MACHINING PROCESS

MACHINING PROCESS
• Machining is a secondary process in which a
large quantity of material is removed from the
workpiece to give the required shape and
accuracy.
• The layer of excess material is removed in the
for of chips .
 MACHINING PROCESS
• The basic principle of generation is based on:
1. Cutting motion which is the main relative
motion between the workpiece and the tool.
2. Feeding motion which presents fresh
surface for cutting to the tool.
 MACHINING PROCESS
• According to the principle of machinability
Directrix and Genetrix are essential basis for
shape formation.
• Referring to Fig. 5.46, feed motion is along
Directrix and cutting motion is along Generatrix.
• Figure 5.46(a) indicates the generation of flat
surface.
• Figure 5.46(b) shows the relationship between
generation and direction.
MACHINING PROCESS
MACHINING PROCESS
 Brief descriptions of the
common machining processes.
 Shaping and Planing
• In shaping and planing, the surface obtained is
plane.
• In shaping, the cutting tool is given a
reciprocating motion, and after every cutting
stroke, the work is fed perpendicularly (during
the return stroke the work is advanced by a
small distance) in order to provide a layer of
the uncut material to the tool.
 Shaping and Planing
• Since here the cutting is
not continuous, the
machining is known as
an intermittent cutting
operation, see Fig.
5.47(a).
 Shaping and Planing
• For a long job, it becomes inconvenient to
provide long cutting strokes with the
mechanism used in a shaping machine.
• In such a case, the work is provided with
cutting motion, whereas the feed is given to
the tool; this operation is known as planing.
• The basic geometry of the machining
operation is the same as that of shaping.
 Turning
• This is a basic operation and produces a
cylindrical surface. Of course, by facing, a flat
surface can also be obtained. The machine tool
used for this type of operation is known as lathe.
• Figure 5.47(b) shows a typical turning operation
where a workpiece in the form of a cylindrical bar
is rotated about the axis of symmetry.
• The tool is provided with a feed motion parallel
to the work axis.
Turning
 Turning
• With respect to the work, the tool has a helical
motion and always encounters an uncut layer of
the workpiece. Here, the machining operation is
continuous.
• This operation results in a reduced work diameter
and a new cylindrical surface.
• When the tool is fed in the radial direction along
the face (Fig. 5.47(b)), a flat surface is produced
and the length of the workpiece gets reduced.
 Drilling
• This process is used for
making a hole in a solid
workpiece. Figure 5.47(c)
shows the operation
schematically.
• The cutting motion is
provided to the two
cutting edges (lips) by
rotating the drill, and the
feeding is done by giving a
rectilinear feed motion to
the drill in the axial
direction.
 Drilling
• The final surface
obtained is an internal
cylindrical surface.
 Milling

• Milling is a versatile machining operation; it can

produce various types of surfaces.
• A plain slab operation is shown in Fig. 5.48(a).
• The tool, known as a milling cutter, possesses a number
of cutting edges.
 Milling
• It is provided with a rotary motion and the
work is gradually fed.
• Small chips are removed by each cutting edge
during revolution, and finally a flat surface is
produced.
 Grinding

• In grinding, the cutting tools are the sharp edges of the

abrasive grains of the grinding wheel.
• These grains are very large in number and have a
random orientation and distribution.
 Grinding

• However, if a particular grain is observed, its action

would be as shown in Fig. 5.48(b).
• Of course, the size of the chips removed by a grain is
exceedingly small.
 Chip Formation Mechanism

• Machining or metal cutting occurs through the chip

formation process shown in Fig. 5.49.
• Research by Dr. M-Eugene Merchant in USA has shown
that chip formation is a mechanism of localized shear
deformation.
 Chip Formation Mechanism

