2/1/2013

Alternate and Renewable Energy Sources

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Wind Power Systems

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

1
 2/1/2013

Historical Development of Wind Power

• In the US - first wind-electric systems built in the late
1890’s
• By 1930s and 1940s, hundreds of thousands were in
use in rural areas not yet served by the grid
• Interest in wind power declined as the utility grid
expanded and as reliable, inexpensive electricity could
be purchased
• Oil crisis in 1970s created a renewed interest in wind
until US government stopped giving tax credits
• Renewed interest again since the 1990s

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Global Installed Wind Capacity

Source: Global Wind Energy Council

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

2
 2/1/2013

Annual Installed Wind Capacity

Source: Global Wind Energy Council

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Growth in US Wind Power Capacity

Source: AWEA Wind Power Outlook 2nd Qtr, 2010

For more info: http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/wpa/wpa_update.pdf
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

3
 2/1/2013

Top 10 Countries - Installed Wind

Capacity (as of the end of 2009)

Total Capacity 2009 Growth

Source: Global Wind Energy Council

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

US Wind Resources

50 meters

http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/wind_maps/us_windmap.pdf
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013
http://www.windpower.org/en/pictures/lacour.htm

4
 2/1/2013

US Wind Resources

80 meters

http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/wind_maps/us_windmap_80meters.pdf
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Cape Wind
off-shore wind farm
• For about 10 years Cape Wind Associates has been attempting to
build an off-shore 170 MW wind farm in Nantucket Sound,
Massachusetts. Because the closest turbine would be more than
three miles from shore (4.8 miles) it is subject to federal, as
opposed to state, jurisdiction.
– Federal approval was given on May 17, 2010
– Cape Wind would be the first US off-shore wind farm
• There has been significant opposition to this project, mostly out
of concern that the wind farm would ruin the views from private
property, decreasing property values.

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

5
 2/1/2013

Massachusetts Wind Resources

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Cape Wind Simulated View,

Nantucket Sound, 6.5 miles Distant

Source: www.capewind.org
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

6
 2/1/2013

State Wind Capacities (7/20/2010)

State Existing Under Rank
Construction (Existing)
Texas 9,707 370 1
Iowa 3,670 0 2
California 2,739 443 3
Oregon 1,920 614 4
Washington 1,914 815 5
Illinois 1,848 437 6
Minnesota 1,797 673 7
New York 1,274 95 8
Colorado 1,248 552 9
North Dakota 1,222 37 10
http://www.awea.org/projects/
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Types of Wind Turbines

• “Windmill”- used to grind grain into flour
• Many different names - “wind-driven generator”,
“wind generator”, “wind turbine”, “wind-turbine
generator (WTG)”, “wind energy conversion system
(WECS)”
• Can have be horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
or vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT)
• Groups of wind turbines are located in what is
called either a “wind farm” or a “wind park”

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

7
 2/1/2013

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

• Darrieus rotor - the only vertical axis
machine with any commercial success
• Wind hitting the vertical blades, called
aerofoils, generates lift to create rotation

• No yaw (rotation about vertical axis)

control needed to keep them facing into
the wind
• Heavy machinery in the nacelle is located
on the ground
• Blades are closer to ground where
windspeeds are lower

http://www.reuk.co.uk/Darrieus-Wind-Turbines.htm
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Darrieus_wind_turbine

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

• “Downwind” HAWT – a turbine with the

blades behind (downwind from) the tower
• No yaw control needed- they naturally orient
themselves in line with the wind
• Shadowing effect – when a blade swings
behind the tower, the wind it encounters is
briefly reduced and the blade flexes

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

8
 2/1/2013

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

• “Upwind” HAWT – blades are in front of
(upwind of) the tower
• Most modern wind turbines are this type
• Blades are “upwind” of the tower
• Require somewhat complex yaw control to
keep them facing into the wind
• Operate more smoothly and deliver more
power

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Number of Rotating Blades

• Windmills have multiple blades
– need to provide high starting torque to overcome weight
of the pumping rod
– must be able to operate at low wind speeds to provide
nearly continuous water pumping
– a larger area of the rotor faces the wind
• Turbines with many blades operate at much lower rotational
speeds - as the speed increases, the turbulence caused by one
blade impacts the other blades
• Most modern wind turbines have two or three blades

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

9
 2/1/2013

Power in the Wind

• Consider the kinetic energy of a “packet” of air with
mass m moving at velocity v
1
KE  mv 2 (6.1)
2
• Divide by time and get power
1  m passing though A  2
Power through area A   v (6.2)
2 t 
• The mass flow rate is (r is air density)
m passing though A
m = =  Av (6.3)
t
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Power in the Wind

