Pivoting

Pivoting
Ann L. Clancy • Jacqueline Binkert
Pivoting
A Coach’s Guide to Igniting Substantial Change
Ann L. Clancy Jacqueline Binkert
Appreciative Coaching Collaborative, LLC Appreciative Coaching Collaborative, LLC
Billings, MT, USA Milford, MI, USA
ISBN 978-1-137-60262-6 ISBN 978-1-137-60263-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60263-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016958119
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

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Foreword
Coaching is fundamentally about change. The role of a coach is to facilitate

new insights, deeper understanding and support the development of coherent
goals. However, none of this matters if clients lack the motivation to actually
go out and make the change. In such situations, coaching conversations just
become full of ideas, possibilities and warm words.
A while ago I was invited to observe a coach-training session by a well-
known coach-training company. During the morning, the trainer talked
about the core coaching skills: active listening, open questions, reflections and
summarizing. All of this was sensible and reasonable content. By the after-
noon, delegates were curious about how these elements could all be brought
together. One asked the trainer if she would demonstrate a coaching conver-
sation using the core skills. The trainer asked the group of 12 delegates for a
volunteer coachee. One of the group reluctantly agreed.
Sitting in a circle we observed the trainer use the GROW (Goal, Reality,
Obstacles/Options, Way Forward) model to explore the delegate’s objec-
tives, his reality and a range of different options. As the conversation pro-
gressed it struck me that there was reluctance on behalf of the delegate, but
this “issue” was left unexplored. Why had the delegate not resolved this issue
before, when the answers seemed so obvious to us and them? Instead, mov-
ing towards a close, the trainer asked the delegate to make a commitment for
action after the coaching session. The delegate voiced his reluctance: “I’m not
really sure what’s next.” For most of us watching, this called for an exploration
of this response and highlighted the ambivalence that lay behind it. Instead,
the coach pushed on with a further challenge to make a commitment. The
delegate replied, “I suppose I could think about doing X,” at which point the
trainer sat back and said to the group, “There we go, a clear plan of action.” Of
v
vi Foreword
course we all knew that the language used by the delegate was far from a com-
mitment to the action discussed; everything, including his body language,
told us that he was unlikely to do what he had said.
Clearly, attempting to demonstrate coaching skills in front of others is dif-
ficult at the best of times and is made even more challenging when delegates
have real issues that are likely to take several hours to unpick rather than
several minutes. However, this experience demonstrated that the task of the
coach is not simply to support a review of the past and the development of a
plan for the future.
We all understand how frustrating it is when we need to simply comply
with other peoples’ demands—sometimes our boss or a senior work col-
league. We comply but are not likely to make that commitment to going the
full nine yards. As a result, we may do the minimum or look for shortcuts to
achieve the goal. In contrast, when the desire comes from within, from what
we believe is right, just or important to us, we will not just comply but com-
mit. In short, when goals fit our values and beliefs, we will do everything in
our power to achieve them.
Our real job as the coach is not to simply provide a framework for a coaching
conversation or use core skills to facilitate a conversation, although these are
important. Our real task is to help clients explore their values, beliefs, deeper
emotions (often experienced through bodily sensations) and personal histories.
Then we can use these as a frame with which to review the different choices for
action, including inaction. Great coaches need to help clients to confront their
difficult dilemmas, bringing them face to face with the consequences of their
choices, to hold their coachee’s feet over the fire and by so doing help them
ignite the motivation within them which will act as the catalyst for change.
In this book, Ann and Jacqueline, experienced coaches, writers, trainers
and researchers, offer us insights into how we can achieve this. With a highly
engaging writing style, they draw the reader in, using a mixture of genuine
stories and fresh insights from a range of philosophical and scientific studies
in history, psychology, social psychology, biology, neuroscience and physics.
They describe a new science of change that provides an explanation for the
phenomenon of pivotal moments in coaching and the role that coaches play
in igniting substantial change.
The result is a highly readable resource for both experienced and novice
coaches alike, which coaches can use to help them ignite the motivation for
change within their coachees.
University of Evora Jonathan Passmore

Portugal
Acknowledgements
The inspiration for this book first arose in our early years of travelling and
presenting on Appreciative Coaching® after our book was published in 2007.
Since that time we’ve participated in numerous presentations, workshops
and training to bring our emerging research findings to audiences of fellow
coaches, consultants, scholars, colleagues and supporters. We are indebted to
these individuals for their willingness to provide feedback and suggestions as
we presented and tested our theory and model.
The venues involved include the UK Association for Coaching, London;
Assumption University of Thailand, Bangkok; OD World Summit in
Budapest, Hungary; Academy of Management conference, San Antonio,
USA; International Coach Federation chapters in Chicago and Seattle,
USA; Academy of Management conference in Boston, USA; International
Organization Development Association in Kyoto, Japan; Society for Chaos
Theory in Psychology and Life Sciences in Portland, USA; Columbia
University Coaching Program 1st International Conference, New York, USA;
Carolina Coaching Conference in Charlotte, USA; Institut de Coaching in
Geneva, Switzerland; and a dedicated group of New York City coaches.
We would like to acknowledge the master coaches who were so generous
with their coaching stories and experiences that have enriched our book. They
are John Heidke, Betsy Hemming, Susan Meyer, Vince Racioppo, Bobette
Reeder and Deborah Roth. We also thank our clients, both those who partici-
pated in our formal research and those we have worked with in our practices,
for letting us weave their inspiring stories and experiences into our narrative.
We are greatly appreciative of the interest that our publisher, Palgrave
Macmillan, showed in our work when it was still in the concept stage. Also,
we salute Jonathan Passmore for contributing the Foreword as well as for his
vii
viii Acknowledgements
support. Finally, we thank our families, friends and colleagues who encour-
aged us in our belief that exploring moments of substantial change was a
worthy endeavour. As always, family members provided us love and support
through the lengthy research and writing periods.
Contents
1 A Pivotal Journey 1
2 What Is a Pivot? 19
3 Pivoting: The Extraordinary Power of Self-Organization 47
4 Accessing the Inner Self: Beliefs 73
5 Accessing the Inner Self: Knowing 89
6 Accessing the Inner Self: Memory 109
7 Turn of the Kaleidoscope 135
8 Finding Coherence 169
References 185
Index 201
ix
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Emergence of pivotal moments 42

Fig. 2.2 Variant manifestations of pivotal moments 43
Fig. 2.3 Slow awakening 44
Fig. 2.4 The coaching “chain” of events 45
Fig. 3.1 Pivoting: The power of self-organization 48
Fig. 3.2 Can you find the hidden star? 55
Fig. 3.3 What do you see? A young girl? An old woman? 56
Fig. 3.4 Answer to finding the hidden star 72
Fig. 4.1 Role of beliefs in self-organizing 74
Fig. 4.2 Comparison of two belief systems 78
Fig. 5.1 Role of inner knowing in self-organizing 90
Fig. 5.2 Blatz Beer advertisement 94
Fig. 5.3 Iver Johnson Revolvers advertisement 95
Fig. 5.4 Seven types of inner knowing 106
Fig. 6.1 Role of memory in self-organizing 110
Fig. 7.1 Model of self-organizing pivotal moments 137
Fig. 7.2 Control-Influence-Concern Model 140
Fig. 7.3 Growing vs. closing the gap 141
Fig. 7.4 Cone in the box visual metaphor 148
Fig. 7.5 Coaching cycle: The embodiment of mind, body and environment 152
xi
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Mechanistic and generative approaches to change 7

Table 1.2 Two scientific positions 15
Table 2.1 Research results on characteristics of aha moments 37
Table 2.2 Research results on triggers of aha moments 37
Table 4.1 Major distinctions between beliefs and knowledge 76
Table 5.1 Distinctions between empiricism and rationalism 93
Table 7.1 Priming strategies observed in initial research 138
Table 8.1 Emerging Holistic Model 172
xiii
1
A Pivotal Journey
The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by
altering their attitudes of mind.
—William James
Introduction
There is a moment of quiet; you can almost see the wheels turning as the realiza-
tion hits, and then looking at me with a shocked expression. I think it was prob-
ably the expression of awe or surprise. It has this physical presence to it. You can
watch the shift in the body—or feel it in you.
The feeling to me is that I was let in, he opened up and we could work together.
It was a feeling of relief and euphoria that we were moving forward with openness
and mutual listening. The resistance went away.
W hat usually happens to me when my client shifts, I feel it. We are both much
happier, much lighter. In this case her whole tone lightened up, her attitude
changed and I could feel it over the phone.
M y role changed before and after the pivot. Before I was in the position of
encouraging and cheerleading, but was actually on the other side of the fence from
him as he was on the negative side. Once the shift occurred, we were both on the
same side and the coaching was very productive.
© The Author(s) 2017 1

A.L. Clancy, J. Binkert, Pivoting, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60263-3_1
2 Pivoting
What I had to share seemed insignificant, so my client’s response astounded me.

Somehow my comment triggered a cascade of awareness that changed my client in
profound ways. It seemed that what we had been talking about for some time in
our coaching finally gelled.
These are real stories of pivotal moments when coaches experienced the
reality of their clients shifting in some way. The experience seems to be one
of mutuality—their euphoria becomes ours. We chose the title of our book,
Pivoting: A Coach’s Guide to Igniting Substantial Change, to describe a topic
that thoroughly captured our curiosity as researchers and riveted our atten-
tion as executive coaches. How do our clients make substantial change? What
role do we play? What, if anything, do we contribute when clients alter their
attitudes of mind?
We define “pivoting” as a key moment in coaching when a client comes to
a new realization that changes them in some way. This shift brings with it the
potential to create a fresh way of being for the client. Thus it is a moment of
significance to the individual and of inspiration to the coach. Who has not
felt joy and satisfaction in seeing clients undergo an inner shift that makes
their life or circumstances better?
While we cannot take direct credit for a client’s achievements, we know
intuitively that we are somehow influential. There are times when we actually
“ignite” substantial change within our clients. The question for us in writing
this book was how can we repeat this igniting experience for our clients in a
more deliberate way? Hence our desire to create a Coach’s Guide.
While it is gratifying to see clients make a major breakthrough, not all
changes are transformational. Whatever the scope of change, however, our
hope is to be a source of support and encouragement—believing in clients’
greatness as individuals, believing in them even during times when they cannot
believe in themselves. As coaches, our purpose is to support them in making
meaningful change, substantial change, in their circumstances. As researchers
and authors, the purpose of our book is to share our findings and experiences
about this mysterious yet engaging topic with like-minded professionals.
Living from the Inside Out

En route to giving a presentation on the topic of pivotal moments in coaching at a
conference in Japan, Ann received a note from a former client. He was contacting
her from Australia where he was collaborating as co-author with one of his clients.
He wanted to thank Ann for being instrumental in helping him find his current life
work and for being partly responsible for his incredible work project in Australia.
When he started the coaching process he was an executive at a publishing com-
pany but was struggling with the management and leadership demands and feeling
diminished in his position. While his career accomplishments were impressive (e.g.,
a Ph.D., published author, successful editing positions, recipient of editing awards,
Ironman finisher, Pikes Peak Ascent finisher, marathoner), he had lost sight of his
strengths, achievements and dreams. He had hoped that coaching would provide
some positive way forward. He was surprised when it revealed that he wanted to
find himself again, reclaim his dreams and embrace the belief that he could become
his best self. He had a true quantum shift—a positive reorganization of his self-
identity—as a result of the coaching, choosing to create the life he really wanted
and build on all that he had accomplished. He went on to found his own business
and begin living his dream: having artistic/creative control of his own writing, and
autonomy and freedom to collaborate with other inspirational writers.
Receiving this note on the way to delivering a coaching workshop in Japan

seemed such a synchronous event and an affirmation. The focus of Ann’s pre-
sentation was on the coach as catalyst in encouraging pivotal moments. The
message reminded her of her role in “igniting substantial change” within this
particular individual a number of years before. For this client, executive coach-
ing had provided a way to reconnect powerfully with his inner process and
wisdom. He had become so distracted by the external pressures and demands
of his career that he had temporarily lost his way. We all live the “hero’s jour-
ney” to some degree in our own lives, as described by Joseph Campbell.1 We
are on a path through life that involves travails to overcome, times of crisis,
moments of victory and then returning to our path hopefully transformed in
some way. While some individuals do not feel victorious on their life path,
others persevere and triumph. Yet we all are subject to some form or part of
the hero’s journey. In fact, this compelling story underlies our most cherished
literature, cinema, plays and even video games.2 Our clients have their own
hero stories and singular pathways. How can they not? We are all aspirational
beings and as such hunger for a successful journey in our own lives.
If our topic is about providing a guide for igniting substantial change, the
passionate theme of our book is helping clients reconnect with their own
inner process. Appreciative Coaching® is about living from the inside out—it’s
a focus on inner guidance to become one’s best self, and even true self, which
evolves over a lifetime. We are at a unique point in human history where the
1
The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949) is a seminal work of comparative mythology by Joseph Campbell
in which he discusses his theory of the archetypal hero found in world mythologies.
2
Wilcock (2013).
4 Pivoting
opportunity and expectation regarding the generative capacity of humans to

change is broadly recognized in cultures around the world. We can change as
the findings of neuroplasticity and the new scientific paradigm assure us.3 The
idea that tapping into one’s inner process is key to building a fulfilling life has
emerged across numerous fields of study and exploded in popular literature.4
Knowledge about self-change is now available to anyone from any walk of life
at a scale never seen before, a social movement in which the coaching profes-
sion plays a leading role. This book chronicles how to help people believe in
their capacity to change by paying attention to their inner guidance.
Understanding Our Inner States of Mind

William James was a leading American psychologist and philosopher in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. He was also a physician. He
combined a unique blend of native intelligence, passion for understanding
the human mind, insight and acquired knowledge in multiple fields, which
enabled him to take a holistic view of how people change. It put him light
years ahead of many of his contemporaries, who were still focused on reduc-
ing human capacity to discrete bits and pieces—thinking separated from feel-
ing separated from behaviour separated from the physical body.
In his seminal work The Principles of Psychology, James examined the his-
tory of human psychology, including an introspective account and study of
his own states of mind.5 He understood that “consciousness does not appear
to itself chopped up in bits … it flows.”6 He used the metaphor of a flowing
river to describe what he called “the stream of thought, of consciousness or of
subjective life” that is innate to being human.7
James felt strongly that humans had an inner process that directed them—
that they had choices in how they created their lives. This was a revolutionary
concept in his world, a time when scientific thought was firmly entrenched in
3
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout
life. The new scientific paradigm is commonly referred to as a new view of the world based on findings in
quantum physics, chaos theory, self-organization and complexity theory.
4
As an example, research interest in the concept of intuition “has exploded across analytic philosophy in
recent decades” and “is apparent across a broad swathe of academia (and perhaps beyond)” (Andow,
2015, p. 189). Astronaut Edgar Mitchell, founder of the Institute of Noetic Sciences, calls intuition an
experience of inner knowing (Myers, 2002).
5
James (1890).
6
James (1890), p. 239.
7
James (1890), p. 239.
viewing humans as machine-like and only capable of being changed through

external efforts (parents, teachers, psychologists, etc.).
James developed a philosophical and psychological view of human change
that was pragmatic and functional. To him, humans adapted internally and
subjectively to their environment. He saw the mind and its experiences, and
nature, as inseparable. Like the findings of quantum physics, which was to
come years after his writings, James cultivated the worldview that the value of
any truth was dependent on its use to the person who held it. In addition, he
considered human response to the diverse experiences in life as never able to
be objectively analysed because the mind of the observer and the simple act
of observation affected the outcome of any empirical approach to truth. He
described a mind–world connection that significantly impacted the modern-
ist literature and art at the time, as seen in the “stream of consciousness” nar-
rative device that authors such as James Joyce employed.8
His brilliance was to reconceive the human mind as inherently purposive
and selective—from within.
People Are Mysteries to Be Appreciated

If it were not for the silence between the notes, no song could have ever touched your
heart.
—The Way of Mastery
In seeking to make the most of our own lives and as Appreciative coaches
striving to help others get the most out of theirs, we have, over time, broad-
ened our view of what is possible in life. Personally and professionally, we’ve
journeyed from a limited perspective of life (satisfied with surviving and
recovering from hardships and thwarted dreams) to a belief that humans have
the capacity not only to be resilient but also to thrive and flourish. American
sociologist and psychologist Corey Keyes described flourishing as being filled
with positive emotion and to be functioning well both psychologically and
socially.9 We are happy to report that for the most part we now live in this
state, as do many of our clients.
We attribute the sense of flourishing that we feel in our current personal
and professional lives to past choices we made to embrace beliefs and experi-
8
James’ stream of thought influenced the works of well-known authors such as James Joyce’s Ulysses,
Virginia Woolf ’s Mrs. Dalloway, William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury and Samuel Beckett’s Molloy.
9
Keyes and Haidt (2003).
6 Pivoting
ences that focused on the generative capacity of human beings to change and
evolve. These choices were heavily influenced by the philosophy and practice
of Appreciative Coaching and Appreciative Inquiry, which are rooted philo-
sophically in social constructionism. Social psychologist Kenneth Gergen’s
work on generative theory and social constructionism had a profound impact
on David Cooperrider, developer of Appreciative Inquiry.10
In Toward Generative Theory, Gergen challenged the traditional positiv-
ist assumptions of the reigning science of social theory of the late 1970s.
According to him, this science was committed to putting great weight on
accumulating objective facts, demanding verification of theoretical ideas,
disregarding the temporality of many social patterns and encouraging
researchers to be dispassionate bystanders rather than participant theo-
rists.11 He advocated a generative approach to restructuring the character
of social life; he wanted to raise controversy and doubt about embedded
scientific biases and to offer a flexibility that would enhance the adaptive
capacity of society.12
Gergen continued his critique of traditional scientific metatheory in
the 1990s with Toward Transformation of Social Knowledge.13 Cooperrider
embraced this new way of thinking and described it as anticipatory theory—
having the capacity to challenge the predominant cultural assumptions, to
raise fundamental questions about modern life, to reconsider what has been
taken for granted and to provide new alternatives for social action.14 He placed
it in a positive change context. It was a revolutionary change approach that
arose in opposition to the problem-solving methodologies that were predomi-
nant at the time in social and organizational theory. The term “generative
change” is more easily explained when compared with mechanistic approaches
to change. Bill Veltrop, a self-described architect of generative change in the
fields of organization design and learning community approaches, outlined
what he saw as the differences between mechanistic and generative organiza-
tional approaches (Table 1.1).15
As organization development consultants, we were trained initially in the
problem-solving approach to change. In fact, the prevailing metaphor for
organizations was that they were problems to be solved, including the indi-
10
Watkins and Mohr (2001).
11
Gergen (1978).
12
Gergen (1978).
13
Gergen (1994).
14
Watkins and Mohr (2001).
15
Veltrop (2002).
Table 1.1 Mechanistic and generative approaches to change

Mechanistic approach Generative approach
Treat human systems as machines, Enhance, enable and ennoble the human
people as replaceable parts; tend to spirit; grow a capacity for growing
be demeaning and de-energizing
Focus on overcoming limitations, Focus on exploring and realizing full
finding and fixing what’s wrong— potential, an appreciative mindset
problem-solving mindset
Tend to be episodic with tightly focused Tend to be recursive and designed to
outcomes achieve multiple and even multiplying
benefits
Head-oriented, focused on Give priority to the heart, to compassion
performance, results and metrics and caring
Tend to be imposed from the top down, Tap into the genius of all players in the
pyramid structure organization; naturally transform the
pyramid into many circles
Implementation tends to be disruptive Implementation seen as real work and as
to “real work” woven into fabric of daily processes and
practices
Learning tends to emphasize formal Learning tends to nurture “communities of
training of individuals practice” and other forms of natural
knowledge-sharing
viduals who served them. Our job as organization development practitioners

was to give them the tools, practices and methodologies to solve their own
problems because it was in the nature of organizations to be a problem. When
exposed to the radical perspective of Appreciative Inquiry that organizations
were no longer problems to be solved but rather solutions to be embraced, we
found it most compelling.
Appreciative Coaching was developed on this generative approach to
change, which views individuals as mysteries to be appreciated rather than
problems to be solved or fixed. Therefore as coaches we do not take a mecha-
nistic, external perspective but instead focus on the inner process of an indi-
vidual as the path to greater fulfilment and satisfaction. As we’ve pointed out,
the inner process seems impervious to external control but may be influenced,
supported and, at times, ignited to substantial change. One of the master
coaches we interviewed described a pivotal moment she experienced with a
client:16
My client was a woman in her 40s, divorced, one child and working for a major
retail organization. She had been bullied at work and had to bring her supervisor
16
Six master coaches were involved in our research project. They are mentioned by name in the
acknowledgements.
8 Pivoting
up on charges. As a result, the organization created another job for her, one that
was significantly different and in which she was working with much younger
people for a much younger audience. When she came to me she was completely
demoralized. She felt uncomfortable in the new role at work, her foreign accent
was getting in the way, she couldn’t do what was expected of her—a laundry list
that left her practically paralysed. About mid-way in the coaching, she was asked
at work to do a presentation to a group of senior executives. She was panicked.
Her chief concern was that she would not do a good job and that she would be
fired. We had been going in circles in previous sessions because she hadn’t yet
been ready to see herself as she was right now. I wanted to try to understand
where this insecurity came from and I decided to ask about the dissolution of
her marriage, and she began describing some truly heroic actions she had taken
during that time period. Her husband had bullied her throughout the marriage.
Finally, she had stood up to him and obtained a satisfactory custody arrange-
ment after a long drawn-out battle. I pointed out how only a strong woman
could do something like that and quickly asked who her favourite superhero
was. She came up with the image of Wonder Woman. So we listed all the suc-
cessful actions she had taken in handling her divorce as well as achievements
from earlier jobs. The moment she started seeing herself as a kind of superhero in
her own life, everything shifted for her. She went into the presentation with her
executive team and delivered a strong performance. She was able to talk to her
boss about her concerns with the job. She did well on her performance review. It
was such a simple yet powerful experience when she allowed herself to remember
and acknowledge who she really was. Wonder Woman was just a tool; the real
pivot was the process of moving from seeing herself as a victim to experiencing
herself as a strong woman.
If people are mysteries to be appreciated, how do we scientifically

explain and replicate with other clients the success that this master coach
experienced with this particular client? Would a question about superhe-
roes addressed to another client result in the same significant outcome or,
for that matter, questions about her former relationship with her spouse?
On reflection and in retrospect, the inquiry process of the coach makes
sense. But in the moment, the coach could have chosen any number of
pathways to stimulate the client towards some type of inner discovery.
Something guided her to that particular line of inquiry and support that
seems to us more easily captured by a generative approach than a mecha-
nistic one.
Understanding What Makes Us Mysterious

If we were to apply traditional scientific methodology, we would view coach-
ing conversations and the occurrence of pivotal moments as “objects” of study,
as fixed entities with innate permanent characteristics. The goal of this type of
inquiry assumes that things are a certain way in the world and therefore exist
independently of human experience, opinion or description.17 This perspec-
tive understands reality as a “container of fixed entities and principles” for
objective study, as opposed to a constructivist approach, which studies reality
as “an ever-changing interactive process”18 which acknowledges the funda-
mental role that humans play in creating knowledge.
The objectivist approach ensures that we are dealing with reality as an
orderly arrangement and that there is an underlying truth to aspire to. This
implies that we might not “bear full responsibility for our knowledge”19 as
researchers and practitioners. While compelling, we found the study of piv-
otal moments from an objectivist or mechanistic perspective to be limiting
in terms of addressing the practical implications for our clients’ satisfaction
and well-being. We realized that our view of how the world works and of
how knowledge develops has significant implications for how we best support
substantial change in our clients.
Spencer McWilliams, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at California State
University, is an advocate of constructivism for reasons that resonated with
our own experiences and beliefs as coaches:
From a psychotherapeutic perspective, we can help clients by facilitating aware-

ness of the personally and socially constructed nature of beliefs and interpreta-
tions, helping them to construct more useful alternative narratives and ways of
giving their lives meaning. From an individual standpoint, we can see the limi-
tations in our own experience and the suffering and dysfunctions that arise due
to attachment to the correctness of beliefs.20
We therefore chose to study pivotal moments from three interrelated per-

spectives: constructivism, pragmatism and hermeneutic phenomenology.
According to McWilliams, constructivism views science as an intrinsically
human activity in which we develop knowledge, interpret experience and are
impacted by historical contexts. As a result, knowledge is temporal, practi-
17
McWilliams (2016), p. 4.
18
19
20
10 Pivoting
cal, revisable and—most important for the field of coaching—supportive of

choices for clients on their individual journeys of making meaning of their
lives. Constructivism also helps coaches in understanding a range of viable
viewpoints to offer clients rather than one “expert” position. At the tacit level,
says McWilliams, a constructivist approach provides individuals with sup-
port in finding a better way of looking at life, and it relieves them of feeling
trapped in only one way of seeing their situation.21 From this perspective, we
recognize that we live in a chaotic and dynamic world in which processes have
priority over objects in terms of understanding and navigating human situa-
tions and change.
Our second perspective, pragmatism,22 is characterized by a sceptical
approach to dogma and a view that theories are “provisional, changeable, and
grounded in practical results.”23 We were drawn to the pragmatist descrip-
tion of the world and human activity in terms of what proves useful, such as
predicting events and actions, creating a better future, and increasing human
equality and access to happiness.24 Pragmatists also emphasize a view of life
that places human processes, as a product of biological evolution, at the very
centre of the development of both empirical and conceptual knowledge.25
Finally, we applied hermeneutic phenomenology as our research approach
because we wanted to understand what constitutes a pivotal moment which
erupts from our non consciousness, a place of continued mystery for research-
ers. Phenomenology is interested in the everyday, individual experiences of
people and there are two perspectives of analysis of that lived experience: from
the people living through the phenomenon and from the researchers who
are interested in better understanding the phenomenon. The goal is to study
experience as it occurs or “appears” in consciousness.
Hermeneutic phenomenology is more than a research method; it’s a stance,
a way of being in the world and a willingness to undergo a process so that
“what is” may emerge and show itself.26 The origin of the word “hermeneutics”
is from the Greek for “to interpret.” While originally it referred to the study
and interpretation of biblical texts, philosophers such as Martin Heidegger
and Hans-Georg Gadamer have evolved its meaning into “the theory and
21
22
American pragmatists include classists John Dewey, William James, George Herbert Mead and Charles
Peirce, as well as neopragmatists such as Richard Rorty and third-wave pragmatists such as Joseph
Margolis.
23
24
Rorty (1999).
25
Margolis (2010).
26
Gadamer (1960/1997).
practice of interpretation and understanding (Verstehen) in different kinds of

human contexts.”27 Heidegger, a student of Edmund Husserl, who founded
phenomenology as a research methodology, introduced hermeneutics into the
study of phenomena in order to discover meanings that were not immediately
apparent. Heidegger viewed existence as being-in-the-world in which many of
the elements that shape us are hidden and require interpretation for existence
to be understood.28 His concern was to uncover these hidden phenomena of
our lives and their meanings. Hermeneutic phenomenology goes beyond the
level of description to discover meanings that are not immediately apparent29
based on the premise that every individual’s experience is unique and influ-
enced by one’s preconceptions.
How Our Story Unfolded

After our book Appreciative Coaching was published in 2007, we were invited
to lead presentations and workshops in the USA and around the world for
audiences of coaches (from beginners to master level), organization devel-
opment practitioners, managers and human resources professionals. We also
offered eight-week online courses based on our book, and, of course, we each
had our own executive coaching practice. The more we presented on the
approach and the more experience we gained as coaching professionals, the
more intrigued we became about what was causing our clients to make sub-
stantial shifts in learning, perspective and even identity.
We began to acknowledge that something very interesting was happening
from an inside perspective that seemed to bring coach and client together in a
type of dance or interplay that often resulted in significant change. We noticed
how our own internal processes, including different ways of knowing or “read-
ing” our clients’ feelings, thought patterns and energy, would inform us first and
then communicate with our conscious awareness. We detected mutual interac-
tion and processing occurring at different levels of awareness between us and
our clients, for which we didn’t yet have language. Something was “knocking”
on our inner awareness to be heard. In truly synchronous ways, we were both
experiencing the same phenomenon in our respective practices, and, because we
truly enjoy research, we found ourselves veering in a new direction.
27
Odman (1988), p. 63.
28
Heidegger (1962).
29
Merleau-Ponty (1962/1996).
12 Pivoting
Pivotal Moments: Our Interest
Executive coaching at its best allows for a creative space and time in which
clients have the opportunity for alchemical moments to emerge. These are
moments when clients can make significant shifts from self-limiting patterns
to positive growth and development. Otto Scharmer, American economist,
senior lecturer at MIT and author of Theory U,30 pointed out that when we
shift our habitual way of seeing and acting and redirect our attention, a dif-
ferent world comes forth. Coaches are often privileged to witness such events.
Yet there has been little research on what actually causes or inspires these
pivotal moments or learning shifts in coaching.
So we began a coaching research project, building on the power of the
Poetic Principle in Appreciative Coaching and on the tool we use called “piv-
oting.” The Poetic Principle is based on the belief that we can reinterpret our
life story by constructing new ways of thinking, feeling and acting. This prin-
ciple also says that our lives are choiceful. Transformative learning similarly
describes this as transforming a habit of mind (“habitual ways of thinking,
feeling and acting influenced by assumptions”) by using critical reflection on
one’s frames of reference and points of view as a way to develop autonomous
thinking.31
In addition to the Poetic Principle, Appreciative Coaching is based on four
other principles, all of which are drawn from Appreciative Inquiry and which
together form the theoretical base of this coaching approach.32 They have
become the filters through which we discern which methods and tools align
with our coaching, and they have guided and influenced us on this journey.
The five principles are summarized as follows:
1. Constructionist Principle: Humans construct their reality through their

thoughts, language and how they communicate, interact, create symbols
and construct metaphors with one another. They generate meaning and
reality in their lives from their inner process in interaction with their
environment.
2. Poetic Principle: Humans are meant to change over a lifetime and they are
agents of their own change. Any number of new realities can flow from a
reinterpretation of one’s life story, just as there are any number of potential
30
Scharmer (2009).
31
Mezirow (1997), pp. 5–6.
32
Orem, Binkert and Clancy (2007).
interpretations of a poem. A person’s life story can be reframed, reimagined

and refocused towards more hopeful and joyful action.
3. Simultaneity Principle: Inquiry and change happen in the same moment.
By the very first questions asked, coaches begin to sow seeds of change and
lead clients in a certain direction. Only from the present can the past be
revisited and the future anticipated. There are no gaps between past, pres-
ent and future.
4. Anticipatory Principle: Humans are wired to anticipate the future. Therefore
visions or dreams of the future guide current behaviour in the direction of
that future and lead to action to manifest that future.
5. Positive Principle: Change happens more readily with large amounts of
positive affect. Positive attitudes, actions and connections support and
build resources for change.
We have come to recognize that the very stance we took as Appreciative

coaches, which included presenting, training and coaching with the five prin-
ciples in mind, influenced us and led us to a deeper level of awareness that
coaching was about a lot more than just goals and action plans. In a way, it
seems we primed ourselves to be more and more sensitive to the nuances of
the coaching interaction, especially the capacity for clients to pivot.
We could see from our experience that these pivotal moments seemed to
be lived experiences that could not be quantified, predicted or planned by
either coach or client. Therefore viewing pivots as an object of study from the
traditional scientific approach had its limitations. We decided, however, that
a pivotal moment could be explored as a process phenomenon that occurred
as “humans create knowledge in ever-changing contexts.”33 From the con-
structivist perspective, we focused on the process of igniting substantial change
by reflecting retrospectively on the “phenomenon” (the pivotal moment) that
emerged from the non consciousness of our clients. As coaches, we either
witnessed this phenomenon with our client in the present moment or were
informed in subsequent coaching sessions of a shift that had occurred “offline.”
Pivotal Moments: Our Path
In his collection of essays entitled, Resistance, Rebellion and Death, Albert

Camus reminds us that “freedom is nothing else but a chance to be better.” 34
33
34
Camus (1961).
14 Pivoting
In our own lives and in our coaching, we have been “driven” to better under-
stand how humans change and how as practitioners we can aid that process.
How can we improve our own lives and those of our clients? We found free-
dom in the Appreciative Coaching approach—freedom from the constraints
of viewing our coaching clients in limited or problem-oriented ways. We have
now found another level of freedom in following the constructivist approach
to research, which promotes process and pragmatism rather than an objectiv-
ist position.35 Thus we view the phenomenon of pivotal moments in terms of
interrelated, changing relationships and processes that humans create as they
seek knowledge about themselves and their reality.
We hope with this book to offer some partial truth that may provide fur-
ther clues to understanding what causes substantial change, and we invite
others to follow these clues by building on and elaborating them with fresh
ideas. We acknowledge the words of caution shared by John Shotter, Emeritus
Professor of Communication, University of New Hampshire, that the social
constructionist perspective on understanding human process also has its limi-
tations. He warns that “we will never be able to gain complete mastery over all
that is around us—it will always be able to surprise us, no matter how famil-
iar to us it has become.”36 This has been our experience in studying pivotal
moments; we are, after all, seeking to more deeply understand the mystery of
who we really are.
As part of our coach training, we usually asked workshop participants to
reflect on their beliefs about human development and change; we had found
these beliefs to be more and more integral to a coach’s stance. We would begin
our workshops by asking participants to identify where they thought they were
in terms of two different positions on various principles of human change. The
purpose was to help them become more conscious about what kind of influ-
ence they were bringing into coaching. We invite you to think about these per-
spectives as well. In Table 1.2 we have listed two different positions based on
the prevailing scientific paradigms. This is intended as an awareness-building
activity to help determine your own coaching stance. Take a moment to reflect
on which position seems the more appropriate to you. We encountered these
two positions often on our research path, depending on what construct or
concept we were striving to clarify. Sometimes we were confused.
35
McWilliams (2016).
36
Shotter (2010), p. 82.
Table 1.2 Two scientific positions

Traditional scientific paradigm Emerging holistic paradigm
Nature exists as a permanent The world cannot be understood independent of
essence, so there is an objective our subjective point of view. Knowledge is
reality independent of human constructed in communities through
experience, opinion or interpretation of experience.
description.
Meaning is found in fixed, Meaning is derived from relationships that are in
external truth, which humans ever-changing processes. Humans have the
seek to understand and which opportunity to create more fulfilling lives
they use to evaluate and guide through the reinterpretation of their
their lives. experience.
Science asks questions of How questions are asked can change the very
consequence to determine the nature of a situation or solution; therefore
accurate account of a situation inquiry is a tool for practical discovery.
or to discover the right solution.
With planning, future possibilities Anticipation is a fundamental human activity
can be predicted and results which can be used to create desired futures
created in a finite span of time. through intention and openness to possibilities
Planning provides security and as they arise.
safety.
There is comfort in striving to Reality is constructed and therefore lacks a
achieve a life congruent with an permanent essence. As a result, humans build
ultimate truth and aiming to positive, emotional bonds to feel comfort and
understand its essence. hope.
What to Expect from This Book

We continue our journey in Chapter 2, “What Is a Pivot?” This was the ques-
tion we asked ourselves when we did an initial literature review to better
understand what we experienced with our clients when they made substan-
tial shifts. The chapter presents a summary drawn from a range of different
studies in which we were able to capture some common characteristics and
trigger points of “aha” moments. We then compared that information with
the learnings from our coaching research and our own experiences, and we
found a discrepancy that we could not easily explain. We found three major
distinctions in the types of shift that clients experienced, as well as differences
in magnitude, manifestation and timing of pivotal moments. Our research
and experiences showed an expanded perspective of what characterizes and
triggers such pivotal experiences. These findings led us to a fork in the road
and we chose to take the less travelled path.
Chapter 3, “Pivoting: The Extraordinary Power of Self-Organization,” pro-
poses a coach’s theory of igniting substantial change based on self-organization.
16 Pivoting
The interplay of the aspects of belief, inner knowing and memory, which
remains largely covert to clients and coaches, describes an inner process that is
interwoven, multicausal and cooperative—all reflecting the dynamic patterns
of self-organization. We explore the present moment as the access point for
coaches to exploit. Only in the present moment can clients both retrieve their
past and anticipate their future, literally engaging in a form of time travel to
help make sense of their current situation. Through focusing their attention,
coaches can help clients increase their level of self-awareness and harness the
energy of their emotions for action. There is much new research on the role of
positive emotions in increasing personal growth, development and capacity.
The chapter concludes with the notion of embodied cognition as a key coach-
ing strategy, broadening our notion of where bodily awareness originates and
extending it beyond the purely mental.
Chapter 4, “Accessing the Inner Self: Beliefs,” highlights the first of three key
aspects of inner process: beliefs, inner knowing and memory. It focuses on the
power of beliefs in influencing the direction of our lives. We show how igniting
substantial change involves self-organization at a non-conscious level. Such a
process creates an interplay of one’s beliefs, implicit memory and inner know-
ing, and it uses the magic of the present moment to bring an insight into con-
sciousness. We explain belief from the perspective of the tension between the
traditional scientific paradigm and the current emerging holistic paradigm, and
we illuminate how humans are socially wired for beliefs. At the non-conscious
level we hold beliefs that we are not aware of, yet they affect how we live our
lives, sometimes directly but more often indirectly. We demonstrate how beliefs
can be high-level attractors for change and explain how they are constructed as
part of an ever-changing interactive internal process. Beliefs play a major role
in the capacity of both coaches and clients to anticipate and encourage change.
Chapter 5, “Accessing the Inner Self: Knowing,” takes on the second aspect
of inner process—how knowing contributes to the ease and challenge of fol-
lowing our own path. We distinguish the act of knowing from the idea of
knowledge, and we describe how both modern and postmodern theories of
knowledge have influenced our coaching philosophies and methodologies.
Modes of knowing, in contrast, are active processes which coaches are con-
stantly making use of when working with clients. We argue that there is a
bandwidth of knowing in play whether we consciously acknowledge it or
not. We highlight these different ways of knowing that can be better accessed
for the benefit of both coaches and clients, and we suggest that all pivotal
moments necessarily include this component.
In Chapter 6, “Accessing the Inner Self: Memory,” we complete the pre-
sentation of the three aspects of inner process. In terms of consciousness,
humans don’t exist without memory because it is the holder of who we are
in the present. We trace the history of the predominant view of memory and
our unique human capacity to time travel. We describe some of the recent
amazing discoveries from neuroscience, especially in terms of non-conscious
associative memory networks and the role of priming in influencing human
thought, feeling and behaviour. We consider coach priming strategies to play
a key role in helping clients ignite substantial change.
In Chapter 7, “Turn of the Kaleidoscope,” we connect the theory and con-
cepts we’ve presented around igniting substantial change with concrete coach-
ing stories, strategies and actions. These tools are drawn from the experiences
of the master coaches we interviewed, and our own research and experiences
as executive coaches, coach researchers and coach trainers. We present the
power of priming and of knowing what stance we take as coaches. The prim-
ing tools we introduce include attention, feedback, discernment and making
the most of the present moment. We offer ways to incorporate the concept of
embodied or distributed cognition into our awareness as coaches, highlight-
ing the key role that metaphors play. We also take an in-depth look at the
importance of the coaching context as it relates to the client’s internal land-
scape (the interplay of beliefs, inner knowing and memory).
Chapter 8, “Finding Coherence,” concludes by describing a new science
of change that has emerged from our hermeneutic journey. It is based on the
experiences, discoveries and studies from our research project and incorpo-
rates perspectives from a range of fields. We feel that this new science helps to
illuminate our path forward as coaches. We present six foundational condi-
tions that we suggest are necessary for substantial change to occur. We share
our key learnings from participating in the hermeneutic circle of research:
the importance of social context and influence in coaching; learning how to
integrate embodied knowing in our coaching practice; focusing on reliable
measures to bring clients to higher levels of coherence; and absorbing core
concepts and actions regarding the nature of insight.
In each chapter of the book, we weave together learnings from our research
and our coaching, the experiences of the master coaches we interviewed, and
client stories.
2
What Is a Pivot?
What sort of God would it be, who only pushed from without?
—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
What is a pivot? This was the question we asked ourselves when we did an
initial literature review to better understand what happened when our clients
made substantial shifts. In our initial exploration we focused on studies of aha
moments but we quickly discovered that the phenomenon has been variously
described as cognitive insight, creative cognition, eureka moment, intuition
or insight, quantum change, and epiphany or transformation—all depend-
ing on the intensity of the experience and field of inquiry. We also wondered
in what ways insight differed from learning processes, and we included our
own life experiences in being coached through significant insights. In our
research we had observed clients making many learning shifts, frequent shifts
in perspective and even some quantum changes. Were they all pivots? What
specifically characterized a pivot or insight that would then distinguish it from
other forms of learning?
We soon determined that the path to better understanding the nature of
a pivot would not be a straightforward or uniform one. The effort seemed
worthy, however, because insight is considered to be at the core of human
intelligence and provides one of the most powerful ways to not only advance
human understanding but also produce influential scientific breakthroughs.1
1
Schilling (2005).

