Internet Technology

C6107 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1
‰ Internetworking Technology 1
‰ History of Internet 1
Framework of Internet 4
‰ Server-Client Environment 4
‰ Local Area Network (LAN) Types 4
‰ Wiring Standards for Network Communications 5
‰ Network Transmission 6
ƒ Circuit Switching 6
ƒ Packet Switching 7
ƒ Message Switching 8
‰ Intranet and Extranet 8
‰ TCP/IP 8
‰ IP Address Classes 9
‰ Subnet Masks 11
Internet Applications 13
‰ Electronic Mail (E-mail) 13
‰ Newsgroups 13
‰ File Transfer – FTP 14
‰ Remote Login – rlogin / telnet 16
‰ World Wide Web – HTTP 17
Advanced Knowledge 19
‰ Internet Protocol Stack 19
‰ Network Security 20

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INTRODUCTION

Internetworking Technology
‰ The Internet technology hides the details of network hardware, and permits
computers to communicate independently of their physical network
connections.
‰ The Internet technology is an example of open system interconnection. It is
called open because, unlike proprietary communication system available from
one specific vendor, the specifications are publicly available. Anyone can
build the software needed to communicate across the Internet.
‰ “Internet” specially refers to the global Internet, while “internet” refers to
private internets that use TCP/IP technology.

Figure 1. A Fraction of the Internet

History of Internet
(Source: http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/)
‰ 1965: TX-2 at MIT Lincoln Lab and AN/FSQ-32 at System Development
Corporation (Santa Monica, CA) were directly linked (without packet switches
or routers) via a dedicated 1200 bps phone line.

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‰ 1967: National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Middlesex, England developed

NPL Data Network under Donald Watts Davies who coined the term packet.
The NPL network, an experiment in packet switching, used 768 kbps lines.
‰ 1969: ARPAnet commissioned by Department of Defense (DoD), USA for
networking research. A 4-node ARPAnet was established. The four nodes are:
ƒ Node 1: UCLA, Sigma 7. (September)
ƒ Node 2: Stanford Research Institute (SRI), SDS 940. (October)
ƒ Node 3: University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), IBM 360.
(Novermber)
ƒ Node 4: University of Utah, DEC PDP-10. (December)
SDS 940

#2 #4
SRI Utah

PDP-10
#3
IBM 360
UCSB

#1
UCLA

Sigma 7

Figure 2. The 4-node ARPAnet

‰ 1970: ARPAnet hosts started using Network Control Protocol (NCP), first
host-to-host protocol.
‰ 1973: First international connection to the ARPAnet: University College
London (England) via NORSAR (Norway).
‰ 1982: Defense Communication Agency (DCA) [today’s Defense Information
Systems Agency (DISA)] and ARPA (also called DARPA, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency) established the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) as the protocol suite, commonly known as
TCP/IP, for ARPAnet. This led to one of the first definitions of an “internet”
as a connected set of networks, specially those using TCP/IP, and “Internet” as
connected TCP/IP internets.
‰ 1984: Domain Name System (DNS) introduced.
‰ 1993: InterNIC created by National Science Foundation (NSF) to provide
specific Internet services (http://www.internic.net/):
ƒ Directory and database services
ƒ Internet domain name registration services
ƒ Information services

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Figure 3. Internet Hosts

Figure 4. WWW Growth

Table 1. Number of Internet Users (September 2000)

World Total 377.65 million
Africa 3.11 million
Asia / Pacific 89.68 million
Europe 105.89 million
Middle East 2.40 million
Canada & USA 161.31 million
Latin America 15.26 million

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FRAMEWORK OF INTERNET

Server-Client Environment
‰ Servers store application programs and information; clients retrieve needed
information or execute programs from servers.
‰ Advantages: efficiency, effectiveness, high accessibility, easy management
‰ Disadvantages: once the server(s) down, the whole system down
‰ Remedies: regular maintenance, backup server(s)

