COURSE OUTCOME #3: Design most economic section for open channel flow

TOPICS: Open-Channel Flow and Uniform Flow

Geometric Elements of an Open Channel

LEARNING OUTCOME: Describe the different type of flow in open channel

Compute for discharge and losses in open channel flow
Compute flow parameter in rectangular , trapezoidal and
other open channel section

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND UNIFORM FLOW

Open channels are natural or manmade conveyance structures that normally
have an open top. An important characteristic of open-channel flow is that it has a free
surface at atmospheric pressure. Open-channel flow can occur also in conduits with a
closed top, such as pipes and culverts, provided that the conduit is flowing partially full.
For example, the flow in most sanitary and storm sewers has a free surface, and is
therefore classified as open-channel flow. Examples of open channels are natural
creeks and rivers, artificial channels such as irrigation ditches and canals.

Open-Channel Flow Classification

Open-channel flow is classified in various ways.

If time is used as the criterion, open-channel flow is classified into steady and
unsteady flows. If, at a given flow section, the flow characteristics remain constant with
respects to time, the flow is said to be steady. If flow characteristics change with time,
the flow is said to be unsteady.

Flow in an open channel can be described as uniform or nonuniform, as

distinguished in Figure 1, if space is used as a criterion. Uniform flow means that the
velocity is constant along a streamline, which in open-channel flow means that depth
and cross section are constant along the length of a channel. The depth for uniform-flow
conditions is called normal depth and is designated by yn. For nonuniform flow, the
velocity changes from section to section along the channel, thus one observes changes
in depth. The velocity change may be due to a change in channel configuration, such as
a bend, change in cross-sectional shape, or change in channel slope.
 Figure 1. Types of Flow Based on Time

A non-uniform flow can be classified further into gradually-varied and rapidly-

varied flows, depending on whether the variations along the channel are gradual or
rapid. For example, the flow is gradually varied between Sections 1 and 2 and 2 and 3
in Figure 2. It is rapidly varied between 3 and 4 and uniform between 4 and 5. Usually,
the pressure distribution can be assumed to be hydrostatic for uniform and gradually-

varied flows.

Various types of forces acting on open-channel flow affect the hydraulic behavior
of the flow. The Reynolds Number, Re, defined as

4 VR
Re= v
where v=kinematic viscosity of water, represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces
acting on the flow. At low Reynolds numbers, say Re<500, the flow region appears to
consist of an orderly series of fluid laminae or layers conforming generally to the
boundary configuration. This type of flow is called laminar flow. If we inject dye into a
uniform laminar flow, the dye will flow along a straight line. Any disturbance introduced
to laminar flow, due to irregular boundaries for instance, is eventually dampened by
viscous forces. For Re>12500, the viscous forces are not sufficient to dampen the
disturbances introduced to the flow. Minor disturbances are always present in moving
water, and at high Reynolds numbers such disturbances will grow and spread
throughout the entire zone of motion. Such flow is called turbulent, and water particles
in turbulent flow follow irregular paths that are not continuous. A transitional state exists
between the laminar and turbulent states. We should point out that the limits for the
different states are by no means precise. Under laboratory conditions, for instance,
laminar flow can be maintained for Reynolds numbers much higher than 500.

However, under most natural and practical open-channel flow conditions, the flow
is turbulent.

The ratio of the inertial to gravitational forces acting on the flow is represented by
the dimensionless Froude number, Fr, defined as

V
F r= √ g D
where g=gravitational acceleration. The flow is said to be at the critical state when
Fr=1.0. The flow is subcritical when Fr<1.0, and it is supercritical when Fr>1.0. The
hydraulic behavior of open-channel flow varies significantly depending on whether the
flow is critical, subcritical, or supercritical.

Methods of Measuring Discharges in Open Channels

As man’s need to use and measure water has increased, a number of different
and varied methods have been developed to measure the flow of water in open
channels.  Open channels are those natural and man-made structures through which
water flows with a free surface. 

Some of the more common methods currently in use to measure open channel
flows are: 

 Timed Gravimetric
 Tracer-Dilution
 Area-Velocity
 Manning’s Equation / (Gauckler-Manning-Strickler Formula)
 Hydraulic Structures (Flumes & Weirs)

Timed Gravimetric
The complete flow
stream is collected a container for a
fixed length of time.  The contents of
the container are then weighed to
determine the volume of water.  This
in turn allow for the direct calculation
of the flow rate for the period
observed. 
The timed gravimetric
flow method is only practical for
small streams (25 to 30 gallons or less) and only provides a “snap-shot” of the flow
rates.  It is not well suited to continuous flow measurement.  The timed gravimetric flow
method is also sometimes refered to as the "bucket and stopwatch" method.