20 Pivoting
It seemed to us, as coaches, that this is what we are about as well—furthering

understanding and supporting breakthroughs for our clients.
Aha Moments: A Common Perspective

Eureka ! I have found it.
—Archimedes
Our initial literature review spanned neuroscience and cognitive psychology,

Gestalt psychology, social networking theory, belief systems theory, body/
mind research, studies on emotion, psychotherapy, family and systems health
research, transformational and spiritual literature, executive and life-coaching
studies and phenomenological coaching studies. Not surprisingly, we found
no definitive consensus about or understanding of what causes an experience
of insight or exactly where it comes from. There was some general agreement
on the characteristics of an aha moment, but explanations ranged from it
being a strictly cognitive phenomenon to it being a phenomenological experi-
ence holistic in its nature. However, we discovered some interesting highlights
that propelled us further down our initial path to decipher this mysterious
experience, an experience that we can all attest to having had. We found that
we could group the findings into two broad categories along a continuum:
those staying within the bounds of a more traditional scientific paradigm at
one end and those seeking a more holistic perspective at the other end.
Initial Literature Review: Scientific Paradigm to Holistic

Paradigm
Most scientific studies on aha moments come from experiments in cogni-

tive insight problem-solving in laboratory settings. This literature attempts
to define and explain the underlying mechanism of insights in a quantitative,
measurable manner and includes recent learnings from cognitive neurosci-
ence in the form of neuroimaging, such as electroencephalography (EEG) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).2 It also seeks to explain the
“eureka” moments of the discoveries of great minds such as Albert Einstein
and Archimedes (ancient Greek mathematician and inventor to whom the
term is attributed), and other highly creative individuals.3
2
Kounios and Beeman (2009).
3
Csikszentmihalyi and Sawyer (1995).
This field has a long and interwoven history of research involving problem-
solving, creative insight, innovative science, cognitive psychology and neuro-
science, all working to identify the elusive underlying mechanism of insight.
Cognitive psychologist Janet Metcalfe voiced the concern of researchers in
this area when she noted, “The persistent lack of a mechanism for insight,
linked with the charge that the notion of insight is somehow supernatural, has
shackled researchers … We do not yet understand insight.”4
Problem-solving Literature
The term “insight” has been used in different ways in the problem-solving
literature and a range of definitions can be found, a sample of which is
below:5
• an experience during or subsequent to problem-solving attempts, in which

problem-related content comes to mind with sudden ease and provides a
feeling of pleasure, the belief that the solution is true and confidence in this
belief;6
• a particular type of problem-solving sequence that happens when a prob-
lem cannot be solved using conventional stepwise methods and the
problem-solver suddenly realizes (the aha experience) that the solution
involves unconventional methods (the problem solver sees that the prob-
lem needs restructuring);7
• a type of problem situation where within the typically derived initial prob-
lem representation the goal cannot be reached and a restructured goal rep-
resentation is required for the solution;8
• the reorientation of one’s thinking, including breaking of the unwarranted
“fixation” and forming of novel, task-related associations among the old
nodes of concepts or cognitive skills.9
There are common themes underlying the concept of insight (suddenness,

restructuring or reorientation, difficulty or fixation) but it is used in different
4
Metcalfe (1995), p. x.
5
Ash, Jee and Wiley (2011).
6
Topolinski and Reber (2010), pp. 401–402.
7
Ollinger, Jones and Knoblich (2008), p. 208.
8
Gilhooly and Fioratou (2009), p. 356.
9
Luo and Niki (2003), p. 316.
22 Pivoting
ways in the definitions above.10 According to cognitive psychologist Ivan Ash

and colleagues, these definitions begin with a psychological experience, move
to a particular problem-solving sequence, then describe a type of problem
situation and finally cast insight as a problem-solving process.11 It is this
bewildering array of how the concept of insight is applied that makes it more
difficult to describe accurately.
Most cognitive researchers agree that, however insight occurs, it is differ-
ent from more typical learning processes and is often accompanied by an
emotional or affective response. It is usually defined as a process in which a
person moves suddenly from a state of not knowing how to solve a problem to
a state of knowing,12 and it is this process that distinguishes insight problem-
solving from routine problem-solving (i.e., incremental). Researchers differ in
their explanations of how cognitive insight occurs.13 For example, there are
theorists who hypothesize that automatic, unconscious processes are at work
in finding solutions.14 There is experimental evidence that supports this per-
spective, and neuroimaging studies using EEG and fMRI indicate that insight
may be the culmination of a series of brain states and processes operating on
different timescales.15
Other theorists propose that conscious active processes, such as planning,
monitoring and evaluating, are at work to find a solution.16 Such theorists
argue that insight and non-insight problems are still tackled and solved using
equivalent cognitive mechanisms.17 It has also been suggested that these two
approaches may be complementary in that together they might explain the
different phases of the insight process,18 or that they both have a role to play
in explaining insight, and that there are multiple ways in which insight can
be produced.19
Insight problem-solving experiments are primarily based on giving subjects
tasks (usually solving a puzzle of some kind) in a laboratory setting. The sub-
ject gets stuck on a task and is unable to make headway until they suddenly
10
Ash et al. (2011).
11
Ash et al. (2011).
12
Schilling (2005).
13
Ball and Stevens (2009).
14
Chu and MacGregor (2011).
15
Kounios and Beeman (2009).
16
Chu and MacGregor (2011).
17
Weisberg (2006).
18
Jones (2003).
19
break free of their unhelpful thoughts and are able to find a solution.20 Such
insight problem-solving appears to have three key features: (1) individuals,
after reflecting on the problem, reach a point of impasse; (2) insight into
the solution seems to emerge suddenly, giving rise to an aha experience; and
(3) problem-solvers find it difficult to describe the processes that help them
overcome the impasse, or the solution processes are simply non-reportable in
nature.21
From this literature we identified a specific definition of insight which did
not precisely match our client experiences in coaching but which did con-
tribute some pieces of the puzzle, namely that three features seem to under-
score most cognitive descriptions of insight or aha moments: reflection and
impasse, sudden awareness, and inability to explain cognitively where the aha
or solution came from.
Network Model of Cognitive Insight
Melissa Schilling, Professor of Management and Organizations at New York

University Stern School of Business, is recognized as a worldwide expert
on innovation and strategy in high-tech industries. Her textbook, Strategic
Management of Technological Innovation, is the number one innovation strat-
egy text in the world. She has devoted some of her academic study to bet-
ter explain the process of cognitive insight or sudden aha experiences.22 We
thought her perspective in bringing together the field of cognitive problem-
solving with adaptive systems theory might offer an alternative way to think
of insight.
Schilling pointed out how cognitive psychologists continue to struggle
with identifying any single underlying mechanism and she proposed a net-
work model of cognitive insight that integrates competing explanations into
a single, unified view.23 Like Metcalfe, she would like to reduce the likeli-
hood of viewing insight as a supernatural event because of the suddenness
and disconnectedness with which solutions arise.24 She instead suggested
that insights or quantum leaps of inspiration may arrive through known
20
Kaplan and Simon (1990).
21
22
Schilling (2005).
23
Schilling (2005).
24
Schilling (2005).
24 Pivoting
information-processing phases which are still amenable to scientific study and

explanation.25
Integrating research on social networks, graph theory, complex adap-
tive systems, connectionism and cognition, Schilling proposed that the
moment of insight may be the formation of new “small-world” network
properties in the mind. This is based on the premise that systems are rep-
resented as groups of nodes that are interconnected in some way in some
kind of relationship. Examples of such system relationships range from
physical wiring, relationships between buyers and sellers, familial relation-
ships and relationships between ideas. The role of deep knowledge clusters
in the mind brings both benefits and costs to the insight process in terms
of system impacts, according to Schilling. Some theorists have argued
that insightful people have built up large reservoirs of discipline-relevant
information (e.g., chess grand masters), which provide a richly connected
information network for them to draw on, such as more accurate patterns
of association.26 Other theorists have suggested that such prior experience
in a knowledge domain can inhibit creative problem-solving and result in
“functional fixedness” where an individual can think of using an object
only for its most common use.27
Schilling pointed to at least five prominent hypotheses on the process of
insight that incorporate unexpected connections as one of the underlying
mechanisms and all of which she finds congruent when viewed from a net-
work perspective.28 She built on the three features of the cognitive insight
process described above by emphasizing the role of unexpected connections:
(1) there is some type of problem-solving gap that needs to be resolved to
achieve coherence; (2) information needs to be reorganized in order to search
for a solution; (3) a mental block or impasse must be overcome in viewing
the problem; (4) a transference or abstraction of structural elements from one
problem to another problem may occur (includes priming or external sugges-
tions); and (5) some type of subconscious random recombination of ideas or
free association results in a solution.
Small-world analysis in social networks is rooted in work by mathematical
graph theorists. Research began in this area with studies estimating both the
average number of acquaintances that people possess and the probability of
two randomly selected members of a society being linked by a chain of no
25
Schilling (2005).
26
Schilling (2005).
27
Schilling (2005).
28
Schilling (2005).
more than two acquaintances.29 This type of research was popularized by psy-
chologist Stanley Milgram with his studies on links in social networks.30 His
work was featured in a play by John Guare in 1990, Six Degrees of Separation
which was later made into a movie. The premise was that everyone in the
world is connected to everyone else in the world by a chain of no more than
six acquaintances, hence “six degrees of separation.”
Schilling applied this small-worlds concept to cognitive networks to create
her unified theory of cognitive insight.31 Briefly, she posited that each case
of insight from a network perspective represents the addition or change of
nodes (elements or sets of information) and links (connections or relation-
ships between nodes) or both. While this process is not unlike typical learning
processes, the key difference is that insightful learning forges nodes or links
that result in a more substantive shift.32
In summary, Schilling proposed that cognitive insight occurs when an
atypical association results in a “shortcut” in an individual’s network of
representations. This causes a reorienting of the individual’s understand-
ing of the relationships within and among the affected representations and
may prompt a cascade of other connections. This atypical path could be
forged through a random recombination process or through subconscious
or conscious directed search.33 Schilling seeks to stay within the scientific
paradigm in her explanation of insight as a cognitive process and offers a
theory that incorporates the diverse findings found in insight problem-
solving studies. We found that her explanation was still unable to fully
account for moments of self-described epiphany that a few of our research
clients experienced.
Gestalt Concept of Insight
Gestalt psychology was a major contributor to developing a concept of insight

that went beyond a strictly cognitive definition and which revolutionized the
field of learning at the time. Ash and his colleagues provide us with a brief his-
tory of the development of the Gestalt concept of insight.34 In the early twenti-
29
Schilling (2005); researchers de Sola Pool and Kochen (1978).
30
Milgram (1967).
31
For a full account of her model, we refer to her article, “A ‘Small-World’ Network Model of Cognitive
Insight” (2005).
32
Schilling (2005).
33
Schilling (2005).
34
Ash et al. (2011).
26 Pivoting
eth century, psychology was becoming an empirically based and experimental

science, and theorists such as Alexander Bain proposed that all learning and
knowledge were based on passive association, linking mental processes with
physical sensations. This did not address spontaneous thoughts and ideas. He
was an early behaviourist relying on reinforcement and association to explain
creativity. This approach to psychology—assuming that all learning was based
on the building of incremental associations—was what the Gestalt movement
in psychology reacted against.
Gestalt psychologists proposed that in order to truly explain learning and
behaviour, theories must address internally generated relationships between
memories or ideas that are formed. This means that “any psychological pro-
cess or behavior that is based on an organism’s subjective internal mental rep-
resentation of a situation, and is not simply the objective co-occurrence of
environmental stimuli, would be an insight phenomenon.”35
The difference between the two learning approaches (behaviourist and
Gestalt) is interestingly demonstrated by Ash and colleagues by contrast-
ing the investigation of problem-solving behaviours of animals. Edward
Thorndike was an early proponent of behaviourist learning theory, and B. F.
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning was based on Thorndike’s ideas.
Thorndike put cats in a “puzzle box” containing different levers and switches,
one of which would release the cats from the box (desirable outcome). The
cats’ problem-solving behaviours started with random movements until they
happened to interact with the release device. Only over multiple trials did the
cats’ behaviour become less random and more focused on the release device.
The takeaway from this type of problem-solving behaviour was that solutions
were discovered slowly through trial and error and new information was only
acquired incrementally over time as the cats associated the release device with
the desirable outcome.
In contrast, Wolfgang Köhler, German psychologist, phenomenologist and
co-founder of Gestalt psychology, described a very different problem-solving
pattern in apes. He conducted experiments which significantly contributed
to the understanding of insight learning.36 He observed how chimpanzees
solved problems, such as reaching for bananas that were placed out of reach.
He watched how they stacked wooden crates to make ladders or used sticks
as limb extensions in order to grasp the food. Köhler concluded that the
chimpanzees were not succeeding through trial-and-error methods but rather
were insightful in how they purposefully found solutions. He proposed that
35
Ash et al. (2011), p. 4.
36
Köhler (1956).
when the initial attempts to solve the problem failed, the apes abandoned
behavioural trial-and-error strategies and began cognitive trial-and-error strat-
egies where they mentally searched for new functional relationships between
prior experiences, and it was this reasoning that led to the discovery of new
relationships.
Thus Gestalt psychologists described learning that involved internal cog-
nitive processes as “insight learning”, in contrast to gradual learning by
association.37 In addition, what is singular about Gestalt insight versus classic
problem-solving is that impasse or initial failure plays a central role in insight
learning.38 As Ash and colleagues pointed out, the original Gestalt conception
of insight was more encompassing than just a problem-solving mechanism
or generator of aha moments: it was a general principle that learning based
on reasoning or thinking (i.e., Gestalt) is qualitatively different from learn-
ing based on association (behaviourism).39 According to Ash et al., classic
insight problems were laboratory stimuli designed to be highly likely to lead
to fixation or impasse but with no guarantee that solvers actually experienced
impasse.
Gestalt psychology was considered by its proponents as a way of escap-
ing from the “prison” of behaviourist psychology with its focus on associa-
tions and which Köhler famously described as “the implication that human
life, apparently so colorful and so intensely dynamic, is actually a frightful
bore.”40 As a school of thought, Gestalt psychology focused on the nature
of perception as a process by which humans interpret and organize sensa-
tions to produce meaningful experiences of the world. Gestalt (German for
“whole”) founded a new holistic attitude towards psychology and Köhler
is well known for his quote: “The whole is different from the sum of its
parts.” One of the basic tenets of Gestalt theory is that humans do not
perceive the world discretely but rather they grasp the whole before the
individual parts enter consciousness using continuous whole processes in
the brain.41 For example, we do not think of a car as an amalgam of its parts
(fenders, engine, seats, windshields) but rather as a whole idea greater than
its parts—an automobile.
We found that Gestalt research more closely reflected what we observed
with our clients and experienced in our own moments of substantive change,
37
Ash et al. (2011).
38
Ash et al. (2011).
39
Ash et al. (2011), p. 24.
40
Köhler (1959).
41
Wagemans (2015).
28 Pivoting
moving us towards the holistic end of the continuum. The Gestalt stance did
indeed seem to bring more “colour” into our attempt to describe these differ-
ent kinds of change we witnessed or heard about from clients. Gestalt theory
is also well known for its visual figure-ground perception which we found to
be a significant perspective in exploring how coaches draw on different modes
of knowing when working with clients.
Insight and Intuition
Another area of research we reviewed related the concepts of insight and intu-
ition. Two examples were from psychotherapy, one exemplifying the scientific
paradigm and the other reflecting a holistic paradigm. A third writer defined
insight and intuition from the perspective of the arts, science, mathematics
and religion.
Hans Welling, a psychologist in Lisbon, Portugal, considered intuition
to be a common factor in psychotherapy and proposed a five-phase process
model to explain how intuition plays a direct role in therapists’ hunches, hid-
den insights and uncanny feelings that turn out to be important to therapy.42
His perspective was focused on explaining the practitioner’s insight rather
than the client’s. He proposed that intuition is a cognitive process based on
pattern discovery and recognition and not the counterpart of rational thought
or some type of direct knowing. He defined it as a process in which knowl-
edge is increasingly revealed through a cognitive unfolding but which is also
an integrative process that the mind uses when dealing with new and complex
information. He proposed that both intuition and insight reside within a
purely cognitive perspective. He acknowledged, however, that there seems to
exist an inner compass that accompanies the decoding process of intuition
that needs further investigation. He also could not adequately account for the
“feeling of knowing”43 that is often experienced.
Psychotherapist Clara Hill wrote Helping Skills: Facilitating Exploration,
Insight and Action.44 She speaks from the perspective of helping clients achieve
new understandings about themselves, their thoughts, their feelings and their
behaviours. Although clients can and certainly do achieve insight on their
own, she noted that hearing new ideas and receiving feedback from caring
helpers with a different perspective can help clients develop a deeper level of
42
Welling (2005).
43
Welling (2005), p. 43.
44
Hill (2009).
awareness and understanding. She proposed a three-stage model incorporat-

ing exploration, insight and action.
Hill defined insight as helping clients see things from a new perspective,
making connections between things and understanding why things happen.
She described insight as not only a sudden aha but also incorporating what
Carl Rogers defined as something that comes gradually as the person devel-
ops sufficient psychological strength to endure new perspectives.45 For Hill,
insight must be emotional as well as intellectual so that it can then lead to
action; in other words, it must be deeply felt as well as cognitively under-
stood. The emotional insight helps create a sense of personal involvement
and responsibility which can then result in behaviour change. In Hill’s insight
stage, therapists focus on fostering awareness and facilitating insight, and she
defined the helper’s role as coaching the client to gain insight rather than
being the one to provide it. She recommended numerous interventions to
help clients attain insights, including interpretations, probes for insight and
thoughtful questions. Hill has also participated in numerous studies on the
attainment of insight using dream work.46 A recent investigation by Baumann
and Hill indicated that when therapists used probes for insight, the clients
gained more versus less insight during the insight stage.47 We found Hill’s
work with insight to more closely resemble what we were experiencing with
our clients.
Researcher and writer Kathleen Housley explored the similarity of the
concepts of insight and intuition in religion and the arts to those in science
and mathematics, including their attribution of aha moments to super-
natural causes.48 According to Housley, ambiguity was an essential compo-
nent in the definitions of both insight and intuition. She pointed out how
insight can either mean a deep understanding that comes slowly, arising from
prior knowledge, or be an instantaneous breakthrough that comes ex nihilo.
Intuition, on the other hand, she defined as an inner knowing that seems to
appear without use of rational thought or observation. She identified some
common emotions and feelings that pertain to both insight and intuition: a
sense of intensity; a sense of timing and time (as in something momentous is
happening); feelings of surprise, even joy, when it occurs (think eureka!); and
the frustration of explaining in words what one has just experienced.
45
Rogers (1942).
46
Hill et al. (2006), Hill et al. (2007), Knox, Hill, Hess and Crook-Lyon (2008).
47
Baumann and Hill (2008).
48
Housely (2009).
30 Pivoting
She noted that philosopher and mathematician Kurt Gödel experienced

mathematical intuition as a kind of “knowing” that defied mathematical
formulation (like a sixth sense). In contrast, Catholic theologian Bernard
Lonergan, who penned a monumental work on insight,49 saw moments of
insight as an indication of the very existence of God. Housley found a biblical
parallel in the Hebrew phrase “seeing the thunder” (Exodus 20:18) when the
Israelites are gathered at the base of Mount Sinai while God speaks to Moses
on the mountain. The people hear voices and trumpets. They see flames,
clouds and lightning, but they also see the thunder, suggesting that insight
is perceived by the total self, not just a single sense. This implies the neces-
sity for watchfulness and preparedness, a state of full sensory alertness. One
also needs to recognize the significance of an insight, once it occurs, and to
integrate it. In addition, according to Housley, the role of action in creating
the situation in which insight can occur was also prevalent in Jewish religious
thought. She viewed this perspective as important for understanding insight
because it clarified that anyone —not just gifted mathematicians and scien-
tists—can experience insight.
Housley went on to critique psychological and biological studies of insight
based on word games, visual brain teasers and math puzzles as not insight but
a normal form of mental processing drawing on underlying methodologies
and patterns that a good puzzle-solver figures out, either suddenly or slowly.
She also saw flaws with the visual problem-solving studies. For example, peo-
ple who do well in these tests tend to have strong visual skills, can move
objects around in their mind’s eye and can keep track of patterns, all specific
intelligence skills that not all people possess.
For Housley, another major difficulty with using puzzles to study insight is
that the person knows there is an answer and that the puzzle has been solved
many times. The individual also knows that some kind of mental restructur-
ing is necessary so they are already primed to try a radically different approach.
On the other hand, when Isaac Newton asked about the nature of gravity, he
didn’t know there was an answer. In fact, scientists and mathematicians often
don’t know if their questions even make sense. To Housley, one more serious
difference between insight problems and true insight was that test problems
are “knowledge-lean,” meaning that the test-taker doesn’t need to possess any
specific body of knowledge to solve them whereas scientists and mathemati-
cians work within rich domains of knowledge.
Housley questioned the premise of the psychological approach that insight
is preceded by a problem or impasse. She stated that many examples from
49
Longergan (1957).
science and mathematics show insight coming unbidden and unburdened

in a profoundly holistic manner as experienced by scientists such as Gödel
and astrophysicist Roger Penrose. Housley again used the phrase “seeing the
thunder” to describe a way of perceiving in which the total self, not just a
single sensory apparatus, is actively involved. We appreciated Karen Housley’s
perspective as truly expansive and discerning.
Insight and Body–Mind Connection
This research emphasized the holistic aspect of pivotal moments and sug-
gested the body–mind connection as a viable way to access aha experiences.
Researcher in kinesiology and health sciences Vietta Wilson and colleagues
proposed that aha experiences are natural ways to help individuals become
aware of their internal processes and to understand how mind and body affect
each other.50 They assert that the aha experience can change the person’s belief
system, lead to awareness and increase their sense of control, thereby enhanc-
ing their confidence and competence. They began with bodily movement
and activities (somatics) to trigger an aha experience that they consider is felt
rather than explained. They provided some examples of somatic techniques
that experience has shown evoke the aha effect:
• Aeroplane movement with the arms to increase body rotation results in the
aha experience that any tension in the body affects the whole;
• Threading the Needle movement demonstrates how precise work causes
body tensing and immobility leading to an aha;
• Arm Lift by Partner generates an aha awareness about the effect of negative
emotions in the body.
They noted that practitioners should be prepared for individuals to become

stuck before they are able to understand, reintegrate or perform. They began
with the body as the entry point to insight as opposed to the cognitive
researchers who use mind puzzles to trigger aha moments.
In her Quantum Skills for Coaches: A Handbook for Working with Energy and
Body-Mind in Coaching, Annette Simmons used quantum physics to define an
intuitive process which focuses on the interconnection between the body and
mind through energetic (vibratory) resonance.51 She proposed that thoughts
50
Wilson, Peper and Gibney (2004).
51
Simmons (2009).
32 Pivoting
and language have energetic vibration and that individuals actually become
the essence of the thoughts they think and the words they speak. Thus they
develop “energetic footprints” from their life experiences that are lodged in
the energy form of their bodies. She suggested that coaches should go beyond
cognitive limitations when working with clients and connect directly to the
client’s body-mind. This can impact clients who then feel an energy shift from
within and experience an aha moment. In her model the body understands
the aha experience first and then informs the brain, primarily using the energy
of emotions in the present moment. Her model incorporated such approaches
as neurolinguistic programming (NLP), psychodrama, cognitive-based ther-
apy, kinesiology and emotional intelligence.
Quantum Change, Epiphany and Transformation
Another category of research literature included studies and writings on pro-

found experiences of insight. These were variously described as quantum shifts,
epiphanies, transformational experiences and defining moments. As we found
some of our coaching clients self-describing their pivotal moments as “epipha-
nies,” we considered it necessary to briefly review this type of literature as well.
When an electron is hit by a photon of light, it absorbs the energy of the pho-
ton and jumps to a higher energy state. In fact, it can suddenly and spectacularly
jump up to a higher and expanded orbit, an instantaneous transition that can be
applied as a metaphor for sudden psychological or mystical transformations.52
William Miller, a psychologist at the University of New Mexico, used the

term “quantum change” to refer to sudden, dramatic and enduring transfor-
mations that affect a range of personal emotion, cognition and behaviour, and
which occur both within and (mostly) outside psychotherapy.53 In his clinical
field of addictions, Miller revealed that it is common to encounter reports of sud-
den and permanent transformations, often spiritually profound. In his research
he was surprised to find that transformational change had rarely been addressed
in modern psychology and that there was not even a psychological term for the
phenomenon. While there have been discussions within humanistic psychology
of profound subjective experiences, such as mystical and peak experiences, they
have typically been ones that could not account for abrupt, enduring change.54
52
Wood (2006).
53
Miller (2004).
54
Maslow (1971).
In a book they co-authored, Miller and fellow psychologist Janet C’de Baca
shared the results of a study in which they interviewed 55 people from all
walks of life who had experienced discontinuous transformational changes,
and from these accounts they were able to identify some characteristics of
quantum change.55 They found the following commonalities: distinctiveness
(people knew that something extraordinary was happening to them); sur-
prise (their experience was unbidden and uninvited); benevolence (the expe-
riences were often joyful and freeing, and the individuals felt safe, loved and
accepted); and permanence (they felt changed permanently and often at the
level of personality). Miller observed that part of the permanence seemed to
be that quantum changes occurred at the level of identity—people experi-
enced more than just a change in behaviour; they felt truly transformed.
Miller also identified two types of quantum change. First, the mystical
(epiphany) type is considered to be more dramatic (think Joan of Arc), lasts
a few minutes and the experience is distinctly different from normal con-
sciousness. It often leaves the person altered in benevolent and permanent
ways. Second, the insightful type of quantum change occurs more within the
conceptual world of psychotherapy but still incorporates sudden realization
or knowing that is different from aha insights of ordinary experience. The
effect seems to be a reorganization of one’s perceptions of self and reality,
accompanied by intense emotion and a cathartic sense of relief and release.
Miller also identified some common areas of transformation in the narratives:
sudden release from chronic negative emotion (e.g., fear, resentment, depres-
sion, anger) replaced by a pervasive sense of well-being, safety and joy; often
an abrupt and enduring shift in one’s central values (e.g., possessions are no
longer as important); changes in relationships from superficial to deeper with
greater intimacy; and sometimes feeling interconnected with all of humanity
and creation.
Another perspective on personal transformation is the concept of “defin-
ing moments”, as articulated by researchers CaSondra Devine, and leadership
and organization development professor, William Sparks, at McColl School
of Business, Queens University in Charlotte, North Carolina.56 They viewed
personal transformation as an evolutionary process or as an instantaneous
event, such as a dilemma or tragedy that disrupts the order of life. They drew
on the transformative learning research of Jack Mezirow with his ten steps to
a new perception of the world, as well as from religious theorists W. H. Clark
and James E. Loder. They found some interesting commonalities around
55
Miller and C’de Baca (2001).
56
Devine and Sparks (2014).
34 Pivoting
stages of transformation in the areas of religious experience and behaviour

that are merged and summarized here: unrest and conflict or disorienting
dilemma; self-examination; search for a resolution or exploration of options;
conversion crisis (sudden breakthrough) or intuitive insight; release and open-
ness for new patterns of thinking and being; sense of peace, release and inner
harmony; and interpretation, verification and reintegration.57 Mezirow’s ten
steps of transformative learning theory did not include sudden insight.
Coaching Studies
Finally, we reviewed some coaching studies focused on aha moments and

insight-oriented coaching, one based on phenomenological research and
two on the use of insight-oriented methodology in executive coaching
engagements.
Psychologist and coach Leigh Longhurst58 used phenomenological meth-
odology in a study of the aha moment using the Co-Active Model of life
coaching59 to explore whether psychological aha moments were fundamental
to transformational change. She reduced first-person accounts to common
themes through a grounded theory analysis. Co-Active coaches collected data
from client participants in the form of diaries that captured the lived experi-
ence of the aha moment, and they supplemented them with questionnaires
and interviews. Longhurst considered life coaching as belonging to the field
of “insight” psychology alongside psychotherapy, Gestalt and transpersonal
psychology. She thought the phenomenon of insight should be studied in its
own right and not confined to the role of cognitive problem-solving tasks.
Longhurst defined the aha moment as the prime device by which clients in
life coaching achieve transformational change. The results of her study, pre-
sented within Ken Wilbur’s Spectrum of Consciousness60 framework, showed
that aha moments could be experienced at varying levels of intensity and that
they were felt in the body as well as, or instead of, in the mind. Respondent
accounts described aha moments as if they were an “orchestral affair” inte-
grating body experiences (sudden rush of energy felt in heart, chest, stomach,
gut or solar plexus); mind experiences (changes in perspectives or beliefs and
a releasing of negative self-talk or thinking patterns); felt experiences (relief,
calm, excitement, inner knowing or intuition); soul experiences (uncovering
57
White (2004).
58
Longhurst (2006).
59
Whitworth, Kimsey-House and Sandahl (1998).
60
Wilbur (1989).
deeply held values, sense of connection with others/the universe); spiritual

experiences (beyond the physical body, epiphany); and non-dual experiences
(subject/object duality shattered, sense of interconnectedness with all things).
She proposed that aha moments were best understood in terms of holistic
body-mind theories that see the whole organism as conscious and purposive.
She articulated some observations/conclusions:
• The difference between an aha moment and just learning something new is
that the aha is felt in the body.
• Changes in perspectives, beliefs, self-talk, decision-making powers and
clarity of ideas are labelled as a core category of mind experiences. Mental
aha moments have to do with a change in beliefs or perspectives, or
strengthening of the ego through releasing negative thinking patterns.
• Felt experiences of aha moments are always associated with relief, peace,
calm, sometimes excitement and an “inner knowing” or intuition.
• Unearthing of hidden values to build life purpose and meaning can be a
central function of the aha moment.
• Reports of experiencing beyond the realms of the physical body are labelled
spiritual experiences, such as inner knowing or intuition.
• Aha moments can occur at any level and depth on the spectrum of con-
sciousness with insight occurring at the mental level, intuition happening
at the level of the soul, and epiphany experienced at the level of the spirit.
Two further case studies61 described successful executive coaching engage-

ments that were based, among other methodologies, on insight-oriented
coaching. Such coaching focused on psychological insights into limiting pat-
terns and then action that resulted in successful outcomes. In one case study,
executive coach Karol Wasylyshyn62 worked with a CEO client applying four
methodology factors: a holistic approach (work–family integration); deep
behavioural insight; active involvement of top corporate executives; and sus-
tained relationships. In the course of the coaching, the client experienced a
psychological insight that had important implications for his personal life and
for his interaction with leadership. Wasylyshyn used a technique she created
called the “visual metaphor,” which showed self-described representations of
the client in current, transitional and future leadership states.
61
Wasylyshn (2005), Wasylyshyn, Gronsky and Haas (2006).
62
Wasylyshn (2005).
36 Pivoting
The second case study described survey results of a commissioned coach-

ing programme to improve emotional competence in a global company.63
An insight-oriented coaching approach called VISTA was applied. This
was designed to deliver psychological insight and to influence sustained
behavioural change. It was based on an empirically tested model of brief psy-
chotherapy that integrated psychoanalytic, interpersonal, object relations,
self-psychology, and cognitive-behavioural and systems approaches. Clinical
psychologist Hannah Levenson’s64 cyclical maladaptive pattern was applied
to help clients change any idiosyncratic vicious cycles or patterns involving
self-perpetuating behaviours, self-defeating expectations and negative self-
appraisals. The approach used a rapid sequence of delivering and applying
insight, supporting clients’ courage to change (through a pragmatic coaching
agenda) and providing positive reinforcement of progress/sustained efforts.
Literature Review Summary

The exploration process we went through, which involved matching existing
research and theory to our observed and personal experiences, brought up
more questions than answers but also provided some useful data. For exam-
ple, we were able to summarize the common characteristics of aha moments
and their potential triggers from among the diverse studies of inquiry (Tables
2.1 and 2.2).
We also realized that insight or aha moments were more of an embodied
experience than we had anticipated. Limiting our exploration to only the cog-
nitive psychological sphere would not give us full comprehension of insight.
Instead we needed to complement the cognitive and neuroscience studies
with a descriptive, first-person phenomenological account of how insight is
experienced. We found other researchers who thought similarly.
Psychologists Diego Cosmelli and David D. Preiss with the Pontificia
Universidad Católico de Chile in Santiago are looking to better understand
the experience of creative insight using both biological and biographical evi-
dence.65 They proposed that the phenomenon of creative insight has a dynamic
past–future interplay that may be at the core of the experience.66 They pointed
out how the cognitive problem-solving process restricts the concept of creativ-
63
Wasylyshn et al. (2006).
64
Levenson (1995).
65
Cosmelli and Preiss (2014).
66
Table 2.1 Research Characteristics of aha moments

results on characteristics
of aha moments Preceded by impasse
Change in attitude
Sudden clarity
Shift in belief
Physical response
Emotional response
Sense of inner knowing
New neural connections made
Sudden awareness (holistic in
nature)
Table 2.2 Research Potential triggers of aha moments

results on triggers of aha
moments Impasse
Directing attention
Shifting of thinking patterns
Shifting of emotional patterns
Using body intelligence &
movement
Shifting language
Exposing belief patterns
New neural connections made
ity to a specific task and moment in time when it is clear that short-term activ-
ities and experiences are always embedded within longer periods of time.67
They further noted how the time-restricted insight problem-solving approach
has had a long history, extending back to the Gestalt movement. At that time,
however, problem-solving behaviour was observed in open-ended situations
as in Köhler’s work with chimpanzees. They pointed out that by the end of the
twentieth century, experiments were primarily conducted with closed-ended
problems and characterized as only sudden and abrupt.
In building the elements for a phenomenology of creative insight, Cosmelli
and Preiss proposed that the moment of insight is quite similar to a “tip-of-
the-tongue” experience in which the insight is not necessarily a quick aha
but can be protracted.68 Insights make sense because they are a combination
of recognizing the previous context in light of the new context—a past- and
future-oriented interplay. Cosmelli and Preiss suggested that the spontaneous
occurrence of aha moments makes them a natural target for phenomenologi-
cal inquiry since they are part of the ongoing flow of experience. We agreed.
67
68
38 Pivoting
We compared the information from our literature review to the learn-

ings from our coaching research and our own experiences, and we found a
discrepancy that we could not easily explain. As we said earlier, these findings
led us to a fork in the road and we took the less travelled way.
Aha Moments: An Expanded Perspective

When Ann began coaching her, Irene was a newly appointed high-level executive
in a federal agency and was hoping to learn and develop in her new role.69 She
was challenged in a number of ways in her new position. First, she reported to a
demanding and mercurial boss. Second, she had been promoted up the ranks for
her ability to get things done and for her excellent people skills. Now, however, she
was expected to learn how to manage strategically, not tactically, at her new level.
Third, she had an ingrained pattern of taking care of those under her supervision,
often at personal cost to herself. In the coaching, Irene revealed how difficult it was
to learn how to trust and delegate accountability to her direct reports while at the
same time shielding them from her aggressive boss. She was convinced she should
know in detail everything going on in her department. She knew that the stress
of seeking to “do it all” was impacting her overall ability to lead. But it was not
until more than half-way through the coaching that she began to understand how
much her old pattern of taking care of others was actually fostering a “propping up”
dynamic of which she took the brunt. She realized she needed to spend more time
“being” a strategic leader and less time “doing” things that were the responsibility
of others. She also observed how her perceived weak points or shortfalls were actu-
ally leadership opportunities for those she managed.
Over the Christmas break, something happened to Irene that she was excited
to report at the next coaching session. As she told it, she was working out on her
treadmill at home when she was struck by a self-described “epiphany.” She sud-
denly “knew” at a deep integrative level that most of her professional life she had
put others before herself and had cared more for them than for her own well-being.
It was a deep knowing that had an immediate and strong impact on how she
wanted to view herself moving forward—to be first in her own life. The results of
this deep insight enabled her to consciously shift to a sense of identity which now
incorporated her own feelings of worth. The rest of the coaching engagement was
devoted to setting up actions and processes that would support her reorganized
sense of identity.
69
We have changed the name of clients in the coaching stories to protect their anonymity.
Ann was struck by how this client’s pivot, self-described as an “epiphany,”

represented aspects of a more expanded perspective of aha moments. The
deep knowing aspect of this type of insight is difficult to explain within the
scientific paradigm. It did not occur in aid of solving a puzzle or while being
creative in resolving a situation. It resembled more what Carol Rogers iden-
tified as something that comes gradually as an individual develops enough
psychological strength to embrace a new perspective or sense of self.70 It was
similar to what Kathleen Housley described as a deep understanding that
comes slowly, or that William Miller categorized as a mystical or insightful
type of quantum change that left the client altered in a benevolent and per-
manent way. It appeared to be a reorganization of her perceptions about self
and reality.
The awareness moment occurred well into the coaching engagement fol-
lowing many conversations regarding the limitations of her current patterns
and the opportunities that were available for her to find new ways of leading.
What caused the awareness to occur when it did? Was there a tipping point?
What, if anything, did Ann’s coaching contribute? The outcome was clear:
the client experienced an internal shift that enabled her to find a new, higher
level of coherence about her life. As her coach, Ann could sense the difference
in her client pre- and post-Christmas epiphany; it felt like interacting with a
different person.
Coaching Research Project

What are the breadth and depth of the role we play in supporting our clients
to positively reframe their unwanted perceptions and perspectives? We won-
dered what happened when our clients had aha moments, a deep insight or
even a shift in perspective. What caused these changes to happen? What influ-
ence did we exert? What were we not yet aware of in terms of our interaction
with clients? It was clear that we as coaches did not plan or predict when these
shifts might happen and that our clients shared in the surprise when they
occurred. It seemed that clients who experienced shifts in perception seemed
able to transform their limiting belief systems or habits of mind and move
towards greater self-direction. This process of “meaning-making” has been
defined by psychologist Robert Kegan as a person’s “ever progressive motion
70
Rogers (1942).
40 Pivoting
engaged in giving itself a new form.”71 At times, this new form can be a sub-
stantial or transformational change.
As Appreciative coaches, we hold the belief and stance that new realities can
flow from a reinterpretation or a reframing of a situation or aspect of life. This is
based on the Poetic Principle, one of the foundational elements of Appreciative
Coaching. As co-developers of the Appreciative Coaching model, we have built
on this principle to identify the actual “event” of pivoting. We have defined it as
a key moment in coaching when clients come to a new realization. We use the
term “pivots” to name these key opportunities that appear in coaching.
Clearly, these are important concepts in our approach, which originate
from the generative (not problem-solving) philosophy underlying Appreciative
Coaching. We start with constructive and positive premises regarding change.
Our major focus is helping clients to shift to the positive, to what they want,
to solutions (thus pivoting them away from the negative, what they don’t want,
problems). It seemed a natural next step for us to explore how we could support
this occurrence more often, more consistently and at deeper levels. In essence,
we wondered what needs to happen to better understand the capacity and power
of these pivots so we could help clients bring more of their best and true selves
to light. We started our research project with the following questions in mind:
1. What does a pivotal moment look like? What are its characteristics?
2. Where and when does it happen?
3. What conditions support it?
4. What role do coaches play?
5. How do we contribute to clients experiencing pivotal moments?
Coaching Research Design
Our study used an interpretive research design based on the hermeneutic cir-
cle of study, which involves making sense of experience and putting what is
learned into practice. It included:
• Phenomenological reflection: the study of lived experience through retro-

spective reflection of something that can’t be “solved”—only more deeply
understood;
• Hermeneutics: the study of interpreting and understanding something that
“appears” in personal experience.
71
Kegan (1982), p. 8.
We incorporated our interpretive point of view as it developed over time

into our reflective practice, drawing on formal theory and research, our coach-
ing experiences and those of other master coaches. These became our sources
of information as we wrestled with sorting out the research and experiences
describing the phenomenon of pivotal moments. Our research components
included:
• examining our own coaching through the review of transcripts;

• undertaking an initial literature review on the topic of insight and aha
moments;
• presenting our preliminary findings to master coach audiences to gain fur-
ther understanding and perspective;
• collecting and tape recording stories of pivotal moments from master
coaches;
• reviewing transcripts for evidence of pivotal moments and any coach strat-
egies related to pivotal moments;
• incorporating the pivotal moments we witnessed in our clients from our
coaching practices;
• bringing our personal learnings and sharing from our own stories of pivotal
moments;
• developing our theory as we conducted our research;
• writing this book as part of the hermeneutic circle of understanding and
interpretation, further developing, deepening and organizing our thoughts.
We worked with 12 executive coaching clients, each one coached by phone for
nine one-hour sessions over a period of six to nine months. We audiotaped and
transcribed all of the sessions then conducted a grounded theory analysis of the
transcripts. While coaching, we completed structured protocols before and after
each session, as well as phenomenological reflections on identifying the degree
and type of pivotal moments, language used, client’s affective responses and the
appearance/interplay of Appreciative Coaching principles. We also recorded the
coaches’ feelings, sense of timing and any coach learnings resulting during the
session. Clients completed pre- and post- questionnaires and final reflections.
Initial Coaching Research Learnings
Our research yielded a number of key learnings around the range of client
experiences of substantial or incremental change. First, we observed three
major magnitudes of shifts in our clients:
42 Pivoting
Pivotal
Moment
Integration/Coherence
Amount of
learning
Time
Fig. 2.1 Emergence of pivotal moments
1. Learning shifts: acquiring a new skill but not changing one’s inner values or
associated belief system; similar to routine or “puzzle”-induced cognitive
problem-solving;
2. Shifts in perspective: changing an inner value and associated belief system
but retaining the same sense of identity; shift in patterns involving experi-
ence of insight;
3. Quantum shifts: changing one’s inner sense of self-identity often described
as defining moments, epiphanies or insights; often representing a shift
from a wounded identity to a healed one.
All of our research clients were subject to some type of learning shift as a
result of the coaching. Most experienced some shift in perspective during the
coaching but only a few underwent quantum shifts. As a result of these learn-
ings, we identified a range of pivotal moments with only shifts in perspective
and quantum shifts involving an inner change of value, beliefs or identity.
These changes involved an experience of insight (mild to intense) and brought
greater coherence to clients’ sense of self. We based these definitions of self-
organizing levels of belief and change on the work of Robert Dilts, well-known
developer, author, trainer and consultant in the field of NLP.72
Our research also revealed that the manifestation of shifts differs. These
experiences can be immediate aha or eureka (creative insight) moments or
liminal shifts of slow awakening that include phases of letting go or breaking
down to make a new whole and/or slow hunches developing over time and
building through connections (Fig. 2.1).
We proposed that all pivotal moments are the result of a combination of
the amount of learning, length of time and level of integration or coherence
72
Dilts (1996, 1998).
Immediate, sudden aha moments Liminal (over time), gradual awakening.

“Not there … there” phenonmenon
Fig. 2.2 Variant manifestations of pivotal moments
experienced. We found differences in the manifestation of the shifts (immedi-

ate or liminal) and in their timing, which could be during a coaching session
(in person or on a call), in between coaching sessions (offline) or after the end
of a coaching engagement (Fig. 2.2).
John was a new CEO of a for-profit hospital. While not new to being in a CEO
position, he was new to the healthcare field. He was struggling with bringing his
leadership team together, some members of which resented having a CEO come from
outside healthcare. He began to question his leadership abilities and spent numerous
coaching sessions expressing his insecurity and doubts about being able to build a
cohesive team. He and Ann spent time exploring the origins of his doubts, and talk-
ing about his ability to transfer and apply his leadership team skills from his former
position. Ann had known him in his previous CEO role and observed him as very
effective with his leadership team. She suspected that his lack of content knowledge
regarding the healthcare field was interfering with the application of his known team
skills. He was agitated during the coaching calls. Then there was a break between
coaching sessions. When Ann next talked to him, John showed up to the meeting as
a different person. Gone was the agitation, self-doubt and insecurity. In its place was
his usual confidence and positive energy about leading team members. Ann could
immediately sense the difference and queried him. John’s response was nonchalant,
acknowledging that he felt fine once he remembered he was father of a large family
and was accustomed to working as a team at both home and work. It remained a
non-issue for the remainder of the coaching engagement.
Ann was surprised by how John had moved from a place of “not there”
(unresolved situation) to now being “there” (situation resolved). What aspects
44 Pivoting
A gradual shift
in perspective
Not
There
there
Fig. 2.3 Slow awakening
of their previous coaching, if any, had contributed to John’s shift in awareness?

He did not articulate what had caused the shift or if it came as an insight,
unlike Irene’s epiphany, which she was more than happy to share in great
detail and with much emotion. Was John’s a learning shift or was it a slow
pivotal moment, insightful in nature? As coach, Ann experienced a sudden
shift in John’s sense of presence from when she had last coached him. It was a
strange sense of moving from “not there” to “there” (Fig. 2.3).
Overall, more of the research clients seemed to experience substantial shifts
via liminal or gradual shifts in perception. The liminal process of aware-
ness seems to parallel the pattern of chaotic systems of self-organization in
which new structures evolve out of the interplay between randomness and
order.73 Liminal shifts seem to involve a state of “creative space and time”
during which clients experience a period of transition where normal limits
to thought, self-understanding and behaviour are relaxed, allowing for a state
which leads to new perspectives. Such states of liminality are like a threshold
or “realm of pure possibility whence novel configurations of ideas and rela-
tions may arise.”74 We wondered how this learning might impact our role as
facilitators and primers of change.
From analysing the transcripts, we had already gleaned an initial list of
priming actions and behaviours that we had engaged in and which will be
presented in Chap.7. There have been many neuroscience priming research
experiments over the years which substantiate the significance of the level of
influence that coaches could have with their clients. We became keenly aware
that as coaches we are constantly priming and encouraging our clients to
think and act differently. From these learnings, we developed a simple model
incorporating what we have discovered so far about the “chain” of events in
coaching sessions that impact our clients’ ability to change. From the litera-
73
Mills (2002).
74
Turner (1967), p. 97.
Coach’s role/action to
inspire the client
Different
Self-
Triggers Priming understanding
organization
& action
Sudden awareness or
period of liminality
Fig. 2.4 The coaching ”chain” of events
ture review, we had identified some triggers that seemed to support substan-
tive change, and we knew that the power of pivots was an important factor in
facilitating clients in different types of inner self-organization, whether sud-
den or over time (Fig. 2.4).
By this point we knew we had enough information and validation for us to
further explore what made up a pivotal moment and what role coaches play.
We identified three key factors we knew were essential to igniting substantial
change:
1. Focusing the client’s attention on what they want to change to and move
towards (not what they don’t want);
2. Using priming strategies as a way to act as catalysts for clients (they need
help to make new connections);
3. Recognizing that shifts in perception occur initially non-consciously, then
rise to consciousness as an insight or aha (therefore they cannot be pre-
dicted or controlled by coach or client).
Stepping Forward on the Path Less Travelled

Our literature review and analysis of coaching transcripts led us to propose that
pivotal moments are subjective lived experiences of dynamic self-organization
that seem holistic in their integrative impact on clients. We learned that beliefs
were attractors for change and played a key role in how open or closed clients
and coaches would be to the process of transformation. We were already aware
46 Pivoting
of how we personally used different modes of inner knowing when coach-

ing, from deep empathy to expert intuition. And we discovered that we were
already adept at priming our clients (like any experienced/master coach),
which is a key construct in associations in memory. Besides making connec-
tions, memory is also the holder of who we are.
We determined that our model of pivotal moments would include the areas
of attention, priming, emotions, beliefs, inner knowing and memory. In terms
of access, we became even clearer about how precious the present moment is
when working with clients.
3
Pivoting: The Extraordinary Power
of Self-Organization
Access and expression are both conditions of the present.