Local Area Network (LAN) Types

‰ Two basic LANs: peer-to-peer networks and server-based networks.
(Functionality viewpoint)
ƒ Peer-to-peer networks operate with no dedicated servers on the
network. Each host functions as both a client and a server.
ƒ In server-based networks, at least one host is dedicated to server
functionality. Client computers do not share any information with other
computers. All data is stored on the central server.
‰ LAN topologies: (Connection viewpoint)

ƒ Linear/Bus networks: Consists of a single cable that connects all

computers, servers, and network peripherals in a single network
segment. Ethernet networks are the most common implementation of
bus networks. Ethernet networks use a method called Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Only one
computer at a time can send data on the bus network. If a host wants to
transmit data and detects there are already data on the network, it waits
for the network to clear before transmitting its information.
™ Ethernet is currently the most prevalent technology for company
networks. Ethernet operates at 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps (and now
even at 1 Gbps), and uses either twisted-pair copper wires (ISDN
or ADSL) or coaxial cables (cable modems) to connect end
systems.
ƒ Star networks: Cable segments to a central connection, or hub, connect
all computers.

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ƒ Ring networks: All computers are joined together in a logical circle.

Data travels around the circle and passes through each computer.
Token passing is used for data transmission in ring networks. Only a
single token exists in a ring network, and a computer can transmit data
only when it has a token. The token travels at roughly the speed of
light. For a network with a total cable length of 400 meters, a token can
circle the ring around 5000 times per second.

Star

Linear

Bus / Multidrop

Hybrid
Ring

Point-to-Point
Gateway

Figure 5. Local Area Network (LAN) Topologies

Wiring Standards for Network Communications

‰ 10base2: Also known as thin Ethernet, it allows network segments up to 185
meters on coaxial cable. (Usually for bus networks)
‰ 10Base5: Also known as thick Ethernet, it allows network segments up to 500
meters on coaxial cable. (Usually for bus networks)
‰ 10Base-T: Carries Ethernet signals on inexpensive twisted-pair wiring. Five
categories of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables can be used:
ƒ Category 1: Used in traditional UTP telephone cable. It can carry only
voice traffic, not data.
ƒ Category 2: Certified for data transmission of up to 4 Mbps (early
token ring).
ƒ Category 3: Certified for data transmission of up to 10 Mbps
(Ethernet).
ƒ Category 4: Certified for data transmission of up to 16 Mbps (token
ring).

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ƒ Category 5: Certified for data transmission of up to 100 Mbps (fast

Ethernet).
‰ RJ45 connectors are commonly used with UTP wiring. RJ45 connectors look
much like phone connectors, but they are about twice as big.

Network Transmission
‰ Circuit Switching: In circuit-switched networks, the resources needed along a
path (buffers, link bandwidth) to provide for communication between the end
systems are reserved for the duration of the session. When two hosts desire to
communicate, the network establishes a dedicated end-to-end circuit between
two hosts. Example: telephone networks. Opponents to circuit switching have
argued that circuit switching is wasteful because the dedicated circuits are idle
during silent periods.

Figure 6. Circuit Switching

™ A circuit in a link is implemented with either frequency-division

multiplexing (FDM) or time-division multiplexing (TDM). With FDM,
each circuit continuously gets a fraction of the bandwidth. With TDM,
each circuit gets all of the bandwidth periodically during brief intervals of
time (i.e., time slots).

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FDM: 4 KHz

bandwidth

4 KHz

TDM:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 bandwidth

Slot Frame

Figure 7. FDM and TDM

‰ Packet Switching: In packet-switched networks, the resources needed for

communication are not reserved and the data to be transmitted are segmented
into smaller packets. Each packet is tagged with the destination address and a
sequence number. Different packets may take different routes to the
destination. Therefore, sometimes a packet-switched network is described as a
mesh network.

