Calculator

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This article is about the electronic device. For mechanical precursors to the modern calculator, see
mechanical calculator. For other uses, see Calculator (disambiguation).

An electronic pocket calculator with a seven-segment liquid-crystal display (LCD) that can perform
arithmetic operations

A modern scientific calculator with a dot matrix LCD

An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging
from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.

The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became
available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel
for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. They later became used commonly within the petroleum
industry (oil and gas).

Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop
models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated
circuits reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a
basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools.

Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs
such as dc and hoc, and calculator functions are included in almost all personal digital assistant (PDA)
type devices, the exceptions being a few dedicated address book and dictionary devices.

In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example,
there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators
even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions
defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. As of 2016, basic calculators cost little,
but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more.

In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware
capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.[1]

Contents

1 Design

1.1 Input

1.2 Display output

1.3 Memory

1.4 Power source

1.5 Key layout

2 Internal workings

2.1 Example

2.1.1 Numeric representation

3 Calculators compared to computers

4 History

4.1 Precursors to the electronic calculator

4.2 Development of electronic calculators

4.2.1 Programmable calculators

4.3 1970s to mid-1980s

4.3.1 Pocket calculators

4.3.2 Programmable pocket calculators

4.3.3 Technical improvements

4.4 Mid-1980s to present

5 Use in education

6 See also

7 References

7.1 Sources

8 Further reading

9 External links

Design

Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents

Input

Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations; some even
contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter. Most basic
calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a
button can perform multi-function working with key combinations.

Display output

Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of historical light-emitting diode
(LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD); details are provided in the section Technical
improvements.

Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability; while using decimal separator (usually a point
rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions. Various symbols for function
commands may also be shown on the display. Fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal
approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions (such as 1⁄7, which is
0.14285714285714; to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result,
many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or mixed numbers.
Memory

Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic calculators usually store
only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in
variables. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas. Some models have the ability to
extend memory capacity to store more numbers; the extended memory address is termed an array
index.

Power source

Power sources of calculators are: batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for old models), turning on
with a switch or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put
off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering solar cell exposure, or closing their lid).
Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era.

Key layout

The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is
standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example.

Usual basic pocket calculator layout

MC MR M− M+

C ± % √

7 8 9 ÷

4 5 6 ×

1 2 3 −

0 . = +

Calculator buttons and their meanings

MC or CM Memory Clear

MR, RM, or MRC Memory Recall

M− Memory Subtraction

M+ Memory Addition
C or AC All Clear

CE Clear (last) Entry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a second press
clears all (C)

± or CHS Toggle positive/negative number aka CHange Sign

% Percent

÷ Division

× Multiplication

− Subtraction

+ Addition

. Decimal point

√ Square root

= Result

Internal workings

The interior of a Casio FX-991s calculator

In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following components:[2]

Power source (mains electricity, battery and/or solar cell)

Keypad (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (addition,
multiplication, square-root, etc.)

Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. Liquid-crystal displays
(LCDs), vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), and light-emitting diode (LED) displays use seven segments
to represent each digit in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use dot matrix displays.

A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll
of paper, using a printing mechanism.

Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit).

Processor chip's contents

Unit Function
Scanning (Polling) unit When a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to pick up an
electrical signal when a key is pressed.

Encoder unit Converts the numbers and functions into binary code.

X register and Y register They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing
calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the
display.

Flag register The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it.

Permanent memory (ROM) The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic operations, square
roots, percentages, trigonometry, etc.) are stored here in binary form. These instructions are programs,
stored permanently, and cannot be erased.

User memory (RAM) The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can
be changed or erased by the user.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) The ALU executes all arithmetic and logic instructions, and provides the
results in binary coded form.

Binary decoder unit Converts binary code into decimal numbers which can be displayed on the
display unit.

Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is
running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or
the SI unit hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz
range.

An office calculating machine with a paper printer

Example

A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator:

To perform the calculation 25 + 9, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: 2 5 +
9 =.

When 2 5 is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X
register;
Next, when the + key is pressed, the "addition" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the
status register;

The second number 9 is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out
into the Y register;

When the = key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or status register tells the permanent or
non-volatile memory that the operation to be done is "addition";

The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the ALU and the calculation is carried out
following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory;

The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the binary decoder
unit into a decimal number (usually binary-coded decimal), and then shown on the display panel.