—A Course of Love
A Coach’s Theory for Igniting Substantial Change

How does it happen: the miracle of change we are privileged to observe and
co-experience—these pivots our clients make? As coaches, we were both fasci-
nated and humbled by our clients’ capacity and courage to overcome obstacles,
to shift their limiting perspectives and, in some cases, to reorganize their sense
of self-identity. Through our research we began to assemble the components
we recognized and experienced as happening in real time with our clients that
could feasibly contribute to a coach’s theory for igniting substantial change.
We saw that access to their inner process was not only essential but also
fruitful for clients to discover their true choices in life. Through the coach-
ing process, the interplay of their beliefs, their inner knowing and the con-
nective aspect of their memory could be stimulated to allow for reframing
and new possibilities. As coaches we recognized that the present moment
was an access point for us to interact and participate with our clients at this
deeper level. Our coaching conversation was the potent time and place for
this to occur.
Expression, we observed, is what happens as a result of making optimal
use of the access we have. Coaching in its essence is helping clients to express
new thoughts, feelings and actions that lead to desired results. The question
then becomes, what can we employ as coaches to better support clients in

48 Pivoting
Insight into
Consciousness
Your Your
memory knowing is
connects revealed
Present
Moment
Your belief
patterns
shift
Fig. 3.1 Pivoting: The power of self-organization
accessing their inner process and expressing their desires? Clearly, directing
attention can help clients access their inner process. Science tells us that what-
ever clients focus on will grow, and time will flow to wherever they put their
attention. So how do we help them place and keep attention on what they
want to add or grow in their lives? Awareness of emotions is another pathway
to inner process—are they focused on limiting thoughts linked to negative
emotions or have they embraced empowering thoughts leading to feelings
of hope, inspiration and joy? The model described above represents what we
consider to be the elements of self-organization that embody potentiality in
every coaching conversation. Directing attention; priming; the interplay of
the inner processes of beliefs, inner knowing and memory; and the expression
of emotions are the “tools” we have at hand in real-time, present-moment
coaching sessions. Any one or combination thereof could be enough to elicit
a self-organizing event. Of course, neither the coach nor the client is privy to
the timing of such insight (Fig. 3.1).
Theoretical Base of Our Model
The client presented himself during his coaching with Jackie as a traditional, top-
down alpha leader. He took control of the initial coaching conversations, seeking
to side step the agreed-upon coaching goals that might require deeper change.
Jackie decided to bide her time, her experience and expert intuition advising her
to “do nothing” for a while until an opportune moment presented itself for him
to make some figure/ground shift in understanding about himself. This finally
occurred during the sixth session when Jackie offered to help him better under-
stand the results of a recent conflict-management assessment that highlighted his
need to change certain of his actions and behaviours. She knew that putting
attention on the survey results might cause some positive shift if he felt it was his
choice to change. She had anticipated that he would probably resist any intima-
tion that he had to change because of external pressure. Intentionally, Jackie
presented the results in a format that appealed to his intellect. She hoped to
capitalize on any positive emotions he might generate if he could logically justify
the change without feeling wrong or without tapping into his sense of emotional
vulnerability. It was unexpected when he suddenly experienced a pivotal moment
in the coaching session. He recognized how he was perceived by others as overly
directive and commanding. He had received 360° feedback prior to his coaching
engagement about his dominant leadership style and it now made sense to him
in a non-threatening way. He saw how others experienced him as being aggres-
sive in his manner. By his eighth session he had a three-way mid-review with his
coaching sponsors who were impressed with his insight and subsequent change in
behaviour.
There are moments when clients self-organize and we are able to witness it
as Jackie did with her client. These shifts may vary in intensity (from a learning
shift or change in perspective to experiencing a quantum shift) and in dura-
tion (from an immediate knowing to slow realization over time). Whenever
these experiences of insight occur, however, we know they emerge from the
interaction of specific conditions and opportunities:
• They arise out of inner process and direction.

• They are the result of a holistic (i.e., interactive with environment) con-
structivist process.
• They are revealed through a non-conscious mode of knowing.
• They take place in the present, which is influenced, not determined, by
both the past and the future.
• They are the result of a self-organizing human system in which the brain is
fundamentally pattern-forming (i.e., anticipating the future as well as
reacting to the present and past).
• They occur with affect (usually positive feelings of relief, wonder, hope and
joy).
Our proposed theory of igniting substantial change is based on the construc-

tivist approach, the philosophical movement of pragmatism and the tradition
50 Pivoting
of hermeneutic phenomenology, all of which encompass the conditions neces-

sary for transformation. Constructivism informs the coach’s role in facilitating
clients to a greater awareness of how their personally and socially constructed
beliefs and interpretations can be reconstructed or reframed to give their lives
more meaning and autonomy.
Pragmatism emphasizes the practical application of ideas by acting on
them and testing them in human activities rather than through contempla-
tion. Pragmatists consider thought to be an instrument or tool for prediction,
problem-solving and action. The pragmatic outlook informs the coach’s role of
ensuring that their clients lead useful lives of their own choice, helping them
create a better future and encouraging them to strive for equality and personal
happiness. The emphasis is on promoting clients to be intentional in the events
and actions they choose in building a meaningful life for themselves. Finally,
hermeneutic phenomenology deepens understanding of how clients become
open to the “revealing” of their own inner process, be it inspiration, insight or
subtle guidance. Any inner awakening or shift in perspective is an “event” for
clients, and their coaches involuntarily become participants in witnessing or
assisting them in interpreting and sharing what they have experienced.
Self-organization: Interplay of Beliefs, Inner Knowing

and Memory
In Chapters 4, 5, and 6 we explore how each of these three elements of self-

organization contribute to the likelihood of substantive internal shifts occur-
ring. Research tells us that for clients to change how they see themselves and
their capabilities, they need to shift their beliefs about themselves. They need
to bring to awareness hidden or conflicting beliefs that are often most evi-
dent in their behaviour and language. We have introduced the notion of how
opening clients up to their own inner wisdom, process and ways of knowing
can help them access useful, empirical data about their lives. Memory plays a
key role in accessing non-conscious knowledge and generating new associative
networks that can reorganize one’s beliefs, perspectives or even sense of self
into an insight that erupts into conscious awareness.
We infer that these three hidden components are closely interwoven, multi-
causal and cooperative. They reflect the dynamic patterns of self-organization—
phase transitions as old ideas break up and something new is created.1 Think
of the flow of a river in which patterns emerge and disappear as opposed to the
1
Kelso (1995).
static landscape of the river.2 Our clients’ sense of reality is generated out of their
choices (informed by beliefs and knowing), events (actions) with their environ-
ment and the potentialities of those events. As complex human systems, our
clients are engaged in endless pattern formation and change.
As neuroscientist Scott Kelso tells us, emergent properties are a significant
feature of all complex systems, and cooperation among the components of a
system is what creates new patterns in a self-organized manner.3 He sees the
brain not as a computing machine but rather as dwelling in “metastable states”
where it is “poised on the brink of instability where it can switch flexibly and
quickly” as it anticipates the future and reacts to the present.4 For Kelso, both the
brain and overt behaviour follow natural laws of self-organization. In a personal
anecdote, he explained how the experience of an idea he had in 1980—based
on the “let your fingers do the walking” advert from Yellow Pages—enabled him
to demonstrate phase transition in human hand movements which become the
foundation of his subsequent well-known work in coordination dynamics. He
described, in hindsight, how the emergence of this idea was a kind of phase tran-
sition in itself: a concept was planted in the subconscious where an association
of ideas took place which abruptly emerged, quite spontaneously and unsought,
into consciousness.5 His is an apt description of the experiences of insight that
we witness with our clients and which our proposed theory seeks to illustrate.
Accessing the Authentic Self

The aha moment felt like a full alignment with self and source. It felt like being
empowered, worthy, spot on—actually the best feeling of aliveness. I was connected.
I was buzzing with clear confidence to a degree I’ve never experienced before. For a
split second, I thought I was observing and then I was flooded with—this is real—
you are fully present. I was living fully as my AUTHENTIC SELF—blending of
the greater part of me, connected to my source and my physical self. My physical
body was full of power and emotion and indicating I was righteous and wise. My
physical body had all the information and I knew/felt the clarity of the situation.
I was surprised by the intensity and even though I could not put words on it at the
time I understood I was plugged into something great that the situation called up
within me.
2
Kelso (1995).
3
Kelso (1995).
4
Kelso (1995), p. 26.
5
Kelso (1995), p. 46.
52 Pivoting
This written account of an aha moment was sent to Ann by a former client.
She knew Ann was researching this topic and thought she might be inter-
ested in her first-person description. She explained that the insight came in
response to an inner desire to go from old behaviour to new behaviour, and
knowing that the body was the link. Her recounting was similar to other such
experiences with the elements of physical, emotional and spiritual levels of
awareness and that instant recognition of an authentic sense of self. These are
the types of substantive change that we would like to support and encourage
in our coaching, when the internal timing and opportunity arise. Following
are suggestions we’ve discovered about ways to help clients (and ourselves)
enhance access to such moments of authenticity.
Potency of the Present Moment
A century ago, Einstein’s special and general theories of relativity destroyed the idea
of time as an absolute, universal constant. He found solace in his revolutionary
sense of time and a month before his death he wrote a letter consoling the family
of his lifelong friend Michele Besso who had just died: “Now he has departed from
this strange world a little ahead of me. That means nothing. People like us, who
believe in physics, know that the distinction between past, present and future is
only a stubbornly persistent illusion.”6
How do we define the present moment? This is a question that has been
pondered by philosophers, scientists, practitioners and spiritual traditions over
thousands of years and across virtually all fields of study and cultures. For our
purposes we are viewing the present moment from the richness of the construc-
tivist, pragmatic and hermeneutic phenomenological perspectives and from the
scientific foundation of quantum physics. We also value it as the most impor-
tant access point through which to engage our clients. We find it similar to
the fourth core coaching competency of the International Coach Federation:
coaching presence (being fully conscious and creating spontaneous relation-
ships with clients, employing a style that is open, flexible and confident).
Belief in the feasibility of substantial change necessitates embracing a differ-
ent perspective of time than that of Newton’s external linearity. According to
Newton’s linear concept (still ingrained in Western culture and society), time
is conceptualized as proceeding along a fixed line from past through pres-
ent to future. In this view, the present is only one brief blip on this line, the
future is unknowable and the past holds supremacy. It is not an empowering
6
Folger (2007).
perspective that would embolden individuals to construct the life they want,
create the future they desire or be open to ways of inner guidance. The locus
of control is almost exclusively outside the individual, and the individual is
largely considered to be the sum total of their past.
Newton’s absolute time cannot account for the multitude of experiences
of temporality that we routinely experience as humans: the cyclical time of
our biology and the natural world, the sense of flow when the passage of time
disappears, synchronicity, intuition, sudden leaps of insight or abrupt change.
Fortunately, the new scientific paradigm, and the sustained beliefs of natural
philosophers and theorists through the ages,7 now support a more holistic
interpretation in which the past, present and future are an integrated whole.8
The mind and environment are understood as simultaneous parts of a greater
Gestalt or life-space as well.9 The following holistic assumptions about time
underpin a transformative approach to coaching:
• Past, present and future co-occur as an integrated whole, and each part is
influenced by the other parts.
• Both the present and the future can influence change in people.
• Being agents of their own actions and attitudes is necessary for people to
have self-responsibility and human dignity.
• People can reconstruct the meanings of their past.
• People can change in ways that are inconsistent with their past.
• People are best understood in relation to their present contexts.
• People have access to multiple experiences of time.10
If we look at the meaning of the present moment from its pragmatic poten-
tial as coaches, it is a time associated with experiencing events directly, when an
individual may be freed from past patterns and open to receiving information
from sources other than one’s conscious mind. The present moment encom-
passes direct sensory experiences, reconstructing memories, and anticipating
ideas, images and desires for the future. The present moment in coaching is
rife with interactive mental time travel as we share this lived experience with
our clients. And who knows what may be revealed in the present moment for
coaches and clients? That is the mystery, potential and practicality of accessing
the present moment in coaching conversations.
7
For example, Heidegger, Piaget, May, Husserl, Whitrow, James, McGrath and Kelly are just a few of the
modern theorists.
8
Clancy (1996).
9
Lewin (1948).
10
Orem, Binkert and Clancy (2007), pp. 64–65.
54 Pivoting
Directing Attention
My experience is what I agree to attend to.

—William James
As part of our research findings we identified attention as a pathway of

revealing. Directing attention can allow or catalyse clients to re-form pat-
terns of thinking, feeling and action at a deeper level. Directing attention
and making use of the present moment are considered to be sound meth-
odologies for most coaching approaches. We point out that directing atten-
tion is also a major tool for shifting clients’ perceptions, which is often a
precursor to substantive change. To illustrate this point, we share an activ-
ity we have used in our workshops to highlight what occurs when we shift
perceptions.
Seeing the Star
In Fig. 3.2, look for a five-pointed star in the pattern. As you look for it, try to
be aware of the search strategies you use to detect it. Do you squint your eyes?
Do you methodically scan the pattern? Do you look away and back again? Do
you get frustrated or remain calm? Obviously your mind has already quickly
searched your memory for an image of a five-pointed star to begin the activity.
It might even have brought up recollections of drawing or cutting out stars as
a child. As you engage in solving this puzzle, your memories, strategies and
feelings will be subjective and unique to your lifeworld experience.
Here are some hints if you are having difficulty finding the star: it is situ-
ated in the upper left corner of the pattern and three points of the star are
white. The moment you find the star (even if you have to look at the answer),
be aware of how you feel. This is an example of a small cognitive insight
exercise. Its purpose is to raise your awareness about what’s happening visu-
ally and cognitively as you try to pick out a particular star image from the
overall pattern. This act of becoming conscious of something shifts it from
being the ground to becoming the figure. Again, this is what we do with our
clients when we want them to shift their attention or perception from what
they don’t want or what is limiting, to what they desire or wish to move
towards. An interesting consequence of finding the star in the pattern is that
you will now see the star if again presented with the pattern. It is now in your
consciousness.
Fig. 3.2 Can you find the hidden star?
Shifts in Perception
Each time we direct the attention of our clients, we create an “event” in our
clients’ process. It is a movement of focus to the conscious level. Another way
of saying this is that when we direct the attention of our clients, we are shift-
ing their awareness from what has been ground to what is figure, from what
might have been non-conscious or blind to them to what is suddenly real or of
importance. The figure–ground perception is a principle of Gestalt psychol-
ogy, whose theorists11 proposed that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts (e.g., seeing an orange in the whole is different from seeing its individual
components of stem, rind, pith, segments, juice, etc.) (Fig. 3.3).
When we view the whole, say Gestaltists, a cognitive process takes place in
which the mind leaps from comprehending the parts to realizing the whole.
Thus we visually and psychologically go through our days trying to make
order out of chaos from the seemingly endless disconnected bits of informa-
tion that we take in. The focus at any given moment is considered to be the
figure and everything that is not the figure is the ground. As our attention
shifts, the ground also shifts so that an object (or idea, thought pattern, etc.)
can go from figure to ground and then back.
11
The prominent founders of gestalt theory are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka.
56 Pivoting
Fig. 3.3 What do you see? A young girl? An old woman?
Ground is also thought of as background or negative space. Camouflage,

for instance, is the deliberate alteration of figure–ground so that the figure
blends into the ground. In Fig. 3.3 the visual is another demonstration of
how we visually and conceptually shift our perceptions based on what we
perceive as the figure and the ground. What do you see? A young girl? An old
woman? Both images are there but you cannot focus on both of them at the
same time—one must be the figure and the other the ground in order for you
to comprehend each of the images. In another example, we might ask, “What
is the shape of the Atlantic Ocean?” In most cultures we learn to comprehend
the continents as shapes (or figures) and the ocean as ground. We simply
perceive oceans as “there” without any definitive shape. It is a habit of seeing
that is so ingrained for most of us that it has slipped into our non-awareness.
These demonstrations clarify the power of conscious intent that results
from directing attention. Figure–ground perception is at work in every coach-
ing conversation. If the focus is on problems, clients cannot also be focused
on solutions. As coaches we are constantly making choices about how and
when to help our clients focus on what is important to them. But we don’t
always know if what we are directing attention towards will turn out to be
minor, major or of no consequence at all. However, there are times with every
client when we sense or intuit or feel or think that shifting their perception
may be beneficial in some way.
In the story above, Jackie strategically engaged in shifting her client’s per-
ception by directing attention to what she deemed to be the opportune time
of openness for the client to be able to see himself with different eyes. It
worked, but this was not something she could have predicted or imposed by
using external pressure. Directing attention can be a powerful pathway or
access point for both coach and client, as well as the vehicle to reveal what
may be hidden.
Mindfulness, Attention and the Present Moment
Mindfulness as a spiritual practice, philosophy, methodology and/or tool is

currently a hot topic in Western education, healthcare, training, research and
professional coaching. Academic programmes talk about its broad application
in the fields of technology, medicine, social services, psychology, consulting,
law enforcement and the justice system, athletics and clergy, to name a few.12
Because of the intense interest in this approach and its embeddedness in the
experience of attention in the present moment, we also see it as a link to our
model from the perspective of inspiring coaching-based philosophy, method-
ology and tools.
The literature of mindfulness as a philosophy and spiritual practice is vast
and beyond the scope of this book to summarize, let alone interpret. We know
it has its roots in ancient Buddhist texts, some of which are now incorporated
into Western Buddhist psychology.13 In the Buddhist context, according to
cognitive and Eastern psychologist Eleanor Rosch, mindfulness is a simple
mental factor that can be present or absent in a moment of consciousness.14
However, Buddhist mindfulness as a spiritual practice is not a simple tech-
nique or type of consciousness but rather an entire mode of knowing and
being in the world. Rosch defines it as a relaxation and expansion of aware-
ness, “a letting go even into deep states of not knowing, access to wisdom
knowing beyond what we think of as consciousness or the mind, and an open
hearted inclusive warmth toward all of experience and to the world.”15
The Light of Buddhadharma Foundation International recently published
a talk by renowned Buddhist meditation master in the Theravada tradition,
12
For example, Master of Arts in Mindfulness Studies at Leslie University in Cambridge, MA, started by
Nancy Waring, who studied under Jon Kabat-Zin, who is considered to be a forefather of mindfulness
studies and programmes in the USA.
13
Rosch (2007).
14
Rosch (2007), p. 259.
15
Rosch (2007), p. 261.
58 Pivoting
Phra Luang Por Jamnian Seelasettho. His “Dhamma Talk on Practicing the
Middle Way” was given under the revered Bodhi Tree in India,16 where he
referred to Four Foundations of Mindfulness but in the context of other pri-
mary teachings of the Buddha: the Noble Eightfold Path and the Seven Factors
of Enlightenment, all ultimately leading to the Middle Way. He spoke about
the Four Foundations of Mindfulness as mindfulness of the body (rūpa), sen-
sations/feelings (vedanā), mind (citta) and mental phenomena (dhamma),
and he urged followers to view all four of those as impermanent, unsatisfac-
tory and empty of self—a type of seeing that progressively leads to the direct
experience of anatta (not-self, impersonal), sunnata (emptiness) and nibbana
(extinction, liberation from all suffering), tracing the path to freedom.17 He
encouraged his followers to understand not only with their intellect but with
their mind, and to understand that consciousness moves throughout the body
at different centres (i.e., he referred to chakras in a unique way to denote the
location/centre in the body where the mind lodges at times in certain states).18
We recognize the complexity and depth of the genesis of mindfulness as
an Eastern philosophy, a system of teachings and spiritual practice. As a spiri-
tual tradition, mindfulness has a dimensionality to it that Western applica-
tion does not always infer. This underscores Rosch’s concern about the level
of interpretation and application of these profound Eastern principles to
Western thought and action. In terms of our model of substantial change, we
resonate with the idea of mindfulness as a mode of inner knowing if practised
appropriately, but again emphasize that this is a philosophy and system of
teachings and practice beyond our personal and professional level of experi-
ence. Mindfulness as practised and applied in the West, however, can be influ-
ential and supportive for coaches hoping to ignite substantial change in their
clients. We heartily acknowledge the benefits of mindfulness as a therapeutic
approach with sound methodology and tools of wide applicability.
In Western culture there has been no commonly accepted definition or
model of mindfulness that is acknowledged across fields of study. Jon Kabat-
Zinn, Professor of Medicine, is considered a forefather of the mindfulness
movement in the USA. He studied meditation with Buddhist teachers and
founded the Stress Reduction Clinic in the University of Massachusetts
Medical School in 1979, adapting Buddhist mindfulness teachings. He later
went on to develop his well-known Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction pro-
gramme, dropping the Buddhist framework and focusing on mindfulness in
16
Seelasettho (2013).
17
Seelasettho (2013), p. 5.
18
Seelasettho (2013), p. 1.
a scientific context.19 His programme is designed to help patients cope with

stress, pain and illness using mindfulness as a process of bringing a specific
quality of attention to moment-by-moment experience.20
In 2004, psychologist Scott Bishop and colleagues articulated a proposed
operational definition in the hope of finding a professional consensus on a
model of mindfulness.21 We were impressed with the clarity that they found
in their definition, which not only captured the complexity of the philosophy
and approach underlying mindfulness but also provided a useful method-
ology for Westerners. According to Bishop, “mindfulness in contemporary
psychology has been adopted as an approach for increasing awareness and
responding skillfully to mental processes that contribute to emotional distress
and maladaptive behaviour.”22
His group proposed a two-component model of mindfulness: self-
regulation of attention to keep it focused on immediate experience, and
adopting an orientation towards one’s experiences in the present moment
that is curious, open and accepting (i.e., with no judgment). In this model,
mindfulness involves a direct experience of events in the mind and body but
is not a practice in thought suppression. Bishop and his colleagues described
it as a way of regulating attention that can lead to insight into the nature of
one’s mind, and also adopting a detached perspective on one’s thoughts and
feelings. This promotes learning to experience one’s thoughts and feelings as
subjective rather than valid, and as transient rather than permanent, offering
a way to be “decentred” about oneself.23
Bishop proposed that mindfulness is closer conceptually and operationally
to those constructs that involve a process of self-observation (e.g., introspec-
tion, reflection, observing self ) rather than an outcome of acquiring self-
knowledge (e.g., insight, self-awareness).24 From the perspective of a coaching
theory of igniting substantial change, we find his view of mindfulness as a
process to be similar to our stance of clients engaging in a constructive process
of reflection and deeper understanding that is drawn from their inner guid-
ance. Some type of mindfulness practice that encourages clients to stay in
contact with their inner process supports our model. He also distinguished
between “mindfulness meditation” and “concentration” forms of meditation
19
Wilson (2014).
20
Kabat-Zinn (1990).
21
Bishop et al. (2004).
22
Bishop et al. (2004), p. 230.
23
Bishop et al. (2004), p. 234.
24
Bishop et al. (2004), p. 235.
60 Pivoting
that invoke deep states of relaxation by restricting the focus of attention to a

single stimulus, such as a word, sound or sensation.25
Mindfulness has made its way into the field of learning26 as well as into the
study of emotions, such as helping-related emotions.27 And it is currently a
significant topic in the field of coaching and leadership development. To name
a few coaching-based researchers and practitioners, authors Richard Boyatzis
and Annie McKee included the concept of mindfulness in their book Resonant
Leadership, focusing on how self-awareness through mindfulness can help to
calm executives in times of crisis.28 Author and coach Jonathan Passmore,
together with psychologist Oberdan Marianetti, explored the research and
application of mindfulness as a tool for helping both coaches and clients to
better manage stress and improve performance.29 In an exploratory study of
45 adults randomly assigned to three health programmes, coaching researchers
Gordon Spence, Michael Cavanagh and Anthony Grant investigated a health
intervention that integrated mindfulness training with cognitive behavioural
solution-focused coaching.30 Douglas Riddle with the Center for Creative
Leadership has presented on the three keys to mindful leadership coaching.31
Clearly the notion of mindfulness in today’s fast-paced world is an attrac-
tive concept and its application has proved effective in a range of studies: the
brain and immune system (better stress regulation),32 enhanced relationships
(loving-kindness meditation)33 and educational settings (children’s atten-
tion and social skills).34 As mentioned earlier, we approach the philosophy of
mindfulness from the perspective of offering access to a direct way of knowing
with appropriate understanding and practice. Most salient for our coaching
model is using mindfulness as a strategy for expressing awareness through
attention. We are drawn to the idea that living authentically in the present
moment is predicated on a high level of mindfulness (attention) on the part of
the coach when in dialogue with clients. Methodology and tools in mindful-
ness for coaches and clients will be taken up again in Chapter 7.
25
Bishop et al. (2004), p. 238.
26
Langer (2000).
27
Cameron and Fredrickson (2015).
28
Boyatzis and McKee (2005).
29
Passmore and Marianetti (2013).
30
Spence, Cavanagh and Grant (2008).
31
Riddle (2012).
32
Tang et al. (2007).
33
Hutcherson, Seppala and Gross (2008).
34
Napoli, Krech and Holley (2005).
Expanding Our Awareness

Awareness is attention that occurs in the present moment and which is situ-
ated in our body with its complex interplay of thoughts, emotions, actions
and environment. Expanding and sustaining our awareness levels can enable
us to be fully present for our clients’ growth and development. Equally, for
our clients to be successful, they need to develop greater facility in their own
self-awareness and in their awareness of their environment. The coaching
relationship is an intersubjective experience, and an interconnected sense of
awareness underlies this constructive process. How can we help our clients to
construct a desired reality without giving it our mutual awareness?
Emotions as Expressions of Energy and Awareness
At the request of her husband, Ann went to a handgun shooting range in their
hometown. It was something he suggested they could do together that might be
interesting. Neither of them were gun owners nor particularly drawn to target
practice. As they were walking into the building, Ann began to feel uncomfortable
and queasy. Her hands started sweating and her breathing sped up a little. She
felt lightheaded and was wondering what was going on. She had done some clay
pigeon shooting years before and hadn’t had any such reaction. When she looked
around, there were handguns in glass cases and individuals shooting them at paper
targets. She realized she was anxious and afraid, but couldn’t understand why
until suddenly a memory popped up. When she was in her early 20s she and a male
friend had picked up two hitchhikers while driving home from a concert. Once in
the back seat, one of the hitchhikers pulled out a handgun and held it to the head
of Ann’s friend as he was driving the car and demanded to be driven to a particu-
lar spot. Needless to say, the situation went downhill from there but fortunately
neither Ann nor her friend was injured; the gun was not fired. The hitchhikers
eventually took what little money Ann and her friend had and left them stranded
in a field. It was a terrifying experience at the time, more than 30 years ago. After
realizing the source of her emotions, Ann was able to stay in the building and actu-
ally fire a handgun and do some practice target rounds with her husband. She did
so with some concern but no longer with a sense of fear and anxiety.
Ann was completely surprised by this strong emotional response and mem-
ory which showed up, involuntarily, in the present moment. It felt like intense
time travel—having the past thrust into the present through the feelings
expressed. It felt contextual in terms of the juxtaposition of the two events in
62 Pivoting
her personal history. She surmised that it was the first time since that long-ago
event that she was in the presence of handguns being used openly. She had
first experienced her body reacting physiologically with the memory associa-
tion (past context), and then it surfaced as awareness and conscious recollec-
tion (present context).
Such vivid autobiographical memories, research shows, tend to be of emo-
tional events, whether negative or positive. Part of the reason for this is that
positive and negative emotional experiences also register a memory in cell tis-
sue and sometimes the body responds emotionally, manufacturing emotional
chemicals, before the brain has registered a problem.35 Unexpected memories
or revelations can occur in a coaching conversation and bring with them emo-
tion to be expressed, as Ann experienced when her past erupted into the pres-
ent moment, unbidden and with expanded awareness.
History of Emotions: The Social Dimension
Recent years have seen an explosion of new and renewed interest in the study
of emotions across the humanities, natural sciences and even in the context of
cultural, social, political and economic events in history.36 Interestingly, histori-
ans have been engaged in a new area of study in their field: the history of emo-
tion. They have pointed to philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche as their inspiration.
In the late nineteenth century, Nietzsche called for a more vivid, probing and
emotional form of history-making than just describing conditions as fixed and
never-changing.37 According to historian Erin Sullivan, the last decade has seen
a great rush in her field to finally address Nietzsche’s observation, and writing
has proliferated on describing a history of emotions that looks at the expressions
of feeling across a variety of times, places, cultures and contexts.38
French historian Lucien Febvre was well known in his field for advocating
that the study of history be dynamic and human focused. He was an important
figure in promoting a history of emotions, building on Nietzsche’s suggestion.
In his 1941 essay entitled “Sensibility and History: How to Reconstitute the
Emotional Life of the Past,” he spoke of emotions as being contagious and
relational, a concept which current historians have embraced as a foundation
for exploring the social dimension of emotions.39
35
Myss (1996), p. 35.
36
Biess et al. (2010).
37
Sullivan (2013).
38
Sullivan (2013).
39
Febvre (1941/1973).
To historian Ute Frevert, emotions are a hot topic for a reason—because

they are dynamic and mobile in cultures, what was culturally prominent at
some point in the past changes over time. For example, she has studied the
social emotions of honour and shame that were prominent in domestic and
international politics and interpersonal relationships in European societies in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These social emotions are now said to
be disappearing, to be replaced by different emotions, such as empathy and
compassion.40 She observes that nowadays emotions seem to be the object of
constant individual and social manipulation, with “emotional intelligence”
emerging as a buzzword of our times.
According to Sullivan, historians of emotion attend to “the way culture
talks about particular emotions, paying attention to how feelings are val-
orized, marginalised, scientifically defined, or religiously encoded.”41 They
acknowledge the different strands of thinking and feeling that may co-exist
in a society at any given time and focus on the socially oriented nature of
much emotional experience and expression.42 This widened perspective of
how emotion is simultaneously personal, social and even political (given the
systems of power in control) can only sharpen our perception of how to help
our clients find clarity around their own conflicting contexts of emotional
expression.
Just as historians are concerned about the role of emotions in their multi-
lens perspective (social, cultural, political and economic) on historic events
and eras, we propose that coaches should be aware of how their clients are
embedded in their own social, cultural, political, economic and organi-
zational communities and systems that reflect specific emotional contexts.
Clients and coaches are influenced and shaped by the greater social attitudes
towards emotions in the contexts in which they move, whether cross-cultural,
transnational, regional, local or familial.
In a forum in 2010, five international historians, who have contributed sig-
nificantly to this new field, participated in a virtual round table.43 They were
asked to explain the reasons for the current historical interest in emotions.
Their responses are of consequence to coaches because they describe the par-
allels of social and individual emotional contexts that can hopefully give us
40
Sullivan (2013), p. 97.
41
Sullivan (2013), p. 95.
42
Sullivan (2013), p. 95.
43
In 2010, historian Frank Bies with the University of California, San Diego, invited colleagues Alon
Confino (University of Virginia), Ute Frevert (Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung), Uffa Jensen
(Universitat Gottingen), Lyndol Roper (University of Oxford) and Daniela Saxer (Universitat Zurich/
ETH Zurich) to be part of a virtual dialogue.
64 Pivoting
a deeper grasp of how to interpret and work with emotions in the coaching
process.
Historian Frevert pointed to the prominence of neuroscience since the
1990s as a reason for the increased interest in emotion. Findings in neuroim-
aging have been a boost to psychological research, including new possibilities
for measuring emotions and better understanding the link between cogni-
tion and emotions.44 Historian Daniela Saxer attributed interest in emotion
to the social influence of popular ideas around self-management, including
catchphrases from self-help literature, advice from business management and
popularized scientific concepts, all indicating that personal emotions should
be groomed as an important element of self-care. According to Saxer, this
seemed to suggest that whoever wants to get ahead socially and economi-
cally needs to take emotions seriously.45 Saxer also saw an influence from the
field of economics, which considers itself to be a universal science of human
behaviour and has contributed to this trend by studying emotions as factors
in economic transactions.46
Historian Uffa Jensen referred to the rise of postmodern theories that have
reshaped the field with a renewed focus on cultural and political theory, espe-
cially with the new political climate after the events of 9/11 in the USA. She
has observed that emotions such as hate, fear and paranoia are now dominant
in the political language of emotions which international terrorism uses and
mobilizes.47 Lyndal Roper at the University of Oxford pointed out that there
are now more women in the historical profession, many of whom have grown
up with the legacy of feminism and are more comfortable with the emotional
and the subjective.48 In addition, she explained how emotions are not only
physical and mental but can also be collective, linked to action, and yet have
a physiological component.
Alono Confino at the University of Virginia associated a history of emotions
with the history of memory in that emotions, like memories, are absolutely
individual yet originate from the symbols, landscape, practices and language
shared by a given society.49 He viewed the making of emotions, personal and
collective, as being embedded in a specific cultural, social, economic and
political context. Therefore he found it of value to history to explore how
people construct emotions, make sense of them and use them. For Frevert
44
Biess et al. (2010).
45
Biess et al. (2010), p. 69.
46
Biess et al. (2010), p. 69.
47
Biess et al. (2010), p. 69.
48
Biess, et al. (2010), p. 70.
49
Biess et al. (2010), p. 71.
it was clear that studying emotions is a way to discover more about human
motives, about what triggers actions, about what influences decisions and
about what causes people to bond or not.50
The Role that Positive Emotions Play in Awareness
In flipping the collective/individual coin, we see the amount of influence that

our clients (and we as coaches) are subject to given our multiple contexts.
Much of it is below the level of conscious attention, and much of it is derived
from negative emotional influence given the current political, cultural and
social contexts. Think of the myriad marketing and advertising images and
language used to sell products to keep us safe or healthy from the negative
influences of our environment. Think of the focus of the majority of news
stories. Neuroscience tells us that our brains have a negativity bias to aid us
in survival.51 Now that we have been alerted to the negative social emotions
embedded in our multiple systems, what is happening at the individual level?
Although there is no commonly accepted definition of emotion across
fields of study, an accepted psychological construct states that an emotion
is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct components: a
subjective experience, a physiological response and a behavioural or expres-
sive response.52 Another definition similarly states, “Emotions are short-lived
experiences that produce coordinated changes in people’s thoughts, actions
and physiological responses.”53
Most early psychological research on emotions was focused on the ten-
dency to action which seems to infuse both mind and body, simultaneously
narrowing an individual’s action urges (e.g., flight in fear, attack in anger)
while simultaneously mobilizing the body to take those actions, such as
increased blood flow to large muscles in fear.54 This perception of emotions
as leading to specific actions has been linked to human evolution and seen as
a trial-and-error learning process in response to environmental events. As a
result, these “action” emotions have become genetically embedded in humans
and animals as the flight or fight instinct. This evolutionary perspective that
negative emotions have specific action tendencies has challenged researchers
50
Biess et al. (2010), p. 68.
51
Hanson and Mendius (2009).
52
Hockenbury and Hockenbury (2007).
53
Fredrickson and Branigan (2005), p. 313.
54
66 Pivoting
to account for the purpose and nature of positive human emotions such as joy
and contentment.
Although emotion theorists who support specific action tendencies have
tried to extend their theories to include positive emotions,55 social psycholo-
gist Barbara Fredrickson has argued that positive emotions do not share this
hallmark feature of promoting and supporting specific action.56 Instead she
asks, if positive emotions do not share this action feature, what good are they?
Do positive emotions have any evolved adaptive value? Since her seminal arti-
cle, “What Good Are Positive Emotions?," appeared in 1998,57 Fredrickson
has worked diligently on researching and solidifying a theory of positive emo-
tions that is based on a non-action premise: her broaden-and-build theory.
She has been at the leading edge of this new science of positive emotions and
established a Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology Laboratory, first at the
University of Michigan and then at the University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill. She focuses on acknowledging and growing a repertoire of positive emo-
tions at the individual level, and understanding the consequences that such
positive expression can have in broadening and building personal resources in
multiple areas (e.g., cognitive, psychological, social and physical).
Fredrickson has also targeted ten representative positive emotions for fur-
ther research based on laboratory evidence that these emotions are frequently
experienced in people’s daily lives. She listed them in order of frequency with
the exception of “love”, which she identified as the most frequently experi-
enced positive emotion: joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amuse-
ment, inspiration, awe and love. She related each emotion to the resources it
generates and its thought-action tendency.58 By no means comprehensive, a
brief compilation of some of her salient research projects and findings follows:
• Undo Effect of Positive Emotions: The seeds for Fredrickson’s broaden-and-

build theory came from work with Robert Levenson in which they exam-
ined the “undo effect” of positive emotions on negative emotions,
specifically fear.59 Levenson posited that the evolutionary meaning of posi-
tive emotions might be to function as efficient “undoers” of states of auto-
nomic nervous system arousal produced by certain negative emotions.60
55
Fridja (1986), Lazarus (1991).
56
57
Fredrickson (1998).
58
Fredrickson (2013).
59
Fredrickson and Levenson (1998).
60
Fredrickson (2013), p. 8.
The results of their studies suggested that positive emotions serve as useful
resources for regulating negative emotional experiences in daily life.
• Broaden-and-Build Theory: Fredrickson has contended that the form and
function of positive and negative emotions are distinct and complemen-
tary. For example, while negative emotions narrow individuals’ thought-
action tendencies by calling forth specific actions (attack, flee), many
positive emotions broaden individuals’ thought-action tendencies, prompt-
ing them to pursue a wider range of thoughts and actions, such as play,
explore and integrate.61
• Broaden Hypothesis: Positive emotions widen the array of thoughts, action
urges and percepts or mental concepts. The broaden effect of positive emo-
tions extends into the social domain with individuals being more likely to
expand their circle of trust and show greater perspective and compassion
for others.62
• Build Hypothesis: The expansive form of positive emotions spurs the devel-
opment of resources, thereby increasing resilience and capacity for inner
growth and optimal functioning. Positive emotions build personal resources
and abilities which can be cognitive, such as mindfully attending to the
present moment; psychological, such as maintaining a sense of mastery over
environmental challenges; social, such as giving and receiving emotional
support; or physical, as in warding off the common cold.63
• Positive Emotions and Attention: Fredrickson’s research confirmed the view
that positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and awareness. While
anxiety and depression are correlated with a bias to narrow one’s scope of
attention, positive emotion traits (e.g., well-being and optimism) correlate
with a bias to broaden the scope of attention.64 Because positive emotions
arise in response to diffuse opportunities instead of narrowly focused
threats, they momentarily broaden individuals’ attention and thinking,
enabling them to draw on higher-level connections and a wider range of
ideas.65 In another study, Fredrickson and colleagues provided evidence
that positive emotions forecast broadened cognition, such as holistic pro-
cessing and flexible attention.66
• Positive Emotions and Mindfulness: Fredrickson and colleagues have done
numerous studies on positive emotions and mindfulness, including the impact
61
62
Fredrickson (2013).
63
Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek and Finkel (2008), p. 1045.
64
Fredrickson (2013).
65
Fredrickson et al. (2008), p. 1045.
66
Johnson, Waugh and Fredrickson (2010).
68 Pivoting
of loving-kindness meditation on building personal resources,67 the role of

positive emotional reactivity in promoting flourishing,68 and the impact of
positive psychology interventions as predictors and consequences of long-term
positive behaviour change.69 According to Fredrickson, these studies confirm
that increased positive emotions support the build hypothesis of creating per-
sonal resources and of learning to self-generate positive emotions.
• Broaden-and-Build Theory and Biological Resources: Fredrickson has been
further exploring research findings that people who express more frequent
positive emotions can build biological resources for health. Her studies
have already shown a link between positive emotions shifting cardiovascu-
lar patterns towards health. In addition, she and her research collaborators
have been investigating whether a stable rise in positive emotions could
produce reliable changes in gene expression, especially around the immune
system’s regulation of inflammatory processes.70
• Upward Spiral Theory of Lifestyle Change: A key long-term goal of
Fredrickson’s laboratory has been to investigate whether and how positive
emotions alter people’s bodily systems and non-conscious motives in ways
that ultimately reinforce lifestyle change and sustain positive health behav-
iours. She has proposed that positive emotions can “knit” people to new
positive health behaviours as well as raise their overall psychological pro-
pensity towards wellness (i.e., be motivated by non-conscious desire rather
than rigid willpower).71
As we can see from the breadth and depth of Fredrickson’s work, there is
much to be gained for coaches in further exploring this relatively new area
of research on positive emotions. We have focused primarily on her ground-
breaking work to underscore the potential available to coaches in helping cli-
ents grow their personal inner resources. Fredrickson’s research directly links
positive emotions to increased growth, development and capacity. We are
well aware that there are many other life-enhancing, positive approaches to
understanding human emotion and resiliency that include positive psychol-
ogy approaches, Gallup’s StrengthsFinder and positive emotion laboratories at
universities around the world. We briefly acknowledge the unique work of the
Institute of HeartMath, which has explored the relationship between mental
67
Fredrickson et al. (2008).
68
Catalino and Fredrickson (2011).
69
Cohn and Fredrickson (2010).
70
Fredrickson (2013).
71
Fredrickson (2013).
and emotional systems to find internal coherence, and which has looked to
the heart as a source of intelligence and intuitive guidance.72
We leave our discussion on emotion with this reassurance about our capacity
as individuals to seek the positive in our lives. One of the most consistent, preva-
lent and robust biases documented in psychology and behavioural economics,
according to neuroscientist Tali Sharot, is the “optimism bias” phenomenon.73
This is defined as the difference between a person’s expectation and the actual
outcome that follows. It appears that we humans show a remarkably consistent
and strong bias to predict the future by overestimating the likelihood of positive
events and underestimating the likelihood of negative events. This optimism bias
has been observed across gender, race, nationality and age. Perhaps it also reflects
the human spirit at play—unquantifiable and unquenchable.
Embodiment: A Coaching Awareness Strategy
As we conclude this chapter, we seek to answer a final question about the ele-
ments of self-organization: From where does awareness arise and who is in
charge of it? In the seventeenth century, Rene Descartes’ proposition, “I think,
therefore I am,”74 helped to form the foundation for reason and science in
Western philosophy. He proposed that the mind and body were two separate
and distinct entities and that the mind took supremacy as only the mind could
sense the body. This has been part of an ingrained worldview in the West that
has relegated knowledge, wisdom and intelligence primarily to mental cogni-
tion and the mind. The body was considered to be along for the ride.
This subordinate role of the body in terms of innate knowledge and intelli-
gence is being challenged on numerous fronts. There is a new interdisciplinary
field developing in which researchers are studying how mind, body and envi-
ronment mutually interact and influence each other. Embodied cognition is a
hot topic due to the recent rise and resurgence in the interest of embodiment
from such diverse perspectives as artificial intelligence and robotics, social
psychology, phenomenology, anthropology and spiritual traditions.
We borrow the concept of embodiment as a way to explain how aware-
ness is dispersed in coaching. Embodiment is a strategy of awareness; we
are interacting with our clients on multiple levels of intelligence and aware-
ness—cognitively, emotionally, physically, environmentally and intuitively—
whether we are consciously aware of this or not. The concept of embodiment
72
McCraty (2015).
73
Sharot (2011).
74
Descartes (1637/1986), p. 65.
70 Pivoting
represents the active constructive process we are engaged in when coaching.

For example, tacit and enactive knowledge are based on the physical action of
interacting with the environment—it’s an active way of knowing, influencing
and learning. Thus “our bodies are not merely life support systems for a mind
or self, but [they] are absolutely interdependent.”75 We believe that the essence
of coaching is engaging in this active constructive process with clients, a strat-
egy of embodying in which we are aware of one another at a deeper level.
We present some definitions of embodied cognition which we feel are rele-
vant to a better understanding of embodiment as a key coaching strategy. We do
not presume to represent or adequately explain the complexity and wonderment
inherent in this concept and experimental research. We begin with a definition
from The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience by Eleanor
Rosch, Evan Thompson and Francisco Varela, an early and seminal work:76
By using the term embodied we mean to highlight two points: first that cogni-
tion depends upon the kinds of experience that come from having a body with
various sensorimotor capacities, and second, that these individual sensorimotor
capacities are themselves embedded in a more encompassing biological, psycho-
logical and cultural context.
This definition is helpful in understanding the necessity of extending beyond

a purely cognitive stance in coaching. For us to be truly educated about our
level of influence as coaches we must assume responsibility at a conscious level
for what we bring to the relationship.
Scientists Rolf Pfeifer and Josh Bongard offer another definition. In their
book How the Body Shapes the Way We Think, they challenged the classical
notion of the mind controlling the body and explored embodiment, how
the body affects intelligence.77 They defined embodiment as the idea that the
body is actually required for intelligence to occur and that many features of
human cognition are shaped by aspects of the body beyond the brain, such as
the motor system, the perceptual system, and the body’s interactions with the
environment. There exists a subtle interplay or balance between neural activ-
ity (brain), the morphology of the body’s shape and its material properties,
and interaction with the environment to achieve certain tasks.78 The brain
does not control the body; rather, the two systems interact and intelligence
is distributed throughout the organism—it is a flat system, explained Pfeifer
and Bongard, where components influence each other. Even the way we walk
75
Harle (2007) p. 589.
76
Rosch, Thompson and Varda (1991), pp. 172–173.
77
Pfeifer and Bongard (2007).
78
Pfeifer and Bongard (2007), p. 20.
or pick up a glass of water has cognitive qualities. To illustrate, the fact that
muscles are elastic and that the weight of one leg increases when the other one
is lifted are as much a part of the movement of walking as are the reflexes and
brain centres involved in this action, according to Pfeifer and Bongard.
In the field of artificial intelligence and robotics, researchers have discov-
ered what has been called “Moravec’s paradox.” The principle was articulated
by Hans Moravec, Rodney Brooks, Marvin Minsky and others in the 1980s.
Moravec, researcher and futurist, wrote, “It is comparatively easy to make
computers exhibit adult level performance on intelligence tests or playing
checkers, and difficult or impossible to give them the skills of a one-year-old
when it comes to perception and mobility.”79
He described how in the large, highly evolved sensory and motor portions
of the human brain are encoded a billion years of experience about the nature
of the world and how to survive in it. He viewed reasoning as the newest
aspect of human thought that could only survive because it was supported by
the much older and more powerful unconscious, sensorimotor knowledge.80
Rodney Brooks, former director of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory, has been a key contributor to the field. He challenged
his peers to think about how intelligence or intelligent behaviour comes about
without the need for rational thought.81 In his forward to Pfeifer’s book, he
pointed out how even Alan Turing, in creating his machine of computation
and intelligence, approached his model from watching real people’s observable
behaviour in carrying out computations with pen and paper and following fixed
rules. Turing modelled what a person does, not what a person thinks.82
So from where does our awareness arise? When humans experience an aha
moment or an event of deep knowing, it seems to involve the body and mind
holistically, without separation. It is felt physically, emotionally, mentally and
often spiritually. It is a happening with multiple dimensions involving intel-
ligence at multiple levels, and it is situated in an environment. These deep
moments of change are not controlled by a thinking brain; in fact, the think-
ing brain appears to be “informed” along with the rest of the body as the
awareness sweeps through.
In working on this passage for the book, Ann experienced one of those events of
deep knowing. She was struggling to articulate the holistic nature of self-organizing
when the “knowing” passed right through her body with a strong physical reaction
79
Moravec (1988), p. 15.
80
Moravec (1988), pp. 15–16.
81
82
Pfeifer and Bongard (2007).
72 Pivoting
of vibration, intense feeling and mental insight—all happening at once in the

presence of a colleague, while sitting on her couch. Who was in charge of that
awareness? Her experience was of a single awareness permeating her being.
Implications for Coaching
Our journey thus far has invited us to extend our perspective of coaching
beyond a purely cognitive stance. Embodied cognition represents the col-
lapse of the body–mind dualism while at the same time offering much greater
awareness of how our cognition occurs in different ways. For us to be truly
educated about how deeply we influence our clients and/or are influenced by
them, we must assume responsibility for the only vehicle we bring to coach-
ing—ourselves—and whatever awareness, expertise, emotional maturity,
mastery and tools we have embodied. For coaches it would appear that the
gift of embodiment is awareness. When we embody anything, we use all of
our senses and abilities to create full awareness, and whatever we are aware of
we can change.83 In the next three chapters we explore the role that beliefs,
inner knowing and memory bring to pivotal moments of self-organization.
Fig. 3.4 Answer to finding the hidden star
83
Day (2009).
4
Accessing the Inner Self: Beliefs
We prefer to believe what we prefer to be true .