Combining (6.2) and (6.3),

1
Power through area A    Av  v 2
2
1
PW   Av3 (6.4) Power in the wind
2

PW (Watts) = power in the wind

ρ (kg/m3)= air density (1.225kg/m3 at 15˚C and 1 atm)
A (m2)= the cross-sectional area that wind passes through
v (m/s)= windspeed normal to A (1 m/s = 2.237 mph)

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

10
 2/1/2013

Power in the Wind (for reference solar is

about 600 w/m2 in summer)
• Power increases like the
cube of wind speed
• Doubling the wind
speed increases the
power by eight
• Energy in 1 hour of 20
mph winds is the same
as energy in 8 hours of
10 mph winds
• Nonlinear, so we cannot
use average wind speed
Figure 6.5
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Power in the Wind

1
PW   Av3 (6.4)
2
• Power in the wind is also proportional to A
• For a conventional HAWT, A = (π/4)D2, so wind
power is proportional to the blade diameter squared
• Cost is roughly proportional to blade diameter
• This explains why larger wind turbines are more
cost effective

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

11
 2/1/2013

Nikola Tesla: Inventor of Induction

Motor (and many other things)
• Nikola Tesla (1856 to 1943) is one of the
key inventors associated with the
development of today’s three phase ac
system. His contributions include the
induction motor and polyphase ac systems.
– Unit of flux density is named after him

• Tesla conceived of the induction

motor while walking through a park in
Budapest in 1882.
• He emigrated to the US in 1884

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

World’s Largest Offshore Wind Farm Opens

Turbines
are
located
in water
depth
of
20-25m.
Rows
are
800m
apart; 500m
between
turbines

• “Thanet” located off British coast in English Channel

• 100 Vestas V90 turbines, 300 MW capacity
http://www.vattenfall.co.uk/en/thanet-offshore-wind-farm.htm
http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/09/23/uk.largest.wind.farm/?hpt=Sbin
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

12
 2/1/2013

Off-shore Wind
• Offshore wind turbines currently need to be in
relatively shallow water, so maximum distance from
shore depends on the seabed
• Capacity
factors tend
to increase
as turbines
move further
off-shore

Image Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Maximum Rotor Efficiency

Rotor efficiency CP vs.

wind speed ratio λ

Figure 6.10

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

13
 2/1/2013

Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)

• Efficiency is a function of how fast the rotor turns
• Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) is the speed of the outer tip
of the blade divided by windspeed
Rotor tip speed rpm   D
Tip-Speed-Ratio (TSR)  = (6.27)
Wind speed 60v
• D = rotor diameter (m)
• v = upwind undisturbed windspeed (m/s)
• rpm = rotor speed, (revolutions/min)
• One meter per second = 2.24 miles per hour

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)

• TSR for various
rotor types
• Rotors with fewer
blades reach their
maximum
efficiency at higher
tip-speed ratios

Figure 6.11

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

14
 2/1/2013

Synchronous Machines
• Spin at a rotational speed determined by the number
of poles and by the frequency
• The magnetic field is created on their rotors
• Create the magnetic field by running DC through
windings around the core
• A gear box is needed between the blades and the
generator
• 2 complications – need to provide DC, need to have
slip rings on the rotor shaft and brushes

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Asynchronous Induction Machines

• Do not turn at a fixed speed
• Acts as a motor during start up as well as a
generator
• Do not require exciter, brushes, and slip rings
• The magnetic field is created on the stator
instead of the rotor
• Less expensive, require less maintenance
• Most wind turbines are induction machines

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

15
 2/1/2013

The Induction Machine as a Generator

• Slip is negative because the rotor spins faster

than synchronous speed
• Slip is normally less than 1% for grid-
connected generator
• Typical rotor speed

N R  (1  s ) N S  [1  (0.01)]  3600  3636 rpm

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Speed Control
• Necessary to be able to shed wind in high-speed
winds
• Rotor efficiency changes for different Tip-Speed
Ratios (TSR), and TSR is a function of windspeed
• To maintain a constant TSR, blade speed should
change as windspeed changes
• A challenge is to design machines that can
accommodate variable rotor speed and fixed
generator speed

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

16
 2/1/2013

Blade Efficiency vs. Windspeed

Figure 6.19
At lower windspeeds, the best efficiency is achieved at a lower rotational speed

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Power Delivered vs. Windspeed

Figure 6.20
Impact of rotational speed adjustment on delivered power, assuming gear and generator
efficiency is 70%