Host A C

F Host B

Figure 8. Packet Switching I

Figure 9. Packet Switching II

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™ In the above figure, the sequence of packets from A and B does not follow
any periodic ordering; the ordering is random or statistical because packets
are transmitted whenever they appear at the link. Thus, it is often said that
the packet switching employs statistical multiplexing.
‰ Message Switching: A packet-switched network performs message switching
if the message to be transmitted is not segmented (and transmitted as a whole).

Figure 10. Comparison of Message and Packet Switchings

Intranet and Extranet

‰ An Intranet is a private system built on Internet standards that delivers
distributed, cross-platform business applications to a “secured” network of
computers. They are protected by hardware and software firewalls.
‰ An Extranet is an Intranet that has been extended past the firewalls so that it
can serve partners and customers outside the corporation. This is most often
accomplished by creating encrypted secure “tunnels.” Tunnels are secure data
pathways that use two-key encryption systems to protect data.

TCP/IP
‰ TCP provides a connection-oriented service to its applications. The service
includes guaranteed delivery of application-layer messages to the destination
and flow control (i.e., sender/receiver speed matching). TCP also segments
long messages into shorter segments and provides a congestion control
mechanism, so that a source throttles its transmission rate when the network is
congested.

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Figure 11. Human Protocol vs. Computer Network Protocol

‰ UDP provides no guarantee that the data to be transmitted will reach the
receiving end computer. Furthermore, the data that do arrive the receiving end
computer may arrive out of order.
‰ Each IP address is 32-bit, contains four numbers separated by decimal points,
and has the form xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx, where xxx may range from 0 to 255.
Generally speaking, the first number is the geographic region, the second
number the organization, the third number the group of computers, and the last
number the specific computer.
‰ To alleviate the need to remember IP addresses as numbers, meaningful
alphabetic addresses were introduced. The mapping/decoding work from an
alphabetic address to a numerical address is done by DNS (Domain Name
System) servers.
‰ Alphabetic addressing scheme is quite straightforward, which includes the
sub-domain, domain, type, and the country if applicable. The following
formula applies for E-mail addressing: username + @ + service (domain and
sub-domain if used) + type (.edu for educational institutions, .com for
commercial entities, .net for networks, .mil for military, .org for organizations,
.gov for government, etc.) + country (if not the US). An example of E-mail
address is [email protected]. Note that @ separates the user from the rest of the
address.

IP Address Classes
‰ A Class A address allocates 8 bits to the network portion of the address and 24
bits to the host portion of the address. A Class A address has a first octet value
between 1 and 126. (The value 0 cannot be used as a network ID and the value
127 is reserved for loopback functions.) These numbers are represented in
binary by patterns that resemble 0#######. This allows for 126 distinct

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networks of 16,777,214 hosts per network. (224 is 16,777,216 and a host ID

cannot be all 0s or all 1s.)
™ Loopback address is a special IP number (127.0.0.1) that is designated for
the software loopback interface of a machine. The loopback interface has
no hardware associated with it, and it is not physically connected to a
network. The loopback interface allow IT professionals to test IP software
without worrying about broken or corrupted drivers or hardware.
‰ A Class B address allocates 16 bits to the network portion of the address and
16 bits to the host portion of the address. A Class B address has a first octet
value between 128 and191. (The total network ID number is 214 = 16,384.)
These numbers are represented in binary by patterns that resemble 10######.
This allows for 16,384 unique networks with 65,534 hosts per network. (216 is
65,536 and a host ID cannot be all 0s or all 1s.)
‰ A Class C address allocates 24 bits to the network portion of the address and 8
bits to the host portion of the address A Class C address has a first octet value
between 192 and 223. (The total network ID number is 221 = 2,097,152.)
These numbers are represented in binary by patterns that resemble 110#####.
This allows for 2,097,152 unique networks with 254 hosts per network. (28 is
256 and a host ID cannot be all 0s or all 1s.)
‰ Class D addresses are reserved for multicast group usage using the IGMP
(Internet Group Management Protocol) and cannot be assigned to individual
hosts on a network. A Class D address has a first octet value between 224 and
239 and is represented in binary with a pattern matching 1110####. The
remaining 28 bits represent the multicast group to which the host belongs.
ƒ There are two major ways to send packets to multiple destinations
simultaneously: broadcasting and multicasting. Broadcasting means
the network delivers one copy of a packet to each destination.
Multicasting allows one computer to send information to multiple
destinations that have identified themselves as interested in receiving
the information. Multicast packets are delivered using UDP. Therefore,
they might be lost or delayed in transit. A typical use of multicasting is
the periodic issuance of online newsletters.
‰ Class E addresses are experimental addresses that are not available to the
public. They have been reserved for future use. A Class E address has a first

