliability.
All the above factors also tend high to reduce the expenditure on its maintenance.

Fiber optic communication system :

45
Fiber opptics essentially deals of with the communication(including voice signals,video
signals or digital data) by transmission of light through optical fibers. Optical fiber
communication system essentially consists of three parts:(a)transmitter (b) optical fiber and (c)
receiver.The transmitter includes modulator, encoder, light source, drive circuits and couplers.
The receiver includes amplifier and decoder,binary electrical signal and light decoder.

Fig. Block diagram represents optical fibre communication system

UNIT-V
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

Interference-Introduction
Wave Theory of light attempts to understand the various optical phenomena exhibited
by light waves. Interference constituted the first proof of the wave nature of light. Thomas
Young first experimentally demonstrated interference in light waves. The superposition
principle forms the conceptual basis for the explanation of interference. To produce
interference, the light waves should be coherent, i.e., the light waves should have constant phase
difference and same frequencies.

Interference
When two or more light waves superimpose in the medium then according to
superposition principle, the resultant displacement at any point is equal to the algebraic sum of
the displacements due to individual waves. The variation of resultant displacement influences
amplitude variation, which causes intensity variations. This modification in the distribution of
intensity in the region of superposition is known as interference. When the resultant amplitude
is the sum of the amplitudes due to two light waves, the interference is constructive
interference. If the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of two amplitudes, the
interference becomes destructive interference. The intensity variations are studied as
interference fringes or patterns.

46
Conditions for Interference
1. The two light sources emitting light waves should be coherent.
2. The two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelengths and frequency.
3. The separation between the two sources should be small.
4. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
5. To view interference fringes, the background should be dark.
6. The amplitudes of the light waves should be equal or nearly equal.
7. The sources should be narrow, i.e., they must be small.
8. The sources should be monochromatic.

Interference in Thin Film by Reflection

When light is incident on a plane parallel thin film, some portion gets reflected from the
upper surface and the remaining portion is transmitted into the film. Again, some portion of the
transmitted light is reflected back into the film by the lower surface and emerges through the
upper surface. These reflected light beams superimpose with each other, producing interference
and forming interference patterns.

Fig Interference in thin film

Consider a transparent plane parallel thin film of thickness„t „with refractive index 𝜇. Let
a monochromatic light ray AB be incident at an angle of incidence of „i‟ on the upper surface of
the film. BE and BC are the reflected and transmitted light rays. Let the angle of refraction is
„r‟. The ray BC will be reflected into the film and emerge through the film in the form of light
ray DF. These two light rays superimpose and depending upon the path difference between
them, they produce interference patterns.
To know the path difference, draw the normal DG to BE. From the points D and G onwards, the
light rays travel equal distances. By the time the light ray travels from B to G, the transmitted
light ray has to travel from B to C and C to D.
The path difference between light rays (1) and (2) is,

Path difference= 𝜇(BC+CD) in film – BG in air →(1)

𝐻𝐶
Consider the ∆BCH, cos r = 𝐵𝐶
𝐻𝐶 𝑡
BC = cos 𝑟 =cos 𝑟
𝑡
Similarly, from ∆DCH, CD= cos 𝑟

47
 𝑡
BC = CD = cos 𝑟 →(2)
To calculate BG, first BD which is equal to (BH+HD) has to be obtained.
𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻
From ∆BHC tan r = 𝐶𝐻 = 𝑡
BH = t tan r
Similarly, HD = t tan r
BD = BH+ HD = 2t tan r (∵BH = HD) →(3)
𝐵𝐺
From ∆ BGD, sin i = 𝐵𝐷
BG=BD sin i = 2t tan r sini
From Snell‟s law, sin i = 𝜇 sin r
BG= 2 𝜇t tan r sin r →(4)
Substituting the above values in Eq.(1)
2𝜇𝑡
Path difference= cos 𝑟 - 2 𝜇t tanr sinr
2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑟
= cos 𝑟 - cos 𝑟
2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡
= cos 𝑟 (1-𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟)= cos 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 r
2

= 2𝜇t cos r →(5)