• The failure of the workpiece material immediately

ahead of the cutting edge of the tool is through block-
wise slip as shown in the figure.
• Thickness of each block can be assumed to be
extremely small, almost 0.025 mm.
 Chip Formation Mechanism
• The efficiency of metal cutting depends upon
the sharpness of the tool edge.
• The rake angle of the wedge shape in the
plane of chip of formation and friction at the
chip tool interface.
• A rake angle up to 10° and use of cutting oil to
reduce friction at the chip tool interface
results in a value of shear plane angle of the
order of 18–20°.
 Chip Formation Mechanism
• Thin chips indicate reasonable values of shear
plane angle, low shear plane areas, and
reduced power needed for cutting.
• The opposite, i.e., thick chips, indicate poor
machining conditions.
• The geometry of cutting process is shown in
Figs. 5.49(a) and (b). The notations are:
• t1 uncut thickness, t2 chip thickness, a, rake
angle ,f ,shear plane angle
 Chip Formation Mechanism
• Whether it is turning, drilling, milling or any
other metal removal process, the basic wedge
shape in the plane of chip formation is present
everywhere.
• It determines the case of cutting. To
understand the action, of any cutting tool, it is
essential to locate the basic wedge.
 Chip Formation Mechanism
• The tool materials used for machining are high
speed steel (18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%
vanadium).
• Tips of inserts of tungsten carbide in a matrix
of cobalt, produced by powder metallurgy and
recently boron nitride have been introduced
for metal cutting.
 Machinability
• Machinability of a work piece material is a
property which enables easy chip formation,
consistent with a good surface finish and
reasonable tool life.
• This definition of machinability indicates the
inherent paradox because soft materials
which are easy to cut yield a poor surface
finish and vice versa.
 Machinability
• Some factors which influence machinability
of work piece material are:
• 1. Hardness. Steels up to 300 HB are easy to
machine if alloying elements raising the
hardness during cutting (e.g. in case of
stainless steels) are not present.
 Machinability
• Stainless steel is austenitic at room
temperature. During cutting, the stresses
created result in the formation of martensite
and cutting becomes a problem.
• Soft materials such as steels containing
banded structures of ferrite do not yield a
good finish due to tearing of ferrite rich areas.
 Machinability
• 2. Microstructure. In high carbon steels if
cementite is in platelet form, it causes tool
wear.
• In cast iron, graphite present in spheriodal
form is desirable and gives good finish.
• Graphite present in cast iron as flakes acts as
lubricant during cutting but such a cast iron is
weak in tension and is good only due to its
shock absorbing property.
 Machinability
• 3. Free cutting properties. The presence of
sulphur as mangnese sulphide inclusions in steel
lends it free machining property.
• This is due to the formation of solid film of low
shear strength at chip–tool interface in the form
of (FES) which acts as a lubricant during metal
cutting.
• Addition of lead to brass makes it easy to
machine due to formation of lead film at chip tool
interface assisting in lubrication.
 Machinability
• 4. Ductility. Ductile materials give rise to fast
moving continuous chips which endanger the
operator.
• Chip breaker grooves or steps are to be built
in.
• The discontinuous or powdery chip show high
machainability, due to reduced risk to
operator.
 Machinability
• Machinability index or rating.
• It is defined as the ratio of cutting speeds
when cutting the workpiece material to
cutting of standard and high machinability
steel for same tool life (usually 60 min).
• It is thus a speed ratio or metal removal rate
ratio.
 Machinability
• Economic relationships in metal cutting Let m:
machine running cost, labor plus overheads
(Rs/min) T: tooling cost (Rs/tool change) f :
feed rate, d = depth of cut (mm) V: cutting
speed (mm/min)
• Metal removal rate (mm3/min) = fdV
• Time to remove unit volume of metal = 1 K fdV
V
 The Tool Material
• One of the greatest steps forward in the
machining of metals was made when Taylor
discovered the heat treatment process used in
producing high-speed, steel-cutting tools.
• Use of these cutting tools made higher metal
removal rates possible owing to the improved
tool wear behaviour.
 The Tool Material
• Si ce Taylor s heat-treatment discovery,
development in metallurgical science and
technology have led to other new tool
materials, such as cast alloys, cemented
carbides, and more recently, sintered oxides
or ceramics.
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• The three microfinishing operations of
importance in industrial practice are:
• Lapping This operation employs a lapping plate
made of cast iron (the porosity helps to lodge the
abrasive grains) or some softer material.
• During lapping, the fine abrasive which is mixed
with grease and called lapping compound is
smeared and rubbed under pressure against the
hard workpiece surface.
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• This causes erosion of the harder workpiece.
• The softer lap is now worn out during lapping
because the abrasive grain gets embedded in
the softer lap instead of cutting it.
• It is important that the lapping plate follows a
non-repeating path such as a figures of eight
to avoid formation of directional scratch
pattern.
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• Lapping gives high degree of flatness or
roundness depending on the geometry of the
lap. The tolerance grade achieved is below
grade IT5 (Fig. 5.58).
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• Honing
• Honing is usually applied to correct taper and out
of roundness in holes such as engine cylinder
bores.
• A honing tool carries 6–8 honing abrasive sticks
along the circumference of a cylindrical tool body.
• The honing tool is driven by a rotating spindle
through universal joints to achieve a floating
condition for the tool inside the hole.
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• Honing of gears is done by a gear-shaped
honing tool which is a soft grade bonded
abrasive gear which rolls without slipping
alongwith the workpiece gear to be honed.
• High accuracy and finish is obtained by gear
honing but the tool is very costly (Fig. 5.59).
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• Superfinishing:
• Superfinishing is a microfinishing process
which employs a boned abrasive sector or flat
disc which presses upon the surface to be
microfinished.
• The surface and the abrasive piece are in very
light contact under the influence of slight
pressure.
 MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
• The two surface are separated by a thin film of
viscous fluid.
• Contact between the abrasive disc and work
surface at high spots results in the highest
level of surface finish and to tolerance grade
(even up to IT1).
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
MICROFINISHING OPERATIONS
NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES
 NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES
• Many new materials have been developed
recently, which possess very low
machinability.
• Producing complicated shapes and geometries
in such materials become extremely difficult
with usual machining method.
• A number of new technological processes are
discussed, outlining the basic principles
involved.
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• In AJM, material removal takes place due to
impact of the fine abrasive particles.
• The particles move with a high speed aided by
air discharge or gas stream.
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• Figure 5.61 shows the
process with some
typical parameters of
the process.
• The abrasive particles
are typically of 0.025
mm diameter and the
air discharges at a
pressure of several
atmosphere, see Fig.
5.61.
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• The basic USM process involves a tool made of
tough and ductile material vibrating with a
high frequency and continuous flow of an
abrasive slurry in the small gap between the
tool and work surface.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• The impact of the hard
abrasive grains fractures
the hard and brittle
work surface, resulting
in material removal.
• The tool material, being
tough and ductile,
wears out at a much
slower rate, see Fig.
5.62.
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• The electrolysis principle has been used for
electroplating, the objective being to deposit
metal on the work piece.
• But since the objective of the ECM is metal
removal, the workpiece is connected to
positive and the tool is negative.
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• The ions are positively
charged particles,
eroded from the
workpiece and
attracted to the
negatively charged tool.
• The work material is not
allowed to deposit on
the tool but is washed
away by the electrolyte,
see Fig. 5.63.
 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
• When discharge takes place between two
points, anode (workpiece) and cathode (tool),
the intense heat generated near the zone
melts and evaporates the material in the
sparking zone.
• The workpiece and the tool are immersed in
direct fluid, e.g. kerosene (with toluene).
 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