—Francis Bacon
Accessing Our Inner Process

Cognitive neuroscientists tell us that around 95 % of how we act, make deci-
sions, feel and behave occurs at the non-conscious (i.e., subconscious, uncon-
scious) level of unobserved processes. This leaves the self-conscious mind (also
known as the neocortex or executive function) responsible for less than 5 %
of our cognitive activity—an astounding fact to consider for those of us in
the business of coaching. It appears that our inner process encompasses a vast
network of interconnected thoughts, beliefs, memories, feelings, knowledge
and intuition whose existence is now being reaffirmed through the lens of
neuroscience and related experimental studies.
Recent empirical evidence supports the findings of psychological theo-
rists such as William James, Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, who long ago
suggested that unconscious phenomena included repressed feelings, auto-
matic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits and mindless reac-
tions.1 Jung, for example, captured his life story as “the self-realization of the
1
Westen (1999).

74 Pivoting
unconscious.”2 He believed that everything in the unconscious sought out-

ward manifestation, and that the personality wanted to evolve out of uncon-
scious conditions and experience itself as whole. He poetically described it as
“The longing for light is the longing for consciousness.”3 He also lamented
that he could not use the language of science to trace this process of growth
in himself because he couldn’t experience himself as a scientific problem. He
turned to the idea of personal myth instead as more accurately portraying the
singularity of his life.
This notion of personal myth resonates with those of us in the coaching
field because each client we work with has a life story—a mythology about
themselves. Some aspects of the client’s story we discern are conscious and
accurate, while other elements, perhaps because of what isn’t said or what
is glossed over or what feels incongruent, we detect are not accurate or lack
coherence. As we work with clients, we become aware at subtle levels of the
beliefs they hold about themselves and the world that they may be blind to.
A personal myth is, after all, what one has come to believe about oneself and,
as this chapter points out, we are heavily influenced by external belief systems
(Fig. 4.1).
Insight into
Consciousness
Present
Moment
Belief
patterns
shift
Fig. 4.1 Role of beliefs in self-organizing
2
Jung (1965).
3
Jung (1965), p. 269.
What Are Beliefs?

The Oxford English Dictionary traces the roots of “belief ” to Middle English
from Old English. The word appeared in about the late twelfth century and
was used to refer to things held to be to true owing to religious doctrine.
“Faith” referred to loyalty or allegiance to a person based on duty. In the
fourteenth century, “faith” began to take on a religious connotation while the
concept of “belief ” gradually diminished to the generalized modern defini-
tion: the mental acceptance of something as true.4
Scholars from divergent fields have difficulty in defining “belief ” because
its meaning depends on the context in which it is used and how it is distin-
guished from terms such as “knowledge,” “attitudes,” “values,” “judgement,”
“ideology,” “perceptions,” “internal mental processes” and “action strategies.”5
Anthropologists, social psychologists and philosophers, however, have agreed
on an acknowledged definition: “Beliefs are thought of as psychologically held
understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be
true.”6 Psychologist Milton Rokeach defined beliefs as “any simple proposi-
tion, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does,
capable of being preceded by the phrase ‘I believe that’.”7 He also suggested
that all beliefs have three components: cognitive (person’s knowledge about
what is true or false, desirable or not); affective (capable of arousing affect
of varying intensity, taking positive or negative positions); and behavioural
(leads to action when activated).8
Robert Dilts defined core beliefs as very general and basic beliefs that will
influence anything that comes after them.9 Core beliefs are also made up of
critical relationships between people and it can be difficult to distinguish
between beliefs we have modelled from others (e.g., parents, teachers and
society) and our own beliefs.10 Experience and context play a role in the for-
mation of beliefs. Mathematicians J. L. Usó-Doménech at the University of
Castellon, Spain, and J. Nescolarde-Selva at the University of Alicante, Spain,
have posited that beliefs arise through experience and that experience needs
previous beliefs and reason to be assimilated; therefore beliefs, reason and
4
Belief (n.d.).
5
Pajares (1992).
6
Richardson (1996), p. 103.
7
Rokeach (1968), p. 113.
8
Rokeach (1968).
9
Dilts (1990).
10
Dilts (1990).
76 Pivoting
Table 4.1 Major distinctions between beliefs and knowledge

Beliefs Knowledge
Refer to suppositions, commitments and Refers to factual propositions and the
ideologies understandings that inform skillful
action
Do not require a truth condition Must satisfy a truth condition
Cannot be evaluated Can be evaluated or judged
Episodically stored material influenced by Stored in semantic networks
personal experiences or cultural and
institutional sources
Static Often changes
experience are based on each other.11 Contexts also play a role, they explained,
because they are dynamic and changing constantly as people have new experi-
ences and change their beliefs and ways of reasoning.
The term “belief system,” according to Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-
Selva, tends to be used differently depending on the context (e.g., psychology,
anthropology or political science). Belief systems are structures of norms that
are interrelated among several beliefs. They are the stories that individuals
tell themselves to define their personal sense of reality.12 Apparently, each of
us has a belief system that we utilize to make sense of the world around us.
Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva proposed that people are capable of
constructing all kinds of individual beliefs by which they tell stories about
how the world works and then use these belief systems to cope with events
in their lives so that the world makes sense. They noted that belief systems
do not need a basis in reality as long as they consistently provide adequate
explanations for our lives.13 They are also reinforced by culture, theology, and
experience and training in cultural values, stereotypes, political viewpoints
and so on. Perhaps one way to refer to these belief systems in coaching is to
talk about the personal myths that we and our clients carry with us that we
believe make our lives singular.
Scholars have also attempted to distinguish between knowledge and beliefs.
Learning theorist Frank Pajares drew a distinction between knowledge (based
on objective fact) and beliefs (based on evaluation and judgement) and pointed
out that the difficulty is finding the border where knowledge ends and beliefs
begin.14 Table 4.1 describes the major distinctions between the two.15
11
Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva (2015).
12
13
14
Pajares (1992).
15
Savasci-Acikalin (2009), p. 4.
It appears that beliefs play various roles in the coaching conversation. First,
coach and client each bring core beliefs at a deep level of memory and con-
ditioning that can impact behaviours and choices in unseen ways. Second,
these personal beliefs create a story or personal myth that we then carry with
us and use to make sense of the world. Coaches can often glean clues from cli-
ents’ stories or personal myths that may help them to shift client perceptions.
Third, we have belief systems based on the social, cultural, organizational and
familial contexts we dwell in, yet beliefs are also intertwined and susceptible
to our changing experiences and contexts.
Paradigm Shift in Belief

Research across multiple fields (e.g., biology, epistemology, neuroscience, phi-
losophy, psychology and self-organization) yields no commonly accepted or
shared definition of “belief ” as either a construct or a system. Biologist Bruce
Lipton proposed that this can be explained to a great extent because of the
cultural and scientific belief system and historical context in which we are cur-
rently embedded.16 According to Lipton, we are in the midst of a paradigm
shift, moving away from the Newtonian mechanistic worldview in which
material reality was considered to be the sole legitimate realm of science with
all other aspects of reality being relegated to philosophy, religion or fiction.17
This paradigm of scientific materialism is shifting to what Lipton described
as a holistic paradigm, a structured worldview which seeks to incorporate
both the seen and unseen aspects of our human reality.18 Lipton suggested
that with this evolution we are being required to confront our internal con-
scious and unconscious limitations and misperceptions about the capacity
of human nature and human potential that we have inherited from scientific
materialism.19 Thomas Kuhn in Structure of Scientific Revolutions argued that
the evolution of scientific theory does not emerge from the straightforward
accumulation of facts but rather from a set of changing intellectual circum-
stances and possibilities.20 Thus our cultural and societal beliefs, from which
our personal beliefs arise, are influenced by and constructed from the scien-
tific context in which we live.
16
Lipton (2009).
17
Rock and Page (2009).
18
Lipton (2009).
19
Lipton (2009), p. 65.
20
Kuhn (1970).
78 Pivoting
Psych Psych
(Chemistry) (Energy)
Biology Biology
(Darwinian (Lamarkian
genetics) epigenetics)
Chemistry Chemistry
(Physical) (Vibrational)
Physics Physics
(Newtonian) (Quantum)
Mathematics Mathematics
(Euclidian geometry) (Fractal geometry)
Scientific Materialism Holism
Fig. 4.2 Comparison of two belief systems
David Rock and Linda Page, in Coaching with the Brain in Mind, referred
to the following quote from theoretical physicist Henry Stapp, describing the
power of cultural and scientific beliefs on human development:
Martyrs in every age are vivid reminders of the fact that no influence upon
human conduct, even the instinct for bodily self-preservation, is stronger than
beliefs about one’s relationship to the rest of the universe and to the power that
shapes it. Such beliefs form the foundation of a person’s self-image, and hence,
ultimately, of personal values.21
Stapp went on to point out that the values we hold depend on what we believe
and that what we believe is “strongly influenced by science.”22 Lipton has
noted the crucial influence of science on our human belief systems. He has
proposed that studies on the structure and behaviour of the natural world are
intricately linked and can be organized under the structure of one concept of
“science” rather than separated by conventional fields of knowledge, such as
mathematics and physics. According to him, if this accumulated knowledge
were pulled together under one roof it would resemble a multitiered build-
ing, with each floor built on the scientific foundation of the supporting lower
levels. Each floor would represent a basic scientific discipline, beginning with
mathematics as the ground floor.
Lipton compared the belief system of the scientific materialism paradigm
with that of the emerging holistic paradigm, making it clear that when the
belief system within a lower level of science changes, the belief systems on the
higher levels must change accordingly (Fig. 4.2).
21
Stapp (2007) in Rock and Page (2009), p. 31.
22
Stapp (2007) in Rock and Page (2009), p. 32.
Lipton’s holistic paradigm has some useful applications for the field of
coaching in terms of how we can better understand the “big picture” of beliefs
in the process of human growth and development. He listed what he called
some relevant new science facts in the holistic paradigm:
• Mathematics: Fractal geometry emphasizes the self-similar patterns of orga-

nization found at all levels (self-organization, chaos theory).
• Physics: Matter and energy (spirit) are inseparable. In the quantum universe
(physical or non-physical), energy waves or thoughts are entangled and
embedded within an invisible energy matrix called the “field”. No structure
can be separated out from the field or source. Because it is the observer who
creates the reality, we co-create reality with our beliefs, perceptions,
thoughts and feelings.
• Biology: Epigenetics now controls genetics meaning that certain circum-
stances in life can cause genes to be turned off (become dormant) or turned
on (become active). Thus epigenetic molecular mechanisms represent a
physical pathway along which consciousness moves. Our field of beliefs
and perceptions, individually and collectively, determine our biology and
our reality.
• Psychology: The subconscious mind controls 95 % of our behaviour through
biological-cognitive programmes obtained primarily from the field of
beliefs. When we seek to access and better understand our subconscious
beliefs and emotions, individually and collectively, we can take more cre-
ative control of our lives.23
For Lipton it has been all about the story we tell ourselves regarding reality
and our place in it that is the origin of human self-consciousness, that neuro-
logical mechanism that gives us the freedom of choice.24
Socially Wired for Beliefs

In the broadest of terms, the story that Lipton has implied that we tell our-
selves is based on a social system of beliefs. In fact, it may be that we are
wired to be social as the new field of social cognitive neuroscience suggests.
Researchers such as Matthew Lieberman have posited that our need for social
connection with others may be the most fundamental requirement for human
23
Lipton (2009), pp. 342–343.
24
Lipton (2009).
80 Pivoting
survival, and that our identities are formed by the values lent to us from
the groups we belong to.25 He suggested that while we might think that our
beliefs and values are core parts of our individual identity, he has found a
neural basis for personal beliefs that overlaps significantly with one of the
regions of the brain primarily responsible for allowing other people’s beliefs
to influence our own.26
Lieberman identified three major neural adaptations that have led humans
to evolve a socially malleable sense of self. First is the discovery of the brain’s
default network of social cognition. This means that during times when
the brain is at rest (i.e., not occupied with a task), we think about other
people, ourselves and the relation of ourselves to other people. According to
Lieberman, the brain’s free time is devoted to thinking about the social world
and our place in it. Connection is a default mechanism for human survival,
ensuring that infants are cared for and groups are formed. He also linked
social pain and pleasure with biological pain and pleasure. For example, our
sensitivity to social rejection is so key to our well-being that our brains treat
it as a painful event.
The second neural adaptation is the human capacity for mentalizing, which
allows us to imagine what other people are thinking or feeling and to react to
their future events. We have mirror neurons that enable us to imitate others
and to do mindreading or imagining of others’ situations, and to generate
answers when we want to know the why of someone’s choices or behaviour.
Empathy, a process in which we are able to feel another’s experiences, is a key
aspect of this adaptation and contributes to the principal of reciprocity, an
important mechanism for growing social connection.
The third neural adaptation is what Lieberman called harmonizing, a term
he borrowed from Eastern philosophy and culture where it is considered
essential for successful group living. Suggestibility and the process of being
persuaded have been researched in fMRI studies, and results support the
premise that many of our beliefs and values are transmitted through the self
that exists as a conduit to the social groups we are involved in, from family to
school to country.27 Lieberman suggested that we incorporate socially derived
impulses to supplement our natural impulses. “The social world imparts a
collection of beliefs about ourselves, our morality, and about what constitutes
a worthwhile life,” and we often “cling to these beliefs as though they are
25
Lieberman (2013).
26
Lieberman (2013).
27
Lieberman (2013), p. 193.
unique ideas.”28 He described these beliefs and values as being “snuck in from
the outside”—like a Trojan horse—which our brain then makes use of to
construct and update the self.29
Western Philosophy and Beliefs

The perspectives above do not yet include a philosophical definition of beliefs.
According to the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, most contemporary
analytic philosophers use the term “belief ” to refer to the attitude humans
have whenever we take something to be true.30 To believe something, in this
sense, does not necessarily involve actively reflecting on it. Many of the things
that humans believe are quite mundane—for example, that the sun will come
up, that it’s the twenty-first century, that my coffee cup is resting on the table.
Forming beliefs is therefore considered to be one of the most basic and impor-
tant features of the mind, and the concept of belief plays a crucial role in the
philosophy of mind and epistemology (the study of the nature and scope of
knowledge).
The “mind-body problem,” considered to be central to the philosophy of
the mind, is partly the question of whether and how a purely physical organ-
ism can have beliefs. Much of epistemology is based on questions of when
and how beliefs are justified or qualify as knowledge. As we’ve seen, distinc-
tions are made between beliefs, opinions, truth and knowledge. For many
philosophers, what humans think about the world may not match up with the
way the world really is, so there is a distinction between belief and truth. But
there are other philosophers, such as postmodernists and existentialists, who
think that such a distinction can’t be made. These philosophers take a scepti-
cal attitude towards certainty and see truth as much more fluid. To have cer-
tainty, according to postmodernists, humans would need to be able to “stand
outside” their own beliefs and look at them and the world without any type
of perspective or mental lens. However, that is not possible because our cogni-
tive structure (made up of intellectual and social backgrounds, biases, moods,
genetics, beliefs, preferences and passions) influences how we perceive what is
true about the world and we cannot remove all of these lenses.31
28
29
30
www.plato.stanford.edu.
31
Pardi (2015).
82 Pivoting
Neurophilosophers such as Paul and Patricia Churchland, Daniel Dennett

and Lynne Rudder Baker32 adopt yet another perspective by asserting that
since beliefs cannot be explained in a scientifically valid way, they do not exist.
Dennett in his book Consciousness Explained described how consciousness
arises from the interaction of physical and cognitive processes in the brain.33
These neurophilosophers expect that neuroscience will one day uncover deeper
levels of understanding that render the concept of beliefs no longer useful.34
For example, neuroscientist Kathleen Taylor35 suggested that beliefs may be
like memories from a neural standpoint; the more something is repeated or
intensified, the stronger the neural pathways become. Thus repetition and the
emotional draw of ideas would create the neural version of beliefs.
Beliefs from the Constructivist Perspective

Belief as a global construct does not lend itself easily to empirical investigation
from an objectivist perspective. According to Pajares, “Many see it so steeped
in mystery that it can never be clearly defined or made a useful subject of
research.”36 As coaching scholars-practitioners, we hold a constructivist per-
spective of beliefs. We see the development and expression of an individual’s
belief system as a changing interactive internal process. In fact, we suggest that
we are our beliefs. We borrow from one of the key principles of quantum phys-
ics: the observer creates the reality. In other words, as Henry Ford so eloquently
stated: “Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t—you’re right.”
In a coaching session with Jackie, an executive and heir apparent for the legal
counsel of a major corporation spoke critically about herself regarding her fear of
performing high-level legal tasks. Even though she was successful in executing those
tasks, she felt uncomfortable about these fearful emotions. Jackie reminded her that
despite her trepidation she faced each situation and completed it successfully—she
could count on herself. They talked about what that meant when she could rely on
herself to be brave and confident no matter the situation. This observation helped
to pivot the client’s self-concept from being fearful to being brave. The client real-
ized that, by definition, no one is brave without feeling scared. The belief that it
32
Brann (2015).
33
Dennett (1991).
34
Brann (2015).
35
Brann (2015).
36
Pajares (1992).
was wrong to be fearful was the non-conscious belief that Jackie helped bring to
awareness. The client was then able to shift her negative perspective about herself
to a more affirmative belief about her competency and bravery. Jackie noted that
the consequences of the change in her client’s belief in herself cascaded positively
throughout the rest of the coaching engagement.
The client (observer) in this case created a new perspective for herself. She
reinterpreted her conditioned response of believing that being fearful was a
deficit to realizing she was being heroic because of her fear. It resulted in a
shift in her belief about herself. Lipton has pointed out how belief is not
a trait that can measured on a scale but rather resembles the state of being
pregnant—either one is or is not—there being no middle ground.37 In other
words, we either believe or not, but what happens when many of our beliefs
are not evident to our awareness or that of others? Research demonstrates a
strong link between beliefs and the non-conscious, which is one aspect of this
concept that has substantial agreement among diverse theorists.
In researching the role of beliefs in the practice of teaching (which has
parallels to the role of beliefs in the practice of coaching), most learning theo-
rists agree that all teachers hold beliefs about their work, their students, their
subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities.38 Both psychological and
learning theorists generally agree that beliefs are generated through a process
of enculturation and social construction with the following core aspects being
relevant to coaching39:
• Beliefs play a key role in interpreting knowledge.

• Beliefs arise through experience.
• Beliefs vary in strength.
• The earlier a belief is incorporated, the more difficult it is to alter.
• The more central or core a belief, the more resistant to change.
• Newly acquired beliefs are most vulnerable to change.
• Beliefs provide personal meaning and assist in defining relevance.
• Beliefs strongly affect behaviour, although there is still debate as to whether
beliefs influence actions or vice versa.
• Beliefs are used to selectively retrieve material from memory and to build
causal explanations to create self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Individuals have a continuum of beliefs from factual to evaluative.
37
Lipton (2009).
38
Pajares (1992), p. 314.
39
Pajares (1992), Mansour (2009), Rokeach (1960, 1968), Lai et al. (2014), Hawkes (2003).
84 Pivoting
• Highly resourceful persons are better able to control the effects of negative
personal beliefs.
• Positive personal beliefs are directly related to adaptive functioning (e.g.,
coping effectively, managing difficulties, promoting mental health).
• Beliefs, attitudes and values organize together to form a functionally inte-
grated cognitive system.
• Beliefs cannot be directly observed but only inferred.
In terms of igniting substantial change, beliefs offer access to the vast net-
work of interconnected thoughts, memories, feelings and ways of knowing
that exist in the non-conscious. In his transformative learning theory for
adult learners, Jack Mezirow confirmed the usefulness of gaining access to
these deeper levels.40 He talked about transformative learning as a way to
effect change in a person’s frame of reference (worldview), which includes
their “structures of assumptions”—a combination of associations, concepts,
values, feelings and conditioned responses that reflect “habits of mind” and
“a point of view.”41 He categorized these habits of mind as habitual ways of
thinking, feeling and acting influenced by assumptions that form a set of
codes (or beliefs) that may be cultural, social, educational, economic, political
or psychological in origin.42 These habits of mind become articulated into a
specific point of view which then shapes a particular interpretation (of one’s
worldview) and which assigns causality.43
Mezirow believed that learners, through critical self-reflection, could exam-
ine their worldview in light of their own particular belief or value system,
which included both habits of mind and meaning perspectives.44 He found
the underlying habits of mind to be more durable (harder to transform) than
a person’s point of view because they seemed to operate outside awareness but,
through critical reflection, might be transformed.45 He also made an inter-
esting distinction in his levels of self-reflection between consciousness and
critical consciousness, inferring that by becoming critically aware of how we see
ourselves and our relationships we can discover the belief systems that shape
the way we think.46 This is the type of assistance that coaches can be uniquely
trained to contribute.
40
Mezirow (2000).
41
Mezirow (1997).
42
Mezirow (1997).
43
Mezirow (2000).
44
Kitchenham (2008).
45
Mezirow (1997, 2000).
46
Lundgren and Poell (2016).
Ann often uses assessments in her coaching, and one of her more practical appli-
cations is the Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument, which presents five
different modes of conflict (competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding and
accommodating). One mode is no more effective than another; it is the conflict
situation that dictates which mode or combination of modes might be best used.
Individuals, however, tend to have “favourite” or “default” modes, and one of the
learnings is to broaden one’s repertoire of skills in each of the modes and, depend-
ing on the situation, be conversant in applying the different approaches. She was
coaching a CEO who scored high in collaborating and competing and very low in
compromising. Because of much experience in debriefing this instrument, she was
quickly aware that the client had made some unconscious judgements about the
different modes. He valued the collaborative and competing modes (his top two
scores) and viewed the compromising approach unfavourably (his lowest score).
After discussing his different experiences in handling conflict, Ann made the dis-
tinction between one’s intent going into a conflict situation and which conflict
mode was actually used. The client suddenly realized that he actually used com-
promising extensively but didn’t acknowledge it because he learned when growing
up that it was a form of failure. It was better to compete or collaborate.
Beliefs and Quantum Theory

The transition phase from the scientific materialism paradigm to the unfold-
ing holism paradigm reveals how they differ fundamentally in their beliefs
about the role of consciousness and human self-determination. According to
Stapp, classical physics created a material picture of human beings, promoting
the idea that the physical world was composed of tiny bits of matter whose
interactions controlled everything.47 Thus a person’s conscious thoughts and
efforts could make no difference at all to what the body/brain did—whatever
a person did was considered to be fixed by local interactions between tiny
mechanical elements. This materialist conception of reality was challenged
at the beginning of the twentieth century. Max Planck’s discovery of the
quantum of action in the mid-1920s founded a new basic physical theory
developed by the physicists Heisenberg, Bohr, Pauli and Born, who brought
the consciousness of the human observer into physics as an essential role.48
The quantum theory of reality intentionally incorporated conscious human
choices into the structure of physical theory.
47
Stapp (2011).
48
Stapp (2011). This became known as the Copenhagen quantum theory.
86 Pivoting
Stapp explained, “The conception of self is the basis of values and thence of
behaviour, and it controls the entire fabric of one’s life. It is irrational, from a
scientific perspective, to cling today to false and inadequate nineteenth cen-
tury concepts about your basic nature.”49 Stapp was mystified that some mod-
ern physicists want to “improve” on orthodox quantum theory by excluding
“the observer”—a stance in direct opposition to what he considered to be the
most “glaring failure” of classical physics: its inability to accommodate human
consciousness, its very creators.50
Role of Self-Organization
With the breakthrough of quantum physics in the twentieth century, the core
perspective of reality shifted from matter to events (actions), and the poten-
tialities for those events to occur. The concept of self-organization emerged
initially out of systems theory. It was soon adopted by physicists and research-
ers in the fields of complexity and chaos theory as a way to account for the
spontaneous evolution of living matter from states of relative simplicity and
disorder to states of relative complexity and order.51 It was a new discovery
method first applied with inanimate and physical systems but then extended
to other varied contexts. Now it is considered central to the description of
biological systems, with examples of self-organizing behaviour extending
into natural science literature and the social sciences, such as economics and
anthropology.52
Models of psychological systems also now incorporate the concepts of
chaos, non-linear dynamics and self-organization.53 Self-organization has
been applied as a model for understanding growth, change and development
in psychological systems, such as addressing why various belief systems link
up with one another to create family dysfunction.54 The dynamic nature of
self-organization is what makes it attractive to practitioners and researchers in
the field of human and organizational change. Self-organization, for example,
can help explain sudden jumps in behaviour or chaotic behaviour (i.e., non-
linear transitions in mental states). Self-organization in psychological systems
49
Stapp (2011), p. 143.
50
Stapp (2011), p. 143.
51
Kurakin (2011).
52
Kurakin (2011).
53
Barton (1994).
54
Barton (1994).
signifies a process by which a structure or pattern emerges in an open system

without the direct involvement of the outside environment.55
Robert Dilts has combined NLP and self-organization theory to describe
how people can become aware of and change their beliefs.56 He has asserted
that people naturally and spontaneously change beliefs throughout their
lives.57 In his application he described self-organization theory as a branch
of systems theory that relates to the process of order formation in complex
dynamic systems (e.g., humans). This process creates a new paradigm for per-
ception and change. Self-organizing systems organize their own behaviour in
relation to their environment, and beliefs can act as “attractors” which help
to create and hold stable patterns within the system but which can also be
“destabilized” to create a new point of balance.
As has been pointed out, non-conscious beliefs have an effect on our actions
and behaviours. Edgar Schein, former professor at MIT Sloan School of
Management, noted that unconscious assumptions can distort data and the
way in which individuals perceive the world, which in turn affects behav-
iour.58 As an example, if we believe that people will take advantage of us, we
will behave in ways that will coincide with those expectations.59
Chris Argyris, American business theorist and co-founder of the field of
organization development, viewed humans as designers and implementers of
their actions. Individuals design their diagnosis of reality and implement their
actions through an internal “master programme” made up of two compo-
nents: the espoused theory and the theory-in-use.60 Individuals are able to
articulate their espoused theory but rarely behave consistently with it. They
are unable to articulate their theory-in-use yet consistently use it when they
act. Theories-in-use have two basic components, according to Argyris.61 First
are the values that the individuals attempt to satisfy (called the “governing
variables”); and second are the behavioural strategies that people use. All
55
Barton (1994).
56
Dilts (1998).
57
Dilts (1996).
58
Schein (1985).
59
McGregor (1967).
60
Argyris (1983).
61
Argyris (1976).
88 Pivoting
behaviour is designed to satisfy as many of the governing variables as possible.

These unconscious variables therefore guide behaviour.
In coaching there are always at least two internal belief systems in play—
that of the coach and that of the client—both of which are heavily influenced
by external systems. The internal systems are made up of conscious and non-
conscious beliefs about change and reality, and they inform and influence
who we are as coaches and clients. A deeper understanding of the role that
beliefs play in facilitating or preventing change seems critical for transforma-
tive coaching.
While as a profession coaching is firmly based in quantum and construc-
tivist perspectives of reality, as practitioners we might not personally embrace
some of the belief systems underlying the scientific foundation of our profes-
sion. For example, what are our own theories-in-use when working with cli-
ents? How do we take into account the unseen aspects of who we are? Clearly
we are strongly influenced in terms of our perception of reality and our beliefs
about the capacity of humans to change and evolve.
5
Accessing the Inner Self: Knowing
A person often meets his destiny on the road he took to avoid it.
—Jean de La Fontaine

The second point of access to our vast non-conscious network is that of
knowing, specifically inner knowing as it relates to supporting our clients in
making substantial change. This chapter is framed from the perspective of
seeing human development as adaptation, change, learning and growth, and
it explores how knowledge and ways of knowing can support and/or impede
this active process. We feel kinship with the somatic philosophy of Thomas
Hanna, a self-proclaimed follower of pragmatism, who stated, “The goal of
philosophy is not, finally, the trans human goal of eternal abstract truth, but
the human goal of temporal, ongoing experiential freedom.”1
We make a quick journey through highlights of modern and postmodern
theories of knowledge and their impact on the field of coaching. Clearly the
study of living organisms is a very complex area that Hanna not-so-humorously
described as “a baffling tangle of theoretical, philosophical and metaphysical
uncertainties—uncertainties that have haunted science since its Renaissance
origins.”2 We do our best to carve a useful path through the uncertainties.
1
Hanna (1986), p. 3.
2
Hanna (1986), p. 3.

90 Pivoting
Insight into
Consciousness
Knowing
is revealed
Present
Moment
Fig. 5.1 Role of inner knowing in self-organizing
We then focus on describing the activity of knowing, which is of direct

interest to coaches as we engage in the mutual dance of creation and under-
standing in our coaching conversations. Instead of seeing our clients and the
process of coaching as “objects” of study, we explore ways of knowing that
more genuinely reflect the interactive process and lived experience of coach-
ing in which we are participants (Fig. 5.1).
What Is Knowledge?
We start by distinguishing the idea of knowledge from the act of knowing.
Knowledge is the awareness, understanding or information obtained by expe-
rience or study that is either in a person’s mind or possessed by people general-
ly.3 There is the everyday usage of knowledge that we are familiar with (e.g.,
I know it is raining outside) but also the scientific and philosophical notions
of knowledge which influence us at a deep level (e.g., What is matter made
of? Who am I?). As we ask ourselves questions, we naturally wonder how we
come to know the things we do. To some extent it seems that what is real for
us depends on how we come to know things given our perceptual, cognitive
background.4
3
Cambridge Dictionaries Online.
4
Henriques (2013).
For example, we are born into a specific culture which has certain deeply
embedded social customs and traditions. Our culture influences how we per-
ceive and cognitively grasp the reality we are raised in. Travelling through
different cultures is a great way to experience first hand how people exhibit
different knowledge based on the world around them. Just asking for direc-
tions in a strange culture can bring up feelings of frustration and bewilder-
ment as we discover that our familiar perceptions and ways of thinking are
not adequate to grasp this different context—from the language barrier and
confusing hand gestures to subtle styles of interaction (e.g., bowing vs. nod-
ding, direct vs. indirect eye contact).
The Impact of Modern Theories of Knowledge

on Coaching
Philosophy is one of the oldest traditions which still retains the most domi-
nant conception of knowledge in Western society. The study of epistemology
(the philosophy of knowledge) focuses on how humans know things, and
ontology (the metaphysics of knowledge) focuses on the nature of reality and
what can be acknowledged as really existing in the world. Historically, most
theorists agree that philosophy generated science, but that in modern times
they are mutually influential and closely intertwined.
Philosophy often provides justification for particular scientific theories.
Why? Because philosophy characterizes knowledge as “justified true belief,”
meaning that whatever the representation it must be legitimized and justi-
fied by logical and empirical factors.5 Thus the approach and practice of sci-
ence (i.e., scientific method) are considered to have originated in philosophy,
whose intellectual thought and rigorous reasoning continue to influence sci-
ence by framing debates and bringing awareness to science’s weaknesses.6
Paul King, a computational neuroscientist, pointed out how the objects
that science has discovered over time were really there all along but were too
small to see (cells, atoms, electrons), too far away to see (galaxies) or required
a reorganization of available information to be able to see (genes, DNA
structure).7 He has been intrigued by the most recent example of philosophy
and science working together: the close interaction of the philosophy of the
mind and the scientific study of consciousness to resolve the centuries-old
debate about the nature of the mind.
5
Henriques (2013).
6
King (2011).
7
King (2011).
92 Pivoting
In the 1890s, William James, a founder of modern psychology, first legiti-

mized the study of consciousness only to have it dismissed as a credible sci-
entific object by the behavioural psychologists led by B. F. Skinner in the
1960s and 1970s. According to King, consciousness only began to return as
a viable object of study in the 1990s due in part to Francis Crick, one of the
discoverers of DNA. Crick lent his support to launch a neuroscience study
of consciousness as a credible and precisely defined field of study. This has
led to philosophers, psychologists and neuroscientists meeting together annu-
ally to debate approaches to explanations of what consciousness is and how
the brain produces it.8 At the same time there are parallel gatherings of phi-
losophers and physicists debating the relationship of quantum mechanics to
consciousness.9 King has stated that he is hopeful of the result—a fresh range
of viewpoints in philosophy which are informed by scientific discoveries, and
more precise scientific definitions being informed by philosophical debate.10
This current interplay of philosophy and science in the arena of conscious-
ness and neuroscience bestows further legitimacy to the field of coaching.
More scholars and researchers are needed to discover the theoretical foun-
dations or “bedrock” of coaching.11 Concurrently, the efforts to inform the
philosophy of coaching with scientific precision are leading practitioners to
become more expert in “facilitating self-directed neuroplasticity.”12
Impact of Postmodern Theories of Knowledge

on Coaching
Historically, both Western philosophy and science have relied on two domi-
nant approaches to acquiring knowledge: empiricism and rationalism. The
distinction between the two approaches has resulted in differing perspectives
of how knowledge is acquired between philosophy and science. The scientific
method has been constructed primarily on empirical observation and began
to separate from those philosophical traditions which were intent on building
rational systems of knowledge (Table 5.1).13
The Age of Enlightenment, the philosophical movement which erupted
in the late eighteenth century in Europe, brought an increase in empiricism,
8
For example, the Association for the Study of Consciousness; Science of Consciousness conferences.
9
For example, Topological Association of Quantum Mechanics and Consciousness.
10
King (2011).
11
Rock and Page (2009).
12
Brann (2015).
13
Henriques (2013).
Table 5.1 Distinctions between empiricism and rationalism

Empiricism Rationalism
Knowledge is based on Knowledge is based on the use of reason or logic.
experience and
experimentation.
Experimental science is the Mathematics is the paradigm of knowledge.
paradigm of knowledge.
Experience and experiment Genuine knowledge is certain.
rarely, if ever, produce
certainty.
Some empiricists believe that Experience does not produce certainty and does
mathematics can be certain. not conform to reason. Thus experience is at best
second-class knowledge.
scientific rigour, reductionism and questioning of religious orthodoxy.14 This

awakening ushered in the “modern” era of scientific method, that of scien-
tific materialism, whose models of the world were conceived to accurately
describe ontology (how the world is) in a way that was separate from subjec-
tive impressions.15
The Western world considered the scientific method to have made a signifi-
cant contribution to how knowledge of the physical world and its phenomena
are acquired. It was taken for granted that knowledge could only be pos-
sessed by humans. Even the idea of systematically studying the unconscious
as a knowledge domain was disregarded until Freud’s recognition that it held
thinking processes hidden from awareness.16
Only recently has that “weakness” of science been amended to include the
fact that conscious human minds are not the only “self-organized compilers
of knowledge”; there are also biological systems, such as the immune system
and the DNA of the genetic code that are purveyors of knowledge, according
to physicist Robert Traill.17 He has proposed that the basic physical element of
thought dynamics is likely some kind of string-like coding and that synaptic
mechanisms between nerve cells could be the basic elements of thought and
cognition.18 He has argued for extending the limited philosopher’s view of
knowledge to incorporate at least four different knowledge-gathering domains:
the brain of the individual; scientific method as the “brain” of society; DNA
14
Gay (1996).
15
Henriques (2013).
16
Traill (2008).
17
Traill (2008).
18
Traill (2008).
94 Pivoting
Fig. 5.2 Blatz Beer advertisement
and genetics as the “brain” of species survival; and the immune system as the
intelligence of the body’s defence system.19
The postmodern era has clarified for us how “science can only be a process
of understanding our world and ourselves, rather than a fixed set of rules for
all time.”20 With the rise of new scientific paradigms and philosophies, such
as social constructionism, the idea that knowledge is an “objective map of
one true reality” has been challenged.21 Instead the postmodern view of real-
ity is inherently contextual, partly based on the way our minds are organized
and build perceptions, and partly due to how societies and cultures legiti-
mize ideas within specific historical and political eras that cannot be separated
from knowledge.22 Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 show two vintage advertisements which
appeared in the USA in the early twentieth century that would be considered
highly inappropriate and even shocking to today’s young parents. It appears
that much of our reality is socially constructed for us and we either con-
sciously or unwittingly participate in legitimizing it.
The influence of the postmodern philosophy of knowledge on coaching
cannot be overstated. Rock and Page have pointed out that “coaching must
tackle the question of what it means to be human.”23 We believe this necessar-
ily involves an expanded science and philosophy of knowledge and knowing
19
Traill (2008), p. 12.
20
McTaggart (2002), p. xix.
21
Henriques (2013).
22
Henriques (2013).
23
Rock and Page (2009), p. 54.
Fig. 5.3 Iver Johnson Revolvers advertisement
that can provide a theoretical foundation in the field of coaching for what
Rock and Page have discerned as “a shift in emphasis from individualism to
community and context.”24
Somatic Knowledge and Coaching
We conclude this section with a brief exploration of somatic knowledge,

which, according to Hanna (inventor of the somatic term in the 1970s) was
the “unavoidable” next step of philosophy: the creation of a philosophy of
change, adaptation, evolution, growth, learning, self-control, autonomy and
hence freedom.25 Somatics encompasses systems of study that view physical
reality and specific bodily, and even cellular, awareness as sources of knowledge
that can be accessed through touch, movement, imagery and embodiment.26
Also included in this field is social somatic theory, which applies a broader
definition of somatic knowledge beyond just inner experience to encompass
the ways in which our inner experiences are sociocultural constructions. Don
Hanlon Johnson, another founder of somatics, asserted that our bodies and
bodily experiences are shaped by our background, experiences, history and
sociocultural habits.27
24
Rock and Page (2009), p. 54.
25
Hanna (1986, 1991).
26
Eddy (2000).
27
Johnson (1992).
96 Pivoting
It is an interesting postmodern domain of knowledge for the field of coach-

ing. Somatics is considered to be a life science based on what is active, changing
and unpredictable over time. It describes the functions of human organisms,
those which involve movement and change through time; and it describes the
structures of human organisms, those which are stable and fixed in space.28 These
are complementary stances of observation that one can take regarding human
change (i.e., both/and instead of either/or) which transcend the mind–body
dualism of pre-quantum modern science. For Hanna, somatic study envisioned
the body as an embodied process of internal awareness and communication
(inner experience), not as an objective entity or mechanical instrument.29
What Is Knowing?
As coaches and clients, we have already accumulated large stores of knowledge
over our lifetime, some of which we are consciously aware of and some of
which form part of our non-conscious assumptions about the world around
us. There is a key connection between the knowledge we acquire, and there-
fore believe, and how greatly it is influenced by the scientific, political, social,
cultural and historical times we live in. How we acquire that knowledge—our
ways of knowing—are of significance to us in the coaching profession because
we are often unaware of how much we can influence or impact the delivery of
new or reframed knowledge to our coaching clients.
As we expand our concept of what constitutes legitimate knowledge, we
also need to broaden our understanding and acceptance of the many ways
in which we “know” something. For example, having an insight or an aha
moment is an event in which we participate but also an inner process which
we experience. In addition, such ways of knowing are covert to us in that
they arise unbidden or reveal themselves without a conscious summoning.
How do we categorize that kind of knowing? All humans experience insight
or aha moments. Still, there is no commonly accepted scientific explanation
for what occurs. Traditional science, limited by its focus on phenomena only
as objects of study from an external observer perspective, cannot account for
unconscious forces at work. Postmodern quantum science, dynamic patterns
of self-organization, phenomenology and constructivist theory, however, are
better able to accommodate phenomena such as insights by describing them
in terms of action, interaction, process, event and participation.
28
Hanna (1976).
29
Green (2002).
Tacit Knowing
Knowledge is something we acquire, but knowing is a function of our inner

senses, including intelligence, emotions, body and even spirit. One of the
first modern scientists to formally describe a different kind of knowing was
chemist and philosopher Michael Polanyi, who developed his tacit knowl-
edge concept in the 1950s and 1960s.30 He recognized the importance of a
personal, embodied kind of knowledge which he believed was where creative
acts, especially acts of discovery, were imbued with strong personal feelings
and commitments.31 He argued that informed guesses, hunches and imagin-
ings were all internal exploratory acts and that such tacit knowing comprised
a range of conceptual and sensory information and images that could be used
to make sense of things. He began to acknowledge the place of intuition
in knowledge and informal education practice.32 He believed that much of
human discovery was the product of the integration of conscious and uncon-
scious knowing which relies substantially on personal knowledge as opposed
to formalized rules and propositions.33 His notion of tacit knowing helped to
contribute to a generation of new understandings and social/scientific discov-
ery, especially relevant to educators.34 He also had his detractors, who argued
that tacit knowledge prohibited the advancement of artificial intelligence.35
Phenomenological Knowing
The science of phenomenology has a deep and rich history in studying the
flow of consciousness within the context of accepting the reality of the outside
world. Henri Bergson, a major French philosopher who was influential in the
first part of the twentieth century, published his concept of duration, or duree,
and posed a subjective mode of knowing that was for him the primary vehicle
to intuition, which he considered to be the ultimate basis of knowing.36 Like
Bergson, William James developed a dynamic psychology of consciousness
around the turn of the twentieth century based on a similar sense of inner
duration or stream of thought that was holistic in how it incorporated tem-
30
Polanyi (1958/1998).
31
Smith (2003).
32
Smith (2003).
33
London School of Economics and Political Science (n.d.).
34
Smith (2003).
35
Fodor (1981).
36
Bergson (1922/1965).
98 Pivoting
porality, reasoning and thinking inside the flow of consciousness.37 He con-

sidered his notion of inner duration to be an alternative mode of knowing
to that of scientific reasoning. James posited two ways of knowing things:
knowing them immediately or intuitively and knowing them conceptually or
representatively.38 He believed that to know immediately (or intuitively), the
mind and the object were one in that experience (i.e., non-dualistic). He used
the example of looking at a piece of white paper in which the paper and the
mind are actually two names given later to the one experience.
Philosopher Edmund Husserl, who established phenomenology in the
early twentieth century, was influenced by James and made his life work the
science of experience itself.39 He focused on understanding a person’s lifeworld
or lived existence, which included time, intention and two different horizons
of human experience: inner horizons, focused on intangible, elusive ideas,
notions and fantasies considered to be a part of oneself; and outer horizons,
focused on real objects in the outer world.40 For Husserl, this lifeworld incor-
porated memory and expectation in the present moment, like listening to
a melody where one actually only hears one note at a time. Consciousness,
however, holds the previous notes in memory and anticipates the future notes
because of a familiarity with the medium of music. In other words, the sensa-
tion of duration is being constructed of the raw material of memory, percep-
tion and expectation.
A philosopher and former student of Husserl, Martin Heidegger went
beyond the intentional consciousness of his master to search for something
more fundamental—an ontological concept of authentic human existence.41
He broadened the notion of phenomenology to something more essential—
understanding the meaning of being itself. Heidegger recognized that before
anything else, such as knowledge, event or thing, the world existed, and his
philosophy was concerned with the basic condition of existence he called
“Being”, the primordial condition or “ground” through which everything else
comes into existence.42 For Heidegger the meaning of Being was contextual
and grounded in possibility. He gave the name Dasein to human Being, which
can be interpreted as “being-there” and figuratively as meaning “the clearing
in which beings can be manifest” in time.43 Heidegger was concerned with the
37
James (1890/1950).
38
McDermott (1966).
39
Husserl (1928/1964).
40
Wagner (1983).
41
Heidegger (1962).
42
LeMay and Pitts (1994).
43
Zimmerman (1981).
experience of being human in all its wholeness and he believed that humans
are completely shaped by their culture so that no one is truly autonomous of
culture. While there can be no existing without a world to exist in, he also
believed in being responsible for one’s own authentic existence. This meant
reaching beyond just thinking, to opening up to all that one can authen-
tically be. For Heidegger, Being was transcendent and beyond the control
of humans. His mature concept of authenticity was compared to the Zen
Buddhist idea of enlightenment.44
Of interest to coaching in Heidegger’s work is shifting to a deeper knowing
in which we can observe our lived experience (both coach and client) not as
an “object” to be analysed but rather as phenomena that arise from “nowhere”
through thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories and projections which
continually appear and disappear (e.g., a feeling appears, then disappears;
a thought comes up, then fades away).45 Thus life is a happening in which
a revealing and bringing to light occurs not through rational thinking but
through an appearance from a source beyond the control of conscious human
thought. Heidegger suggests to us a broader perspective of knowing—that it
is an experience or event that comes through us.
Enactive Knowing
Another interesting perspective on knowing comes from learning theory, pri-

marily based on the work of cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner in the
1960s and 1970s. In researching the cognitive development of children, he
proposed three modes of representation or ways in which information or
knowledge are stored and encoded in memory: enactive, 0–1 years (action-
based); iconic, 1–6 years (image-based); and symbolic, 7 years up (language-
based).46 Enactive information is encoded first and stored in the memory, such
as in the form of muscle memory when a baby shakes a rattle. Iconic informa-
tion is stored visually as a mental picture in the mind. Symbolic information
is stored as a code or symbol, like language, and is the most adaptable form.
As adults, humans can perform many types of motor task (typing, sewing,
operating machinery) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (pic-
ture) or symbolic (word) form.47 The purpose of education for Bruner was
to facilitate thinking and problem-solving skills, not to impart knowledge.
44
Zimmerman (1981).
45
Zimmerman (1981).
46
Bruner (1966).
47
McLeod (2008).
100 Pivoting
He believed that students were active learners who constructed their own
knowledge.
Bruner’s model has been developed into an enactive approach to learn-
ing that encompasses the interaction between autonomous agents and their
environments.48 It is considered more natural than other forms of knowing
because it is experiential (doing) and cultural (occurs in a context), and it is
based on active participation—knowing by doing and by living rather than
by thinking.49 The enactive approach in cognitive psychology was further
legitimized when Varela, Thompson and Rosch published their book, The
Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience, in 1992. They
argued that cognitive activity takes place not in a vacuum but in a world
where someone (an autonomous agent) is trying to get something done (go to
work, make a cup of coffee, write a book). In other words, there is an essential
relationship with the experience of the individual and the meaningfulness of
that experience; it isn’t abstract thinking but really means something and feels
like something.50
Cognitive psychologist Marek McGann has stated that enactive learning
has implications for some of the studies that cognitive scientists often take for
granted. He has noted that the typical assumption in cognitive psychology
experiments is that subjects are essentially the same and act/react similarly in
all situations. An enactive view, however, “sees the person as a tangle of skills
and motivations which will be in a more or less unique combination in a given
individual,” and these individual differences need to be taken into account.51
In doing our literature review for this book, we read numerous articles on
cognitive problem-solving experiments to induce aha moments of discovery
in laboratory-type settings. From these experiments, researchers were view-
ing the phenomenon (aha moment) as an object to be studied, reduced and
explained. We were struck by how different this experimental approach was
to the moments of discovery that we experienced with our clients in real time
in real-life contexts. Extensive research on enactive knowing and enactive
interfaces can be found at the Enactive Network of Excellence, a European
Community research project established in 2004 for the purpose of creating a
new generation of human–computer interfaces.
48
McGann (n.d.).
49
Slee, Campbell and Spears (2012).
50
McGann (n.d.).
51
McGann (n.d.).
Transpersonal Knowing
Transpersonal psychology theorists have suggested that Western conceptions

of culture and consciousness are in a time of transition and that one of the
most fundamental of human activities is undergoing change: our understand-
ing of “knowing.”52 The ways in which something comes to be known are
now being questioned, as are the methodologies of modern science. In the
postmodern era, “knowing has been greatly humbled by its self-acknowledged
limits,” and human consciousness appears to be transitioning through a sig-
nificant knowledge shift in which “knowing is becoming increasingly aware
of its own processes.”53 In their book Transpersonal Knowing, editors Tobin
Hart, Peter Nelson and Kaisa Puhakka argued not only for multiple perspec-
tives on knowing but also for multiple modes of knowing as we become more
self-aware of these experiences. They suggested that certain basic themes seem
to emerge in describing “authentic knowing”: it is one’s own knowing; there
is immediacy with little to no conceptual mediation; a sense of connected-
ness dissolves boundaries and separateness from others; and transformative
capacity arises as the knower is changed by the knowing while at the same
time openness to change in one’s sense of identity further opens a person to
the knowing.54
Kaisa Puhakka has identified experiences of spiritual direct knowing not
as altered states but rather as acts that can occur in various states, altered
or ordinary, and which are actually a way of being. She has suggested that
knowing is not a state of consciousness but an activity of awareness that is
able to bring about shifts and integrate different states of consciousness.55
She described knowing as “a moment of awareness in which contact occurs
between the knower and the known,” and which “is nonconceptual, nonima-
ginal, nondiscursive, and often extremely brief.”56 Such knowing connects
and integrates experience across contexts, is often subtle, has presence, and
may be accompanied or followed by mental images and thoughts. She also
described the contact involved in direct knowing as the subject becoming the
object (embodiment) as opposed to the scientific perspective of the subject
viewing the object.
52
Hart, Nelson and Puhakka (2000).
53
Hart et al. (2000), p. 1.
54
Hart et al. (2000), p. 5.
55
Puhakka in Hart et al. (2000), pp. 12–13.
56
Puhakka in Hart et al. (2000), p. 15.
102 Pivoting
Jorge Ferrer, faculty in the department of East-West Psychology at the

