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Balancing Letter PDF

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100% found this document useful (7 votes)

5K views307 pages

Balancing Letter PDF

Uploaded by

Camilo Andres Quintero

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Slidebook

Vibration Training

Category IV—Precision Balancing

©1999 - 2013 Mobius Institute - All Rights Reserved

This manual is designed as a guide only.
In practical situations, there are many variables,
so please use this information with care.

Copyright © 1999-2013 Mobius Institute

DO NOT COPY OR
REPRODUCE IN ANY FORM
1

iLearnBalancing
[Expert Series]

How to perform Field

Balancing
A complete guide to understanding and detecting unbalance,
and correcting unbalance in the field.

Introduction to balancing

Welcome to this introduction to

precision balancing. The aim of this
module is to teach you what you need
to know to be able to perform field
balancing of rigid rotors: single plane,
two-plane, static-couple, overhung-
rotor, and four-run-no-phase. We will
teach you about splitting and
combining weights, and selecting the
position and mass of a trial weight.
And we will teach you about balance
tolerances.

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Introduction to balancing

We never know who will utilize this training. You could be an

experienced vibration analyst with a firm grasp of vibration, phase
and vectors. In that case, there will be some sections that you will
find “basic” – they may provide a nice refresher, but you may also
choose to skip those sections.

Introduction to balancing

But you may also be less experienced in vibration analysis, and thus
phase, vectors, and the basic principles of unbalance may be less
familiar to you. We have included some sections to get you up to
speed in these areas.

If you are totally new to vibration analysis, then you may need to seek
basic training first. We do offer an Awareness Series module on
vibration fundamentals that you may find helpful.

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Introduction to balancing

We will start our journey by explaining what unbalance is, why it

occurs, and why it is important to correct it. We will explain phase,
phase conventions, and vectors. We will explain the theory of
unbalance; including an explanation of static, couple and dynamic
unbalance, plus some of the key mathematical equations.

Introduction to balancing

Next we will explain how to

diagnose unbalance with vibration,
phase and other techniques – you
need to be sure that a machine
actually is out-of-balance before
you balance it!

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Introduction to balancing

Then we will discuss six balancing

techniques:

1. Single plane with vectors

2. Single plane with balance
program
3. Two plane with balance
program
4. Two plane static-couple method
5. Balancing overhung rotors
6. Four-run-no-phase balancing

Introduction to balancing

Next we will discuss how to select the size and location of the trial
weight, how to split a mass between two blades or holes, and how to
combine weights that are already on the rotor into one weight.

Images from www.balancingweights.com

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Introduction to balancing

And finally, we will take you

through the balance quality
standards: ISO/ANSI/API/Navy – after
all, how else do you know when the
balance job is complete?

We hope that you find this training

course helpful!

Introduction to balancing

There is one thing the author would

like to say before you get started. If
you use balance programs in your
analyzer, or custom balance systems,
there can be a temptation to simply
follow the steps and get the job done.
The balance instructions are normally
easy to follow. You may therefore feel
that some of the content of this course
is not useful – the balance program
takes care of the details.

But that is how mistakes are made!

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Introduction to balancing

If you do not understand what it is doing, and what you are trying to
achieve, and if you do not have an intuitive feel for the machine,
vibration and phase, and the effect of trial weights, then you will be
“flying blind”. Sure, some balance jobs go smoothly, but when they
don’t you need to have an idea what is going wrong and how to
solve it.

Balancing and the ISO

standards
How do the ISO (and ANSI) standards fit in with balancing?

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Balancing and the ISO standards

Before we get started it is important to tell you that there are a number
of ISO standards related to balancing. As shown in the table below,
from ISO 19499:2007, the standards cover a range of topic areas. Where
possible, this training course follows the guidelines provided by the ISO.

Balancing and the ISO standards

The ISO standards can be purchased directly from the ISO, or you may
have a national body that can provide these standards. In some cases
your national body, for example ANSI in the United States, may have
their own versions of these standards.

To save having to purchase each standard individually (at substantial

cost), the ISO have a new CD that you can purchase which includes a
large number of vibration related standards, including a number of
balancing standards (listed on the following page).