Tracer-Dilution
The tracer-dilution
method consists of adding a known
amount of concentrated tracer at a
constant rate to the flow stream. 
Chemical analysis is used to
determine the dilution of the
uniformly mixed concentrate at
some downstream point.  It is
important that the tracer be added at
a known and constant discharge
rate. An advantage of the tracer-
dilution method is that no
measurements of the flow channel geometry are required.
Tracers may be color-dilution or salt-dilution, with the former suitable for
measuring small to large flows (the cost of the dye being relatively low) and the latter
suitable for turbulent streams of small to medium size where other methods of flow
measurement are impractical.
 The tracer-dilution method requires specialized equipment and
experienced personnel.  As a result, it is relatively expensive method of measuring flow
rates.

Tracer-dilution methods can vary considerably in accuracy, from +/- 1% to

over 30%, depending upon the equipment used, experience of the personnel, and the
accuracy of the measuring equipment.

Area-Velocity Method
Measurement of the mean flow velocity (commonly by doppler or
electromagnetic field) over a determined cross-sectional area (the depth of which is
determined by pressure transducer or ultrasonic sensor) yields the stream flow rate. 

Recent tests performed by the

Bureau of Reclamation found that even in a controlled, laboratory environment,
measurement error of +/-10% are possible.  Under field conditions, this error can
reasonably be assumed to greater than those observed in laboratory conditions.

Hydraulic Structures

In general, a hydraulic structure is anything that can be used to divert,

dam, restrict, or otherwise manage the flow of open channel waters.  For flow
measurement purposed, a hydraulic structure is a fixed geometry device that is placed
into the flow so that all of the flow is directed through or over the device.

The device produces a characterized relationship between the liquid level

in (flumes) or upstream (weirs) of the device and the flow rate at a single, defined
location under free-flow conditions.  Under submerged flow conditions, a second,
downstream point of measurement must also be used.
The free-flow point of measurement is termed the H a location, while the
secondary, downstream point of measurement used for submerged flow measurement
is termed the Hb location.
As a hydraulic structure directly produces a characterized relationship between level
and flow, it is termed a primary device.  When the liquid level generated by the hydraulic
structure is measured by an additional device, that device (or flow meter) is termed the
secondary device.

Hydraulic structures can generally be divided into two categories:  flumes

and weirs.  Flumes are more adaptable in their sizing, configurations, and installation,
while weirs, on channels capable of developing a proper weir pools, tend to be less
expensive.  Of the two, weirs show greater laboratory accuracy (+/-2-5%) than flumes
(+/-2-6%), although in practice and under field conditions, the total system accuracies
tend to be similar at +/-10%.

 ORIFICE – an opening in a vessel or in a wall built across a stream

V = 2gh
A=LxH
Qt = theoretical discharge
Qt = AV = A 2gh (cm3/s)
A = cm2 g = 981 cm2/s h = cm
Q = actual discharge
Q = CAV = CA 2gh = 0.6A 2gh
Q = ft3/s A = ft2 h = ft
1/2
Q = 0.027Ah
Q = lps A = cm2 h = cm

 WEIR – a notch in a wall built across a stream.

It is a specially designed channel shapes that characterize the flow of water .

For rectangular weir

Q = C’Lh3/2

h = H/2
Q = C’L(H/2)3/2

= C’’LH3/2

C’’ = C’/(23/2)

For sharp-crested weirs & weirs with suppressed end contractions

C’’ = 0.0184 (found by Francis)

Q = 0.0184LH3/2

Q = 0.0184(L’ – 0.2H)H3/2

A weir with suppressed end contractions is one whose length is the same as the
width of the rectangular channel immediately above it.

For weirs w/ complete end contractions

L = L’ – 0.2H

L’ = measured length of weir crest

For a trapezoidal weir (also known as Cipolletti weir):

Q = 0.0186LH3/2

For a 900 triangular (also known as V-notch weir)

A = 2(H2/2) = H2

V = 2g(H/2)

= (g)1/2H1/2

Q = CAV = C(g)1/2H2(H1/2)
 = C’H5/2

= 0.0138H5/2

Modern mechanical (float) and electronic flow meters (secondary devices) allow
for the continuous measurement of hydraulic structure flows.  For applications where
continuous measurement is not required or possible, head / level / staff gauges can be
used to aid the operator in determining the flow rate through the use of published rating
or discharge tables.