California Institute of Integral Studies, has argued for a more pluralistic and
participative perspective on transpersonal psychology integrating many lev-
els (neuroscientific, cognitive and neuropsychological, psychodynamic and
spiritual/mystical) in an approach to understanding the mind and process of
transformation.57 He has noted how modern Western education emphasizes
developing rational and intellectual powers, with little attention being paid
to learning other ways of knowing that include somatic, emotional, aesthetic,
intuitive and spiritual intelligences.58 He proposed that transpersonal phe-
nomena are participatory and co-creative events that occur not just individu-
ally but also in relationship or community. He regarded humans “as vehicles
for the creative self-unfolding of reality and the enaction (or ‘bringing forth’)
of directly knowable spiritual worlds, realms, or domains of distinctions.”59
Tobin Hart has focused on the concept of “interiority and education,”
noting that the greater the complexity and demands of the outer world, the
greater the need for internal discernment, attention to values and ability to
be present in the midst of streaming information. Developing interiority is a
kind of internal spaciousness and depth to help us meet and take in the world
we live in.60 He supports an approach to knowing that involves looking not
only at what he calls “outer data” but also closely into oneself—knowledge by
presence.61 According to Hart, knowledge by presence cultivates an interior
life for navigating the complexities of life with wisdom, virtue and meaning.
The Bandwidth of Knowing

Have you ever had a time in your life when you found yourself doing something
that you hadn’t consciously intended? A time when something within you com-
pelled you to take a certain action. Ann had an experience like that when back-
packing in Europe in the mid-1970s. She was hitching a ride with a group of New
Zealanders from Greece to Munich where she was going to find work and study
German. The Volkswagen bus stopped in a parking lot in Vienna so that every-
one could get out and stretch. She opened the rear door, stepped out and looked
around. Suddenly she found herself saying to the others that she was going to stay
57
Ferrer (2014).
58
Ferrer (2014), p. 163.
59
Ferrer (2014), p. 168.
60
Hart (2007).
61
Hart (2007), p. 1.
in Vienna and find a job. Her companions looked at her with a combination of
puzzlement and astonishment. “We thought you were going to Munich with us?
What are you talking about?” She again found herself saying with an even greater
sense of certainty that, no, she was now going to stay in Vienna. She didn’t know
anyone in Vienna and up to that moment it had never crossed her mind to live in
Austria. But stay she did, and as a result of that synchronous moment it set her on
a path that changed the course of her life, from meeting the fellow American she
eventually married (and still lives with in Montana) to establishing a new career
for herself. It was an event of such powerful “inner knowing” that she followed it
without conscious awareness.
That event, besides being a great story to tell at parties over the years,
remained with Ann as an inexplicable, strange moment of deep connection.
It was not until her research into pivotal moments years later that she encoun-
tered a written description by an author who narrated a personal event that
had great similarity. In her book Extraordinary Knowing, psychoanalyst and
researcher Elizabeth Lloyd Mayer wrote about “a strange dissociated moment”
she had in looking for a gold watch that her husband had given her sister and
which had gone missing.62 She and her sister spent a few hours searching the
house with no luck when Mayer found herself experiencing something she
never had before. She walked into her husband’s study “deliberately, inten-
tionally, but with no awareness of volition on my part … as though I was
watching myself in a slow-motion film.”63 As she tells it, she walked straight to
a closet in the corner of the room, bent down and reached in behind a row of
shoes and boxes and pulled out a small leather case at the very back. When she
looked inside she found the watch. At the time she couldn’t find the words to
explain to her sister how she had known it was there. Later her husband told
her that he had found the watch in the bathroom and to teach her sister a les-
son in responsibility had hidden it in his closet. Mayer described the strange
experience: “I didn’t decide to walk into my husband’s study … it feels more
like I was being walked … walked, somehow, by the experience.”64
Ann was astounded to read this account because it described how she expe-
rienced that moment in the parking lot in Vienna. She didn’t consciously
decide to stay in Vienna but rather it seemed to be decided for her at some
deeper level, which she then (apparently) completely trusted. She always
knew it was some type of inner knowing guiding her, but without a scientific
62
Mayer (2007).
63
Mayer (2007), p. 58.
64
Mayer (2007), p. 59.
104 Pivoting
explanation she categorized it as “that time something profound happened”

and so placed it beyond the need to be figured out. Of course, it was not until
years later, when living with her husband in Montana (where she had never
imagined she would ever live), that she realized the true significance of that
moment of knowing.
Inner Knowing as Frequency
We propose that inner knowing, being a different kind of knowing from the
rational, relies on different, subtler signals to be detected and/or accessed.
Mayer has pointed out that in order to account for these different kinds of
data, science needs to take feelings into account—those gut feelings that tell
us something has happened, those unique dissociative jolts or shock of body,
emotion and idea erupting into consciousness in a way that feels completely
different from ordinary knowing.65 She observed that the feeling of what hap-
pens is part of the data. She used the analogy of seeing with “daytime” eyes
versus “nighttime” eyes, two different ways of seeing and perceiving. Mayer
has proposed that scientific models that explain what happens when we see
with daytime eyes aren’t able to explain what happens when we see with night-
time eyes.66
As a psychoanalyst, she had witnessed many patients having moments of
insight that seemed to change everything for them. Yet the experience was
paradoxical as well, according to Mayer, because most people experiencing
an insight also felt a sense of “I knew this—it’s deeply familiar—I knew it
all along.”67 She described it as knowing something in a new way when it
joins consciousness—that is, consciousness changes things. She offered an
explanation that matched our experiences, both personally and professionally:
humans shift between inner knowing and rational cognitive knowing accord-
ing to different sets of figure–ground configurations.68
In Chapter 4 we carried out the Gestalt activity of shifting perceptions
between figure and ground (seeing the old/young woman). The same principle
can be applied to ways of knowing. Mayer has concluded, “The perceptions
that characterize potentially anomalous experience appear to emerge from a
state of mind that is, in the moment of perception, radically incompatible
with the state of mind in which perceptions characterizing rational thought
65
Mayer (2007).
66
Mayer (2007).
67
Mayer (2007), p. 116.
68
Mayer (2007).
are possible.”69 This is the analogy of the daytime versus nighttime eyes. The
paradoxical sense of familiarity that occurs with an insight is the result of a
knowing at the non conscious level rising to the conscious level. The figure–
ground shift explanation also matches the two ways of knowing proposed
by William James:70 knowing things immediately or intuitively and know-
ing things conceptually or representatively. James believed that, in knowing
things immediately or intuitively, the mind and the object became one in that
experience as opposed to the observer–observed configuration of conceptual
knowing.
Mayer also pointed out that there may be a sense of loss when one switches
from one mode of knowing to another. It’s a giving up of “our habitual ground-
ing in rational thought to see something else, even just for a moment—that’s
anything but easy for most of us.”71 Like with the old/young woman visual,
we cannot engage in both kinds of knowing at the same time but rather shift
out of one to pick up the other. Intuition author Laura Day described this
type of knowing or intuition as a non-linear process of gaining information
which does not rely on senses, memory, experience, feelings or thoughts. It is
another state of consciousness that just requires a slight shift in attention in
order to access different information.72
Here are seven types of inner knowing that we have discerned from the
literature and our research learnings and experience. These are different
“frequencies” that we can tune in to as we become alert and aware of more
subtle ways of picking up information (or begin using nighttime eyes to see
differently):
1. Expert intuition and tacit knowledge: intuition that draws on prior learning,
experience and expertise; previous analyses frozen into habit or degrees of
automaticity;
2. Instinct: reflexive responses for survival; premonitions, hunches;
3. Creative intuition: when knowledge and inner knowing are combined in
novel ways to create insight;
4. Social intuition: rapid and automatic evaluation of other people’s cognitive
and affective state; empathic perception and judgement;
5. Somatic knowing: deep empathy or clairsentience; knowing arriving
through a feeling, a sense or an image;
69
Mayer (2007), p. 137.
70
McDermott (1966).
71
Mayer (2007), p. 138.
72
Day (1996).
106 Pivoting
Expert
Enactive intuition/
knowing Tacit
knowing
Direct
Instinct
knowing
Somatic Creative
knowing intuition
Social
intuition
Fig. 5.4 Seven types of inner knowing
6. Direct knowing: understanding without use of conscious awareness or

rational thinking; holistic and associative; spiritual knowing and aware-
ness; paranormal, may include: clairvoyance, clairaudience, telepathy, pre-
cognition or embodiment;
7. Enactive knowing: actively constructing knowledge through a direct inter-
face with the environment; experiential learning in a specific context;
knowing by doing and living (Fig. 5.4).
For those of us who have experienced some or all of the ways of knowing
described above, we are often reluctant to share these stories or strategies.
Mayer called this reluctance the “underlying cultural disinclination” to pub-
licly acknowledge highly subjective or personal experiences that seem ratio-
nally indefensible.73 In the exploration of philosophical and scientific theories
of knowledge in this chapter, however, we have seen substantial support for
accepting an openness and legitimacy towards different modes of knowing.
As Mayer pointed out, these experiences of knowing are empirical data which,
73
Mayer (2007), p. 25.
while they may feel chaotic and difficult to review, are what we have to work
with; the challenge is to begin making scientific sense out of them.74
As coaches, therefore, we can learn to distinguish between knowledge
acquired as an object (i.e., often programmed in the non conscious, exter-
nally derived) and the action of knowing, an internal constructive process
that enables access to more authentic ways of being and taking action. When
engaged in the process of coaching, we “live” more in the active process of
exchanging levels of knowing and awareness with our clients; we are working
in real time, in the present moment. If we listen/sense/feel closely, we can
often detect when a client is focused on knowledge about themselves because
it will be pattern-like, often from the past, and usually self-limiting. When we
help them to shift out of this set knowledge about themselves to a focus on
knowing themselves, they can experience a substantial shift.
We encourage coaches to reflect on the modes of knowing with an open
mind; the majority of them are experiences that are innately human and that
most of us have some familiarity with. We believe that coaching is a potent
vehicle for helping others to recognize, listen for and attune to their inner
knowing. What greater service can we render as coaches than to help our
clients become more aware and adept at following their own inner guidance?
74
Mayer (2007), p. 38.
6
Accessing the Inner Self: Memory
It is perfectly true, as philosophers say, that life must be understood backwards. But
they forget the other proposition, that it must be lived forwards.
—Søren Kiekegaard

In terms of our consciousness, we don’t exist without memory. It is the holder
of who we are in the present. Memory is a crucial linchpin between our beliefs
and ways of knowing. Our beliefs are lodged in memory but we often do not
have direct access to what they are and why they motivate us. Likewise, we
have large stores of knowledge in memory, some of which we are aware of and
some of which form non-conscious assumptions about the world around us.
Yet consciousness relies on the capacity of memory to make links between
our past, present and future selves. Our perceptions are funnelled by infor-
mation laid down in the past, and our thinking relies on the short-term and
long-term storage of information. Our memories are mental constructions
that bring our lives into the present moment for review and consideration.
Memories contribute to shaping our personality and character, and our social
interactions. We take our memory abilities for granted until they do not
function in some way—we can’t find our keys or we forget an important
appointment.
In coaching, our clients are a mysterious interplay of their beliefs (covert
and overt), their capacity and openness for knowing more about themselves,
and their construction of memories of who they think they are. Patterns

110 Pivoting
Insight into
Consciousness
Memory
connects
Present
Moment
Fig. 6.1 Role of memory in self-organizing
abound, and we as coaches often play pivotal roles in helping our clients
free themselves from their limited self-perceptions anchored in memory. In
this chapter we explore fascinating new insights into what memory is, where
it “resides” and what role it plays in supporting clients towards substantial
change (Fig. 6.1).
The Predominant View of Memory

The study of memory has been of interest to philosophers, natural scientists,
psychologists, biologists, neurologists, neuroscientists and learning theorists
from ancient times to our postmodern era. In his textbook Human Memory,
psychologist Gabriel Radvansky outlined a brief history of memory research
beginning with Plato’s thoughts as a rationalist philosopher describing mem-
ory as a bridge between the perceptual world and the rational world of ideal-
ized abstractions.1 Aristotle’s significant contribution was viewing memories
as primarily composed of associations between various stimuli or experiences.
In medieval times, St. Augustine looked at memory in a way that is similar to
modern times. Charles Darwin in the late nineteenth century influenced sci-
1
Radvansky (2016).
entific thinking about human memory with his notion that it has developed
through evolution to capture major characteristics of the environment and to
perform specific tasks.
At the turn of the twentieth century, early memory researchers in psychol-
ogy, especially Hermann Ebbinghaus, engaged in detailed studies of memory.
He used himself as both experimenter and subject, focusing on nonsense syl-
lables to study memory in as pure a manner as possible. His research went on
to greatly influence the study of memory for many years.2 William James at
the turn of the twentieth century articulated a distinction between primary
and secondary memory, which closely parallels the difference between the
modern-day understanding of short-term and long-term memory. Another
major figure was Sir Fredrick Bartlett who, during the first half of the twenti-
eth century, focused on how prior knowledge influences memory. Radvansky
noted different movements in psychology. For example, Gestalt psychology
emphasized memory as a whole being different from the sum of its parts.
Behaviourism focused on conditioning and its impact on learning and
memory.
Recent discoveries have drastically changed some traditional notions of
how memories are made and retrieved. The predominant historical view of
memory has been that of a singular concept: a more or less stable depiction
of past events that a person possessed. Long-term memory was once thought
to be formed, stored and retrieved in a singular, linear process. Memory was
thought to be persistent through a lifetime. An event occurred, was experi-
enced and was then recorded as a memory trace to be retrieved when sum-
moned—as if it were a possession or were stored in a box in the mind. The
past went away and life continued. The memory process was considered to be
simple and straightforward.3
Psychologist Daniel Schacter, a pioneer in the field of memory, wrote that
we tend to think of memories as we do pictures in a family album—that if we
stored them properly, we could retrieve them in the same condition as when
they were put away. He explained, however, that we do not record our expe-
riences in the way that a camera does. Instead we extract key elements from
our experiences, store them and then recreate or reconstruct them, sometimes
adding feelings, beliefs or knowledge that we have gained since.4
2
Radvansky (2016).
3
See Tulving (2002), Nadel and Land (2000), Alberini and LeDoux (2013), Miller and Matzel (2000),
Fernyhough (2012).
4
Schacter (2001).
112 Pivoting
Research studies now show how complex memory actually is, and new
theories are being proposed and debated to explain how memory works
neurologically. This scientific process of achieving a deeper understanding of
memory has not been without challenge. Endel Tulving, an eminent scholar
and researcher in the field, admitted how his 1985 publication Elements of
Episodic Memory5 caused a controversy in the field when he proposed two
types of memory (episodic and semantic) as two functionally different mem-
ory systems. Critics at the time considered the idea of episodic memory
(unique memory of a specific event) to be vague and they claimed that it
violated science’s law of parsimony. Other critics believed that he was mak-
ing up imaginary memory systems to account for facts and phenomena. Yet
others did not like his apparent “metaphysics of identifying hidden systems.”6
Interestingly, Tulving noted that the suggestion for distinguishing between
these two memories came well before him when, in 1958, J. M. Nielsen, a
neurologist at University of California, Los Angeles, observed what he called
two different pathways of memory: one centring on the person and the other
on knowledge acquired by study.7 Today the distinction between semantic
(memory of common knowledge, not personal) and episodic memory is com-
monly accepted.
While it may seem “intuitive” that memory is a singular construct,
research over the years has demonstrated that memory is multifaceted and
complex. Generally stated, it is the record of experience that is represented
in the brain, and multiple forms of memory support distinct brain systems.8
Ways of mapping specific memory networks are characterized by whether
they last for a short (working memory) or long period, whether they involve
unique experiences (episodic) or accumulated knowledge (semantic), and
whether memory is expressed explicitly through conscious remembering or
implicitly by acquiring skills and habits without conscious recollection and
making non-conscious associations.9 And there is also emotional or affec-
tive memory response. Knowing more about these aspects of memory and
their impact on thought, behaviour and emotion is certainly germane to the
coaching process.
5
Tulving (1985).
6
Tulving (2002), p. 9.
7
Nielsen (1958).
8
Eichenbaum (2008).
9
Eichenbaum (2008).
Memory: Conscious or Unconscious?

Is memory conscious or unconscious? The answer is both, and the distinction
is a major one to remember (no pun intended) about memory. At one time,
memory was seen as the process of bringing thoughts into consciousness.10
Memory researchers assumed that thoughts could only influence action to
the extent that they were perceived, registered, consciously processed, sent
to long-term memory and then retrieved into short-term memory—that is,
consciousness. Things have changed, however, and cognitive scientists today
believe that memory involves two systems: conscious (explicit) and uncon-
scious (implicit). The conscious level of memory is called explicit or declara-
tive memory and describes those contents of memory that are accessible
to consciousness, including autobiographical memories, both episodic and
semantic. These memories can easily be verbalized. Implicit memory is non
conscious and often involves memories about procedures and conditioned
emotions. It is also referred to as non-declarative memory because we are
unable to verbally declare these memories. Priming and implicit memory are
bedmates.
A major breakthrough in understanding these two memory systems and
their underlying brain mechanisms resulted from the study of a patient, Henry
Molaison (1926–2008), known in the literature until his death as H. M. In
1953, Molaison had drastic experimental surgery for epilepsy in which his
medial temporal lobe was removed. His seizures diminished but the operation
left him with severe amnesia, as a result of which he could only remember
a limited amount of information for a short time (up to a few minutes).11
Despite the explicit (declarative) memory loss, Molaison retained forms of
implicit memory, such as being able to learn new procedural skills (writing
words upside down and backwards). He also continued to make new asso-
ciations with emotion. Following a visit to his mother in hospital, of which
later he had no memory, he was able to express a vague idea that something
had happened to her.12 Here was evidence that despite the loss of access to
conscious memory, Molaison retained access to his non conscious memory.
Explicit memory is home to those memories that we are able to recall con-
sciously, whereas implicit memories, being part of the non conscious, can only
be observed or inferred from behaviour.13 Both explicit and implicit memories
10
Westen (1999).
11
Eichenbaum (2008).
12
Westen (1999).
13
Westen (1999).
114 Pivoting
play a role in impacting our thoughts and behaviours. For our purposes, we
look at the major components of memory which we find relevant for a coach
to understand.
Procedural Memory: The Storehouse Model

Procedural memory is an aspect of non conscious (implicit) memory and its
function is to hold the memory of how to do things, such as how to drive a
car, swing a golf club or play a piece on the piano. Psychologist Stan Klein
observed, “We are all much more expert unconsciously than consciously,
because expertise implies automatization of processes that once required con-
scious attention.”14 Thus procedural memory, like much of the implicit mem-
ory function, is usually much faster than conscious retrieval. For example,
people can type faster than they can make meaning of a passage, and they can
play measures of music faster than they can interpret them.15 Interestingly,
in trying to bring this type of memory into consciousness (i.e., making it
explicit), concentrating on each step of a process actually disrupts the ability
to carry out the action.
Consider how Tiger Woods consciously changed his golf swing in 1997 as
described by Butch Harmon, one of the USA’s best golf-teaching profession-
als.16 After winning the Masters Golf Tournament that year, Woods insisted
on overhauling his entire swing to become more consistent and versatile.
Despite Harmon’s advice to make one small swing change at a time, Woods
wanted to do it all at once. Harmon pointed out that it took Woods most
of 1998 before he saw the results he wanted. Harmon said it took trust that
it was the right decision and a lot of hard work on Woods’ part. However,
Woods’ commitment paid off and he had a huge year in 1999. An important
note about procedural memory is that when clients learn new behaviours,
things will get worse for them before they get better. This is otherwise known
as the “learning edge.”
Training has often been defined as learning a new skill which uses proce-
dural memory. It was once believed that the brain was a storehouse of images
of the movements involved in a procedure. Thus each movement created a
trace memory, which was then recalled for each succeeding movement, and
which controlled the latter movement. This explanation was discarded as
14
Weston (1999), p. 1097.
15
Westen (1999).
16
Harmon and Yokam (2009).
scientists came to understand that the storehouse notion of the brain was
unwieldy, and it also demanded that each subsequent movement be exactly
like the preceding one. It was not able to account for each movement in, say,
pedalling a bike, when a person is producing something new, never repeat-
ing the same movement because of the changes in circumstances. The rote,
imaging notion of procedural memory was discarded in favour of a theory
of construction rather than reproduction.17 The notion that memory is not
simply a filing cabinet or computer storage of events is relevant to coaching, as
will be seen when we discuss episodic memory (unique memory of a specific
event) in the next section.
Memory has the amazing capacity to store and retrieve information
whether after seconds or years. This ability is essential to daily life. We don’t
have to relearn each day how to prepare a meal for ourselves or find directions
for getting to work. Memory, although closely linked to learning, is not the
same process. For example, the muscle memory of learning a task, such as
riding a bike, is understood as a product of learning; remembering a string
of memorized numbers can be considered a learned response. “Few would
argue with the idea that one can learn to remember or that one remembers
what is learned.”18 However, learning is considered a process of acquiring new
information, while memory is retaining information over a delay.19 Biologists
Jeffrey Stock and Sherry Zhang have reported that learning and memory are
actually molecularly different processes.20
Remembering Our Lives

How often have you been driving along only to realize that you have no
memory of what’s happened in the past few minutes? Whatever you experi-
enced was absorbed into some part of your brain separate from your conscious
awareness. What about all the times you’ve encountered someone who looked
familiar but without a context you couldn’t remember who they were or how
you knew them? These experiences embody the ebb and flow we continually
engage in between consciousness and unconsciousness. Memory and con-
sciousness are inextricably linked.
17
Bartlett (1932/1995).
18
Stock and Zhang (2013).
19
Crystal and Glanzman (2013).
20
Stock and Zhang (2013).
116 Pivoting
Our understanding of memory has evolved since Tulving’s seminal work

in the 1980s.21 The field has moved beyond looking at memory as types to
be linearly classified according to past, present or future, or even by what
is being remembered. Episodic memory is now described as a neurocogni-
tive (brain/mind) system which is unique among memory systems in that
it enables humans to remember past experiences.22 Tulving explained that it
involves the ideas of self, subjective time and autonoetic consciousness, and
he considered it to be a “marvel of nature.”23 The term “autonoetic” refers to
the capacity to be aware of our own existence as an entity in time. It means
that we are self-conscious of a memory being ours; we have a sense of living it
no matter the timeframe.
Autonoetic consciousness in our episodic memory allows us to mentally
time travel to the past or to the future to set goals, make plans and set expec-
tations for our lives.24 It allows us to be aware of our subjective time, whether
travelling to the past or the future. We generally think of time as an arrow
moving inexorably from the past through the present into the future. Yet
Tulving describes how, “When one thinks today about what one did yester-
day, time’s arrow is bent into a loop.”25 In our minds we are able to travel to
our past without feeling confused because we are looking at and experiencing
the past from the present moment. This is also true of anticipating the future
from the present moment. In fact, our autonoetic consciousness of the now
moment “is made up of both memories of the past and of the future.”26 This
self-awareness allows us to imagine our own experiences in different places at
other times, such as through remembering, dreaming, imagining and even
meditating. It represents the experiential “flavour” of our remembering or
recollection, like a depiction or painting on the canvas of our lives that we
can access. We remember our own lives because of autonoetic consciousness.
In contrast, noetic consciousness is simply having knowledge of a memory,
a mental and internal representation. It is associated with semantic memory
and allows us to be aware of objects and events, and their relationships.27 This
distinction was made clear in the case of patient R. B., who after a car accident
could recount events from his life in great detail but could not experience the
events—that is, he experienced them only from a third-person perspective.
21
Tulving (1985).
22
Tulving (2002).
23
Tulving (2002), p. 2.
24
Klein (2016).
25
Tulving (2002), p. 2.
26
Ingvar (1985), p. 130.
27
Metcalfe and Son (2012).
In talking about his memories, he was recorded as saying, “When I recall

memories from my past I intellectually know they are about me. It just does
not feel like it.”28
Semantic and episodic memories are the primary functions associated with
the explicit (autobiographical) memories of our lives which include both the
facts of who we are and what we did (semantic), and the memory of the events
themselves (episodic). Semantic memory is remembering facts, such as places
we’ve been or names of people we’ve met. Episodic memory allows us to con-
sciously recollect personally experienced events. It is about the what, where
and when of our lives.29 It enables us to consciously re-experience our past.
Remembering appears to be a conscious recollection that relies on episodic
memory, whereas knowing something seems to be retrieved via a procedural
memory perceptual process.30 For example, we might know that we travelled
to a certain country but we may not remember any particular events of the
time when we were there with a sense of experiencing them. Semantic mem-
ory develops earlier in childhood than episodic memory—that is, children
are capable of learning facts about the world before they remember their own
experiences.31
Remembering Our Future Positively

We typically think of memory as only a view of the past, but it is also involved
in imagining the future. Those individuals who have impairments that affect
their episodic memory also lose the ability to look into the future.32 A specific
type of memory of the future is “prospective memory,” which is remember-
ing to remember, as in executing a delayed intention.33 Common everyday
examples include needing to remember to pick something up from the gro-
cery store, to share some information with a friend and to complete some task
at work. It is another aspect of Tulving’s perspective of time, moving us to the
future in our minds. This memory can be triggered in two ways: time-based
prospective memory where time serves as the memory trigger (a 3:00 pm
meeting), and event-based prospective memory (the grocery store, the friend).
28
Klein (2016), p. 391.
29
Nyberg, McIntosh, Cabeza, Habib and Tulving (1996).
30
Rajaram (1993).
31
Tulving (1993).
32
Tulving (2002), p. 14.
33
Crystal (2013).
118 Pivoting
What is interesting about prospective memory is that we encounter inter-

ruptions to our intentions to stop at the store, tell a friend or complete a
task. Our intentions are temporarily put on hold (stored in memory), to be
reactivated or retrieved at an appropriate time in the future.34 Sometimes
we remember to follow through, but sometimes we forget. So prospective
memory also involves other aspects of cognition, such as attention, control of
the executive mind, episodic memory and planning.35 A great deal of theo-
retical and applied interest is focused on understanding what causes reac-
tivation or retrieval of prospective memory.36 Multiple proposals have been
ventured: voluntary production (called back to consciousness by exertion of
will), unconscious influences of prior states, and spontaneous appearance of a
mental state recognized as previously experienced.37 Other proposals include
both monitoring (active, effortful detection) and spontaneous retrieval as
being utilized in prospective remembering.38 This type of memory is linked to
cognitive decline, associated with normal ageing.
Of interest to coaching are studies of simulations of the future—that is,
remembering the future. Researchers have learned that details of future events
are more difficult to remember for negative simulations than positive or neu-
tral ones.39 This is in keeping with “studies showing that emotional reactions
to negative life experiences fade more quickly than emotional reactions to
positive life experiences do.”40 Healthy adults simply remember positive expe-
riences better than negative ones and they tend to think about their future in
an overly positive light. When we think about what may happen to us in the
future, we tend to overestimate the likelihood of positive events happening
and underestimate the negative.41 For example, we tend to think we will have
a better time on vacation or at a movie than we reportedly do, we expect to
receive higher salaries and we expect our children to be especially talented.
This optimism bias appears to be true for about 80 % of the population but it
is not true for individuals who are depressed.
This optimistic bias has been a puzzle to scientists because we maintain this
bias and are resistant to changing it even when faced with disconfirming evi-
dence. “An optimism bias is maintained in the face of disconfirming evidence
34
Crystal (2013).
35
Crystal (2013).
36
Crystal (2013).
37
McDaniel and Einstein (2007).
38
Crystal (2013), p. 750.
39
Szpunar, Addis and Schacter (2012).
40
Szpunar et al. (2012), p. 28.
41
Sharot (2011).
because people update their beliefs more in response to positive information

about the future than to negative information about the future.”42 Selectively
updating beliefs in response to positive information produces optimism that
is resistant to change. This selective bias and updating has been tied to the
performance of the frontal lobe regions of the brain failing to code the new
information that would reduce positive expectations.43 It appears that other
parts of the brain contribute to optimism “by biasing attention and vigilance
towards positive associations and emotions when imaging the future.”44 Our
belief about our control over future events also increases our level of optimism.
Our brains clearly have mechanisms to create optimistic beliefs, but it is not
clear why they adapt to hold an optimistic bias. In economics and psychology,
the classic belief is that correct beliefs maximize reward and minimize loss.
This would lead us to come to the same conclusion regarding optimism. “The
present data suggest that optimistic views of the future can be compounded
by the effects of the fading-affect bias, such that the ‘remembered future’ is
extremely rosy.”45 While extreme optimism may lead to unhealthy, damaging
behaviour, such as smoking, unsafe sexual practices or overspending, overall
it has been shown to be healthful. Optimistic people tend to be healthier and
live longer, and to have greater financial success. The conclusion thus far,
however, is that “optimistic illusions are the only group of misbeliefs that are
adaptive,” and the benefits appear to outweigh the hazards.46
The following coaching story exemplifies how memories of the past, pres-
ent and future bend time’s arrow as described by Tulving, and how a positive
memory of the future can further the rewards of coaching.
Sylvia was in a profession she loved but in a job that diminished her spirit.
She felt unsuited to the way the company related to clients, how they managed
work and how employees associated with one another. The demands of the job
prevented her from travelling to visit her ailing parents. When Jackie met her,
she was discouraged and felt depressed and lost, wondering how to fix herself. In
coaching, Sylvia began to reconnect to past memories of when she was at her best,
doing work she loved and relating to others in productive, caring ways. Drawing
on the strengths of these memories, she envisioned a future ideal job. Sylvia’s picture
became rich in detail, even describing the furniture in her office. When she had a
42
Sharot (2011), p. 943.
43
Sharot (2011), p. 943.
44
Sharot (2011), p. 944.
45
Szpunar et al. (2012), p. 28.
46
Sharot (2011).
120 Pivoting
clearer image of her future, Jackie suggested that Sylvia should “name” the coming
year, a name to help her remember to focus on her vision each day. Sylvia named
her year as the time to “come into my own.” This focus on the future helped her
remember what she was creating in the present.
Less than a year after the coaching ended, Sylvia sat in her new office and called
Jackie to tell her how her dream was now a reality. She was most excited to report
that the evening before, her husband had turned to her and said: “You know,
honey, you have really come into your own this year.” She had never told him the
name of her year.
Constructivist View: Memory Reconsolidation

In addition to the different types of memory we have, how memory actually
functions is advantageous for coaches to understand. As we’ve seen, unlike
popular belief, memory does not provide a stable picture but changes and
shifts each time we retrieve it. Studies now show that memory is first formed
by the information we encode at the time. When we retrieve the memory, it is
mixed with the knowledge, expectations and beliefs we hold at the moment of
recovery, which creates a lens through which we see the event and translate its
meaning.47 Memory is literally revised as we learn and grow. When we think
of memory in this new way, it requires us to rethink the linear relationship
between the notions of past, present and future that many of us still hold from
traditional scientific theory.
Each time a memory is retrieved, it is susceptible to being changed in some
way and is then restored through a process called reconsolidation, a discov-
ery that is now widely accepted even though how it works is strongly debat-
ed.48 The belief that memory is a stable process has been challenged by data
that show memories to be susceptible to change each time they are retrieved.
The process of when a memory is first stored is called memory consolida-
tion. It was thought that after consolidation the memory became stable and
insensitive to disruption. Studies now show that memories, when retrieved,
can become vulnerable and susceptible to change before undergoing another
consolidation process (i.e., reconsolidation). The process of reconsolidation
occurs whether the memory is new or old, or whether the reactivation occurs
implicitly or explicitly. It is unclear why some memories are more sensitive to
reconsolidation than others.
47
Bartlett (1932) in Fernyhough (2012).
48
Alberini and LeDoux (2013).
A memory can undergo this dynamic process many times, with the result
that memories can be weakened, disrupted or enhanced. While this may
sound disturbing, there is a strong benefit to the process of reconsolidation.
It provides us with “the ability to respond in a flexible and adaptive manner
to continuously changing environments.”49 Learning experiences can enable
memories to become labile, and over time they can be reconsolidated and
changed.50 A second advantage of the reconsolidation process is that the learn-
ing experience does not have to be a re-experiencing of the original learning
situation or of painful memories. When we start to feel differently about an
event, we also start to remember it differently.51
Going back and changing the memory trace that is stored is called “memory
updating.” What triggers this update is under debate. It can be re-exposure
to an experience that was similar to the original one, or by new experiences
that reactivate memories. This process is generalized across different memory
types and neural systems: “reconsolidation occurs in aversive, appetitive, and
neutral memories, in simple and complex tasks, in emotional, declarative,
incidental, spatial, drug-paired, motor memories, and in hippocampal, amyg-
dala and cortical-dependent memories.”52
Scientists are attempting to understand “how systems undergoing constant
change can nonetheless give rise to apparently permanent entities such as per-
ceptions, memories and thoughts.”53 One suggestion is that memory is actu-
ally inaccurate when it comes to facts. As an example, most people do not
remember a list of nonsense syllables or a string of numbers without mental
training to do so. Brains are designed to retain meaning and encode relevant
information.
Memory works between two opposing forces: correspondence, which rep-
resents our need to remain true to facts, and coherence, which represents our
need to be congruent with our image and beliefs about ourselves.54 These
two forces are involved in the process of constantly changing our memories
each time we retrieve them. In fact, researchers have shown that a memory
is affected by our beliefs about the world and we change them to fit into our
knowledge structures.
49
Alberini and LeDoux (2013), p. 746.
50
Albertini and LeDoux (2013), p. 746.
51
Fernyhough (2012).
52
Albertini and LeDoux (2013), p. 747.
53
Nadel and Land (2000), p. 211.
54
Fernyhough (2012)
122 Pivoting
Memory as a Social Process

Memory is not only important in shaping our individual personality and char-
acter; it is also critical to our social interactions. As seen in cases of individuals
who have lost memory function, it has impeded their ability to interact with
others. “Memory is not just about remembering the past or predicting the
future; it is also a way of being with other people. If you lose memory, you lose
that opportunity to connect.”55 This is apparent to those with family members
who are experiencing dementia.
Our memories are also created in collaboration with other people.56 We
socialize and talk about our past and our hopes for the future as a way to get
to know one another. We discuss our memories as a way to understand each
other and to understand ourselves better. In sharing our memories, we tell sto-
ries of our lives and narratives about ourselves. We become characters in our
own life novel. “What we remember is shaped by the people we were then—
not just what happened to us, but what kind of individuals we were—as well
as by the people we are now.”57
Memory is even important in culture. Psychologists are demonstrating a grow-
ing appreciation for how culture can directly affect how memories are formed
and recalled. Studies have shown that people from various cultural backgrounds
vary in eye movement when viewing a scene, and vary in sensitivity to contextual
information in visual cues serving as filters to what we perceive and thus remem-
ber.58 Anybody who has ever driven or been driven in a country with a driving
culture dissimilar from one’s own marvels at how differently traffic can flow. For
example, driving on the opposite side of the road is a startling experience that
requires one’s full attention until the body, mind and eye become accustomed
(procedural memory) to how to position oneself safely and consistently in the
correct lane. Cultures differ in adhering to traffic laws—some countries seem
to view them as guidelines whereas other countries enforce strict observance.
It is from social/cultural memory that this sense of familiarity and strangeness
emanates. These are examples of how memory is linked to embodied cognition.
In writing this, we were taken back to a recent experience while travelling in

Thailand with a friend who had never been in the country. In Bangkok, driving
on the expressway for the first time can be a harrowing experience for Americans.
55
Fernyhough (2012), p. 171.
56
Fernyhough (2012).
57
58
Laland and Rendell (2013), p. 2013.
The lines on the road have very different meaning to the drivers of that country.
Americans are careful to stay in their designated lanes, often honking if someone
strays over the line. In Bangkok, our friend was amazed at how the lines on
the road seemed to be only suggestions as drivers easily added an extra lane, or
even two, unperturbed by how close they were coming to one another. She espe-
cially noticed how closely vehicles passed one another when travelling in southern
Thailand in a type of truck called a songthaew, which has two benches for open
seating in the back.
Psychologist Qi Wang at Cornell University conducted a study that showed

how the way in which autobiographical memories are recalled can be affected
by culture.59 She has studied East–West differences in the functions and con-
tents of biographical memory, making a link between culture and memory.
To preserve a culture, according to Wang, group members must remember
their values, customs, rituals and history. She cited studies showing that when
recalling memories of past events, adults and children of Euro-American
backgrounds frequently referred to their own roles, feelings and predilections.
In contrast, those of Asian backgrounds would describe group activities and
social interactions.
In Wang’s study of how cultural differences could be seen in memories
of Asian Americans, participants were each asked to complete ten sentences,
five of which began with the prompt: “As an American, I am …” The other
five began with: “As an Asian, I am …” The results indicated that when the
prime was about the American self, it activated recall of more self-focused
and less socially oriented memories. When the Asian self was made salient,
more shared social experiences were remembered.60 Such studies highlight the
subtle and often hidden interplay between self and culture in the memory
function.
Unconscious Associative Networks