You can purchase that CD here:

http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1322

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Balancing and the ISO standards

Here is a list of the key balance-related standards:

Number Title
ISO 1940-1:2003 Mechanical vibration -- Balance quality requirements for rotors in a constant (rigid) state -- Part 1:
Specification and verification of balance tolerances
ISO 1940-2:1997 Mechanical vibration -- Balance quality requirements of rigid rotors -- Part 2: Balance errors

ISO 2953:1999 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing machines -- Description and evaluation

ISO 7475:2002 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing machines -- Enclosures and other protective measures for the
measuring station
ISO 8821:1989 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing -- Shaft and fitment key convention

ISO 10814:1996 Mechanical vibration -- Susceptibility and sensitivity of machines to unbalance

ISO 11342:1998 Mechanical vibration -- Methods and criteria for the mechanical balancing of flexible rotors

ISO 14694:2003 Industrial fans -- Specifications for balance quality and vibration levels

ISO 19499:2007 Mechanical vibration -- Balancing -- Guidance on the use and application of balancing standards

ISO 20806:2009 Mechanical vibration -- Criteria and safeguards for the in-situ balancing of medium and large rotors

Balancing and the ISO standards

Please note that there are also standards developed by VDI, API, the US
military, and other bodies that relate to vibration monitoring and
balancing.

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Thank you
That concludes ‚Introduction and ISO‛

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Section 2

What is “unbalance”?
A very basic introduction of what it means to be
out-of-balance.

What is unbalance?

For the purposes of our discussion, we will consider the fan rotor
shown below. It is supported on either side by bearings. Note that the
rotor is relatively narrow in comparison to its diameter.

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What is unbalance?

If you consider the rotor, you can see that it has a “geometric center”
The geometric center is the physical center of the rotor. Unless it is
eccentric, the geometric center is also the center of the shaft. When
the shaft rotates it should rotate around the geometric center.

Geometric center

What is unbalance?

If you consider the mass of the rotor, it should be perfectly symmetrical

around the geometric center. If the construction is symmetrical, and
the materials are uniform, then it should have a “center of gravity”
which perfectly coincides with the geometric center. If this were the
case, the rotor would be perfectly balanced.

Center of gravity

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What is unbalance?

Unfortunately, because the manufacturing process is not perfect, and

we can have dirt/dust build up, and we can also have
wear/erosion/corrosion, the center of gravity will be different to the
geometric center.

Geometric center

Center of gravity

What is unbalance?

If we could place the rotor on a knife edge, the rotor would roll until
the heavy spot was directly beneath the geometric center.

Geometric center

Center of gravity

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What is unbalance?

One interesting (but obvious) point to consider is that if you were to

deliberately attach a bolt to the outer edge of a perfectly balanced
rotor, you would expect to see the rotor roll around so that the bolt
was located at the bottom – closest to the ground.

Click on a weight and

drag it to the rotor.
Click the lock to release
the rotor and it will spin
so the weight is at the
bottom.

You will also notice the

center of mass (center
of gravity) move.

What is unbalance?

But what would happen if you were to attach three different bolts of
different sizes at three different positions on the rotor?

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What is unbalance?

Yes, the rotor would still roll around, but the final position will depend
upon the size and position of the bolts.

What is unbalance?

Try it yourself. Add three weights before you unlock the rotor. Notice
the arrows? They are “vectors” representing the effect of each mass.
The resultant vector will point downwards when the rotor is allowed to
spin.

Click on a weight and

drag it to the rotor.
Add three weights this
time. Click the lock to
release the rotor and it
will spin so the weight is
at the bottom.

You will also notice the

center of mass (center
of gravity) move.

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What is unbalance?

In fact, it would be possible to remove those bolts and add one bolt at
the bottom of the rotor with a size that would have exactly the same
effect as the three bolts that you removed.

What is unbalance?

This represents the situation you face with every rotor. There is not just
one source of unbalance in just one location. There can be multiple
sources (erosion, cavities, dirt build up, etc.) but all of those sources
add together to create just one point source of unbalance. This is
called the “heavy spot”.

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What is unbalance?

What’s more, we could now add a bolt which is exactly the same size,
and position it exactly opposite that bolt (at the same radius) and it
would move the center of gravity back to the geometric center.

Center of gravity

What is unbalance?

With this new bolt in place, opposite the bolt of the same size, the
rotor would be the same as if neither bolt were attached*. We just
balanced the rotor!

Center of gravity

* Assuming the bolts did not stress the rotor.