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octet value between 240 and 255. This is represented in binary with values that
match the pattern 1111####.
‰ General guidelines for IP addressing:
ƒ All hosts on the same physical network segment should have the same
network ID. (Example: Computers in NTU have IPs of the form
155.69.xxx.xxx, where “155” indicates the Class B addressing.)
ƒ A network ID can never be 127. This value has been reserved for
loopback functions.
ƒ A network ID cannot be all 1s. This represents a broadcast address.
Neither can a host address be all 1s.
ƒ A network ID cannot be all 0s. This represents the local network.
Neither can a host address be all 0s. It is customary to represent a
network using the network portion of the ID with a host ID set to all
0s. This cannot be allocated to an individual host.

First Decimal Class Binary IP Expressions

1-126 A 0 Net Host Host Host

. . .

128-191 B 10 Net Net Host Host

. . .

192-223 C 110 Net Net Net Host

. . .

224-239 D 1110 Multicast Address

240-255 E 1111 Reserved for Future Use

Figure 12. IP Address Classes

Subnet Masks
‰ Subnet masks designate which bits of an IP address represent the network
portion and which bits represent the host portion. Default subnet masks are
used with Class A, Class B, and Class C IP addresses, as follows:
ƒ Class A – 255.0.0.0
ƒ Class B – 255.255.0.0
ƒ Class C – 255.255.255.0

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‰ If the information “IP 157.32.11.8 with subnet mask 255.255.0.0” is given, it

is know that the network portion of the address is 157.32.0.0.

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INTERNET APPLICATIONS

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

‰ E-mail is a simple protocol for electronic communications. A number of
programs dedicating to E-mail services provide a user-friendly interface.
‰ E-mail provides an inexpensive and efficient means for communication or
sending messages, which brings people all over the world much closer.
‰ Encryption is included in most E-mail systems nowadays.
‰ Most E-mail application packages allow attachment of a wide range of
information, such as documents, images, video clips, etc.
‰ A target E-mail address, which can be anywhere in the world, is needed.

Figure 13. Electronic Mail (E-Mail) Example

Newsgroups
‰ Newsgroups provide mail-like messages and discussions to a large group of
users.
‰ Users have to subscribe to a newsgroup before they can read and submit
messages from and to the newsgroup.
‰ Currently over 5000 newsgroups have been established, which cover a wide
variety of different topics.

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Figure 14. Newsgroup Example

File Transfer – FTP
‰ FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
‰ Used for transferring a file to or from a remote computer.
‰ Requires the address of a remote computer and a user account.
‰ Computers can be configured to provide anonymous FTP access.

Figure 15. FTP Example I

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Figure 16. FTP Example II

Figure 17. FTP Server I

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Figure 18. FTP Server II

Figure 19. FTP Server III

Remote Login – rlogin / telnet

‰ Utilized for accessing and logging in to a remote computer.
‰ The address of a remote computer and a user account are required.

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Figure 20. Telnet Example

World Wide Web (WWW) – HTTP

‰ World Wide Web provides a point-and-click navigation environment for users
to view documents throughout the entire Internet.
‰ Documents are written in a language called HTML (Hyper-Text Markup
Language). Different information types and graphics can be incorporated in
the document.
‰ Documents are made available on the Internet through HTTP (Hyper-Text
Transfer Protocol) servers.
‰ The collective body of HTML documents available on the Internet is called
the World Wide Web.
‰ Many corporations take advantage of the Internet technology to reduce their
internal networking costs. This goal is achieved through utilization of web
browsers and some other Internet software to transmit information within or
outside the corporation.