Neuroscience has contributed to a new perspective on the question of where
memories reside in the brain. In studying the remembering brain, scientists
have turned to neuroimaging scans, EEG experiments and the interviewing
of brain-damaged patients to discover that
59
Wang (2008).
60
Wang (2008).
124 Pivoting
Brain imaging shows activity in the frontal lobes, where the efforts to reconsti-
tute a remembered experience are initiated, through the emotional circuits of
the amygdala system and the associative centers of the neocortex, to the occipi-
tal lobe at the back of the brain, where the characteristically visual qualities of
autobiographical memories are stored as sensory fragments.61
Biologically, memory is networked in the brain in associative neuroanatomi-

cal patterns. Visional memory operates in a similar manner, with bits stored
in the visual cortex and only assembled when necessary in the hippocampus
and its related structures.62
As an example of the memory’s associative network, the hippocampus
resides as the single most important structure for autobiographical memory. It
is named from the Latin word for seahorse because of its similar shape. There
are two hippocampi located near the centre portion of one’s brain.63 The hip-
pocampus works with diverse psychological processes such as memory, spatial
navigation and anxiety. In memory it is the central connector for other mem-
ory areas, including the amygdala which is crucial for learning the emotional
significance of stimuli.64 Memory is biologically anchored.
Not only does memory consist of associative networks but many memo-
ries also function at a non conscious level, and these can be stimulated by a
variety of factors. Smell, for example, is known to trigger memories that can
go back into childhood. Pictures, a spoken word and specific sounds can also
trigger memories. These mechanisms demonstrate how our brain is wired so
that different parts are interconnected and stimulate one another. These con-
nections can even be involuntary when a past recollection shows up suddenly
in our consciousness. Recall Ann’s story with the handgun (Chap. 3). Such
recollections can bring to mind small, fragmentary intrusions or much more
meaningful events, as Ann experienced. Research on implicit memory sug-
gests not only that a memory can be triggered outside our awareness but also
that we can defend a memory without any conscious awareness of feelings
about it.65 In fact “there is no necessary correlation between behavior and
conscious experience.”66 Here we have the intersection of neurobiology and
psychology because so much of what we know, believe and remember is at the
non conscious level.
61
62
Fernyhough (2012).
63
Gross (2013)
64
Fernyhough (2010), Weston (1999).
65
Weston (1999).
66
Tulving (2002, p. 4; 1989).
The literature on how our brains and minds work to activate these non
conscious associations is long and fascinating.67 In the field of psychotherapy,
it began with Freud’s assertion that unconscious processes and associations
impact daily life. Drew Westen, professor in the departments of psychology
and psychiatry at Emory University, has described the associative network
of implicit memory as the forming of associations that guide mental pro-
cesses and behaviour outside consciousness.68 In his 1999 review entitled “The
Scientific Status of Unconscious Processes: Is Freud Really Dead?” he reported
substantial evidence to support the supposition that unconscious thoughts,
feelings and motives exist, that they are linked in networks of associations,
and that many different kinds of unconscious process serve different func-
tions.69 Westen pointed out that the associative networks of memory have
been explored using priming experiments. The assumption underlying these
experiments is that “priming can reveal the latent structure of associative net-
works by examining the impact of the prime on memory…”70
Memory, once believed to influence action only to the extent that it made
thoughts conscious, is now seen to impact behaviour through unconscious
associations and processes. In research on attitudes and prejudice, social psy-
chologist Russell Fazio and his colleagues demonstrated that conscious and
unconscious racial attitudes could actually be entirely independent of each
other. Some study participants, in response to priming stimuli to measure
their unconscious associations regarding blacks, revealed racist attitudes
unconsciously in contrast to their conscious verbal responses that were non-
racist in nature.71
Further studies have shown how negative unconscious racial associations
can affect even the people who are targets. Social psychologist C. M. Steele,
who is known for his work on stereotype threats, demonstrated that black
students, when taking a test that they believed diagnosed their ability, expe-
rienced their own unconscious negative associations becoming active. They
doubted their own performance ability (based on their own unconscious
stereotype associations), which resulted in diminished performance in tak-
ing the test. His research brought to light the distinction between conscious
67
There is much work on unconscious processes in the psychoanalytical field, especially how these uncon-
scious processes relate to affective processes and motivation. Our discussion does not delve into these
processes, but attempts to discuss those topics that are immediately useful to coaching as distinguished
from therapy. We realize that this line may be blurry as some psychological constructs are very useful to
the coach.
68
Westen (1999).
69
Westen (1999).
70
Westen (1999), p. 1066.
71
Fazio, Jackson, Dunton and Williams (1995).
126 Pivoting
and unconscious feelings that can reflect back on oneself—that is, one can
hold unconscious negative beliefs about oneself that would, in turn, impact
one’s performance.72
According to Westen, “When people are attending to their conscious atti-
tudes, these attitudes influence their behavior. When they are not, which is
much of the time in everyday life, their unconscious affective associations may
guide their actions.”73 This is in line with Argyris’ theory-in-use and espoused
theory (Chap. 4).
A groundbreaking study of priming methodology highlighting uncon-
scious associations began in the 1960s with Lloyd Silverman, a psychologist
and psychoanalyst at New York University. His innovative experiments took
implicit memory associations beyond simple cognitive tasks to test whether
subliminal priming would lead to measurable changes in adaptive function-
ing and sense of well-being in a variety of subject groups.74 He exposed his
subjects to subliminal verbal-pictorial messages that read: “Mommy and I are
one” (MIO). Initially he recruited male schizophrenics as his subjects but he
and other researchers later extended these priming experiments to include
diverse groups: female schizophrenics; individuals with problematic behav-
iour to change, such as ceasing to smoke; subjects requiring help to reduce
personality disorders and desensitize phobias; college students in group ther-
apy; individuals with assertiveness difficulties; and subjects in educational
settings.75
Details of the studies, actually sets of experiments, were compiled in a
report that Silverman and colleague Joel Weinberger presented in a 1985 arti-
cle, “Mommy and I Are One: Implications for Psychotherapy.”76 The work
showed, overwhelmingly, that brief exposure to the prime resulted in many
different kinds of subjects improving their adaptive functioning.77 Mayer
reported that while Silverman’s work was widely accepted for its scientific
merit, “its import was hotly contested” because it challenged the psychol-
ogy of the time.78 According to Mayer, in that period there were two worlds
of psychology—behaviourism and psychoanalysis, grounded in unconscious
mental processes. She stated that Silverman believed his data could inform
both of these worlds about the power of unconscious mental processes, and
72
Steele (1997).
73
Weston (1999), p. 1076.
74
Mayer (2007).
75
Silverman and Weinberger (1985).
76
Silverman and Weinberger (1985).
77
Mayer (2007).
78
Mayer (2007), p. 221.
that instead of focusing on personal individuality his results showed that pow-
erful unconscious wishes for a state of oneness could enhance adaptation.79
The breadth of these studies showed how a prompt can have important
lingering effects. Since these experiences, other researchers have continued to
explore the reasons why the stimulation of MIO had such surprising effects,
and they have posited that it’s not from “psychoanalytic magic” but from
unconscious associative networks, which include not only cognitive informa-
tion but also moods and emotions.80 Sohlberg and colleagues have suggested
that future MIO research could be better informed by including the areas of
social cognition, interpersonal theory and attachment.
Understanding how our memories work and the associations they may
activate has caused researchers to delve further into the mysteries of how our
brains and minds function. In the next section we look at priming and what
may be useful for a coach to know in order to tap into these unconscious
associations.
The Power of Priming

Ann is listening to the audiotape and reading the transcript of Jackie’s fifth ses-
sion with one of her research clients, Paul. He is moving to a new position in his
firm, which will stretch his abilities as an engineer, requiring him to take on a
central office role with no direct lines of authority. Paul’s coaching focus has been
on setting priorities and action plans to leave behind his old responsibilities and
transition to the new ones. Jackie has a sense that part of Paul’s concern is that
the new position will require him to work by influencing others—something new
and uncomfortable for him. In this telephone session the client starts off with low
energy and asks Jackie for some suggestions to improve his planning process.The
numbers indicated in Jackie's responses chronicle the priming strategies/tools she
applied during the session.
P: Wants to improve planning process.
J: Asks discovery questions (1) about what he has already accomplished,
probing for strengths/skills he can transfer.
P: Says he feels he has no clear direction in starting his new job—it feels like
a blank page.
J: Applies discovery questions (2), then shifts focus to discuss influence vs.
authority vs. engagement (3).
79
Mayer (2007), p. 222.
80
Sohlberg, Birgegard, Czartoryski, Ovefelt and Strömbom (2000).
128 Pivoting
P: Listens.
J: Links to what he is already doing by asking about his current mentoring
(4).
P: Responds favourably.
J: Widens context of conversation (5) by directing attention to his vision
and role in moving forward.
P: Responds with ideas (still low energy and seems distracted).
J: Adds knowledge (6) about putting structures and process in place to guide
behaviour.
P: Agrees and restates ideas.
J: Directs attention (7) to his replacement and asks about his level of
enthusiasm.
P: Responds with concern about the individual being too busy, needs to
backfill a position and that’s not happening. Comes up with some ideas about that.
J: Summarizes and reflects (8) on what she heard client say in terms of
where he is at with people, processes, structures and timeline of the transition;
shares positive affect (9) about what he’s accomplishing.
P: Agrees and notes he’s lost some time.
J: Shifts attention (10) to a direct report needing to “learn his lesson” that
they’ve talked about before.
P: Admits his approach is not working (he’s been pointing out to direct report
what he’s not getting done, showing his displeasure with direct report).
J: Asks discovery questions (11).
P: Admits that the lack of compliance on the part of the direct report is a new
experience for him.
J: Suggests reframing (12) the situation and provides some knowledge about
how to do that using positive approach.
P: Responds favourably and fleshes out her ideas (energy level picks up).
J: Again brings focus back to positive of the situation (13).
P: Admits he could have focused more on the positive when working with the
individual.
J: Reframes the situation again to what could be positive (14).
P: Suddenly realizes the impact that his negative approach has had on the
individual and sees with new awareness that he has contributed, with his own
negativity, to making the situation worse rather than better (burst of energy).
Begins to use word “positive” as he talks about a new approach with direct report.
Connects with possible motivations for moving the individual forward.
J: Probes for what different actions client could take in his new approach.
P: Responds with new ideas and expands it with Jackie’s feedback (much
more animated and expressing positive emotion).
J: Gives suggestions and talks about “experimenting” with new behaviours.

P: Expands concept/approach and sees the positive .
Ann counted no fewer than 14 priming strategies/tools that Jackie used in this
conversation until suddenly the client had a shift in perspective and experienced
an insight or aha moment. His insight moment had all the characteristics that
have been identified earlier. He ended the call in a very different emotional place.
When he started the call he exuded low energy, distraction and uncertainty about
whether anything was going to come from the coaching conversation. As the coach-
ing began, Jackie had the sense that Paul was relying on her to keep him engaged,
but she didn’t feel it was appropriate at that point to say anything. The prime ask-
ing about the individual with the lesson to learn came up because Jackie intuited
that there was a thread in their discussion around learning to lead through influ-
ence rather than control. From past sessions she knew that this individual was not
responding as Paul typically experienced direct reports.
In following this interaction, what could we say about which prime(s)

might have contributed to the insight that the client experienced? Were all
the early primes superfluous and unrelated or did they build on each other
to finally accumulate enough momentum to ignite a change? We don’t have
a concrete answer—it continues to be a mystery as to identifying any direct
causal relationship between priming and pivoting. Did the client come to the
coaching session internally ready for a change, ready to deal with what was
really bothering him?
What Is Priming?
“Priming is a psychological process in which exposure to a stimulus activates

a concept in memory that is then given increased weight in subsequent judg-
ment tasks. Priming works by making the activated concept accessible so that
it can be readily used in evaluating related objects.”81
Imagine you hear disturbing news about the economy that gets you think-
ing about the current economic situation and how it impacts you personally
and the nation in general. Now you see the US President on television and
immediately start assessing his performance based on this newly stimulated
concern for the economy. Why? Because you’ve just been primed. Economic
concepts have been activated within you, made accessible to you and they
81
Parkin (2008), p. 612.
130 Pivoting
presumably seem relevant to your evaluation of the President in this manner.82

This is how priming works, “it affects the opinions that individuals express,
not by changing their attitudes, but by causing them to alter the criteria they
use to evaluate the object in question.”83
Priming is a widely used construct in psychology, political science and
communication. It is relevant to survey researchers who can inadvertently
(or intentionally) prime with the kind of questions they ask, especially with
wording and the order in which questions are presented. Well-intentioned
survey researchers usually ask a general question before specific ones to ensure
that the response to the initial open-ended question is perceived as the major
topic and does not reflect a prime from a more specific question.84
In a meta-analysis of priming studies, German social psychologists Dirk
Wentura and Klaus Rothermund found that priming studies fell into two
broad categories: (1) short-term priming where the goal was to investigate
cognitive structures or mental representations of concepts and their inter-
relationships; and (2) long-term priming where the goal was to activate some
broad knowledge structure (e.g., a mindset, emotion or goal).85
Short-term priming studies look at effects that occur in a maximum of a
few seconds. These studies investigate how individuals respond to a prime.
For example, a study may look at how someone who sees the word “yellow”
will be slightly faster to recognize the word “banana” because yellow and
banana are closely associated in memory. Long-term priming studies look at
effects that range from minutes to hours, or even days or weeks. Social prim-
ing generally falls into the category of long-term priming; these are studies
concerned with effects related to everyday behaviour of practical or applied
interest. With long-term priming, participants are exposed to some type of
experimental prime condition followed by part two of the experiment, after a
delay, which includes measuring a behavioural outcome.86
In their analysis, Wentura and Rothermund concluded that short-term
and long-term priming were distinctly different phenomena and must be
interpreted differently.87 Short-term priming effects likely indicate struc-
tural associations in semantic memory that determine the ease of switching
between mental representations. Long-term priming most likely represents
an enduring and context-dependent change in long-term memory related to
the retrieval of previous processing episodes. Long-term priming involves at
82
Parkin (2008), p. 612.
83
Parkin (2008), p. 612.
84
Parkin (2008).
85
Wentura and Rothermund (2014).
86
Wentura and Rothermund (2014), Molden (2014)
87
Wentura and Rothermund (2014), p. 56.
least two different kinds of process: a fast process that connects semantically
related elements, and a more enduring process that changes representational
structures and leaves traces in memory.
Human judgement is often influenced by significant anchors.88 Social
psychologists Englich, Mussweiler and Strach conducted a long-term prim-
ing study focused on how human judgement is often shaped or anchored
by irrelevant influences.89 Judges and prosecutors who participated in a
case-study review of a rape incident gave longer or shorter sentences based
on how they were primed at the beginning of the case study.90 As part of
this study, participants were primed (low/high anchor) with the question:
“Do you think that the sentence for the defendant in this case will be
higher or lower than 1/3 year(s)?”91 Those who were exposed to a higher
anchor number gave significantly longer sentences than those who were
primed with the lower anchor number. The researchers proposed that the
anchor effect was based on the accessibility of relevant knowledge—that
is, the participants retrieved relevant knowledge that was most compatible
with the anchor.92 In other words, the prime accessed the judges’ internal
knowledge which became “anchored” to the prime and influenced their
judgement. This is described as activation of a self-generating mode of
knowledge, which is considered distinct from standard (short-term) prim-
ing effects.93
Long-term semantic priming refers to priming experiments characterized
by delays that are considerably longer than the usual short-term semantic
priming studies. In this type of priming, more complex tasks are applied and
thus must be processed more deeply than is typically the case in short-term
priming experiments,94 and there is usually a long lag between the prime
and its effect.95 Wentura and Rothermund presented a well-known experi-
ment as an example of long-term priming.96 The study of “automaticity of
social behaviour” focused on priming stereotype behaviour of the elderly.97
In this experiment, participants who were primed with an elderly stereotype
later walked more slowly down the hallway when leaving the experiment
88
Mussweiler (2001).
89
Englich, Mussweiler and Strach (2006).
90
Englich et al. (2006).
91
Englich et al. (2006), p. 191.
92
93
Mussweiler (2001)
94
95
Mussweiler (2001).
96
97
Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996).
132 Pivoting
than did control participants.98 The results of the experiment confirmed that
using a prime in an earlier situation carried over for a time to exert an unin-
tended, passive influence on behaviour.99 Social psychologist John Bargh and
colleagues at New York University further proposed that attitudes and other
affective (emotional) reactions can be triggered automatically “in the realm
of direct, unmediated psychological effects of the environment.”100 Wentura
and Rothermund have pointed out that the most intriguing features of these
types of long-term priming studies is that “the link between the prime and the
behavior is non-conscious.”101
Social psychologists Kentaro Fujita of Ohio State University and Yaacov
Trope at New York University have proposed an approach to priming that
extends the long-term, or constructivist, model of priming even further.102
They noted that the traditional (short-term) priming models often pre-
sented priming as if “people are out of control and at the mercy of their
environments.”103 In contrast, constructivist models suggest that “priming
results from very sophisticated self-regulation processes.”104 That is, people
internally respond to the stimuli via different mechanisms. It is not just a mat-
ter of associations but involves a more complex process of meaning-making.
They explained that priming research was based on the premise that “exposure
to a stimulus makes some constructs or processes temporarily more accessible,
which in turn enhances their influence on thoughts, feelings and behavior.”105
This is a finding that has a direct bearing on how coaches may influence or
prime their clients. Researchers such as Fujita and Trope describe priming in
terms of impacting process rather than content, such as the process of goal
setting and attaining.
Fujita and Trope have also looked at the role of construal in priming—that
is, how an individual understands or makes sense of the priming context. They
have stressed that “more needs to be done to understand the active ‘ingredi-
ents’ in priming effects and how these ingredients operate and interact."106
Researcher Daniel Molden of Northwestern University has identified three
challenges to be addressed in the study of priming: “(1) greater precision in
98
Bargh et al. (1996).
99
Bargh et al. (1996).
100
Bargh et al. (1996), p. 230.
101
102
Fujita and Trope (2014).
103
Fujita and Trope (2014), p. 82.
104
105
Fujita and Trope (2014), pp. 68–69.
106
conceptualizing and communicating about priming effects, (2) greater

attention to when these effects should occur (and when they should not),
and (3) better understanding of the mechanisms for both the activation of
social representations and the subsequent application of these representations
during judgment and behavior.”107 Researchers E. Tory Higgins at Columbia
University and Baruch Eitam of University of Haifa, Israel, would like the
field to return to studying the psychological mechanisms that underlie what
priming does (process approach) rather than focus on priming as an object of
study.108 They have noted that the study of priming goes beyond the under-
standing of memory alone and needs to include research on attention as well.
Social psychologists have distinctly broadened understanding beyond the
cognitive associative model of how priming functions in our daily lives and
how it works in our non conscious minds. The number of studies and volume
of literature on the function of priming have exploded over the last decade,
especially in the past few years. In looking at the literature on priming, we can
see that scientists are striving for more complex constructs and environments
to better explain this seemingly commonplace phenomenon.
At the beginning of our research project we had observed a connection
between what the coach would prompt in the conversation and later effects
on the clients’ part. We believed that what we were seeing was some type of
priming on the part of the coach and so began documenting what might
constitute a priming action or strategy that could result in a client shift. We
have been pleased to discover that our observations were well founded. This
triangulation of what the clients were saying to us, our own observations and
the results of new priming research gives us the confidence and legitimacy as
coaches to believe in the value of priming.
Memories are fascinating. Through them we tell the stories of our lives to oth-
ers, thereby informing them who we are, what we believe and what we want
in the future. Through memory we relate to each other, gathering together
to remember family picnics, a football game, our experiences, our hopes and
our fears. Memory aids us to create a sense of who we are in this world and to
negotiate it with others.
107
Molden (2014), pp. 243–244.
108
Higgins and Eitam (2014).
134 Pivoting
Through the process of coaching we become acquainted with our clients’

subjective quality of memory. We spend time getting to know the clients’
individual stories and their “fragile and complex truths of memory.”109 In
coaching, we are subtly aware that “to the extent that networks of associations
operate unconsciously, and to the extent that pieces of those networks can be
inaccessible to consciousness, the art of interpretation of the gaps becomes
essential not only to clinical work but to the science of the mind.”110
Below are updated facts about how memory can influence and shape the
stories and perceptions that we and our clients have about ourselves:
• Memory is the repository of who we think/believe we are in the present.

• Beliefs reside in and affect our memories, some overtly but most covertly.
• Each time a memory is retrieved, it is susceptible to being changed in some
way and is then re-stored through the process of reconsolidation.
• Memory has two opposing forces: remaining true to facts (correspondence)
and representing one’s need to be congruent with one’s image and beliefs
(internal coherence).
• Training and memory represent two different molecular processes.
• We mentally time travel easily and continually among the past, present and
future.
• Implicit memory is closely linked to unconscious associative networks, and
priming activates those networks.
• We can remember our future positively (e.g., name our year).
• We are biased to be optimistic about the future (thankfully).
• Memory is created as a social and cultural process and we are influenced by
what we learn and remember.
• We are unconsciously primed as part of the human journey.
• We prime our clients (and they us), whether we are consciously aware or
not.
• The field of priming research is rapidly expanding and worth following as
coaches.
109
110
Weston (1999), p. 1094.
7
Turn of the Kaleidoscope
I don’t see why a changeable man shouldn’t get as much enjoyment out of his changes,
and transformations and transfigurations as a steadfast man gets out of standing still
and pegging at the same old monotonous thing all the time. That is to say, I don’t see
why a kaleidoscope shouldn’t enjoy itself as much as a telescope, nor a grindstone have
as good a time as a whetstone, nor a barometer as good a time as a yardstick.
—Mark Twain
A Kaleidoscope Story
Yesterday, I experienced a turn of the kaleidoscope—a moment when my under-
standing of my life and world shifted in a way that I felt changed. I went from feel-
ing unhappy, dissatisfied and frustrated about my circumstances to feeling relieved
and joyous that I was actually in a good place. It was like lancing a boil which
brings forth both relief from the pressure and a clearing out of poisons so healing
can occur.
What my coach said to me turned the kaleidoscope for me so I had a different
image, a different perspective. She didn’t say anything that I didn’t already know
(we coach each other); actually she brought my own words back to me, but it created
a new pattern in me. She reminded me of the four levels of learning: unconscious
incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence and unconscious com-
petence. I had told her a month ago how normal it was to feel the difficulty that
the conscious competence phase can bring when she was struggling. Like a bolt,
I understood that my difficulties were not caused by a lack in me but by the

136 Pivoting
circumstances I was living through, loss of my spouse. It was alright to be kind to

myself. I could feel the grief of loss and confusion without judging myself. I couldn’t
understand how I wasn’t able to make the decision to see my husband’s death as a
transition in spiritual life. Why wasn’t I able to let go? I believed I had to practice
what I preach and be congruent within myself or what kind of a coach was I?
When my coach gently pointed out that I was in the phase of conscious compe-
tence, the kaleidoscope turned. After all, this phase is about practice and consciously
making choices to create a new reality. Finally understanding I was making a new
life for myself and it was difficult, the pressure immediately lifted. This feeling lin-
gered on into the evening while I was out with friends. I felt the loss of my husband
but I also experienced the joy of being with friends. I realized I could grieve but
still feel good about each day.
Wielding the Kaleidoscope
We have focused in this book on finding deeper and broader levels of aware-
ness and context around the coaching process so that coach and client make
better sense together. The coaching process is ever evolving in real time with
real people dealing with real situations. It’s sometimes chaotic, scary and
confounding, but also wildly rewarding, and it keeps us on the learning edge.
The when, where, who and why of each unique pivotal moment remains a
mystery, but we are facilitators and witnesses to its occurrence.
We like the kaleidoscope metaphor when pondering the nature and magic
of pivotal moments—with one turn you can shift a complex array of coloured
glass from one pattern into a captivating new one. What turns the kalei-
doscope? We suspect the coach has a hand in helping to create new images
and patterns for the client. Well-known pioneer in memory research Endel
Tulving wrote, “It is difficult for an explorer to find something that he does
not know exists.”1 Our clients do not always know what may exist for them.
We are their intrepid co-explorers—believing in them, especially during those
times when they can’t do it for themselves.
The topics that we have covered so far (beliefs and guiding principles, con-
text, levels of awareness, modes of knowing, domains of knowledge, associa-
tive networks of memory) all contribute to ways we can more skillfully wield
the kaleidoscope in precipitating substantial change with clients. This chapter
is filled with ideas, suggestions, examples and stories of ways to ignite sub-
stantial change.
1
Tulving (2002), p. 11.
Coaching Awareness: Tuning into Fundamentals

Understanding the Role of Priming
We began our research with our curiosity about the Poetic Principle that states
our “past, present and future are an endless resource for interpretation, inspi-
ration, or learning.”2 We can create any number of new realities by reinter-
preting our story. We saw evidence of this principle in play as we became more
adept in our Appreciative Coaching practices. We were inspired to see clients
make significant shifts yet did not fully understand what had prompted them.
We began a coaching research project, asking ourselves: What are the char-
acteristics of pivotal moments in coaching, and what roles do the coach and
client play in bringing them about? (Fig. 7.1).
In reviewing our research transcripts and reflecting on our coaching expe-
riences, we discovered numerous ways in which coaches prime their clients
to form new understandings and perspectives. We organized them into two
main categories of priming tools: comments, observations or reflections on
what our clients say to us, and strategies for helping them broaden their per-
spective. The types of priming strategies or tools we observed in our sessions
are listed in Table 7.1.
Insight into
Consciousness
Your Your
memory knowing
connects is revealed
Present
Moment
Your belief
patterns
shift
Fig. 7.1 Model of self-organizing pivotal moments
2
Ricketts and Willis (2001).
138 Pivoting
Table 7.1 Priming strategies observed in initial research

Priming: commenting on observations:
• noticing their use of language;
• recognizing patterns;
• summarizing and reflecting;
• making connections;
• naming;
• acknowledging impasse.
Priming: broadening perspective:
• inquiring;
• clarifying context and intent;
• widening context;
• directing attention or focusing the client;
• furthering or challenging the client’s ideas or thinking;
• discovering and transferring past or current strengths and successes;
• using positive affect;
• noticing and reminding the client of a shift;
• recognizing that emotions are contagious;
• sharing concept of neuroplasticity;
• making suggestions;
• offering knowledge or tools;
• using a generative metaphor;
• calling the client to action.
It became clear in our initial research that while pivotal moments some-
times occurred in an instant, like an aha moment, they also transpired over
time during a coaching session, between sessions or even after the conclusion
of coaching. We used the priming tools and strategies above to prompt our
clients to think and feel more deeply or broadly about their situation so as to
raise them to a greater level of internal awareness and understanding. These
priming tools are essential to effective coaching for substantive change. We
also felt that there was something more that we needed to learn about how
coaches support and prime clients towards more significant change.
After some discussion with a client about how to sustain a learning after the
conclusion of coaching, Jackie suggested a simplified approach to one of her client’s
ideas. She shared how when she was first learning the Appreciative approach she
would focus on one element at a time (such as one of the Appreciative principles)
and would keep it at the top of her mind for a week or two by putting sticky notes
with the element in strategic places as reminders. Jackie suggested that her client
should try something similar by picking an element from her coaching and putting
a note in her car to focus on. She could set an intention for the day on her way to
work or reflect on her drive back home. It would require no extra time in her day.
When Jackie finished her thought, her client responded with excitement, “You don’t
know the epiphany I just had! I feel like such a weight has lifted off me, my whole
body is vibrating!” She went on to explain how this idea cascaded through other life
issues. Jackie was startled by her client’s reaction. During the session, Jackie wondered
whether to even bring the idea up as they were running out of time and it seemed so
simple, but she was prompted to do so and followed her inner inclination. Who was
to know it would have such a profound impact on her client?
It was not clear to Jackie whether it was the idea itself that was of great
impact or if it was added pressure that caused the kaleidoscope image to shift
for her client. Jackie and her client had been discussing the idea of taking
a growth-focused approach in developing her subordinates for a number of
coaching sessions, but for some reason something connected inside the client
when she applied the idea to herself.
As we saw in Chapter 6, unconscious associative networks and the varied
functions of priming have become a much studied phenomena and we are
especially interested in those studies that explore the process of priming,
using attention and memory to generate new networks of association in
nonconsciousness. Research efforts are now focused on developing more com-
plex constructs to explain priming, such as distinguishing between short- and
long-term priming effects. Silverman’s MIO priming experiments are note-
worthy for coaching because the results of this type of positive priming raised
the level of adaptive functioning across a diverse group of subjects and sought
to transcend personal individuality by tapping into a state of oneness.
We also prime in a broader sense by the very way we present ourselves
to our clients. We influence our clients by expanding their awareness, dis-
cerning the present moment and expanding understanding, much of that
operating at the nonconscious level. This classic control–influence-concern
model (Fig. 7.2)3 demonstrates how little we control, even within ourselves,
but how much greater our sphere of influence is than we know. We influence
or prime our clients in multiple ways, both consciously and non-consciously.
We simply cannot NOT influence our clients.
The Appreciative Stance
Coaches have a stance which reveals their bias to the world. The coaching
stance that we assume with Appreciative Coaching incorporates a clear dis-
tinction between two functional categories of survival mechanisms: growth
3
Adapted from Covey (1989).
140 Pivoting
Circle of
Concern
Circle of
Influence
Circle of
Control
Fig. 7.2 Control-Influence-Concern Model
and protection.4 When humans are in a protective mode, their perceptions

narrow in focus and they are attentive to danger and how to avert it. Learning,
of course, happens in these moments, but it is focused on survival and pro-
tection. When humans are more expansive and positive in their perspectives,
they are more open to possibilities of growth. As coaches, we work to create
these growth moments with our clients rather than enter the relationship with
a perspective to fix clients or to repair their “deficits.” Holding this perspec-
tive does not mean that we ignore problems, tough situations or, as is often
a misperception, reality itself. We help our clients to accept the presenting
situation or topic, but then we shift the perspective so that rather than need-
ing to protect themselves they can look towards growing and learning.
The scaling question from Solution-Focused Brief Therapy5 has evolved
in our thinking from being a simple tool to a metaphor of how to approach
a coaching engagement. Any situation can be scaled from 1 to 10, 10 being
the ideal and 1 being the absence of what is needed. Usually an evaluation is
made and assessed by designating a number, say 3. In a problem-solving or
fix-it approach, the client’s attention would be focused on the gap between
3 and 10, and the conversation would address how to reduce this gap. This
means defining the problem, identifying root causes and putting a develop-
ment plan in place. This approach works well with mechanisms and processes,
4
Lipton (2005).
5
A tool we have incorporated into the Appreciative Coaching approach.
GAP
1 3 10
Terrible! Perfection!
What we pay attention to grows
Fig. 7.3 Growing vs. closing the gap
but with human beings the problem becomes the individual; the root causes
become internal, personal defects; and a plan is developed to fix the per-
son. This approach causes the individual to shift to a mode of protection. We
choose to use the scale from a growth perspective. We ask clients to select
a number on the scale, let’s say a 3 again. With the Appreciative approach,
attention is paid to what has already been successful to make it a 3 (i.e., it’s
not a 0 or 1). We query what resources are at hand in the situation that makes
it a 3. Attention turns to growing the 3 to a 4 or 5 or 6, ever moving towards
the stated desired outcome. In this approach the difficulties are still addressed
but in a growth metaphor (Fig. 7.3).
In describing this stance to our clients, we help them to understand that the
scale is a moment in time and that the assessment number is an ever-moving
indicator. What one client identifies as a 10 today may at one time have been
seen as an achievement to look for in the future or as an impossibility in the
past. This perspective demonstrates that it is all about growth and it takes
away embarrassment about any particular self-assessment. Using a genera-
tive approach such as Appreciative Coaching is typically met with relief and
gratitude as clients perceive that they are moving forward in a positive way.
In turn, they become more open and willing to explore their inner resources.
As an example of stance, we take an Appreciative perspective of positive
growth and development. Adopting this approach then impacts the funda-
mentals of how we structure a coaching engagement, including creating a rela-
tionship, directing our client’s attention and helping them to better discern a
situation and receive feedback. Our stance defines our main strategy of influ-
ence and therefore impacts how we wield other coaching or priming tools.
Roberta was concerned about the challenges and tensions that her team was
facing in working with difficult clients. Wanting to be a supportive supervisor,
she would ask them to rate their stress level from one to five at each team meet-
ing. After working with her coach in an Appreciative approach, she grasped that
she was inadvertently focusing the attention of team members on the negative, on
142 Pivoting
what stresses they felt, even those who were feeling little stress. After this realization
she revised the question to read: What do you appreciate in the work we’re doing?
Her team members told her that they loved the new question because it helped
them feel better about their work.
Feedback
Feedback is an important coaching tool and can be an effective priming

mechanism. How we approach it is influenced by whether we hold a problem-
solving or a generative stance. Some clients come to us wanting to develop
and grow towards a new vision or dream. Others come to us with challenging
feedback on performance correction or a situation that needs repair. While we
respect the evaluation, we shift the client’s attention as soon as we can from
protection to growth. We want our clients to understand that others’ opinions
exist whether they are aware of them or not, and knowing those opinions
gives them the opportunity to choose whether to do something about them
or not. We also remind them that feedback says as much about the giver as it
does about the person receiving the feedback. For example, if someone says,
“You need to listen more,” it may mean that the speaker values listening as a
skill or wishes to be listened to more.
Often this type of growth perspective regarding feedback comes as some-
thing totally new to clients. They may find it mystifying. Personal stories from
the coach often help in such situations. A personal story that Jackie has been
known to tell focuses on feedback she received when she worked at Ford
Motor Company as an internal consultant. She conducted many large-scale
change interventions for Ford, such as those described by Bunker and Alban.6
Because of leading large-scale meetings, many people knew Jackie. In addition,

her office was located by the building escalators across from the cafeteria, a place of
much social interaction. One day, Jackie received feedback that she was a snob. It
startled and hurt her, even confused her. Only by accepting that feedback did she
subsequently learn how it came about. One of her signature strengths is organiz-
ing large amounts of information into meaningful frameworks of data requiring
great concentration on her part. Being near the cafeteria, she would get up from
her computer to fetch coffee while still ruminating on the data. As she was walking
the hallway, she was turned inward, seeing no one and missing greetings coming
her way. Once she understood the feedback, she recognized that it was not about
6
Bunker and Alban (1997).
changing who she was but making a decision about how much she wanted a cup
of coffee. Each trip to the cafeteria required her to disengage from her work so as to
be fully present in the hallway.
Some coaching methodologies guard against the coach bringing in any

personal stories to illuminate learnings. Our stance is that judicious use of
such stories can be useful tools to exemplify concepts, especially for clients
who learn better through examples than models. Stories of self-disclosure help
to create relationship with clients, furthering connection, trust and positive
emotions.7 When Jackie shared this story, she saw the shift in her client’s eyes
to a new understanding of how to look at feedback. This new perspective
shifted the client from a stance of protection to one of growth and provided
her with choices regarding how to approach the feedback process.
In addition to 360° assessments, we use other feedback instruments to
help provide clients with baseline self-awareness. The instruments we prefer
to use are descriptive in design and adaptable as learning mechanisms. Not
to promote but to share a couple of examples, we find the Thomas-Kilmann
Conflict Inventory8 and the Strengths Finder 2.09 suitable for this purpose.
They are non-threatening, thereby not pushing the client into a protective
mode. Descriptors in these instruments have both strengths and weaknesses,
which provide talking points to open up exploratory conversations about what
might be useful in a client’s circumstances, rather than focusing on evaluation.
In addition, they allow us to help to shift language from the connotation of
“right or wrong” or “bad or good” to “working or not working” and “useful or
not useful.” Again, this non-accusatory language helps clients to accept where
they are starting from (e.g., that “3”) and be more open to a shift in internal
understanding about themselves.
Creating Relationship
One of the master coaches we interviewed spoke at length about how creat-
ing strong relationships with clients builds trust, which is a prerequisite for
enabling coaching to go beyond intellectualizing to visceral, emotional pivots.
Research evidence both in the literature and in our own epistemological work
supports this position. Self-disclosure involving the revealing and sharing of
7
Jourard (1959), Collins and Miller (1994).
8
Thomas and Kilmann (2007).
9
Rath (2007).
144 Pivoting
personal information leads to feelings of warmth, trust and confidence,10 and

we tend to disclose more to people whom we initially like.11
The master coach related the story of a pivotal moment of a client he was coaching.
The manager had been resisting feedback about the effect he was having on others
owing to his micromanaging and dominant behaviour. The organizational culture
was collegial and team-based, whereas the manager was sure that his perspective was
right and that he outperformed others. From the beginning of the engagement, the
master coach really focused on building connection and trust with the manager, doing
a lot of empathic listening. He considered it a prerequisite that he establish a strong con-
nection and relationship with the client. He wanted the manager to know that he was
valued in the organization for the results he was getting, just not for how he was gener-
ating those results. The relationship-building paid off when the manager was brought
into a feedback meeting with the company owner and division head. The master coach
facilitated and said it felt almost like group coaching. When told that people were get-
ting upset about the way he was treating them, the manager broke down in tears. He
said that he would do what he needed to in order to be there for the organization.
According to the master coach, it was like a switch went on for the manager.
When asked what he thought helped to build the foundation for the manager to
be more open in that meeting, the master coach responded, “The connection, the
trust, the relationship, the genuine caring. I care about this guy, it’s palpable, real
and folks knew it.” This statement by the master coach actually demonstrates one of
his signature strengths—establishing relationship. When he meets with his clients
and they begin talking about their situation, without conscious awareness on his
part, he builds his clients up, raises their awareness about their capabilities and
encourages their success—all in an absolutely sincere and grounded way. He simply
cannot NOT interact with his clients in this way; it is his stance as he genuinely
believes in the capabilities of every client he meets.
With executive coaching it is not unusual for “chemistry meetings” to occur

to ensure that coach and client are a good fit. While there may be a match
between coach and client on paper, a face-to-face meeting or telephone dis-
cussion is held to see whether they can work together. This is a foundational
step for developing a quality relationship. We make sure that clients under-
stand that they have a choice in working with us, even when the organization
may give them little choice to be in coaching.
10
See, for example, Jourard (1959).
11
Collins and Miller (1994).
Making sure that there was a positive emotional bond with clients was
a lesson learned early in Jackie’s career. A mentor, Kathy Dannemiller, who
was a forerunner in the field of organizational development, would often say,
“If you don’t love your client, don’t work with him.” Years later, a finding
from a longitudinal study by Cohn and Fredrickson showed that an early
positive emotion reaction is a potential marker for long-term adherence to
an intervention.12 Fredrickson found that “micro-moments of positive emo-
tional experience,” while fleeting, do set people on trajectories for growth
and help to build their resources.13 These studies, and the experiences of the
master coaches whom we interviewed, demonstrate the importance of setting
up relationships with positive emotion.
In initial meetings, however, clients could be in any frame of mind or in any
emotional state. Recalling that emotions are contagious and that the first meet-
ing sets the stage, it is important for coaches to present themselves in a genuine
and coherent manner. Master coaches have learned that this comes both from
understanding the dynamics of coaching situations and from knowing oneself.
Jackie arrived at a contracting session with her new client and her coaching spon-
sor, who was also her supervisor. Jackie’s three go-to questions for new clients are:
What brings the client to coaching? What are the areas of focus for coaching? What
does success look like? In discussing these questions, the supervisor during the meet-
ing made it very clear that the client was too tough with her staff and not connecting
well with them. She was very pointed in her feedback, providing clear examples.
The client listened to the feedback, seemed to take it well, asking for elucidation and
examples. She didn’t argue with her supervisor about her behaviour or the results
that her behaviour seemed to produce. Jackie facilitated somewhat during the meet-
ing, but it was clear that this was a typical interchange between supervisor and
direct report. Jackie stayed after for a one-to-one discussion with her client. When the
supervisor left, Jackie said, “Well, that was a tough meeting. I’m not sure how I’d be
feeling right now if I were you.” Her client immediately broke down in tears of relief.
Jackie was able to stay calm, which in turn calmed her client. She was able
to connect with her client in a manner that created a more positive effect in
their interaction. This developed their relationship further as a positive effect
generated in a shared activity will, in turn, increase the subjective quality of
the relationship.14
12
Cohn and Fredrickson (2010).
13
14
Strong and Aron (2006).
146 Pivoting
Directing Attention
Another fundamental coaching tool is directing client attention. The world

is filled with sensory data to be filtered and sorted through. Attention clearly
serves as a requisite tool to be functional in our lives, but it is also a limiting
factor. In the words of Josiah Royce, an American philosopher, “Whatever
we come to know, whatever opinions we come to hold, our attention is what
makes all our knowing and all our believing possible; and the laws followed
by this, our own activity of attention will thus determine what we are to know
and what we are to believe.”15
In our Appreciative Coaching workshops we demonstrate this capability in
a series of three short exercises. First, we tell participants, “Don’t think of a
red truck!” Of course, that is what each person does because it is impossible
to tell the mind not to do something. The mind goes to that thought whether
the direction is stated in the positive or negative. Second, we ask our par-
ticipants to imagine, “When you are driving to your next destination, say to
yourselves as you drive along, ‘Don’t look for a red truck. Don’t look for a red
truck.” Anyone trying this experiment will see more red trucks than they ever
have simply by directing their minds not to do so. Our last experiment asks
participants to count all the red objects they can see around them as quickly
as they can as we time them for 20 seconds. As they come back curious to
report their success, we ask them, “How many blue objects did you see?” Most
are startled and admit to seeing at most one or two blue objects, if any at all.
These three experiments demonstrate how attention expands to where it is
directed—whether positive or negative—and creates tunnel vision away from
other things in the field of vision.
This is an important dynamic to integrate. In our interactions with clients,
we cause them to go down a path of attention. We prime them in some way
to expand thinking on a topic, whether we are conscious of that or not.
We prime them not only with their conscious attention but also with their
nonconsciousness—like directing them to see red trucks. We do not know,
nor do we have control over, what thoughts, ideas or feelings may arise. We
touch or prime the internal mechanisms of belief, memory and inner know-
ing that then cause them to vibrate together, much like touching a child’s
mobile that hangs above the bed.
One of Jackie’s clients was using a negative metaphor to describe her relationship
and frustration with her boss. She described herself as “chafing at the bit,” like a
15
Royce (1885), p. 317.
wild horse being reined in unwillingly. This showed how she felt constrained and
slowed down in doing her work, contrary to her natural spirit. Jackie asked her
how she might change this metaphor to reflect how she wanted things to be. In
thinking about a new description, her client realized that it was not in her nature
to be a rule-breaker. Therefore, as long as she was not breaking the rules of the
organization, she should be able to do what she wanted. With that knowledge, she
changed her image to that of a wild stallion running free but within the fences of
a large, expansive ranch.
Jackie shifted her client’s attention from the limitations she felt in work-
ing with her boss to the freedom she had in doing her job while still stay-
ing within organizational boundaries. This was in alignment with what she
wanted to do. The shift helped Jackie’s client to interact in new ways with her
boss because she had a different understanding about their interchanges and
it expanded her thinking about what she could do. It also started to transform
the emotional tone of her relationship with her boss.
Discernment
Another way to direct client attention is by touching on what is seen. To

discern is “to perceive by the sight or some other sense or by the intellect.”16
How we perceive or discern is filtered by our beliefs, and it is closely linked
to how we understand a situation and come to conclusions. This is a natural,
mostly nonconscious capability which allows us to move through our day
with some ease. Consider how paralysed we would be if every item in our day
needed to be seen, understood and integrated in a conscious manner before
any action could be taken. But this ability can be a challenge at those times
when we need to remain open to possibilities. Sometimes it is helpful to not
immediately judge situations but to allow them to present more fully. “For if
you judge them, you have set the rules for how you should react to them.”17
By remaining open longer, it is possible to become more aware of choices and
responses that are available. It also creates room for listening and learning to
trust the internal voice (of knowing and embodiment).
A specific tool we use with our clients when discussing a conflict situation
is the “cone in the box” (Fig. 7.4). This visual metaphor is a mental experi-
ment to help clients broaden their perspective. Pretending that the cone is
16
Stein (1975), p. 377.
17
A Course in Miracles (2007), p. 625 (30, I, 3:5).
148 Pivoting
Fig. 7.4 Cone in the box visual metaphor
in an opaque brown box, an individual looking through peek hole A will see
the shape of a circle, while an individual looking through peek hole B will
see a triangle. The cone demonstrates visually how the perspective of seeing a
circle is always right, and the perspective of seeing a triangle is always right;
however, it is necessary to see both the circle and triangle together to grasp
the larger perspective of the cone. Using this metaphor in a conflict situation
demonstrates how one viewpoint can be put into a larger context by including
the apparently opposing perspective. In a non-threatening manner it presents
potentially contrasting views in a larger picture or context. This model helps
clients to become more open to seeing situations from different perspectives,
thus creating possibilities for mental shifts to occur.
Rachel had met numerous times with a business partner who loudly complained
about the service he was receiving from Rachel’s team. Hearing the criticisms and
feeling pressured from the other demands of their jobs, her team members were
demoralized. Rachel realized that she was irritated by the complaints but also
knew that she needed to bring the two perspectives together. She met with the busi-
ness partner, assuring him that his concerns were heard and promised resolution,
but she also helped the partner to understand that his team needed to give her team
a break and be more appreciative of what her team did. Two days later she heard
from her team that they had received a thank you note signed by everyone on the
partner’s team along with other individual stories of appreciation. It turned the
mood of her team around and inspired them to perform better.
We can help clients to learn to discern different aspects of their situation

to gain greater perspective and meaning. For example, a client might decide
to direct attention to the language used and make a choice to select language
that is more in line with what she wants to create—like the client who chose
the more generative metaphor of being a stallion free to roam. This metaphor
created the potential for the client to experience her days in a new way, to
see (discern) her work life more clearly. According to Frank Pajares, “All
words begin as servants, eager to oblige and assume whatever function may
be assigned to them, but, that accomplished, they become masters, imposing
the will of their predefined intention and dominating the essence of human
discourse.”18
Present Moment
While we mentally time travel in our memories to the past and future, all of
life happens in the present moment. Yet it is a challenge for most of us to stay
in the present moment. Our ability to mentally time travel is, in part, how we
create the fullness of our lives, but it also transports us away from the lived
present. To stay in the present moment requires two components: the self-
regulation of attention and the adoption of a particular orientation towards
one’s experience in the present moment.19 Directing attention and discern-
ment are thus important tools to help us live in the present. An orientation
of acceptance of what is occurring in the present moment and a commitment
to maintain an attitude of curiosity are also required. Staying in the present
moment is not a passive process but an active one.
A characteristic of the human mind is wandering, and the mind wanders
frequently no matter what we are doing. Curiously, we are less happy when
our minds wander away from what we are doing in the moment, even when
we wander to pleasant topics. Mind wandering is often the cause, not the
consequence, of unhappiness and is a better predictor of happiness than what
we are actually doing: “a human mind is a wandering mind, and a wandering
mind is an unhappy mind.”20
When our minds ruminate, we find ourselves caught in elaborate thinking
about a situation and its origins, implications and associations. In this state
we often find ourselves stuck in thoughts about personal goals or intentions
that can be neither attained nor relinquished.21 Mindfulness has been adopted
into contemporary psychology from Buddhist spiritual practices as a useful
approach for increasing awareness and responding skillfully to situations that
cause emotional distress and maladaptive behaviour. “In a state of mind-
fulness, thoughts and feelings are observed as events in the mind, without
18
Pajares (1992), p. 308.
19
Bishop et al. (2004).
20
Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010), p. 932.
21
Teasdale, Segal, Williams and Mark (1995).
150 Pivoting
over-identifying with them and without reacting to them in an automatic,