At the point B, reflection occurs from the upper surface of the thin film (denser medium). Light
𝜆
ray (1) undergoes an additional phase change of 𝜋 or an additional path difference of 2
𝜆
Total path difference = 2𝜇t cos r + 2
When the path difference is equal to integral multiple of 𝜆 then the rays (1) and (2) meet in
phase and undergo constructive interference.
The condition for bright fringe is
𝜆
2𝜇t cos r + 2 = n 𝜆
𝜆
2𝜇t cos r = (2n-1) 2 where n= 0,1,2,3… →(6)
When the path difference is equal to half integral multiple of 𝜆 then the rays (1) and (2) meet in
out of phase and undergo destructive interference.
The condition for dark fringe is
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇t cos r + 2 = (2n-1) 2
2𝜇t cos r = n 𝜆 where n=0, 1, 2, 3… →(7)
Depending on the above conditions, the interference pattern consists of bright and dark fringes.

Newton’s Rings
Newton‟s rings are one of the best examples for the interference in a nonuniform thin
film. When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air
film of increasing thickness is formed between the two. The thickness of the film at the point of
contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in the
reflected light, alternate dark and bright rings concentric around the point of contact between the
lens and glass plate are seen. These circular rings were discovered by Newton and are called
Newton‟s rings.
Experimental Arrangement

48
 Fig Newton’s rings (Experimental set up)

The experimental arrangement is as shown in fig. The Plano-convex lens (L) of large
radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface on a plane glass plate P). The lens makes
the contact with the plate at „O‟. The monochromatic light falls on a glass plate G held at an
angle of 45° with the vertical. The glass plate G reflects normally a part of the incident light
towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass plate P. A part of the light is reflected
by the curved surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is reflected back from the
plane surface of the plate. These reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern
in the form of circular rings. These rings are seen near the upper surface of the air film through
the microscope.

Explanation of Newton’s Rings

Fi.g Formation of Newton’s rings

Newton‟s rings are formed due to interference between the light rays reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of air film between the plate and the lens. The formation of Newton‟s
rings can be explained with the help of Fig. A part of the incident monochromatic light AB is
reflected at B (glass-air boundary) in the form of the ray (1) with any additional phase (or path)
change. The other part of light is refracted along BC. Then at C (air-glass boundary), it is again
𝜆
reflected in the form of the ray (2) with additional phase change of 𝜋 or path change of 2 .
𝜆
As the rings are observed in the reflected light, the path difference between them is 2𝜇t cos r +2 .
𝜆
For air film 𝜇 =1 and for normal incidence r=0, path difference is 2t + .
2

49
 𝜆
At the point of contact t=0, path difference is 2 , i.e., the reflected light at the point of contact
suffers phase change of 𝜋. Then the incident and reflected lights are out of phase and interfere
destructively. Hence the central spot is dark.
𝜆
The condition for bright ring is 2t + 2 = n 𝜆
𝜆
2t= (2n-1) 2 where n=1, 2, 3…
The condition for dark ring is
𝜆 𝜆
2t + 2 = (2n+1) 2
2t = n 𝜆 where n= 0,1,2,3…

For monochromatic light, the bright and dark rings depend on thickness of the air film. For a
Newton‟s rings system, the focus of points having same thickness lie on a circle having its
centre at the point of contact. Thus, we get bright and dark circular rings with the point of
contact as the centre.

Theory of Newton’s Rings

Fig. Theory of Newton’s rings

To find the diameters of dark and bright rings, let „L‟ be a lens placed on a glass plate P.
The convex surface of the lens is the part of spherical surface (Fig.) with center at „C‟. Let R be
the radius of curvature and r be the radius of Newton‟s ring corresponding to the film thickness
„t‟.
From the property of a circle, NA x NB = NO x ND
Substituting the values, r x r = t x (2R-t)
𝑟 2 = 2Rt-𝑡 2
2
As„t‟ is small, 𝑡 will be negligible
𝑟 2 = 2Rt
𝑟2
t= 2𝑅
For bright ring, the condition is
𝜆
2t= (2n-1) 2
𝑟2 𝜆
22𝑅 = (2n-1) 2
(2n−1)𝜆𝑅
𝑟2 = 2
𝐷
Replacing r by 2 , the diameter of nth bright ring will be

50
𝐷2 (2n−1)𝜆𝑅
=
4 2
D = 2𝑛 − 1 2𝜆𝑅
D α 2𝑛 − 1
D 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Thus, the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural
numbers.