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What is unbalance?

Try it yourself. Add a few weights, release the rotor, and then add a
weight at the very top of the rotor to counter-balance the effect. You
may ask – “How much weight should I add?” - that’s the balancing
challenge! We will answer that question later.

Click on a weight and

drag it to the rotor.
Add three weights this
time. Click the lock to
release the rotor and it
will spin so the weight is
at the bottom. Then
add a mass that you
think is big enough at
the top. You need the
center of mass to return
to the center. You can
‚nudge‛ to rotor to
make it spin.

What is unbalance?

Here is another example of

where one weight is
counteracting an
unbalance…

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What is unbalance?

As we will learn in this course, the aim of balancing is to first determine

where the unbalance exists and then add a weight to cancel the
unbalance. Vibration readings and calculations (or “vector plots”) will
tell us the mass of the weight to add and where it must be placed.

Center of gravity

What is unbalance?

Let’s take a look at our rotor again. If we could take our out-of-
balance rotor and spin it in space, it will try to rotate around the center
of gravity. You can see the circular motion due to the centrifugal
forces associated with rotating an object that is out-of-balance.

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What is unbalance?

But in reality, the rotor will be supported by bearings and the shaft
must stay within the bearings. Imagine the “centrifugal” forces being
placed on the bearings. You can see why the bearings, or the structure,
will be put under great stress which could lead to failure.

What is unbalance?

So, what is balancing? The ISO standard 1940-1973 (E) definition is:

‚Balancing is the process of attempting to improve the

mass distribution of a body so that it rotates
in its bearings without unbalance centrifuge forces.‛

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Why balance a machine?

Why is it important to precision balance a machine?

Why balance a machine?

The “centrifugal” forces place great strain on the bearings and the rest
of the structure. With every rotation of the shaft the bearings and
structure will be pushed and pulled. This greatly increases the load on
the bearings, but also the fan blades (or impellor vanes, etc.), the shaft,
the foundations, and anything else attached to the machine.

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Why balance a machine?

Did you know that if you increase

the load on a bearing by just
20%, the life is halved? If you
double the load on a bearing,
you reduce the life to one
seventh of its design life. When
machines are out-of-balance, the
load on bearings is increased
considerably.

Life α 1/Load3

Why balance a machine?

When a bearing fails,

production may stop, and there
can be secondary damage, i.e.
damage to other parts of the
machine due to the bearing
failure. The downtime, parts,
and labor are very expensive -
and avoidable.

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Why balance a machine?

It should also be noted that the forces generated by the unbalanced

rotor are proportional to the speed of the machine squared. That
means that if the speed doubles the forces increase by a factor of four!
This animation attempts to illustrate this relationship.

Why balance a machine?

The unbalance forces can do damage in a number of ways. In this case

we can see that the hub of the fan has cracked.

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Why balance a machine?

If there is any excessive clearance or looseness in the bearing, the

unbalance forces can cause the shaft to “bounce around” resulting in
even greater damage.

Why balance a machine?

If the structure has any weakness in the foundation (perhaps due to

the unbalance forces), the machine might rock from side to side as the
shaft rotates. This will cause further damage to occur.

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Why balance a machine?

And if the design of the structure results in natural frequencies near

the running speed of the machine, the unbalance force will be
amplified and the structure will vibrate (resonate) strongly, potentially
violently.

Thank you
That concludes ‚What is ‘unbalance’‛

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Section 3
What causes machines to be
“out-of-balance”?
Understanding what causes a machine to become out-of-
balance, and why some machines are out-of-balance when
new

Causes of unbalance

There are a number of reasons why a machine may be out-of-balance

including:

1. Material build-up (dirt, dust, product)

2. Loss of material (cavitation, erosion)
3. Poor manufacture (porosity in castings, non-uniform density,
machining, design, tolerances, damage)
4. Incorrect assembly (keys, couplings, blades)
5. Poor original balancing

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Causes of unbalance

A very common cause of unbalance is material build-up on fan blades,

pump vanes, and other rotating elements. Over time the material will
build up. Because it does not build up evenly the fan will become out
of balance. If a build-up of material suddenly falls away on one of the
blades/vanes, the unbalance will increase suddenly.

Causes of unbalance

Here we can see two images of fans with material build-up. One of
them also has a broken blade/vane.