habitual pattern of reactivity.”22 In this story, the client benefited from prac-
tising mindfulness in a situation that had been repetitively troubling to her.
Sylvia, by ruminating on past experiences of how she felt fearful in executive

meetings and interacting with senior leaders, often inhibited her ability to present
herself as the professional she was in other, more comfortable circumstances. In
one coaching session, anticipating an upcoming senior retreat, she and her coach
discussed what she could do to prepare herself to feel more confident during the
meeting. They brainstormed a number of ideas that Sylvia could use to feel more
at ease. Her coach reminded her, “Above all, don’t make yourself wrong about
being nervous.” Sylvia was to keep in mind that it was normal to be nervous in
such meetings and was to allow the feeling to be. At their next coaching session
she reported that the ideas that they had brainstormed were useful, but reminding
herself that it was okay to be nervous helped the most. Paradoxically, being aware
of the feeling and allowing herself to be nervous reduced her anxiety.
By making it okay to be anxious in a meeting that held stresses for her,

this client was able to stay in the present moment’s anxiety without expand-
ing it to include the fearful experiences of the past. Mindfulness is not about
thought suppression. Some anxiety stayed with her, but at a level that did not
interfere with her feeling good about her presence at the meeting. This ability
to stay mindfully in the moment resulted in a new experience and awareness
of herself—one of greater acceptance—which in turn created the opening for
a shift in how she experienced herself and others at the meeting.
By becoming mindful of what is and accepting of it, we can look at a situ-
ation with a beginner’s mind, that is, from a perspective of curiosity, open-
ness and learning. With mindfulness comes greater resources.23 We become
observers, rather than victims, opening up the possibility for new awareness or
action. Mindfulness helps us to manage negative emotions and rumination,24
as in Sylvia’s case. She was able to observe herself as nervous as she interacted
with new people or higher-level leaders, and she could be present with other
people rather than withdraw into herself in fear. She was able to increase
the information that was available to her in the moment which otherwise
would have remained outside her awareness. This resulted in a wider perspec-
tive. This story exemplifies Rosch’s observation that lives can “be improved by
22
Bishop et al. (2004)
23
24
Coffey, Hartman and Fredrickson (2010).
changing the consciousness with which experience is perceived rather than

the content of the experience.”25
We coach our clients in the present moment even when we discuss the
past or future. It is from this present perspective that we prime our clients to
make pivots. One of the master coaches whom we interviewed described how
a present moment expanded for her as she worked with one of her clients.
I began working with a leader who was described as visionary, intelligent,

creative, passionate and even transformational, but his frustration with what he
experienced as a slow, difficult corporate culture would come out in bursts of inap-
propriate temper. When he received feedback to this effect, he admitted that these
outbursts happened frequently and he wasn’t happy about them, but he also said
that he was incapable of changing his behaviour because the emotion was too
intense to control. I tried several tools to help him to see that he could change. After
a number of failed attempts, I remember being internally, intensely looking for a
way forward. I was very aware that he was losing faith in the possibility of his
changing and I felt pressure to find something that would work for him. I was very
aware of how I felt, what I was doing and what I sensed from my client. In that
moment, inspiration struck to ask him whether he exhibited this behaviour with
his daughter. Posing this question became the start of both shifting his understand-
ing of himself and changing his behaviour.
Mindfulness and being in the present moment can give us, as coaches, “a
greater capacity to see relationships between thoughts, feelings and actions
and to discern the meanings and causes of experience and behavior.”26 It can
help us to stay with our clients so that we respond from a greater perspective,
as this master coach experienced.
Embodiment: Nexus of Mind, Body and Environment
In essence, we are hired as coaches because our clients want to have new
experiences or new results in their lives or work. How are these new results
created? We take new actions or behave in alternative ways from the past. But
we must also consider that behaviours are impacted by feelings and in align-
ment with thoughts; therefore, for behaviours to change, so must emotions
25
Rosch (2007), p. 263.
26
Bishop et al. (2004), p. 234.
152 Pivoting
Thoughts/
Beliefs
Experience/ Feelings/
Results Emotions
Actions/
Behaviors
Fig. 7.5 Coaching cycle: The embodiment of mind, body and environment
and beliefs be changed. This describes the cycle of change as we see it in play
in coaching (Fig. 7.5).
This dynamic cycle is best understood through the lens of embodiment.
Traditionally, cognition has been identified solely with the brain, but in con-
temporary work the boundaries of cognition have expanded beyond the brain
to include the body and environment as interacting elements. This new per-
spective breaks past the concept that what happens in our minds is isolated
from our body. We see it now as distributed cognition—that is, what we
traditionally attributed solely to the individual brain are actually accomplish-
ments that transcend this boundary, taking into account our bodies and envi-
ronment.27 It is a dynamic interplay of how our brains think, how our bodies
move and how we interact with environmental stimuli.28
In embodiment, perception and action are not separate systems. Perception
is something we do as our bodies interact with our environment; it is not
simply something that happens to us. To illustrate this with a simple example,
if we are writing while riding in a vehicle that begins to move and our hand
slips, we automatically shift to correct for the movement of the vehicle. We
are not passive receivers of what is in our environment but active participants.
As actors in our environment, what we experience is shaped by how we act.
This process of creating our own experience through our actions is called
27
Hutchins (2010).
28
Hutchins (2010).
“enaction.”29 Embodiment and enaction are therefore closely linked as one

system. In fact, “it is hard to imagine how abstract thinking could ever come
about during an individual’s lifetime without the body providing the proper
sensory stimulation, the raw material for the body to process.”30
This framework has exciting implications for coaching. It offers an interactive
process model of human change which broadens and deepens our understand-
ing of how we can help clients to effect change through their thoughts, feelings,
actions and results, and it becomes a tool or way to approach clients to influ-
ence a pivotal shift. Our coaching cycle model, through the lens of embodi-
ment, presents multiple entry points through which we can influence change
with our clients: creating new thought and belief patterns; cultivating different
feelings; experimenting with a range of actions and behaviours; and recognizing
and building on positive results. Clients may respond better by beginning with
one element over another. For example, one client may respond well to models
that help to explain what is happening in the environment (thoughts/beliefs);
another may need to be actively experimenting to see what results occur (actions/
behaviours); and yet others may need to sort out their affect (feelings/emotions)
about a situation in order to take action or to think strategically. In general,
clients go through the entire cycle but their entry point for learning may differ.
This holistic embodiment model offers an explanation for why time
between coaching sessions is critical as clients try out new ideas. In coach-
ing conversations, interaction is often intellectual—that is, a discussion about
what clients are doing or what they are thinking. The time between sessions
provides opportunities for clients to interact with their environment. Coming
back into the coaching conversation to reflect on the results of action com-
pletes the cycle. We interact with our clients by participating and co-creating
events of change that help them to access their inner process through one or
more of the four entry points.
Clients are often unaware of the energy that their physical presence exerts in a
room. Jackie helped one client to learn that her physical presence impacted others
and was a key part of her leadership presence, perhaps as important as how well
she prepared herself or the language she used. She helped her client experience this
in a couple of ways. First, her client came to understand that she could dominate a
room simply by the way she held herself. This was not a positive or negative descrip-
tor of the client but depended on the others in the room with her. She could either
engage or intimidate others depending on how they experienced her. Becoming
29
Hutchins (2010), p. 425.
30
154 Pivoting
aware of her presence helped her to consciously adjust how she interacted with oth-
ers to create more productive interactions. Second, she learned about the impact of
her presence in another way. She was asked to try an experiment with her boss. She
changed nothing about their regular one-to-one meetings other than where she sat.
Rather than sitting across from her boss she sat next to her, sharing a single docu-
ment to review. She was very sceptical about whether her experiment would have
any effect so she was startled by the positive change in the tone of their interaction.
She came to understand herself in a new light.
Further, she unknowingly exemplified what is now recognized as “embod-

ied rapport.”31 Rapport, traditionally defined by people’s perceptions of posi-
tivity and mutuality, has been extended to include learnings from embodied
cognition. It is now recognized that our perceptions and judgements are
reflected in our motor and bodily experiences.
Coaching Context: The Client Internal Landscape

Role of Beliefs
How we interact with the world and create our lived experience is impacted by
what we think or believe. Beliefs are interpretations of reality about ourselves,
others, our environment and the spiritual domain. They are held explicitly and
consciously but they also exist “beyond individual control or knowledge.”32
How to change beliefs remains a mysterious process.33 As coaches, we have no
manual to follow, but we can expand our awareness and knowledge of what is
known and proposed about beliefs.
While beliefs are constructed by an individual, how this happens is medi-
ated by the actions of others. Each of our individual actions creates some
disturbance in the environment, which others then respond to and act. This is
a constructive process where we each change and are changed by our environ-
ment. It is through this social process that we can experience a change in our
beliefs; in fact, we often need outside influences to make changes in our belief
systems.34 We cannot simply will ourselves to believe something.35 Outside
input, as from a coach, may be needed.
31
Vacharkulksemsuk and Fredrickson (2012).
32
Mansour (2009).
33
Mansour (2009), p. 37.
34
Tobin and LaMaster (1995)
35
Royce 1996/ (1920).
Some beliefs that clients change are more significant than others. Minor
changes in beliefs are more easily assimilated, but the more central a belief
(about the self ), the more functional connections it will have and the more it
will resist change.36 Changing a central belief sends repercussions throughout
the system, causing other beliefs to be examined. A change may therefore be
experienced as a conversion or Gestalt shift.37
Beliefs are unlikely to be replaced unless they prove to be unsatisfactory—
that is, when they are challenged or they cannot be assimilated into existing
conceptions.38 People operate in such a way as to maximize internal consis-
tency, and they try to avoid internal dissonance. A belief may change when
some anomalies are presented and the person is not able to accommodate the
conflicting information as the master coach demonstrated in the story below.
I was coaching a young, divorced father working on his PhD. He was at the end
of the dissertation process and it was a challenge for him to keep going. For several
coaching sessions he complained about his struggles, until finally he declared that
he was up to his eyeballs with all of it and was going to quit. I saw the pivotal
moment occur when I said to him, ‘Absolutely! I agree with you! I can see all the
reasons why you don’t want to go on. You really want this, but it’s really too tough!’
While saying this, I really believed in my heart of hearts that he very much wanted
to finish. My client responded with a gigantic push back, ‘I’ve always wanted this.
It’s something I’ve dreamed about. I have worked so hard, I can’t believe you think
I should quit…’ After nearly 20 minutes I asked, ‘Do you hear yourself?’ When I
asked the question he calmed down. The topic of quitting never came up again in
our coaching, and he never went back to his negative style. Internally I felt a big
smile when he pushed back.
The Genius of Metaphors
Metaphors are a rich tool for coaching. In terms of embodiment, they are
created early in life through primary sensory experiences and they form a rich
part of human language, as in expressions like “They greeted me warmly,”
“This movie stinks” and “Tomorrow is a big day.” These “primary metaphors”
link early childhood sensory experiences with conceptualizations about those
experiences. In this regard, such metaphors are considered to be an embodied
experience:
36
Rokeach (1968).
37
Pajares (1992).
38
Pajares (1992).
156 Pivoting
• “They greeted me warmly” links the feeling of warmth to affection, like the
early experience of feeling warm while being held by a parent.
• “This movie stinks” links the smell to the evaluation, as in the sensory expe-
rience of being repelled by a foul-smelling object.
• “Tomorrow is a big day” links size to importance, like a child finding big
things such as parents exerting major forces on them or dominating visual
experiences
These primary metaphors become part of our cognitive unconscious and

part of our abstract thought process.39 Cognitive linguist George Lakoff and
philosopher Mark Johnson have gone so far as to claim that our conceptual
system is largely metaphorical.40 Metaphors are a means by which we concep-
tualize our world.41 Some are so much a part of our language that we do not
even recognize them as metaphors—for example, someone saying, “The odds
are against us” or “We’ll have to take our chances” are unlikely to be seen as
speaking metaphorically.
“The essence of a metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind
of thing in terms of another.”42 A metaphor highlights features of an experi-
ence, connects to other features within the metaphor and helps create new
meanings. In this way, metaphors help us to understand, guide action, justify
inferences and set goals. Our beliefs can be seen in our metaphors.43 Thus
they give tacit knowledge voice and become a heuristic to express beliefs.44
Creating a new metaphor with a new meaning “can have a feedback effect,
guiding our future actions in accordance with the metaphor.”45 By changing
a metaphor we change our conceptual system or beliefs, which in turn can
change what is real for us and affect how we perceive the world and act on
those perceptions. This effect can be seen in the story of one of the master
coaches we interviewed.
Mitchell, a senior executive who aspired to a CEO position, was very interested
in learning how he came across as a leader, even requesting extended leadership
assessments as part of his coaching. He worked with his executive coach to apply
for several CEO openings, failing in each attempt to secure the position. His coach
39
Lakoff and Johnson (1999).
40
Lakoff and Johnson (1980b).
41
Lakoff and Johnson (1980a).
42
Lakoff and Johnson (1980b), p. 124.
43
Mansour (2009), p. 38.
44
Martof (1996).
45
Lakoff and Johnson (1980b), p. 130.
reflected that each disappointment brought with it an opportunity for Mitchell to

learn more about himself. There were a series of what the master coach called “eco-
spasm events” of the same tone that eventually, with coaching, amassed to a pivotal
moment for Mitchell. The pivot came when Mitchell realized what it meant to be
a public persona, and learned how to relax a little and not try so hard to be per-
fect. His coach saw this new understanding ignite when he offered the metaphor of
orchestra leader to Mitchell as a lens to consider how a CEO leads. Mitchell came
to realize that it didn’t matter whether he was the best cello player in the orchestra.
What mattered was how the orchestra director, the Leonard Bernstein, brought
people together. This metaphor led Mitchell to a new understanding of his feedback
data and provided him with an image of the leader he wanted to grow into. His
coach supported him to deal with fears that came up as he tried new behaviours
required of this image. With growing confidence, he did what he believed was
important, eventually securing a CEO position.
The Associative Networks of Memory
Memory, as already described, is time travelling mentally to the past and to

the future, from the present moment.46 It is a subjective experience which
differs from our conscious awareness of the present moment; we are unlikely
to confuse what we remember with what we are experiencing. A memory is
recreated in the present moment and is influenced by the present—that is,
the past is constructed from present understanding and so is reconstructed.
Memory is as much about the present as it is about the past.47 This is impor-
tant to coaching because it means that we can reinterpret the meaning of the
past, and coaches can influence this reinterpretation.
Memory is stored in networks of association. In fact, cognitive models sug-
gest that all thought, memory and perception, including complex cognitive
processes, involve the activation of networks of association.48 When these asso-
ciations are activated, they may influence thought and feelings outside aware-
ness and can lead to behaviour to approach or avoid situations or others.49
Remembering is “more about recombining multiple sources of information
than it is about calling to mind a fixed representation of an event.”50 When
inconsistencies and distortions are exposed, interpretation can begin change.
46
Tulving (2002).
47
Fernyhough (2012).
48
Westen (1999).
49
Westen (1999).
50
158 Pivoting
Coaches, in listening to a client’s story, can bring together contrary facts that
the client may not have seen but when presented and discussed make sense.
How many of us have heard, “Oh, I never thought of it that way?” We help
clients bring together new associations and create new interpretations.
Remembering is inherently a social process that happens in collaboration
with others, and it is always contextual.51 It is in sharing memories with oth-
ers, as clients do with a coach, that they can relive and understand the past in
a new way.
Gerald was encouraged to apply for a senior executive position but felt unsure
whether to do so because of prior experiences on two major projects that he had
led. He felt that each one could be looked at as failures because the organization
had shifted direction on one and decided not to not move forward on the other.
Reflecting on these experiences with his coach, he came to realize that they were
also experiences where he had learned a great deal. He applied the skills that he
had learned from these experiences to other successful projects, and they were req-
uisite skills of the company’s new leadership model.
Memory is not just about the past but also about the future. We use it to
recall our aspirations, goals and plans for the future. The seeds of a desired
future are in our memories of the past. In the discovery phase of Appreciative
Coaching, we spend time helping our clients to achieve a more empowering
perspective by recollecting their strengths, abilities, successes and aspirations.
Through these they affirm a sense of the possible and look forward to pos-
sibilities.52 The more imaginative effort our clients put into creating a future
scenario, the more possible it seems.53
Modes of Inner Knowing
All humans experience a sense of knowing inside of them when something feels
true. These “truths” may come from various modes, such as intuition, instinct,
interaction with the environment, or deep empathy. Some of these kinds of
knowing are culturally acceptable, such as trusting one’s expert intuition, while
others may be seen as inexplicable, such as clairvoyance. Which of these modes
of knowing we use with our clients depends on our own comfort level and that
of our clients. As we learned about the nonconscious, however, we are already
51
Fernyhough (2012).
52
Orem, Binkert and Clancy (2007).
53
Fernyhough (2012).
using different sources of knowing without conscious awareness. As an example,

research has shown that people tend to like a painting that they select at a gut
level for longer than they do a picture that they analyse and then select.54 Each
of us has ways to internalize a sense of truth, and this sense of truth enters into
our coaching conversations whether we explicitly acknowledge it or not.
Well-known author and intuitive Laura Day, in her book Practical Intuition,
explained that every decision uses our intuition to some degree, as well as our
knowledge, judgement and feelings.55 For example, the question of “Should I
go to Florida in February?” has us looking at the decision from multiple per-
spectives—tapping into what we know about Florida as a vacation place, how
we feel about going there, and our inner knowing (the reason we can’t put
our finger on) for intuiting what the trip might be like. Day proposed that we
evaluate situations in our lives according to four main sources of information:
1. What we know about them (our knowledge and memories);

2. What we think of them (our judgements and interpretations);
3. How we feel about them (our feelings and emotions);
4. What we intuit about them (our direct knowing).56
She considered emotions to be the least valid of the four sources. The
strength of consciously employing the four sources, however, is that by incor-
porating all of them we provide a kind of check and balance process against
concerns about over- or underusing any one of them. Well-known researchers
such as Daniel Kahneman57 have cautioned against the “biases of intuition”
and feeling overconfident in intuitive beliefs and preferences which can result
in errors of judgement. He has proposed that humans have two systems that
drive our thinking: System 1 is fast, intuitive and emotional; System 2 is
slower, more deliberative and more logical.58 Kahneman referred to the “psy-
chology of accurate intuition” as involving no magic59 but rather representing
the phenomenon of “expert intuition.” While Day’s perspective of intuition
is that of a mode of direct knowing, Kahneman sees the core of his System 1
as associative memory, the automatic and unconscious processes that he says
54
Westen (1999).
55
Day (1996), p. 158.
56
Day (1996), p. 158.
57
Kahneman (2011).
58
Kahneman (2011).
59
Kahneman (2011), p. 11.
160 Pivoting
underlie intuitive thinking.60 For him, intuition is a form of cognitive recog-

nition, and acquired expertise.
Ann found herself conducting an experiment shortly after reading about the
four sources of information proposed by Day. An unexpected event occurred
on a beautiful autumn day when she was hiking in the mountains with Frank,
a coaching colleague visiting from Germany.
We were walking to a waterfall at the foot of a steep hiking trail which was a
short distance from the parking lot. On the way up we encountered a man who
asked if we had seen his three children—two teenagers and a younger boy. We had
not. The three children had preceded him down the trail and he had lost sight of
them. We continued on our way. A short time later we descended to find the man,
his wife and two other young people walking around and calling out names. They
were upset because they could find no trace of the missing children in the forest
and the day was waning. I was quite familiar with the area and knew there was
another hiking trail that ran along the bottom of the mountain and came out
about two miles down the road. I had this strong sense that I could really be of
help in this situation. I thought about the four sources of information and began
with the first one—my knowledge of the area. I knew there were only a few ways
the children could have gone. I asked questions about where the children were last
seen, gathered data and judged that they could easily have ended up on another
trail, feeling lost and so kept walking. I then checked my feelings and did not pick
up any fear or danger about the situation. If anything, I felt a kind of confidence
and determination. Finally, I went to stand physically at the place where the chil-
dren were last seen and asked for inner guidance. After a few minutes I got a strong
sense that they had gone on a nearby path and that I should drive immediately
to where the trail ended two miles away. Frank and I drove to the other trailhead
where we found the children sitting on rocks, swinging their legs and waiting
for someone to find them. They had arrived about 10 minutes earlier. Their cell
phones didn’t work in the area but they had followed good hiking rules by staying
on the trail and waiting to be found. We drove the children back to their parents,
who were elated. The father hugged me tightly with great thanks for the help. I felt
euphoric—I had followed the four sources and the approach worked. Frank and I
celebrated with champagne.
Ann’s story exemplifies the different ways in which coaches can learn to
apply and get comfortable with new strategies and tools. This opportunity
just appeared and Ann was spontaneously drawn to test the idea of using
60
Kahneman (2011).
intuition in the context of the other sources of information. The learning was
quite significant for her in that she applied a structured embodied process to
the situation and in following it she allowed it to unfold without efforts to
control it. It felt very affirming and raised her confidence level in listening to
her inner process. As we encourage our clients to do, we also need to experi-
ment with new strategies and tools so that we stay at our learning edge.
Tapping into the Nonconscious
Westen has reminded us that “We are much more expert unconsciously,
because expertise implies automatization of processes that once required con-
scious attention.”61 Peter Block, a leader in the field of organization develop-
ment, was known to ask clients who professed not to know an answer to a
previous question, “If you pretended to know the answer, what would it be?”
A form of this question has been a useful tool in coaching to help clients
access their inner resources of knowing. Invariably, clients have an answer
and the answer turns out to be insightful. The levels of learning model62 has
proved to be an effective tool in helping clients to tap into or trust a way of
knowing that is unfamiliar to them. This is the model referred to in the story
at the opening of this chapter. There are four levels or steps to learning:
1. Unconscious incompetence: We don’t know that we don’t know.

2. Conscious incompetence: We know that we don’t know.
3. Conscious competence: We know that we know.
4. Unconscious competence: We don’t know that we know.
In the fourth step, our expert knowledge or expert intuition is so familiar to

us that it slips into unawareness. We may know how to do something but not
be able to explain why or how we do it. This understanding has proved to be
useful to some clients in learning to trust “with no proof ” and have more faith
in other ways of knowing.
Mary came to coaching because her manager was frustrated by her inability to
do strategy in a strategy position. As an engineer, Mary was bewildered by how
her manager seemed to capriciously select one goal over another when there was no
apparent data to support the decision. She was frustrated that she was expected to
61
Westen (1999), p. 1097.
62
The origin of this model is uncertain but we believe it to be Broadwell (1969). He presented it as the
levels of teaching.
162 Pivoting
do the same. Her coach explained the levels of learning to her and she discovered
how an expert level of intuition comes into play from unconscious competence. She
then remembered how she also used that type of knowing to make decisions prior
to her current position. The model resonated with Mary and helped her to reframe
what she was being asked to do.
Nurturing Interiority and Inspiration
Deep learning requires that we include ourselves in the process—“knowledge

by presence.”63 According to psychologist Tobin Hart, this involves looking
not just at outer data but also closely into ourselves. Great texts of wisdom
are often depicted as “living words,” inviting readers to reconsider the words
again and again in order to see what more will be revealed. Tobin described
the process of deep learning in secular domains as being no different: “The
world as a whole are [sic] living words—awaiting expansion in order to be
fully understood” whether we are reading a biology text or the “text” of the
situation or person in front of us.64
It is not the world that changes. The secret to grasping its meaning is to
change the quality of how we encounter the world. We change by allowing
ourselves to become open to it. Knowledge by presence is a reciprocal, interde-
pendent revelation which requires valuing the development of interiority or
creating internal spaciousness and depth to help us navigate the complexi-
ties of life. This form of learning contrasts with traditional ways of acquiring
knowledge, like the studying of material for a test which involves exter-
nal expectations, judgement, and anxiety to accumulate information. Life
offers us the opportunity to go deeper by becoming the subject of learning.
Interiority is creating a capacity within ourselves to take in the world. “The
greater the complexity and demands of the outer world, the more essential is
our internal discernment, our attention to values, our ability to be present in
the midst of streaming information.”65
Coaching can help clients to enhance interiority. It begins, of course, with
how open our own interior space is. The more we accept the view that our
clients are mysteries, the more this becomes important. We become curious
about practices that quiet the mind to discern meaning and reveal possibili-
ties. We realize how our questions can help to promote interiority. Deep ques-
tions can increase the capacity to open up to unexpected insight. For example,
63
Hart (2007), p. 1.
64
Hart (2007), p. 1.
65
Hart (2007), p. 2.
the core questions we use as a tool in Appreciative Coaching ask clients to

view their situation in a broader and deeper context:
1. What gives life to you now?

2. Describe a high point or peak experience in your life or work up to now.
3. What do you most value about yourself, your relationships and the nature of
your work?
4. What one or two things do you want more of in your life?66
We have often found that asking these questions when a discussion seems
steeped in a problem without resolution expands clients’ thinking, reminding
them of what is important, and creates a breakthrough. Interior expansion
engages the imagination, which leads to discovery, synthesis and application.67
Our minds slow down in contemplation and we gain deeper awareness. We
develop our ability to trust ourselves and become better able to listen to the
internal voice that guides us.
Inspiration
Inspiration is an activity of knowing.68 We are inspired when we come to a deep

sense of knowing and are invigorated. “These moments fill us and move us, pro-
viding a kind of psychological or spiritual sustenance.”69 When we are inspired,
we can reach to the best in ourselves to expand what is possible in our lives. We
enhance connections and feel greater love, acceptance, trust and appreciation,
tapping into the resources of positive emotions. When this connection is intense
enough, our boundaries of self seem to disappear and we experience fullness or
a sense of awakening. Inspiration arises as a result of opening up our knowing
in a way that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness, whether
we name that source as our unconscious, Self or God, or it remains a mystery.
With inspiration come clarity and vibrancy. We may see unexpected con-
nections or a hidden layer of reality. Insight or deep clarity can shift us from
a linear, rational mode of thinking to an intuitive mode. Clearly, the way we
deal with our clients brings opportunities for us to inspire them, but they may
come in unexpected ways.
66
Orem et al. (2007), p. 18.
67
Hart et al. (2000).
68
Hart et al. (2000).
69
Hart et al. (2000), p. 31.
164 Pivoting
Jackie was working with a coaching client who was a teacher, writer and con-
sultant. The client had been stalled in writing. One day, Jackie read an article on
teaching that she felt the client would greatly enjoy and sent it to her. She received
the following reply, “What an insightful and thought-provoking article! Reading
it I had so many ahas go off. The weirdest part is: I feel settled in a new way and
I want to write … go figure that one.”
Positive Emotions
Positive emotions broaden and build an individual’s internal resources. They

broaden awareness by increasing the scope of attention, attentional flexibility
and holistic processing, thus creating a form of consciousness that includes
a wider array of thoughts, actions and perceptions.70 Under the influence of
positive emotions, people can have wider perceptual access, more inclusive
and connected social perceptions, and more relaxed and expansive bodily
comportment.71 These resources can be cognitive (attending mindfully to the
present moment), psychological (having a sense of mastery over a challenge),
social (giving and receiving emotional support) and physical (a capacity to
ward off illness).72 Even small experiences of positive emotions have an impact
over time. “Little-by-little, micromoments of positive emotional experience,
although fleeting, reshape who people are by setting them on trajectories of
growth and building their enduring resources for survival.”73
As mentioned in Chapter 3, Barbara Fredrickson identified ten positive emo-
tions as key contributors to broadening and building internal resources: love, joy,
gratitude, serenity (or contentment), interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspira-
tion and awe.74 They are listed here in order of relative frequency. These ten are
not an exhaustive list of positive emotions but they are experienced relatively
frequently in our daily lives and they are targets of increasing research. In coach-
ing we can benefit from research on ways to create positive emotions. Research
has shown that participating in the following activities provides great benefit:
• helping or engaging in pro-social behaviour;

• interacting with others;
• playing;
70
Johnson, Waugh and Fredrickson (2010), Fredrickson (2013).
71
72
Fredrickson et al. (2008).
73
74
Fredrickson (2013).
• learning something new;

• engaging in spiritual activity;
• exercising.75
This list offers us positive ideas and suggestions of daily activities that we can
share with clients who are facing challenges or feeling confined by limiting
patterns of behaviour. Interestingly, one need not be an optimist to gain the
cognitive benefits of positive emotions.76
This is not to say that negative emotions can or should be avoided. They
serve different functions and it is necessary to have an appropriate balance of
positive emotions to negative emotions for generative thinking.77 Negative
emotions have been found to narrow attentional scope, decrease attentional
flexibility and create attentional bias towards sources of threat.78 However,
trying to fight them off or repress them is not an effective technique to reduce
their effects. Viktor Frankl, a psychotherapist and survivor of a Nazi death
camp, got through his experience by searching for some meaning in his daily
life. He found that feeling emotions to their fullest in the moment rather than
reining them in was an effective therapy for their dissolution.
Sam was angry with his boss but he didn’t want to discuss it with his coach because
he believed that by acknowledging his feelings he would then inappropriately express
them. He also didn’t know what to do with these feelings. Since Sam had already
brought the subject up, his coach gently moved the conversation forward, allowing
Sam to express his feelings to her. Sam found that the conversation helped his feelings
to dissipate. He realized that accepting the feelings didn’t mean that he liked them,
and, further, he realized that acknowledging them did not mean that he had to dis-
cuss his feelings with his boss. He gained greater freedom and choice in what to do.
Creating New Habits
Habits are ways in which our minds work to save effort. They have a positive
effect when they help us to engage in life efficiently, but they can also get in
the way when they produce undesired results. Emotions are an important
feature of our memory process. They colour the quality of a memory, become
an integral part of it and facilitate its storage in long-term memory. Memories
75
76
Johnson et al. (2010).
77
Fredrickson (2013).
78
Johnson et al. (2010).
166 Pivoting
with emotions become Gestalts that are easily represented and remembered.79
These memories have a signature feeling80 associated with them—that is, an
emotion that colors the quality of the memory and is a part of it. A signature
feeling has three functions: it improves access to memory; acts as glue to hold
elements of memory together for a long period of time; and fills in gaps or
filters information that conflicts with feeling. These signature feelings become
problematic when they keep an individual stuck in a pattern or assert them-
selves spontaneously in an inappropriate manner.
Donald did not like that he exploded in meetings when his direct reports failed
to perform to expectations or when events didn’t go as planned. He realized that his
anger got in the way of his being the kind of truly strong leader that others wanted to
work with. When he discussed this with his coach, she asked him, “What’s your tell?”
Not understanding the question, he learned that a “tell” was an unconscious physical
act that disclosed one’s thinking; what poker players seek to avoid. He asked a trusted
colleague he thought would provide him with an answer. He was startled to discover
that his friend had an immediate and easy response. Just before exploding, Donald
would pull on his ear. Going forward, he used this knowledge to catch himself and
consciously moved to a different response that he and his coach identified.
Ann has a rule of thumb that she coaches by: if she hears a client tell the
same negative or self-limiting story of a troublesome experience more than
three times, she stops the client and points out that the individual seems
stuck. She also draws on paper the circular nature of the pattern. She helps
her client to understand that the repetition of the story is a habit of thought—
either of the past or future—which can be changed as any other habit can. She
also asks her client if what they are feeling is familiar, checking to see if it is
an old belief or pattern and discovering where it is signalled in the body. She
tells them she is not interested in listening repeatedly to a self-limiting story
because by doing so she inadvertently enables her clients in further telling
their story, and each retelling solidifies its illusion of reality. She would rather
ask them to tell a new story of what they want.
In these cases we help clients to develop new habits. We work with the
understanding that it is more useful to create a new habit to replace an old one
than to stop an undesired habit.81 We support clients in creating new patterns
79
Nespor (1987).
80
Spiro (1982).
81
Duhigg (2012).
so that attention is growing towards a desired result or future. We help clients

to see that they have choice in how they feel.
Our intent in this chapter has been to link the concepts and knowledge that
we’ve gained from researching our model of self-organizing pivotal moments
to actual ideas, suggestions, examples and stories of ways to ignite substantial
change. We know that our readers have many more stories and experiences
that will confirm and/or conflict with our findings and that will add to the
storehouse of knowledge/knowing for the advancement of our profession.
Our stance as coaches is to continue to be seekers of higher levels of awareness
and to engage in developing our own interiority. We didn’t know to call it
that: we just felt compelled. At this point along our hermeneutic journey, we
are glad we took the path less travelled.
8
Finding Coherence
You are not a drop in the ocean. You are the entire ocean, in a drop.
—Rumi
Alchemical Moments
Sometimes I feel the pivotal moment in clients before they do. For me it’s often
chills, or some kind of physical response. It may be butterflies in my stomach or
some kind of wave that comes over me. When this happens, I’ll share it with my
client and might say, “Whoa, you just said something really big” or “Boy, I just got
a big chill from that, let’s stop a minute. What’s that about?” When I first started
coaching, I wondered if I was making it about me, and I would say, “I may be
in left field about this, but I don’t think it’s about me.” Over time I realized that,
more often than not, I was right about it, and I’m not shy any more about sharing
my own personal take on what might be their pivotal moment. I’m confident that
something will come out of it for them. It is exciting to so viscerally share a pivotal
moment in that way.
These words of a master coach reveal so clearly how pivotal moments are
shared embodied experiences between client and coach. As we mature in our
role as coaches, we learn to trust our inner knowing and to anticipate these
internal experiences that bring with them a sense of coherence to our work.
There were numerous times in writing this book that we penned the observa-
tion “There is no shared definition” for a particular construct or concept. The

170 Pivoting
reality of our profession is that we seek to inspire and work with clients while
still searching for philosophical and scientific roots to guide us on the path.
We are like a sorcerer’s apprentice searching for the formula to create alchemi-
cal, golden moments of change.
A New Science of Change

As incredulous as this may sound, one of the insights we had towards the
close of our hermeneutic journey was that we were really searching for a new
science of change that would help to explain or describe what dynamics were
at play when pivotal moments occurred. At the beginning, our intentions
were modest—how do we better understand this phenomenon of substantial
change? We didn’t know where this question would lead us. We hoped to
gather knowledge about this issue so we could get better at helping our clients
have more such moments. It was an inner agitation that we needed to quell
because we had our own ideas and experiences about what was going on that
seemed to work but we had little external verification.
From our research we began to find words to describe the phenomenological
experience of living through or witnessing the act of pivoting: movement, process,
interactive, holistic, eventful, embodied and, at times, spiritual (transpersonal).
We were amazed to find studies, research and case studies that seemed to confirm
what we were experiencing. In other words, we have been through our own slow
or liminal pivotal moment. To use a metaphor, it feels like a veil has been lifted
for us on what’s really happening. What we are exploring is concrete, valuable
and shared by many other curious individuals. We rejoice that well-intentioned,
hard-working professionals, researchers, scientists and practitioners around the
world are finding new ways to describe the complexity and chaos of human and
social development. We actually found that the path less travelled turns out to be
heavily trafficked with inquiry from fields as diverse as robotics, somatics, biol-
ogy, molecular biology, psychology, social psychology, transpersonal psychology,
neuroscience, business, organizational development and phenomenology. We are
finding coherence in understanding what pivoting truly means.
Like Darwin’s theory of evolution, which revolutionized science at the time
and spawned numerous cultural and social metaphors (survival of the fittest,
competition, control, structure), there is a new science of change emerging
that describes the world as flow, interconnectedness, uncertainty, mystery,
creativity, flux of patterns, self-organization and order in chaos.1 This new
1
Briggs and Peat (1999).
science weaves together constructivism, phenomenology, complexity theory,

chaos theory, self-organization and quantum physics to see human change as
dynamic movement that is holistic in nature. New cultural and social meta-
phors are emerging to highlight this basic shift from describing the world as
an object to interacting with it as an ever-changing process. Coaching at its
essence is a creative, mutual process of discovery.
Authors John Briggs and David Peat proposed that “chaos is nature’s cre-
ativity” and noted how “the brain self-organizes by changing its subtle con-
nections with every act of perception.”2 For them, moments of insight occur
“when the flux of the creator’s perception shifts and the chaos begins to self-
organize,” and these moments “seem to set in motion a significant change in
our perception, to get to the ‘truth’ of our perception, the authenticity of our
experience of life.”3 They defined creativity as getting beyond the condition-
ing by society to find the “truth” of the moment, not an absolute truth but
truth as the expression of a person’s connection to the whole, a moment of
true self. As we’ve seen in previous chapters, the genius of metaphors is that
our beliefs can be seen in them. When we change metaphors, we change our
beliefs. Here are some elements of the new emerging metaphors from the
writings of Briggs and Peat:
• There exists an underlying interconnectedness in apparently random events

(hidden patterns, nuances).
• Like the turbulence of a mountain stream, apparent disorder masks under-
lying patterns that are simultaneously stable and ever-changing.
• Our sense of “self ” is in perpetual flux; we are both the same person we
were ten years ago and a substantially new person.
• We are interconnected with many other systems that surround and flow
through us.
• Everything is connected to everything else through positive and negative
feedback loops which result in self-organizing (think of a flock of birds tak-
ing off or pinball machines).
• We are shaped by what passes through us (influences from the social, cul-
tural, historical, biological and emotional environments we reside in).
• Subtle, even tiny, influences can transform a system (ancient Chinese prov-
erb: the power of a butterfly’s wings can be felt on the other side of the
world4).
2
Briggs and Peat (1999), p. 19.
3
4
172 Pivoting
Table 8.1 Emerging Holistic Model

Traditional scientific model Emerging holistic model
externally directed internally directed
scientific paradigm social constructionism
consciousness non consciousness
linear time expanded concept of time
planned change self-organization
negative bias emotional equilibrium
• In human development, each stage demands its own time.

• There will always be “missing information” and uncertainty (mystery, blind
spots).
We find all of these elements in play when coaching others. As Briggs and Peat
so succinctly stated, “Creativity can occur in a conversation when the turbu-
lence of questioning and exchange gives birth to a subtle, new understanding
or a true way of expressing something.”5 To so clearly articulate the essence of
a coaching conversation, one would think they have experienced it.
Conditions for Igniting Substantial Change
Partway through our path of inquiry, we brainstormed six conditions that we

thought were necessary for substantial change to occur and compared them
to six more or less opposite conditions that we thought impeded or could not
account for substantial change (Table 8.1).
We are pleased to report that we found each of the six conditions of the
Emerging Holistic Model to be substantiated by many of the scientific and
philosophical studies that we explored. We invite you to make your own
assessment as you’ve accompanied us through the chapters of the book. We
summarize our thoughts on these conditions below.
Externally Directed vs. Internally Driven
Deep and substantial change is a phenomenon of inner process. Research

supports the premise that people are at their best when in alignment with
their pure and natural behavioural nature and purpose, being the person they
were born to be.6 Humans are also subject to conditioned programming from
5
6
Bunnell (2011), p. 11.
the external world that often masks or suppresses their authentic self. Even
though the true self is always present, it’s often concealed behind external
conditioning and individuals feel self-dislike when they fail to fulfill the layers
of expectations they have taken on or that have been placed on them.7
To date, the business of changing humans has been thought to be a man-
ageable, predetermined, measured and even controllable process. This belief
has led to a deficit, fix-it perspective of humans, one that says that parents,
educators, managers and employers can better identify what is wrong with
someone and seek to fix them from the outside. This perspective of external,
manageable change is still accepted at all levels of organizations, institutions
and homes around the world.
The concept of self-organization tells us that an individual’s inner process
is growing all the time. Inner change may be anticipated or even transforma-
tional, but fundamentally it cannot be planned as was thought possible by
Newtonian standards. We are capable of having moments of insight which
can cause significant shifts in perception and allow for experiences of authen-
ticity. The new organic metaphor of human change is that of a “garden” con-
tinually growing (generative approach).
Scientific Paradigm vs. Social Constructionism
Social constructionists say that we are moving from a fixed, seemingly objec-
tive idea of the capacities of human potential to a more open exploration
of possibilities. Constructionist theory is an approach to human science and
practice that “replaces the individual with the relationship as the locus of
knowledge.”8 The key to the construction of social meaning is language.9 This
means that how we humans communicate, interact, create symbols and con-
struct metaphors with one another creates our sense of reality. While we may
be able to define the physical world in objective terms, our social and psychic
worlds are subjective—that is, we create meaning and reality through human
communication and language.10
7
Bunnell (2011), p. 11.
8
Cooperrider and Whitney (2001), p. 15.
9
Berger and Luckmann (1966).
10
Sociologists Berger and Luckmann initially introduced this view in their work, Social Construction of
Reality. More recently, AI theorists such as Cooperrider, Srivastva and Whitney have drawn heavily on the
work of Kenneth Gergen who believed that social actions get their meaning from a community of agree-
ment. Recognition and acceptance of this view legitimizes much of the current research and practice in
this area and has resulted in much innovation and creativity in organizational change.
174 Pivoting
What we know about ourselves and how we know it is fateful or full of

destiny because it is the only way we know how to understand and relate to
ourselves, our past and the potential of our future.11 In other words, knowing
(our strengths, abilities, dreams and desires) is at the centre of every attempt
we make to change. Knowing what is best about ourselves gives us the base to
be able to change in a positive, life-enhancing way. The philosophy and meth-
odology of the coaching process are firmly anchored in social constructionism.
Consciousness vs. Nonconsciousness
Phenomena such as insights, epiphanies, aha moments and internal transfor-

mations seem to arise from a nonconscious, even direct, mode of knowing.
These phenomena cannot be measured or quantified according to traditional
scientific methods. Nevertheless, some aspect of direct knowing appears to
play a key role in enabling individuals to shift their perceptions. The research
studies on intuition and insights12 acknowledge this ability as being innate to
human beings. However, understanding this form of knowing requires scien-
tists and researchers to account for data that they are not used to considering:
feelings.13 In lay terms, intuition and direct knowing are often experienced as
“gut feelings” or as a strong feeling of knowing that “erupts” into conscious-
ness.14 Most theorists agree on the following explanations:
• Intuitive events originate beyond consciousness.

• Information is processed holistically.
• Intuitive perceptions are frequently accompanied by emotions.
• Intuition occurs almost instantaneously (with no verbal or conscious
awareness).
There is also common recognition that there are two levels of direct know-
ing: everyday hunches and gut feelings, and something like a higher-level
sense that is innate in humans to connect to a spiritual level (or quantum
field). Intuition appears to be part of an individual’s inner process, the “myste-
rious you” aspect of being human, and therefore plays a key role in coaching.
11
Chaffee (2004).
12
A literature review on the concept of intuition across fields related to human development yields a range
of perspectives that do not agree on one clear definition with the exception that it appears to generate
from a non conscious level and is innate to humans.
13
Mayer (2007).
14
Mayer (2007).
Linear vs. Expanded Time
Our clients’ perspective on time and the way they think about the past, pres-
ent and future exert an influence on their everyday behaviour. Clinical psy-
chologists agree that this orientation is central to people’s well-being and their
ability to cope with life’s difficulties (and opportunities).15 Is there hope for
the future? Can the past be overcome? What actions and decisions can be
made now?
Substantial change requires a different perspective of time than that of an
external linearity in which the present is only a brief moment between the
past and the future, with the past holding supremacy. Newton’s linear absolute
time, which he described as an unchanging physical reality, is considered to
be independent of human consciousness or choice.16 His conception shifted
the understanding of time from being a subjective, lived experience to being
a mental construct. Newton’s absolute time is still the primary, even exclusive,
way we view time in Western society.17 As Newtonian time became synony-
mous with clock time, it no longer accounted for other temporal experiences,
such as intuition, sudden leaps of insight or discontinuous (abrupt) change.
The acceptance of Newtonian time in clinical and social psychology con-
tributed to a predominantly deterministic, externally oriented view of change
in individuals and groups.18 As a result, the locus of control was almost exclu-
sively outside the individual, and the individual was largely considered to be
the sum total of his past. Historically, however, some psychological theorists
and natural philosophers (e.g. Heidegger, Piaget, May, Husserl, Whitrow,
James, McGrath and Kelly) focused on ways to account for the lived experi-
ence of time in everyday life which could not be explained by the external
time of Newtonian science.19 In the new sciences, the mind and the environ-
ment are understood as simultaneous parts of a greater Gestalt or life-space.20
The past is only one possible influencer of action and change. The present
and future are equally valid influencers. Change can be discontinuous—that
15
Boltz (2006).
16
Newton (1687/1990).
17
The acceptance of Newton’s absolute time was supported by the rise of industrialism and its need for
scheduling and controlling factory workers, the transportation of goods and the resulting manufacture of
cheap watches. Western societies settled on Newton’s linear time as the only interpretation or construc-
tion of time.
18
Clancy (1996).
19
Clancy (1996).
20
Lewin (1948).
176 Pivoting
is, abrupt, sudden and qualitative in nature. The past does not determine the
present or the future; in fact, deep change only occurs in the present.
Planned Change vs. Self-organization
Instead of seeing the objective, predictable and controllable universe of

Newtonian physics, scientists in the twenty-first century describe a vastly dif-
ferent world based on quantum physics and the new sciences of construc-
tionism, systems theory, chaos theory, self-organizing change and complexity
theory. The human brain is seen as a “pattern-forming self-organized system”
that “dwells” for short times in phases of transition in which old ideas break
up and something new is created.21 In fact, this ability to be “poised on the
brink of instability where it can switch flexibly and quickly” is what enables
the brain to anticipate the future, not just react to the present.22 This perspec-
tive of human change allows for transformational moments to occur. We are
now aware of our ability to reframe our perceptions and choose to leave pat-
terns of limited thoughts and action. We have the capacity and knowledge to
bring out the best in our clients.
Negative Bias vs. Emotional Equilibrium
Imagine that you have been looking at the world around you but with one eye
covered. In fact, you had no idea there was something covering your eye until
it was ripped away, metaphorically, and you could suddenly see the totality of
life around you, the positive in the world as well as the negative, in equal mea-
sure. Scholars have recently noted that because of the past imbalance of atten-
tion to the challenges, deficits and limitations of human existence, we have
understudied, overlooked and even ignored what is positive, life-enhancing
and resilient about human change.
This shift to a more balanced perspective of human change has been sup-
ported by neuroscience. As a result of technologies such as fMRI, scien-
tists have detected factors which seem to show a mental and emotional bias
towards a negative perception of human capacity. The brain appears to have a
bias towards negativity for good reason: physical survival. Here are some fac-
tors that scientists have concluded operate at a non-conscious level:
21
Kelso (1995).
22
Kelso (1995), p. 26.
• We are primed to avoid danger.