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

17
 2/1/2013

Variable Slip Example: Vestas

V80, 1.8 MW

• The Vestas V80, 1.8 MW turbine is

an example in which an induction
generator is operated with variable
rotor resistance (opti-slip).
• Adjusting the rotor resistance
changes the torque-speed curve
• Operates between 9 and 19 rpm

Source: Vestas V80 brochure

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Vestas
V80 1.8 MW

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

18
 2/1/2013

Doubly-Fed Induction Generators

• Another common approach is to use what is
called a doubly-fed induction generator in which
there is an electrical connection between the
rotor and supply electrical system using an ac-ac
converter
• This allows operation over a wide-range of
speed, for example 30% with the GE 1.5 MW
and 3.6 MW machines

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

GE 1.5 MW and 3.6 MW

DFIG Examples

GE 1.5 MW turbines are the

best selling wind turbines
in the US with 43% market share in 2008

Source:
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU GE Brochure/manual
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

19
 2/1/2013

Indirect Grid Connection Systems

• Wind turbine is allowed to spin at any speed
• Variable frequency AC from the generator goes
through a rectifier (AC-DC) and an inverter (DC-
AC) to 60 Hz for grid-connection
• Good for handling rapidly changing wind speeds

Figure 6.21
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Example: GE 2.5 MW Turbines

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

20
 2/1/2013

Wind Turbine Gearboxes

• A significant portion of the weight in the nacelle is due to the
gearbox
– Needed to change the slow blade shaft speed into the higher
speed needed for the electric machine
• Gearboxes require periodic maintenance (e.g., change the oil),
and have also be a common source of wind turbine failure
• Some wind turbine designs are now getting rid of the gearbox by
using electric generators with many pole pairs (direct-drive
systems)
• Enercon is the leader in this area, with others considering direct
drives

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Enercon E126, World’s Largest Wind

Turbine at 6 MW (7.5 MW Claimed)
This turbine uses
direct drive
technology. The
hub height is
135m while the
rotor diameter is
126m.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:E_126_Georgsfeld.JPG
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

21
 2/1/2013

Average Power in the Wind

• How much energy can we expect from a wind turbine?

• To figure out average power in the wind, we need to know
the average value of the cube of velocity:

1  1
Pavg    Av3    A  v 3  (6.29)
2 avg 2 avg

• This is why we can’t use average windspeed vavg to find the

average power in the wind

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Example Windspeed Site Data

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU

Figure 6.22
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

22
 2/1/2013

Wind Probability Density Functions

Windspeed probability density function (p.d.f) –
between 0 and 1, area under the curve is equal to 1

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Figure 6.23

Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Altamont Pass, CA
• Old windfarm with
various-sized
turbines
• 576 MW total
capacity
• Average output is
125 MW
• Wind turbines are
on hilltop ridges

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altamont_Wind_Turbines_7-11-09.JPG

http://xahlee.org/Whirlwheel_dir/livermore.html
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU
Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

23
 2/1/2013

Wind Power Classification Scheme

Table 6.5
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Wind Power Classification Scheme

Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m(a)
10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft)
(b) Speed(b)
Wind Wind Speed Wind
Power Power m/s (mph) Power m/s (mph)
Class Density Density
(W/m2) (W/m2)
1 <100 <4.4 (9.8) <200 <5.6 (12.5)
2 100 - 150 4.4 (9.8)/5.1 (11.5) 200 - 300 5.6 (12.5)/6.4 (14.3)
3 150 - 200 5.1 (11.5)/5.6 (12.5) 300 - 400 6.4 (14.3)/7.0 (15.7)
4 200 - 250 5.6 (12.5)/6.0 (13.4) 400 - 500 7.0 (15.7)/7.5 (16.8)
5 250 - 300 6.0 (13.4)/6.4 (14.3) 500 - 600 7.5 (16.8)/8.0 (17.9)
6 300 - 400 6.4 (14.3)/7.0 (15.7) 600 - 800 8.0 (17.9)/8.8 (19.7)
7 >400 >7.0 (15.7) >800 >8.8 (19.7)
http://www.awea.org/faq/basicwr.html
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

24
 2/1/2013

Wind Power Classification Scheme

50 meters• Table 6.5

http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/wind_maps/us_windmap.pdf
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

Estimates of Wind Turbine Energy

• Not all of the power in the wind is retained - the rotor spills
high-speed winds and low-speed winds are too slow to
overcome losses
• Depends on rotor, gearbox, generator, tower, controls,
terrain, and the wind

PW PB PE
Power in CP Power
g Power to
the Wind Gearbox & Electricity
Rotor Extracted
by Blades Generator

• Overall conversion efficiency (Cp·ηg) is around 30%

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FIU Professor O. A. Mohammed, EEL5285 Lecture Notes, Spring 2013

25