• There is a continuous charging and discharging resulting in

intermittent sparking in the gap.
• The gap is sensed through suitable sensing circuit and a
servomotor controlled feed given to the tool which
maintains the gap, see Fig. 5.64.
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Basically, electron beam machining is also a
thermal process.
• Here a stream of high speed electron impinges
on the work surface whereby the kinetic
energy transferred to the work material
produces intense heating.
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Such heating melts and vaporizes the metal.
• The process has a high potential, and an
accelerating voltage of 150,000 V can produce
electron velocity of 228,478 km/s.
• For 10–200 microns area, the power density
can go up to 6500 billion W/mm2.
• Such a power density can vaporize any
substance immediately.
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Processing capabilities of
drilling holes 25–125
microns in 1.25 mm thick
sheets are possible.
• A slot width up to 25
micrometer can be cut by
EBM.
• The EBM can be
manipulated with
magnetic deflection coils.
• Figure 5.65 shows a
schematic view of the
EBM apparatus.
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Like a beam of high energy electrons, laser (Light
Emission by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) beam is
also capable of producing high power density.
• Laser is a highly coherent beam of electromagnetic
radiation of wavelength varying from 0.1–70 microns.
• The power requirement for machining needs
wavelength, in the range of 0.4–0.6 microns.
• Power density is 10–7 W/mm2. Generally, high power
ruby is used.
• CO2–N2 laser has also been used for machining.
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Xenon flashlight placed around ruby rod and
internal walls of container are made
reflecting.
• The capacitor is charged and a high voltage is
applied.
• The atoms in the laser medium are excited to
higher levels.
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• When the electrons
excited into outer orbits
fall back into inner
orbits, they emit
photons as laser beam.
• The focussing beam
confines the energy to a
small area, causing
ablution and melting of
work surface, see Fig.
5.66.