• We detect negative information faster than positive.
• We perceive fearful faces more rapidly than happy or neutral ones.
• Negative events are carefully stored in our brain for future reference.
• Negative events generally have more impact than positive events, and they
leave an indelible trace.
• Negative experiences can create vicious cycles, making us pessimistic, over-
reactive and inclined to become negative.23
Despite these nonconscious factors that influence the action of negative

emotions, we also have unconscious factors that impact the expression of
position emotions. As we’ve mentioned before, humans have an optimistic
bias that specifically influences us to look to the future with optimism. We
also have positive emotions whose role is to build capacity, connection and
well-being. Striving for emotional equilibrium involves an acceptance that
humans experience a range of emotions on a continuum of positive to nega-
tive, from joy and freedom to despair and fear. On life’s journey, we visit
the whole range of emotions as we process and experience the “stuff of life”
from births to deaths and successes to failures. As practitioners, we need to be
alert as to whether we or our clients are “living” in a negative emotion, such
as boredom, pessimism, frustration, doubt, worry, anger, revenge or guilt.
“Living” in a negative emotion means that we are unable to move ourselves
to a more positive sense of being, which greatly affects our emotional equilib-
rium and therefore our freedom of thought and knowing.
At the close of this hermeneutic circle, we have come to some conclusions and
observations that we share in this chapter. But first we highly recommend and
sincerely suggest that doing your own hermeneutic circle of research would
be profoundly rewarding and insightful. It would also contribute to the great
need we have for more research in our field. We invite you to engage in coach-
ing research so that we all benefit from more deeply penetrating the mystery of
being human. We share a quote from philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper,
who in his famous work, Logic of Scientific Discovery, said, “There is no such
thing as a logical method of having new ideas, or a logical reconstruction of
23
Hanson and Mendius (2009), Yang, Zald and Blake (2007), Jiang and He (2006).
178 Pivoting
this process … every discovery contains ‘an irrational element,’ or ‘a creative

intuition.”24
Most experienced coaches would agree that clients are unique in so many
ways that the short journey we make with them is a mysterious one indeed.
We show up, try to be prepared, witty, humble yet confident, and feign to be
in charge. But some of us know from much experience that no one is really
“in charge” in terms of being completely conscious about what unfolds in
coaching. Thus we find the conditions for igniting substantial change to be
comforting, reliable, and a good mental and emotional structure to have in
mind while coaching. Some areas of learning that we have encountered and
that we believe have implications for coaching are social context and influ-
ence, embodied knowing, finding coherence and the nature of insight. These
are discussed below.
Social Context and Influence in Coaching
What surprised us from the extensive research we undertook was how socially
wired we are as human beings to influence and to be influenced. Some research-
ers have proposed that social connection is necessary for human survival and
that our beliefs, emotions and even ways of knowing are all socially, culturally
and historically formed. As individuals we are a network of social connec-
tions that motivate us consciously but even more powerfully subconsciously.
It helps to explain the aura of mystery surrounding the human condition—
that we are programmed with cognitive, affective, physiological and biological
patterns but also have moments of autonomy and authenticity. We realized
how impactful this knowledge was for coaches. In all likelihood, we show up
with attitudes, biases and emotional energy that are blind to us. Likewise, we
may discern in our clients limiting beliefs, concerns and emotions that they
are not aware of. Both parties are taking in information at levels of awareness
that they have not brought to consciousness.
Mihaly Csikszenetmihalyi and Keith Sawyer wrote in Creative Insight:
The Social Dimension of a Solitary Moment how all insights are embedded in
the social milieu in which they occur.25 Social, cultural and environmental
influences play a role even if the moment of insight is experienced when an
individual is alone. Why? Because creative insight is embedded in the stages
of the creative process. They explained how the lifespan of creative insight
24
Popper (1968) in Sternberg and Davidson (1995), p. 71.
25
Csikszentmihalyi and Sawyer (1995).
(e.g., eureka moments) appears as a quick flash but occurs within a complex,
time-consuming and fundamentally social process. Usually hard work goes
on before and after the insight as part of an ongoing experience that is social
and would be meaningless out of context. They used the example of Darwin’s
creative process in developing his theory of evolution, which was a long-term
discovery process involving much social interaction.
We propose that coaching insights are similarly embedded in longer, more
complex social processes that may include not only multiple coaching ses-
sions but also organizational expectations and interventions, as well as the
social and cultural context of the client’s work setting. Thus the experience
of coaching and any resulting insights or pivotal moments from that process
are socially embedded and do not occur in isolation. We realized that this was
another significant component of coaching to be aware of, especially in terms
of what might help in leading up to a pivotal moment and what can ensure
the integration of an insight into successful actions and behaviours.
Embodied Knowing
Another finding that surprised us was the notion of embodied knowing. We

were aware of different modes of knowing as we believed we were making
use of some of them in our coaching, but we did not realize there was a vast
cross-disciplinary field of study on the concept of embodiment and enac-
tive knowing. It gave us a new lens to understand our own coaching: that
embodied cognition and a bandwidth of different modes of knowing were
in play whether we consciously applied them or not. It also showed us that
what we chose to believe about embodiment would impact whether we could
apply these modes of knowing in a deliberative way. For example, if we didn’t
believe in a form of direct knowing, such as intuition, we would not recognize
it in play or be able to capitalize on it strategically. We might inadvertently
close off an avenue of expression or access with a client who displayed or was
open to these experiences.
Many coaches engage in ways of somatic knowing, such as deep empathy,
that express themselves through feelings and bodily sensations. All experi-
enced and master coaches take advantage of expert intuition that they have
built up based on years of working with volumes of clients in diverse work
settings. Some of us get a feeling of knowing in terms of timing, language,
energy and expression with our clients—we “know” when to hold back and
when to thrust a point home, and sometimes we can be very creative with our
use of metaphors and analogies. It was comforting for us to learn that these
180 Pivoting
modes of knowing are part of the rapidly growing body of knowledge and
study engaged by scientists and researchers from diverse fields. Perhaps we no
longer need to be reluctant to share our stories and strategies around experi-
ences that do not fit the traditional scientific paradigm but are more openly
acknowledged in the emerging holistic paradigm.
Finding Coherence
From our bias we view coaching in its essence as calling for a phenomeno-
logical and hermeneutic lens of understanding. Coaching is therefore consid-
ered to be an interactive process, not an object of study. We have emphasized
repeatedly that pivotal moments cannot be managed, controlled, planned or
conjured up externally. On the other hand, we have learned that they can
be anticipated, seeded, sensed, primed and even inspired. Insight has been
defined as both a state of understanding (e.g., gaining insight into something)
and an experience involving the sudden emergence of an idea into conscious
awareness (aha).26 Both of these are applicable to the discovery process of
coaching in which we guide clients to greater levels of coherence in their lives.
As with an out-of-focus picture that can be instantly recognized once some
clue is given, we can help our clients to find clarity in a problem situation or
unwanted pattern through priming. The aim of priming is to create opportu-
nities for potential sources of coherence to emerge. Gestalt psychologists called
this experience of coherence a Gestalt; other psychologists call these moments
of recognizing coherent patterns of information in the environment.27 Of
interest to coaches is realizing that one coherent pattern can be substituted for
another in which elements are seen as one unity at one moment, and the next
moment a different unity appears but with the same elements,28 like what
happens with the turn of a kaleidoscope. We have seen this experience occur
repeatedly when we help to pivot a client from seeing a situation negatively to
seeing it as a learning opportunity.
26
Schooler, Fallshore and Fiore (1995).
27
Schooler et al. (1995).
28
The Nature of Insight
From research into what underlies pivotal moments and what role we might
play as coaches, we have gleaned some core concepts and actions regarding the
nature of insight29 which can inform ways to prime clients to change. These
represent common findings from the cognitive insight field that match our
own experiences with pivotal moments. They may already be familiar but it is
still reassuring to know why they work:
• Often clients are not looking at their problem situation from the “right”
angle (think figure–ground illusion) so they fail to recognize a resolution
that seems obvious to the coach.
• Clients can put too much focus on specifics and fail to see the big picture,
or they can’t recognize the available cues that are there.
• Sometimes clients need to move to a completely different vantage point to
reduce redundant ways of looking at their situation.
• Coaches can distract clients from focusing on unimportant or inappropri-
ate details so they don’t waste time revisiting the same story.
• Often just “forgetting” or letting a passage of time go by can help to pre-
pare the way for an insight. When a person “forgets” for a while they leave
the old mental ruts behind and allow space for a fresh perspective to emerge.
• Helping clients to change the context (physical, psychological, social, etc.)
can allow for more information to flow in and reduces the impact of the
negative thoughts and feelings embedded in the unhappy situation.
Sometimes previous successful contexts can be recalled. Often just chang-
ing everyday routines can open up space for an insight.
• At times, all clients need is a single word, image, metaphor or analogy from
the environment to help them instantly reconfigure a situation. As coaches
we are part of the client’s environment.
• Helping clients to recognize that they are “lost” or “stuck” can be an impor-
tant first step in encouraging them to search for something different.
• Encouraging clients to explore alternative approaches to their situation can
help them to envision new approaches or directions. Coaches can encour-
age perseverance and a certain level of risk-taking in finding the “right”
approach, as well as playfulness in looking at different options (“What
if…?”).
29
182 Pivoting
• Recognizing and using analogies or metaphors is considered to be one of

the most important tools that coaches can use to promote insight.
Metaphors and analogies enable clients to conceptualize better, transfer
knowledge and make unconscious connections.
Movement, Problem and Paradox

For theoretical physicist David Bohm, life was movement, a dynamic
wholeness-in-motion in which humans sought to solve the problems and par-
adoxes of their lives. He was concerned with understanding consciousness as
a coherent whole (which to him was an unending process of movement and
unfoldment).30 We were struck by Bohm’s distinction between “the problem
and the paradox” as it relates to coaching.31
He articulated a common denominator that he saw among all of the con-
tradictions and confusion of modern life: that most people seem to agree
that the world is faced with a set of problems.32 He suggested that actually
addressing modern difficulties as problems may paradoxically be the source of
the problems. He explained that the root of the word comes from the Greek,
meaning “to put forward”. He agreed that the essential significance of the
word was “to put forward for discussion or questioning an idea that is sug-
gested toward the resolution of certain difficulties or inadequacies.”33 He cau-
tioned, however, that putting forth an idea as a problem implied certain tacit
and implicit presuppositions which must be satisfied for things to make sense.
One of the core assumptions is that the questions or problems raised are
rational and free of contradiction. He noted that in the practical and technical
realm, this is worked out and irrational ideas are eventually discarded. He asked,
but what about psychological problems and problems of human relationships?
People are not always rational and they are filled with contradictory needs and
desires. Bohm defined the paradox in this way: “whereas one is treating his
own thinking and feeling as something separate from and independent of the
thought that is thinking about them, it is evident that in fact there is, and can
be, no such separation and independence.”34 He pointed out that since most
human disorders are actually the outcome of hidden paradoxes, no attempt to
30
Bohm (1980).
31
Bohm (1997).
32
Bohm (1997), p. 61.
33
Bohm (1997), p. 61.
34
Bohm (1997), pp. 65–66.
treat them as problems can bring them to an end. He proposed that the very
feelings and ideas which we identify with our “innermost self ” are involved in
paradox, through and through.35 This sentiment thus calls for a new science of
change and therefore new social and cultural metaphors to successfully navigate
the constant flux of human and social change, fraught with uncertainty and
mystery. Coaching seems uniquely designed to support this endeavour.
Handling Internal Doubt
It may be daunting, especially for newer coaches, to view clients not as problems
to be solved but rather as mysteries and paradoxes to be appreciated. Research
indicates that inexperienced coaches with doubts about their abilities account
for the overriding form of tension during coaching engagements.36 New coaches
must experience new conditions, try new tools and become familiar with the
coaching process in its entirety. With experience, however, coaches do not
become doubt free. In fact, some level of doubt keeps us from presuming and
assuming, and allows us to stay open to learning. As we mature, we become
accustomed to letting ourselves “simmer” with feelings of anxiety that may be
prompted in a coaching conversation, and we turn to inner guidance for clues.
Experienced coaches have learned to trust their own expert intuition because
there is rarely a rationale for the diversity of ways in which they coach, accord-
ing to Erik de Haan, Professor of Organisation Development and Coaching
at the University of Amsterdam.37 As a coach researcher, he has observed that
“Coaching will remain a largely intuitive area of work until it can be demon-
strated conclusively what works in what circumstances.”38
Jackie’s client was a leader who struggled to understand the consistent feedback he
was receiving about not listening to others and pushing his own agenda. This feed-
back was keeping his career from progressing and is what brought him to coaching.
Through a number of sessions, Jackie used many coaching tools to help shift the cli-
ent’s view of his situation. Nothing seemed to penetrate until one session when Jackie
made a comment that clicked for him. In previous conversations he had complained
how others were hurtful to him and how their behaviours were not any better than
his own yet they were not being called on for their poor behaviour. Jackie’s response
was, “George, it doesn’t matter how they behaved. What matters is that you want to
35
Bohm (1997), p. 67.
36
de Haan (2008a).
37
de Haan (2008b).
38
de Haan (2008b), p. 124.
184 Pivoting
be a strong leader of a high-performing team. What matters is how you show up.” In
that moment, for whatever reason, something connected for George. He realized that
while he had needed to vent with his coach and get her empathy and understand-
ing, she still had to help him move on. In subsequent sessions, he demonstrated much
greater openness in how he understood situations from a true leadership perspective
of what others needed from him. He was able to separate his personal needs from
the business situation, and his leadership abilities grew. He admitted that he didn’t
always have to be right. Surprisingly to him, others around him seemed to change
too. Coaching George was a challenge for Jackie in that he did not respond in the
way that many previous clients with similar needs and goals had. Between sessions,
Jackie prepared, but before each session, she centred herself to remain present for
George to respond as seemed appropriate in the moment.
It is gratifying when we mutually experience or share a pivotal moment with

our clients. In his research, de Haan found that experienced coaches described
critical moments as turning points, breakthroughs or shifts.39 These moments
were associated with periods of radical change in the coaching to which clients
often referred back. We can use these awe-inspiring moments to energize us
to be more competent in supporting their occurrence. De Haan noted how
novice coaches begin by questioning whether they are good enough to call
themselves coaches,40 and then continue with the realization that they cannot
take coaching for granted.41 We take inspiration from our clients, who share
these pivotal moments with us, realizing that as we have more and more of
them we begin to feel as the ocean in a drop, not a drop in the ocean.
Final Thoughts
As we complete this part of our journey, we can say with surety that we have
found a greater sense of coherence for what we do and how we do it as coaches.
The path we travelled was well worth the efforts, the detours and the unin-
tended stops along the way. We have truly deepened our interiority with this
knowledge and knowing; we better understand the concept of knowledge by
presence. We certainly admit that there were paths we missed, blind spots we
overlooked and areas we did not venture into. We invite our readers to launch
future explorations for the benefit of all.
39
de Haan (2008b).
40
de Haan (2008a).
41
de Haan (2008b).
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Index
A Archimedes, 20, 21
access, 10, 16, 31, 46–8, 50–3, 57, 60, Argyris, Chris, 87, 126
73–107, 109–34, 153, 161, 164, Aristotle, 110
166, 179 artificial intelligence, 69, 71, 97
adaptive systems, 23, 24 Ash, Ivan, 21n5, 22, 25–7
complex, 24 assessments
affect. See emotions 360, 143
aha moments StrengthsFinder 2.0, 143
breakthroughs, 19 Thomas-Kilmann Conflict
characteristics of, 36, 37 Inventory, 143
critical moments, 184 attention
triggers of, 37 directing of, 37, 48, 54–60, 128,
turning points, 184 138, 146–7, 149
Anticipatory Principle, 13 and positive emotions, 67
anticipatory theory, 6 Seeing the Star, 54–5
Appreciative Coaching awareness, 2, 9, 11, 13–17, 23, 29,
coaching tool: growing vs. closing 31, 37, 39, 43, 44, 48, 50, 52,
the gap, 141 55–7, 59–72, 83–4, 90, 91, 93,
core questions, 163 95, 96, 101, 103, 106, 107, 115,
discovery phase, 158 116, 124, 128, 136–51, 154,
principles, 12, 40, 41, 138 157, 159, 161, 163, 164, 174,
Appreciative Inquiry, 6, 7, 12 178, 180
Note: Page numbers followed by “n” denote notes.

A.L. Clancy, J. Binkert, Pivoting, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60263-3
202 Index
B philosophical definition of, 81

Bain, Alexander, 26 quantum, 3, 5, 31, 52, 79, 82,
Baker, Lynne Rudder, 82 85–6, 88, 171
Bargh, John, 131n97, 132, role of, 74, 83, 154–5
132n98–100 scientific, vi, 6, 14–16, 20, 52, 74,
Barlett, Fredrick, 131 77, 78, 82, 85, 88, 91, 112, 120,
Baumann, Ellen, 29, 29n50 126, 173–4, 177
behaviorism, 4, 13, 17, 26–9, 32–7, self-organization, 4n3, 15, 16, 45,
44, 49–52, 59, 60, 64, 65, 68, 47–51, 53, 72, 77, 79, 86–87,
69, 71, 75, 76, 78–80, 83, 86–7, 171, 173
92, 111, 112, 114, 119, 124–4, social system of, 79
130–3, 144, 145, 149, 151, 153, societal, 77
157, 164, 165, 172, 175, 179, theory-in-use, 87, 126
183 truth, 5, 9, 14, 15, 76, 81, 134, 159,
being-in-the-world, 11 171
belief Bergson, Henri, 97, 97n36
affective, 75, 126, 178 Besso, Michele, 52
attractors for, 16, 45 Bishop, Scott, 59, 59n20, 60n25,
behavioral, 126, 151 149n19, 149n22, 151n26
belief systems, 20, 39, 74, 76, 78, Block, Peter, 161
84, 86, 88, 154 body/mind
cognitive, 20, 21, 31, 36, 42, 73, 75, connection, 31–2
79, 81, 82, 84, 90, 91, 126, 156, research, vi, 6, 20, 31, 32, 34, 52,
159, 178 62, 65, 69, 70, 77, 103, 111,
core, vi, 17, 35, 36, 52, 75, 77, 80, 124, 127, 133, 138, 177
83, 86, 159 Bohm, David, 182, 182n30–4,
cultural, 6, 76–78, 84, 134, 171, 183n35
178 Boyatzis, Richard, 60, 60n28
espoused, 87, 126 brain
faith, 75, 151 amygdala, 121, 124
knowledge, 6, 9, 14–16, 50, 73, associative networks, 123–5, 127
75–78, 81, 83, 91, 109, 111, executive function, 71
120, 121, 136, 147, 154, 156, frontal lobes, 124
159, 166, 173, 178 hippocampal, 121
metaphor, 6, 35, 136, 146, 147, hippocampus, 124
156, 173 metastable states of, 51
neural basis for, 80 negativity bias, 65
nonconscious, 16, 45, 50, 73, 82–4, neo-cortex, 124
87, 88, 109, 134, 146, 147 neuroanatomical patterns, 124
opinions, 81, 146 occipital lobe, 124
personal, vi, 5, 6, 9, 16, 35, 46, 50, priming, 113, 125, 127, 180
51, 74, 76–78, 80, 83, 88, 109, Briggs, John, 171, 171n1–3, 172,
126 172n4, 172n5
Index
203
Brooks, Rodney, 71 insight, 17, 24, 39, 42, 170, 171,

Bruner, Jerome, 99, 99n46, 100 173–5, 177–82
Cohn, M., 67n63, 68n69, 145
complex systems, 51
C complexity theory, 4n3, 171, 176
Camus, Albert, 13 conditions for transformation/
catalyst, 3, 45 substantial change
Cavanagh, Michael, 60 consciousness vs. nonconsciousness,
C’de Baca, Janet, 33 174
change externally directed vs. internally
new science of, 17, 170–7, 183 directed, 172–3
quantum, 19, 32–4, 39 linear time vs. expanded concept of
transformational, 32–4, 40 time, 175–6
chaos theory negative bias vs. emotional
non-linear dynamics, 86 equilibrium, 178–7
self-organization, 79 planned change vs. self-organization,
Churchland, Paul and Patricia, 82 176
Clark, W. H., 33 scientific paradigm vs. social
coaching constructionism, 173–4
creating relationship, 143 Confine, Alono, 64
executive, 3, 11, 34, 35, 41, 144 consciousness
influence, 6, 7, 12–14, 16, 17, 36, autonoetic, 116
39, 45, 53, 63, 69, 70, 72, 74, noetic, 116
78, 83, 84, 88, 90, 91, 94, 96, stream of, 5
118, 127, 129, 134, 139, 141, Constructionist Principle, 12
142, 153, 154, 157, 164, 171, constructivism
172, 175, 178, 179 approach, 50, 171
insight-oriented, 34–6 constructivist perspective, 13, 82–5
life, 20, 34 context
phenomenological, 20, 34, 37, 41, cultural, 70, 179
52, 180 social, 17, 65, 178–9
process of discovery, 171 Cooperrider, David, 6, 173n8, 173n10
social context, 17, 178–9 Cosmelli, Diego, 36, 37n67, 37n68
stance, 14, 139 Crick, Francis, 92
studies, 20, 34–6 Csikszenetmihalyi, Mihaly, 21n3, 178,
Co-Active life coaching, 34 178n25
cognition
creative, 19
distributed, 17, 152 D
embodied, 16, 69, 70, 72, 122, 154, Dannemiller, Kathy, 145
179–80 Darwin, Charles, 110, 170, 179
cognitive insight problem solving, 20 Day, Laura, 72n83, 105
coherence defining moments, 32, 33, 42
204 Index
de Haan, Erik, 183, 184 empathy, 46, 63, 80, 105, 158, 179,
Dennett, Daniel, 82, 82n33 184
Descartes, Rene, 69 deep, 46, 105, 158, 179
Devine, CaSondra, 33 empiricism, 92, 93
Dewey, John, 10n22 empirical approach, 5
Dilts, Robert, 42, 75, 87 Enactive Network of Excellence, 100
discernment, 147–9 Englich, B., 131, 131n89–91
cone-in-the-box, 147 epiphany, 19, 25, 32–5, 38, 39, 43, 139
epistemology, 77, 81, 91
eureka moment, 19, 20, 179
E experience
Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 111 embodied, 17, 36, 70, 72, 96, 100,
Einstein, Albert, 20, 52, 118n37 122, 154, 155, 169, 170, 178–9
Eitam, Baruch, 133, 133n108 lived, 10, 13, 34, 40, 46, 53, 65, 90,
embodiment 98, 99, 149, 154, 175
embodied knowing, 17, 178–9 tip-of-the-tongue, 37
embodied rapport, 154 expression, 1, 47, 48, 63, 66, 68, 82,
enaction, 102, 153 171, 177, 179
Model: Coaching Cycle, 152, 153
social, 69, 95, 105, 179
emergent properties, 51 F
emotions Fazio, Russell, 125
action, 61, 65 Febvre, Lucien, 62
broaden-and-build theory, 66–8 feedback
contagious, 62, 138, 145 negative loops, 171
intelligence, 32, 97 positive loops, 171
memory, 16, 46, 48, 61, 62, 64, priming mechanism, 142
113–14, 119, 127, 159, 165 self-organizing, 171
mindfulness, 60, 67, 150, 151 feelings, 1, 3, 4, 10–12, 17, 21, 28, 29,
negative, 31, 33, 48, 62, 65–7, 150, 33, 38, 41, 47–9, 51, 54, 58, 59,
165, 177 61–3, 72, 73, 79, 80, 82, 84, 91,
optimism bias, 69, 118 97, 99, 104–6, 111, 116, 123–4,
positive, 16, 49, 65–9, 143, 163–5, 132, 135, 136, 142, 144–4,
177 148–53, 155, 157, 160, 165,
representative positive, 66 166, 174, 175, 179–83
resources for change, 13 Ferrer, Jorge, 102
social, 63, 65 flourishing, 5, 6, 68
studies, 29, 32, 60, 66–8, 127, 145, Fredrickson, Barbara, 60n27, 65n53,
174 66–8, 145, 164
undo effect of positive, 66 Freud, Sigmund, 73, 93, 125
upward spiral theory of lifestyle Frevert, Ute, 63, 64
change, 68 Fujita, Kentaro, 132
Index
205
G assumptions, 12, 84, 87, 96, 182

Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 10 body-mind, 31–2, 35, 72
Gallup’s StrengthsFinder, 68 perspective, 15, 16, 20, 28, 181
generative approach process, 15, 16, 28, 79, 180
capacity, 6, 7 Housley, Kathleen, 29–31, 39
change, 7, 173 Husserl, Edmund, 11, 53n7, 98,
theory, 6 98n39, 175
Gergen, Kenneth, 6, 173n10
Gestalt, 20, 25–8, 34, 37, 53, 55, 104,
111, 155, 166, 175, 180 I
goal, 9, 10, 13, 21, 48, 68, 89, 116, 130, identity, 11, 33, 38, 42, 80, 101
132, 149, 156, 158, 161, 184 igniting substantial change, 2, 3, 13,
Gödel, Kurt, 30, 31 15–17, 45, 47–9, 59, 84, 136,
Grant, Anthony, 60 172–7, 178
graph theory, 24 immune system, 60, 68, 93, 94
grounded theory, 34, 41 DNA genetic code, 93
GROW model, v impasse, 23, 24, 27, 30, 37, 138
Guare, John, 25 influence
cultural, 64, 65, 70, 78, 96, 178
environmental, 178
H social, 64
Hanna, Thomas, 36, 89, 89n1, 89n2, inner knowing, 4n4, 15–17, 29, 35,
95, 95n25, 96, 96n28 37, 46–8, 50, 58, 72, 89, 90,
Harmon, Butch, 114, 114n16 103–7, 146, 158–61, 169
Hart, Tobin, 101, 101n52–6, 102, inner process, 3, 4, 7, 12, 15, 16,
102n60, 102n61, 150n24, 162, 47–50, 59, 73–, 89, 90, 96, 109,
162n63–5, 163n67–9 110, 153, 161, 173, 174
Heidegger, Martin, 10, 11, 11n28, insight
53n7, 98, 98n41, 99, 175 cognitive, 21
being-in-the-world, 11 creative, 19
Heidke, John, vii learning, 26, 27
Hemming, Betsy, vii nature of, 17, 178, 181–2
hermeneutics network model of cognitive, 23–5,
hermeneutic circle, 17, 40, 41, 177 25n34
hermeneutic journey, 17, 167, 170 inspiration, 2, 3, 23, 48, 50, 62, 66,
hermeneutic phenomenology, 9–11, 137, 151, 162–4, 184
50 Institute of HeartMath, 68
Hero’s Journey, 3 interiority, 102, 162–4, 167, 184
Higgins, E. Tory, 133, 133n108 knowledge by presence, 102, 162,
Hill, Clara, 28, 29, 29n49, 29n50, 66 184
holistic paradigm, 15, 16, 20–1, 28, internal landscape, 17, 154–61
77–79, 180 International Coach Federation, 52
206 Index
interpretation, 9–12, 15, 29, 34, 40, emotional, 22, 52, 72, 102, 112,
41, 50, 53, 58, 84, 134, 137, 145, 159, 177, 178
154, 157, 159, 175n17 enactive, 99–101, 106, 179
intuition expert intuition, 46, 105, 158, 159,
biases of, 159 179
creative, 105, 178 figure-ground configurations of, 104
direct knowing, 28, 106, 159, 174, four sources of, 161
179 frequency of, 104–6
expert, 46, 49, 105, 158, 159, 161, iconic, 99
180, 183 inner, 4n4, 16, 29, 35, 37, 46–8, 50,
instinct, 105, 158 51, 58, 72, 89, 90, 103–7, 146,
social, 97, 105, 158, 173, 174, 178 159–61, 169
inner duration, 98
insight, 16, 17, 22, 28–30, 33, 39,
J 48–51, 72, 90, 96, 104, 105,
James, William, 1, 4, 5, 10n22, 54, 73, 110, 161, 163, 174, 178
92, 98, 105, 111 inspiration, 48, 137, 163
Jensen, Uffa, 63n43, 64 instinct, 105, 158
Johnson, Don Hanlon, 95 interiority, 102, 162, 167, 184
Johnson, Mark, 156 intuitive, 69, 98, 102, 105, 112,
Jung, Carl, 73 159, 163, 174
modes of, 16, 28, 101, 106, 107,
136, 159–61, 179, 180
K nighttime eyes, 104, 105
Kabat-Zinn, Jon, 58 participatory, 102
Kahneman, Daniel, 159 phenomenological, 97–99
kaleidoscope, 17, 135–67, 180 social intuition, 105
Kegan, Robert, 39 somatic, 105, 179
Kelso, Scott, 50n1, 51 state of, 22
Keyes, Corey, 5 symbolic, 99
King, Paul, 91, 92 tacit, 97, 105
Klein, Stan, 114 transpersonal, 101–2
knowing knowledge
authentic, 101 embodied, 16, 69–71, 96, 97, 100,
awareness of, 48, 72, 103 170
bandwidth of, 16, 102–6 empiricism, 92, 93
being, 104 enactive, 70
creative intuition, 105, 178 modern, 6, 16, 89, 91–5, 96, 97,
Dasein, 98 101
daytime eyes, 104 post-modern, 16, 81, 89, 92–6, 101
direct, 28, 101, 102, 106, 159, 174, rationalism, 92, 93
179 social somatic, 95
embodied, 17, 178–9 somatic, 95, 96
Index
207
tacit, 97, 105, 156 conscious, 113

Köhler, Wolfgang, 26, 27, 37, 55n11 consolidation, 120, 121
Kuhn, Thomas, 77 constructivist, 82, 120, 121
correspondence, 121, 134
cortical-dependent, 121
L cultural, 122
Lakoff, George, 156 declarative, 113
language, 11, 12, 32, 37, 41, 50, 64, emotions, 16, 46, 48, 61, 62, 97,
65, 74, 91, 99, 138, 143, 148, 113, 119, 127, 159
153, 155, 156, 173, 179 episodic, 112, 115–18
learning explicit, 113
behaviorism, 26 frontal lobes, 119, 124
levels of competence, 135, 161 Gestalt, 111, 166
Levenson, Hannah, 36 habits, 112, 165–6
Lieberman, Matthew, 79, 80 hippocampal, 121
life-space, 53, 175 hippocampus, 124
Light of Buddhadharma Foundation implicit, 16, 113, 114, 124–4, 134
International, 57 long-term, 111, 113, 130, 165
Lipton, Bruce, 77–79, 83, 140n4 meaning-making, 39, 132
literature review, 14, 19–36, 38, 45, monitoring, 22, 118
100, 174n12 neocortex, 73, 124
Loder, James, 33 networks of associations in, 125,
Lonergan, Bernard, 30 134
Longhurst, Leigh, 34 noetic consciousness, 116
nonconscious, 113–14
non-declarative, 113
M occipital lobe, 124
Margolis, Joseph, 10n22 optimistic bias, 118, 119
Marianetti, Oberdan, 60 priming, 17, 46, 48, 113, 125–34,
McGann, Marek, 100 139
McKee, Annie, 60 procedural, 114, 115, 117, 122
McWilliams, Spencer, 9, 9n17–20, 10 prospective, 117, 118
Mead, George Herbert, 10n22 reconsolidation, 120, 121
meaning making, 39, 132 retrieval, 114, 118, 130
mechanistic approach, 6, 7 semantic, 116, 117, 130
memory social, 17, 64, 76, 83, 109, 122,
amygdala, 121, 124 123, 125, 127, 130–4
associative, 17, 159 subjective, 45, 54, 64, 116, 134, 157
autobiographical, 62, 113, 117, 123, time travel, 16, 61, 116, 134, 157
124 unconscious, 113–14, 118, 123–7,
autonoetic consciousness, 116 134, 139, 166
behaviorism, 124, 133 visional, 146
coherence, 121, 134 working, 112
208 Index
mental block. See impasse Moravec, Hans, 71

metaphor Moravec’s paradox, 71
generative, 138, 148 Mussweiler, T., 131
kaleidoscope, 136 myth, 74, 76
Metcalfe, Janet, 21, 23 personal, 74, 76
Meyer, Susan, vii
Mezirow, Jack, 12n31, 33, 84
Milgram, Stanley, 25 N
Miller, William, 32, 33, 39, 111n3, Nelson, Peter, 101
143n7 Nescolarde-Selva, J., 75, 76
mind-body, 81, 96 networks
mindfulness associative, 50, 123–7, 134, 136,
Buddhist, 57, 58 139, 157, 159
Four Foundations of, 58 small-world, 24, 25
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction social, 20, 24, 25
program (MBSR), 58 neurolinguistic programming (NLP),
positive emotions and, 67–8 32, 42, 87
Minsky, Marvin, 71 neuroplasticity, 4, 92, 138
mirror neurons, 80 neuroscience
models cognitive, 20, 79
AC coaching tool: growing vs. electroencephalography (EEG), 20,
closing the gap, 141 22, 123
all pivotal moments, 16, 42, 43 functional magnetic resonance
coaching cycle: embodiment of mind, imaging (fMRI), 20, 22, 80, 176
body and environment, 152 neuro-imaging, 20, 22, 64, 123
coaching chain of events, 46 priming research, 44
cone-in-the-box, 147, 148 Newton, Isaac, 30, 52, 53, 175
control-influence-concern, 139 Nielsen, J. M., 112
Emergence of Pivotal Moments, 42 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 62
manifestation of pivotal moments, nonconscious, 139, 147, 161–162,
15, 42, 43 174, 177
pivoting: Igniting substantial
change, 137
pivoting: The power of self- O
organization, 48 objectivism, 5, 6, 9, 14, 15, 26, 76, 82,
role of beliefs in self-organizing, 74 94, 96, 173, 176
role of inner knowing in self- approach, 5, 6, 9, 14, 173
organizing, 90 ontology, 91, 93
role of memory in self-organizing, 110
slow awakening, 42, 44
Molaison, Henry (H. M), 113 P
Molden, Daniel, 130n86, 132, Page, Linda, 78, 94, 95
133n107 Pajares, Frank, 75n5, 76, 82, 149
Index
209
paradox, 71, 182–3, 183 pragmatism, 9, 10, 14, 49, 50, 89

Passmore, Jonathan, 60 Preiss, David, 36–7
patterns present moment
of association, 24 mindfulness, 57–60, 149–51
self-limiting, 12 mind wandering, 149
peak experiences, 163 priming
Peat, David, 171, 172 action, 44, 133
Peirce, Charles, 10n22 anchor, 131
Penrose, Roger, 31 construal, 132
perception feedback, 17, 141, 142
figure-ground, 28, 55 long-term semantic, 131
Gestalt, 27, 28, 55, 104 process, 16, 24, 45, 48, 115,
Pfeifer, Rolf, 70, 71 125–28, 130–4, 139, 180
phenomenology research experiments, 44
duration or duree, 97 short-term, 130–2
lifeworld, 98 strategy, 137
philosophy subliminal, 126
empiricism, 92 tools (commenting, broadening),
justified true belief, 91 17, 137, 141
rationalism, 92 problem-solving
scientific method, 91, 92 cognitive insight, 20
pivotal moments routine, 22
embodied experiences, 169 psychology
holistic, 31, 45, 170 behaviorist, 26, 124
interactive, 170, 180 cognitive, 20, 21, 100
process, 3, 7, 10, 12–14, 16, 31, 45, Gestalt, 20, 25–8, 55, 111
155, 170, 179, 180 social, 69, 170, 175
pivoting transpersonal, 34, 101–2, 170
model of self-organization, 15, 16, psychotherapy, 20, 28, 32–4, 36, 125,
45–72, 77, 79, 86, 87, 96, 171, 126
173, 176 Puhakka, Kaisa, 101
pivotal moments, 2, 3, 7–16, 31, 32,
40–6, 49, 72, 103, 136, 137,
144, 155, 157, 167, 169, 170, Q
179–81, 184 quantum
pivots, 1, 8, 13, 14, 19–47, 143, change, 19, 32–4, 39
151 field, 174
plato, 110 leap, 23
Poetic Principle, 12, 40, 137 mechanics, 92, 92n9
Polanyi, Michael, 97 physics, 4n3, 5, 31, 52, 79, 82, 86,
Popper, Karl, 177, 178n24 171, 176
Positive Principle, 13 shift, 3, 32, 42, 49
210 Index
R elements of, 48, 50, 69

Racioppo, Vince, vii model, 44, 46, 48, 57–60, 71, 86
Radvansky, Gabriel, 110, 111 pattern-forming, 176
Reeder, Bobette, vii phase transition, 50, 51
Riddle, Douglas, 60 pivoting: The power of self-
robotics, 69, 71, 170 organization, 48
Rock, David, 77n17, 78, 94, 95 role of beliefs in self-organizing, 74
Rogers, Carl, 29, 39, 39n73 role of inner knowing in self-
Rokeach, Milton, 75, 83n39, 155n36 organizing, 90
Roper, Lyndal, 63n43, 64 role of memory in self-organizing,
Rosch, Eleanor, 57, 58, 70, 100, 150 110
Roth, Deborah, vii shifts
Rothermund, Klaus, 130–2 learning, 12, 19, 42, 49
Royce, Josiah, 146, 154n35 liminal, 42, 44
magnitude of, 15, 41
manifestation of, 42
S in perception, 39, 44, 45, 55–7, 173
Sawyer, Keith, 21n3, 178, 178n25 in perspective, 19, 39, 42, 44, 50,
Saxer, Daniela, 63n43, 64 129
scaling question (Solution Focused quantum, 3, 32, 42, 49
Brief Therapy), 140 substantial, 11, 14, 19, 44, 107
Schacter, Daniel, 111, 118n39 timing of, 15
Scharmer, Otto, 12 Shotter, John, 14
Schein, Edgar, 87 Silverman, Lloyd, 126, 139
Schilling, Melissa, 19n1, 22n12, 23–5 Simmons, Annette, 31
science of change Simultaneity Principle, 12
chaos theory, 171 six degrees of separation, 25
complexity theory, 171 Skinner, B. F., 26, 92
dynamic movement, 171 social constructionism, 6, 94, 173–4
holistic, 170, 171 social networking theory, 20
scientific materialism, 77, 78, 85, 93 Sohlberg, S., 127
scientific paradigm, 4, 14–16, 20–36, somatics, 31, 89, 95, 96, 102, 105,
39, 53, 94, 173–4, 173–4, 180 170, 179
seeing the thunder, 30, 31 Sparks, William, 33
Seelasettho, Phra Luang Por Jamnian, spectrum of consciousness, 34, 35
58 Spence, Gordon, 60
self stance
authentic, 51, 52, 173 coaching, 14, 139
best self, 3 growth, 140–3
self-identity, 42, 47 influence, 11, 13, 14, 70, 72, 141,
true self, 3, 173 153
self-organization protective, 140, 143
dynamic patterns of, 16, 50, 96 Stapp, Henry, 78, 85, 86
Index
211
Steele, C. M., 125, 126n72 Turing, Alan, 71

Stock, Jeffrey, 115
subconscious, 24, 25, 51, 73, 79, 178
Sullivan, Erin, 62, 63 U
synchronicity, 53 unconscious, 22, 71, 73–5, 77, 85, 87,
93, 96, 97, 113–14, 118, 123–7,
134, 135, 139, 156, 159, 161,
T 163, 166, 177, 182
tacit knowledge, 97, 105, 156 automatic processes, 22, 73, 159
Taylor, Kathleen, 82 Usó Doménech, J. L., 75, 76
Thompson, Evan, 70, 100
Thorndike, Edward, 26
thought V
patterns, 11, 55 Varela, Francisco, 70, 100
rational, 28, 29, 71, 105 Veltrop, Bill, 6
time
discontinuous, 175
external, 175 W
flow, 48, 53, 115, 170 Wang, Qi, 123
linear, 52, 120, 175–6, 175n17, 175 Wasylyshyn, Karol, 35
Newton’s absolute, 53, 175, 175n17 Weinberger, Joel, 126
perspective of, 52, 117, 175 Welling, Hans, 28
subjective, 116 Wentura, Dirk, 130–2
tip-of-the-tongue, 37 Westen, Drew, 73n1, 113n10,
Trail, Robert, 93, 94n19 113n12, 114n13, 114n15, 125,
transformation, 2, 6, 19, 20, 32–4, 40, 126, 157n48, 157n49, 157n54,
45, 50, 102, 135, 151, 173, 174, 161
176 Wilbur, Ken, 34
transformative learning, 12, 34, 84 Wilson, Vietta, 31, 59n19
habits of mind, 84
Trope, Yaacov, 132
Tulving, Endel, 111n3, 112, 116, 117, Z
119, 136 Zhang, Sherry, 115

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2016958119

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

Cover illustration: Jacket design by Philip Pascuzzo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

Coaching is fundamentally about change. The role of a coach is to facilitate

University of Evora Jonathan Passmore

3 Pivoting: The Extraordinary Power of Self-Organization 47

4 Accessing the Inner Self: Beliefs 73

5 Accessing the Inner Self: Knowing 89

6 Accessing the Inner Self: Memory 109

7 Turn of the Kaleidoscope 135

8 Finding Coherence 169

Fig. 2.1 Emergence of pivotal moments 42

Table 1.1 Mechanistic and generative approaches to change 7

© The Author(s) 2017 1

What I had to share seemed insignificant, so my client’s response astounded me.

Living from the Inside Out

Receiving this note on the way to delivering a coaching workshop in Japan

opportunity and expectation regarding the generative capacity of humans to

Understanding Our Inner States of Mind

viewing humans as machine-like and only capable of being changed through

People Are Mysteries to Be Appreciated

Table 1.1 Mechanistic and generative approaches to change

viduals who served them. Our job as organization development practitioners

If people are mysteries to be appreciated, how do we scientifically

Understanding What Makes Us Mysterious

From a psychotherapeutic perspective, we can help clients by facilitating aware-

We therefore chose to study pivotal moments from three interrelated per-

cal, revisable and—most important for the field of coaching—supportive of

practice of interpretation and understanding (Verstehen) in different kinds of

How Our Story Unfolded

Pivotal Moments: Our Interest

1. Constructionist Principle: Humans construct their reality through their

interpretations of a poem. A person’s life story can be reframed, reimagined

We have come to recognize that the very stance we took as Appreciative

Pivotal Moments: Our Path

In his collection of essays entitled, Resistance, Rebellion and Death, Albert

Table 1.2 Two scientiﬁc positions

What to Expect from This Book

© The Author(s) 2017 19

It seemed to us, as coaches, that this is what we are about as well—furthering

Aha Moments: A Common Perspective

Our initial literature review spanned neuroscience and cognitive psychology,

Initial Literature Review: Scientiﬁc Paradigm to Holistic

Most scientific studies on aha moments come from experiments in cogni-

• an experience during or subsequent to problem-solving attempts, in which

There are common themes underlying the concept of insight (suddenness,

ways in the definitions above.10 According to cognitive psychologist Ivan Ash

Network Model of Cognitive Insight

Melissa Schilling, Professor of Management and Organizations at New York

information-processing phases which are still amenable to scientific study and

Gestalt Concept of Insight

Gestalt psychology was a major contributor to developing a concept of insight

eth century, psychology was becoming an empirically based and experimental

awareness and understanding. She proposed a three-stage model incorporat-

She noted that philosopher and mathematician Kurt Gödel experienced