Fig: Newton’s ring pattern

For dark ring, the condition is

2t = n 𝜆
𝑟2
22𝑅 = n 𝜆
𝑟 2 = n 𝜆R
D2 = 4 n 𝜆R
D=2 𝑛 𝜆𝑅
D∝ 𝑛

D∝ 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Thus, the diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural numbers.
With the increase in the order (n), the rings get closer and the fringe width decreases and are
shown in Fig 7.5.

Determination of Wavelength of a Light Source

Let R be the radius of curvature of a Plano-convex lens, λ be the wavelength of light
used. Let 𝐷𝑚 and 𝐷𝑛 are the diameters of mth and nth dark rings respectively. Then
2
𝐷𝑚 =4m𝜆R

And 𝐷𝑛2 =4(n) 𝜆R

𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2
=4(m-n) 𝜆R

𝐷 2 −𝐷 2
𝑛 𝑚
𝜆=4(m −n)R

51
 Fig Plot of D2 with respect to number of rings

Newton‟s rings are formed with suitable experimental setup. With the help of travelling
microscope, the readings for different orders of dark rings were noted from one edge of the
rings to the other edge. The diameters of different orders of the rings can be known. A plot
between 𝐷2 and the number of rings gives a straight line as shown in the fig.
From the graph,
𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐶𝐷
(m −n)

The radius R of the Plano-convex lens can be obtained with the help of a Spherometer..
Substituting these values in the formula, 𝜆 can be calculated.

Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid

The experiment is performed when there is an air film between glass plate and the
Plano-convex lens. The diameters of mth and nth dark rings are determined with the help of
travelling microscope. We have
𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2
= 4(m-n) 𝜆R →(8)

The system is placed into the container which consists of the liquid whose refractive index (𝜇) is
to be determined. Now, the air film is replaced by the liquid film. Again, the diameters of the
same mth and nth dark rings are to be obtained. Then we have
′2 4(m−n) 𝜆R
𝐷𝑛′2 −𝐷𝑚 = →(9)
𝜇
𝐷 2 −𝐷 2
μ = 𝐷 ′𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚′ 2
𝑛 𝑚
→(10)
Using the above formula, „μ‟ can be calculated.

Introduction to Diffraction
The wave nature of light is further confirmed by the optical phenomenon of diffraction.
The word „diffraction‟ is derived from the Latin word diffractus which means to break to pieces.
It is common experience that waves bend around obstacles placed in their path. When light
waves encounter an obstacle, they bend round the edges of the obstacle. This bending is
predominant when the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light. The
bending of light waves around the edge of an obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by
Gremaldy.

DIFFRACTION
52
 Fig Diffraction

As shown in fig., when light falls on an obstacle, the corresponding geometrical shadow
on the screen should be completely dark. In practice, the geometrical shadow consists of bright
and dark fringes. These fringes are due to the superimposition of bended light waves around the
corners of an obstacle. The amount of bending depends upon the size of the obstacle and
wavelength of light.
When the light falls on an obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength of
light, then the light bends around the edges or corners of the obstacle and enters into the
geometrical shadow. This bending of light is known as diffraction. The bright and dark fringes
in the shadow form a diffraction pattern.

The diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types:

Fresnel diffraction

To study diffraction, there should be a light source, obstacle and screen. In this class of
diffraction, the source and screen are placed at finite distances from the obstacle. To study this
diffraction, lenses are not necessary as the source and screen are at a finite distance. This
diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light. The incident wave fronts are
either spherical or cylindrical.

Fraunhofer diffraction

In this class of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at infinite distances from the
obstacle. Due to the above fact, lenses are needed to study the diffraction. This diffraction can
be studied in any direction. In this case, the incident wave front is plane.

Fraunhofer Diffraction at Single Slit

Consider a slit AB of width „e‟. Let a plane wave front WW‟ of monochromatic light of
wavelength 𝜆 propagating normally towards the slit is incident on it. The diffracted light
through the slit is focused by means of a convex lens on a screen placed in the focal plane of the
lens. According to Huygens-Fresnel, every point on the wave front in the plane of the slit is a
source of secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions. Those wavelets
travelling normal to the slit, i.e., along the direction OP 0 are brought to focus at P0 by the lens.
Thus, P0 is a bright central image. The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle Ѳ with the
normal are focused at a point P1 on the screen. Depending on path difference, the point P 1 may
53
have maximum or minimum intensities. To find the intensity at P 1, draw the normal AC from A
to the light ray at B.