 FLOAT METHOD

Q = CAV
0.8 < C < 0.95

= 0.85AV

C = 0.85 is the average correction factor to obtain the average

velocity

V = surface water velocity

A1 = w(h1)/2

A2 = w(h1+h2)/2 ……..

A6 = w(h5)/2

AT = ΣAi = A1 + A2 + …+ An

Q = 0.85ATV

In the float method, it is important to select a section of the channel that is more
or less uniform in width and cross-sectional area.

Error in float method is 10% or more.

 Manning’s Equation (Gauckler-Manning-Strickler Formula)

Manning’s Equation, as it is commonly referred to in the United States, is

an empirically derived formula for estimating the average velocity of a liquid flowing in
an open channel.  The formula utilizes the cross-sectional average velocity, hydraulic
radius, roughness coefficient, and the slope of the channel. 
The equation is used to measure flow in locations where the construction
of a hydraulic structure (flume or weir) is impractical. 

V=(1/n)(R)2/3(S)1/2
where;

V = velocity of flowing water, m/s

n = Horton’s values of roughness

R = hydraulic radius, m

S = slope of the water surface or

piezometric head line (in decimal)

Much of the difficulty in using the equation is determining the proper

Gauckley-Manning coefficient, n, to apply.  In natural channels, n values can vary
greatly along a given stretch.  As a result, Manning’s Equation should not be expected
to provide results better than +/- 25-30% under field conditions.

Manning’s Equation can be used for continuous flow measurement through the
use of portable or permanent flow meters or it can be used for spot flow measurements.

In order to get the discharge of an open channel, velocity equation is use such as
the Manning’s Velocity Equation (discussed above), Chezy’s Equation, Bazin’s Formula
and Kutters Formula.

 Chezy’s Velocity Equation

V = (C/1.8)(RS)1/2 where;

V = velocity of flow, m/s

 C = Chezy’s roughness coefficient

(C/1.8) = (1/n)R1/6

S = same as in Manning’s equation

 Bazin’s Velocity Equation

157.6
C=
k where;
1.81+
√m

k = Bazin’s constant

m = Hydraulic Radius

 Kutter’s Velocity Equation

1
23+ 0.00155+
N
C=
0.00155 N
1+[23+ ]
i √m
N = Kutter’s constant

m = Hydraulic Radius, i = Slope of the bed

Types of Open Channel Based on Shape

Flow depth, ʸ Vertical distance from the channnel bottom to the free
surface
Depth of flow section Flow depth measured perpendicular to the channel botoom
Top width, T Width of the channel section at free surface
Wetted perimeter, P Length of the interface between the water and the channel
 boundary
Flow Area, A Cross-sectional area of the flow
Hydraulic depth, D Flow area divided by the top width, D=A/T
Hydraulic Radius, R Flow area divided by the wetted perimeter, R=A/P
Bottom Slope, S Longitudinal slope of the channel bottom S = tan

A geometric channel section discussed here includes rectangular, trapezoidal

and circular section. A channel section is defined as the cross-section taken
perpendicular to the main flow direction. Hence there are certain elements that need to
be considered. Referring to Table 1, the geometric elements of an open channel are
defined as follows:

These are the types of open channel based on shape which discharges is
measured using Area-Velocity Method.

 Area-Velocity Method for Rectangular Section

A = bd

P = b + 2d

R = A/P = (bd)/(b + 2d)

where

A = area
b = width
d = depth
P = perimeter
R = radius

 Area-Velocity Method for Trapezoidal Section

 t = b + 2x; x/d = H/V; x = (H/V)d = zd

where z = H/V (channel side slope)

A = d(b + t)/2 = d(b + b + 2x)/2

    = d(2b + 2x)/2 = d(b + x) = d(b + zd)

A = bd + zd 2

L = √x 2 + d 2   = √(zd) 2 +d 2 = √d 2 (z 2 + 1)

P = b + 2L = b + 2d√(z 2 + 1) 

R = A/P = (bd + zd 2 )/(b + 2d√z 2 + 1)

 Area-Velocity Method for Circular Section

A =(πd 2 /4); P = (πd)

R = A/P = d/4

 For Semi-circle

A = (πd 2 /8); P = (πd/2)

R = d/4