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Figure 21. World Wide Web Example

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ADVANCED KNOWLEDGE

Internet Protocol Stack

‰ The application layer is responsible for supporting network applications. The
application layer includes many protocols, including HTTP to support the
Web, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) to support electronic mail, and
FTP to support file transfer.
‰ The transport layer provides the service of transporting application-layer
messages between the client and server sides of an application. In the Internet,
there are two transport protocols, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), either of which can transport application-
layer messages. TCP provides a connection-oriented service and a reliable
data transfer service. UDP is connectionless and no handshaking before
communication starts. The “datagram” in UDP is like the data segment in
TCP.
‰ The network layer is responsible for routing datagrams from one host to
another, and contains both the IP (Internet Protocol) and numerous routing
protocols. Therefore, this layer is sometimes referred as the IP layer.
‰ The network layer relies on the link layer to move a packet from one node
(host or packet switch) to the next node on the route. The services provided in
the link layer depend on the specific link-layer protocol that is employed over
the link. Examples of link layers include Ethernet and PPP.

INTERNET PROTOCOL STACK

Layer 5 Application

Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Link

Layer 1 Physical

Figure 22. Internet Protocol Stack

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‰ The job of the physical layer is to move the individual bits within the frame
from one node to the next, while the job of the link layer is to move entire
frames from one network element to an adjacent network element. For
instance, Ethernet has many physical layer protocols: one for twisted-pair
copper wires, another for coaxial cable, another for fiber, and so forth. In each
case, a bit is moved across the link in a different way.

Figure 23. Illustration of Different Protocol Layers

Network Security
‰ Three steps of hacking:
ƒ Footpring: Footprint is the fine art of gathering target information,
such as IP, domain name, TCP/UDP services executed in the target
machine, etc.
ƒ Port Scanning: To identify listening TCP and UDP ports on the target
system and to determine the type of operating system are the two major
objectives of port scanning.
ƒ Enumeration: Enumeration is a process of extracting valid accounts
and sharing resources information. Once a valid username or share is
enumerated, it is usually a matter of time for hackers to break in the
system.
‰ Turn off unnecessary server applications (FTP server, web server, etc.), which
may provide hackers channels to break in your system.

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Table 2. Frequently Used Port Numbers

Application Port

FTP 21
Telnet 23
SMTP 25
Finger 79
HTTP 80
POP3 110

Figure 24. Traceroute Tool – VisualRoute

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‰ A port scan detector prevents most of the port scanning events and ensures
network security.

Figure 25. Port Scan Detector I

Figure 26. Port Scan Detector II

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Figure 27. Port Scan Detector III

‰ A virus is a program that propagates itself by infecting other programs on the

same computer. Viruses can do serious damage, such as erasing your files or
your whole disk, and they cannot spread to a new computer without human
assistance, such as trading an infected file with friends through a floppy
diskette or an email attachment. Virus protection must be provided especially
since the Internet has greatly increased the exposure to downloaded viruses.
‰ Like a virus, a worm is also a program that propagates itself. Unlike a virus,
however, a worm can spread itself automatically over the network from one
computer to the next. Worms are not clever or evil; they just take advantage of
automatic file sending and receiving features found on many computers.
‰ A Trojan (or Trojan horse) is a program that purports to perform some useful
function but actually does something entirely different (usually malicious and
security-breaking) behind the scenes. A Trojan’s content may be a virus or a
worm, which then spread the damage. To avoid Trojan attacks, make sure both
the source and content of each file (especially executable files) can be trusted.
‰ Using anti-virus software and firewalls to protect your computer from being
attacked by viruses, worms, and Trojans. Also, frequent update of the virus or
Trojan definition keeps your anti-virus software effective.

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