Fig Fraunhofer diffraction - Single slit

The path difference between the wavelets from A and B in the direction Ѳ is given by
Path diff =BC=AB sinѲ = e sin Ѳ
2𝜋
Corresponding phase diff = 𝜆 x path difference
2𝜋
= e sinѲ
𝜆
Let the width of the slit be divided into n equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from
each part is „a‟. The phase difference between any two successive waves from these parts would
be
1 1 2𝜋
[Total phase] = 𝑛 𝜆 e sinѲ = d (say)
𝑛
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R is given by
𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑑 /2
R= sin 𝑑 /2
𝑎 sin (𝜋 𝑒 sin Ѳ/𝜆 )
= sin (𝜋 𝑒 sin Ѳ/𝑛𝜆 )
sin 𝛼
= a sin 𝛼 /𝑛 where 𝛂= 𝜋 𝑒 sin Ѳ/𝜆
sin 𝛼
=a (∵ 𝛼/𝑛 is very small)
𝛼 /𝑛
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
=n (∵ na =A)
𝛼
sin 𝛼
=A 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
Intensity = I=R2=A2 → (1)
𝛼

Principal Maximum

The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of ∝ as

𝐴 𝛼3 𝛼5 𝛼7
R= 𝛼 𝛼 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
𝛼2 𝛼4 𝛼6
=A 1− + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!

I will be maximum, when value of R is maximum. For maximum value of R, the negative terms
must vanish, i.e., ∝=0
𝜋𝑒 sin Ѳ
=0
𝜆
sinѲ =0
Ѳ=0 →(2)
54
 Then R=A
Imax =R2=A2 →(3)
The condition Ѳ=0 means that the maximum intensity is formed at P 0 and is known as principal
maximum.

Minimum Intensity Positions

„I‟ will be maximum, when sin∝=0

𝛂=±π, ±2π, ±3π
𝛂=±mπ
𝜋𝑒 sin Ѳ
=±mπ
𝜆
esinѲ=±mλ where m = 1,2,3… →(4)

Thus, the points of minimum intensity are obtained on either side of the principal maximum.
For m=0, sinѲ=0, which corresponds to principal maximum.

Secondary Maxima

In between these minima, we get secondary maxima. The positions can be obtained by
differentiating the expression of I w.r.t 𝛂 and equating to zero. We get
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 sin 𝛼 2
= 𝐴2 =0
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝛼
2sin 𝛼 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐴2 . 𝛼 . =0
𝛼2
Either sin 𝛂=0 or 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜶=0
Sin 𝛂=0 gives positions of minima.
Hence the positions of secondary maxima are given by
𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜶=0
𝛼=tan𝛼 →(5)

The values of α satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by plotting the curves
y=∝ and y=tan ∝ on the same graph. The points of intersection of the two curves give the
values of ∝ which satisfy the above equation. The plots of y=∝ and y= tan∝ are shown in fig
2.3.

Fig Plots of y=α and y= tanα

The points of intersections are

55
 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝜶=0, ± 2 , ± 2 …
Substituting the above values in equations (1), the intensities in various maxima are obtained.
𝜶 = 0, I0=𝐴2 (principal maximum)
3𝜋 2
3𝜋 sin ⁡( ) 𝐴2
𝛂 = , I1=𝐴 2
3𝜋
2
≈ (1st secondary maximum)
2 22
2
5𝜋 2
5𝜋 sin ⁡( ) 𝐴2
𝜶 = 2 , I2=𝐴 2
5𝜋
2
≈ 62 (2nd secondary maximum)
2
and so on.

From the above expressions, it is evident that most of the incident light is concentrated in the
principal maximum.

Intensity Distribution

Fig Intensity distribution

The variation of I with respect to ∝ is shown in fig 7.10. The diffraction pattern consists
of a central principal maximum for 𝜶=0. There are secondary maxima of decreasing intensity
3𝜋 5𝜋
on either sides of it at positions 𝜶 =± ,± . Between secondary maxima, there are minima at
2 2
positions 𝜶=±π,±2π,±3π,…..

Fraunhofer Diffraction at Double Slit

Let S1 and S2 be double slits of equal widths e and separated by a distance d. The
distance between the middle points of the two slits is (e +d). A monochromatic light of wave
length λ is incident normally on the two slits. The light diffracted from these slits is focused by
a lens on the screen placed in the focal plane of the lens. The diffraction at two slits is the
combination of diffraction as well as interference, i.e., the pattern on the screen is the diffraction
pattern due to a single slit on which a system of interference fringes is superimposed. When a
plane wave front is incident normally on two slits, the secondary wavelets from the slits travel
uniformly in all directions. The wavelets travelling in the direction of incident light come to a
focus at 𝑃0 while the wavelets travelling in a direction making an angle𝜃, come to focus at 𝑃1 .

56
 Fraunhofer diffraction-double slit

𝐴 sin 𝛼
From the study of diffraction due to single slit, the resultant amplitude = 𝛼
Where,
𝜋𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛼= 𝜆 .
𝐴 sin 𝛼
Since a double slit is used, from each slit a wavelet of amplitude in a
𝛼
direction θ is obtained. These two wavelets interfere and meet at a point 𝑃1 on the screen. To
calculate the path difference between the wavelets, draw a normal 𝑆1 𝐾 to the wavelet
through𝑆2 .

Path difference = 𝑆2 𝐾
= 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃
2𝜋
Phase difference 𝛿 = 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃 →(6)
𝜆

Vector addition method

To find the resultant amplitude at 𝑃1 vector addition method is used. (Fig. 7.12) in which the two
sides of a triangle are represented by the amplitudes through 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . The third side gives the
resultant amplitude.
From the figure,
2 2 2
𝑂𝐻 = 𝑂𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻 + 2 𝑂𝐺 𝐺𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝐴 sin 𝛼 2 𝐴 sin 𝛼 2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝑅2 = + +2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛼
= 𝐴2 [2+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿]
𝛼
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
=2 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝛼
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
=2 1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 2 − 1
𝛼

57
 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
=4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 2
𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2 𝜋 𝑒+𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅2 = 4𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝛼 𝜆
𝜋 𝑒+𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Let 𝛽 = 𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
𝑅2 = 4𝐴2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
The resultant intensity I = 𝑅2 = 4𝐴2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 → (7)
From the above expression, it is clear that the resultant intensity is the product of two factors,
i.e,

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
1. 𝐴2 which represents the diffraction pattern due to a single slit
𝛼
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽, which gives the interference pattern due to wavelets from double slits. The resultant
intensity is due to both diffraction and interference effects.

Diffraction Effect
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
The diffraction term 𝐴2 gives the principal maximum as the centre of the
𝛼
screen with alternate minima and secondary maxima of decreasing intensity. We get
principal maximum for 𝜃 = 0. We get minima for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0

𝛼 =±𝑚𝜋, where m = 1, 2, 3…

𝜋𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆

𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = ±𝑚𝜆

The positions of secondary maxima occurs for

±3𝜋 ±5𝜋 ±7𝜋

𝛼= , , …..
2 2 2

Interference Effect
The interference term cos2β gives the equidistant bright and dark fringes.
The maxima will occur for cos2β = 1
β =±𝑛𝜋, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
β = 0, ± π, ± 2π, ± 3π…………

𝜋 𝑒+𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳
= ±nπ
𝜆
𝑒 + 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = ±𝑛𝜆

The minima will occur for cos2β =0

𝜋
β =± 2𝑛 + 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =0, 1, 2, 3…
2

58
 𝜆
(e+d) sin𝛳 = ±(2𝑛 + 1) 2

Intensity Distribution
Figure 7.13 (a) and (b) represents the intensity variations due to diffractions as well as
interference effect individually. When both effects are combined then the resultant intensity
variation is obtained. From the figure it is clear that the resultant minima are not equal to zero,
still they have some minimum intensity due to interference effect.

(a) Diffraction effect (b) Interference effect (c) Resultant intensity

Diffraction Grating-Normal incidence–(Diffraction at N parallel slits)

Construction
An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. Fraunhofer used the first
grating consisting of a large number of parallel wires placed very closely side by side at regular
intervals. The diameter of the wires was of the order of 0.05mm and their spacing varied
from0.0533 mm to 0.687 mm. Now gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines
on a transparent material such as glass with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to
light while the space between any two lines is transparent to light and acts as a slit. This is
known as Plane transmission grating. On the other hand, if the lines are drawn on a silvered
surface (plane or concave) then the light is reflected from the positions of mirrors in between
any two lines and it forms a plane or concave reflection grating. When the spacing between the
lines is of the order of the wavelength of light, then an appreciable deviation of light is
produced.
Theory
Fig.7.14 represents the section of a plane transmission grating placed perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. Let „e‟ be the width of each slit and„d‟ be the width of each opaque part.
Then (e+d) is known as grating element. XY is the screen placed perpendicular to the plane of a
59
paper. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆 be incident normally
on the grating. By Huygen‟s principle, each of the slit sends secondary wavelets in all
directions. The secondary wavelets travelling in the same direction of incident light will come
to a focus at a point P0 of the screen as the screen is placed at the focal plane of the convex lens.
The point P0 will be the central maximum. Now, consider the secondary waves travelling in a
direction inclined at an angle 𝛳 with the direction of the incident light. These waves reach the
point P1 on passing through the convex lens in different phases. As a result, dark and bright
bands on both sides of the central maximum are obtained.

Fig7.14 Section of a Plane transmission grating

The intensity at point P1 may be considered by applying the theory of Fraunhofer diffraction at
a single slit. The wavelets proceeding from all points in a slit along the direction ϴ are
equivalent to a single wave of amplitude (A sin𝛼/α) starting from the middle point of the slit,
where
α = (π e sinϴ/λ).

If there are N slits, then there will be N diffracted waves, one each from the middle points of the
slits. The path difference between two consecutive slits is (e+d) sinϴ. Therefore, there is a
corresponding phase difference of (2π/λ). (e+d) sinϴ between the two consecutive waves. The
phase difference is constant and it is 2β.

Hence, the problem of determining the intensity in the direction ϴ reduces to finding the
resultant amplitude of N vibrations each of amplitude (A sin∝/∝ ) and having a common phase
difference
2𝜋 (e+d) sinϴ = 2β
→ (1)
𝜆
Now, by the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the direction of ϴ will be
𝐴 sin ∝ sin 𝑁𝛽
R*= ∝ . sin 𝛽
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ 2 sin 𝑁𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁𝛽
And I = R2 = ( ) ( ) = I o( ) ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽 ) → (2)
∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 ∝

𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
The factor ( ∝ )2 gives the distribution of intensity due to single slit while the factor (sin2 Nβ/
sin2β) gives the distribution of intensity as a combined effect of all the slits.
Intensity distribution in N-Slits
Principle maxima

60
The intensity would be maximum when sinβ = 0.
or β=±𝑛𝜋 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, n=0, 1, 2, 3,…
but at the same time sin Nβ = 0, so that the factor (sinNβ/sinβ) becomes indeterminate. It may
be evaluated by applying the usual method of differentiating the numerator and the
denominator, i.e., by applying the Hospital‟s rule. Thus,
sin 𝑁𝛽
lim
𝛽 →±𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
d
(sinN β )
dβ
=limβ→±nπ d
(sin β )
dβ
𝑁 cos 𝑁𝛽
lim𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 =± 𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
sin 𝑁𝛽 2
Hence, lim𝛽 →±𝑛𝜋 = 𝑁2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
The resultant intensity is ( ∝ ) N2. The maxima are most intense and are called as principal
maxima.
The maxima are obtained for
𝛽= ±𝑛𝜋
𝜋
(e+d) sin ϴ = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜆
𝑜𝑟 𝑒 + 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = ±𝑛𝜆 Where, n= 0, 1, 2, 3….

𝑛 = 0 corresponds to zero order maximum. For n=1, 2, 3...etc., the first, second, third, etc.,
principal maxima are obtained respectively. The ± sign shows that there are two principal
maxima of the same order lying on the either side of zero order maximum.

Minima

A series of minima occur, when

Sin Nβ = 0 but sinβ≠ 0
For minima,
Sin Nβ = 0
Nβ = ± 𝑚𝜋
𝜋
N𝜆 (e+d) sinϴ = ± 𝑚𝜋
N (e+d) sinϴ = ± 𝑚𝜆

Where m has all integral values except 0, N, 2N …nN, because for these values sinβ becomes
zero and the principal maxima is obtained. Thus, m = 1, 2, 3… (N-1). Hence, they are adjacent
principal maxima.

Secondary maxima
As there are (N-1) minima between two adjacent principal maxima, there must be (N-2) other
maxima between two principal maxima. To find out the position of these secondary maxima,
equation (2) must be differentiated with respect to β and then equate it to zero. Thus,
𝑑𝐼 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ sin 𝑁𝛽
= ( ∝ )2. 2( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 )
𝑑𝛽
𝑁 cos 𝑁 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 −sin 𝑁 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
[ ] = 0 or
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽

61
 N cos N β sinβ – sinNβ cosβ = 0
N tan𝛽 = tan Nβ
The roots of this equation other than those for which β = ±𝑛𝜋 (which correspond to principal
maxima) give the positions of secondary maxima. To find out the value of (sin2 Nβ/sin2 β) from
equation N tanβ = tan Nβ, a triangle shown below, in the figure 7.15 is used.

Fig 7.15

𝑁
Sin Nβ =
(𝑁 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛽 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁𝛽 𝑁2
= (𝑁2 +𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛽 )×𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
𝑁2
= 𝑁2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
𝑁2
= 1+(𝑁2 −1)𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1
Therefore, = 1+ 𝑁2 −1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎 𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽

As N increases, the intensity of secondary maxima relative to principal maxima decreases and
becomes negligible when N becomes large.
Figures 7.16 (a) and (b) show the graphs of variation of intensity due to the factors 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ ∝2
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 respectively. The resultant is shown in figure 7.16 (c).

(a) & (b) Graphs showing the variation of intensity (c) The Resultant
Diffraction Grating
An arrangement which consists of a large number of parallel slits of the same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. Fraunhofer used the first
grating consisting of a large number of parallel wires placed side by side very closely at regular
intervals. Now gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent

62
material such as glass with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to light while the
space between any two lines is transparent to light and acts as a slit (Fig.7.17).
Commercial gratings are produced by taking the cast of an actual grating on a transparent film
like that of cellulose acetate. Solution of cellulose acetate is poured on the ruled surface and
allowed to dry to form a thin film, detachable from the surface. These impressions of a grating
are preserved by mounting the film between two glass sheets.

Fig7.17 Diffraction Grating

Let „e‟ be the width of the line and„d‟ be the width of the slit. Then (e+d) is known as grating
element. If „N‟ is the number of lines per inch on the grating, then

N (e+d) =1”=2.54 cm
2.54
e+d= 𝑁 cm

There will be nearly 30,000 lines per inch of a grating. Due to the above fact, the width of the
slit is very narrow and is comparable to the wavelength of light. When light falls on the grating,
the light gets diffracted through each slit. As a result, both diffraction and interference of
diffracted light gets enhanced and forms a diffraction pattern. This pattern is known as
diffraction spectrum.
Grating Spectrum
The condition to form the principal maxima in a grating is given by
(e+d) sin Ѳ = nλ
Where (e+d) is the grating element and the above equation is known as grating equation.
From the grating equation, the following is clear.
1. For a particular wavelength λ, the angle of diffraction Ѳ is different for principal
maxima of different orders.
2. As the number of lines in the grating is large, maxima appear as sharp, bright parallel
lines and are termed as spectral lines.
3. For white light and for a particular order of n, the light of different wavelengths will be
diffracted in different directions.
4. At the center, Ѳ=0 gives the maxima of all wavelengths which coincides to form the
central image of the same colour as that of the light source. This forms zero
order.(Fig.2.9)

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5. The principal maxima of all wavelengths forms the first, second,… order spectra for
n=1,2,…
6. The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of diffraction. Thus, the spectrum
consists of violet being in the innermost position and red being in the outermost
positions.

Fig7.18 Grating Spectrum

7. Most of the intensity goes to zero order and the rest is distributed among other orders.
8. Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of zero order.
𝑒+𝑑
9. The maximum number of orders available with the grating is n max = 𝜆

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