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Causes of unbalance

The fan on this motor has been attached with a hose-clamp that will
add an unbalance force.

Causes of unbalance

A fan or pump rotor can also become out-of-balance because of

material loss: corrosion, loss of a blade, and erosion due to cavitation,
for example.

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Causes of unbalance

If the key has not been installed correctly it will result in unbalance
forces.

Causes of unbalance

Unbalance can occur if a balance weight falls off a rotor, if a fan blade
comes loose, if a coupling-half falls away, and at any other time that a
rotating component suddenly fails.

David Stevens: www.vibanalysis.co.uk

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Causes of unbalance

A component may have some physical damage which will result in

unbalance. The component could be balanced or replaced.

Causes of unbalance

If components are not cast correctly

their mass distribution will not be even.
So even though they will look fine
externally, they will generate unbalance
forces when rotated.

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Thank you
That concludes ‚What causes machines to be ‘out-of-balance’‛

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Section 4

Understanding phase
Understanding phase: what it is and how to measure it

Understanding phase

Phase is vitally important when it comes to balancing. First, it is a great

tool for diagnosing unbalance. There are certain characteristics of the
vibration generated by a machine that is out of balance that are
unique. The spectrum can be confused with other conditions, but the
phase relationships are unique. Second, in order to balance the
machine you will need to measure the phase. It is true, there is a
balancing technique that does not require phase, but standard single-
plane and two-plane balancing does require phase.

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Understanding phase

Rather than getting straight into the mathematics of phase, lets take a
look at what it really means. If you look at the animation of the rotor
spinning, you can look at the shaft on either side of the rotor and see
that the two ends are moving up and down together. They are said to
be moving “in-phase” with each other, or to put it another way, they
have 0 phase difference.

Understanding phase

On the other hand, if you look at this example, the two ends of the
shaft are moving with an opposite motion; one end moves up as the
other end moves down. This “out-of-synch” motion is said to be “out
of phase”. In fact, the two ends are 180 out of phase.

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Understanding phase

In this third example you can see that the two ends are neither
perfectly in phase with each other or perfectly out of phase. The phase
angle is actually somewhere between 0 and 180 out of phase.

Understanding phase

One rotation of a shaft is 360 . We can relate the rotation of a shaft to

the classic sine wave, and to phase angles as shown in this simulator.
Simply move your mouse over the circle and you can see the phase
angle and the relative position on the sine wave.

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Understanding phase

Here we have a simulator that allows you to set the phase difference
between the two fans. You can see how the phase changes the fans
and the two sine waves. Note that the speed of rotation and
amplitude do not affect the phase.

Understanding phase

So, phase is all about the relative timing of two events. When it comes
to vibration measurements there are actually two possible scenarios.
We can measure the phase by comparing the vibration at the bearing
relative to a reference point on the shaft, or we can measure the phase
relative to the vibration at another bearing or in another axis on the
same bearing.

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

Phase that is based on a reference point on the shaft is called

“absolute” phase. This is the method used when balancing the
machine.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

The reference point is typically handled in one of four ways: optical or

laser tachometer and reflective tape, magnetic or displacement probe
and a key on the shaft, laser tach and an area of high contrast on the
shaft, or by using a stroboscope. We will discuss these options in a
later section.

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

In the case of the optical (visible light or laser) tachometer, the light
will reflect off the tape and back into the detector when they are in-
line with each other.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

Ultimately the result will be a signal from the tachometer with one
pulse per revolution of the shaft. The pulse coincides with the
reflective tape, the key, the area of contrast, or the flash of the strobe
light. We will focus on the more standard optical tachometer method
from now on.

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

The tachometer signal is fed into the “TACH” or “EXT” or “TRG”

trigger channel input of the analyzer (or balancing device). Using this
signal the analyzer will be able to determine the exact speed of the
shaft.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

The signal from the accelerometer will also be input into the analyzer.
The analyzer will be able to filter the vibration signal so that it can just
focus on the vibration at that turning speed.

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

As a result the analyzer can compare the vibration signal, which is now
just a sine wave, to the tach signal.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

As illustrated below, knowing that both signals are the same frequency,
the analyzer just has to compare the timing of the tach pulse to the
“high spot” in the waveform. The high spot is the peak of the sine
wave. (The red “time” message shows the passage of time.)

Time »
One rotation: 360°

Time delay e.g. 150°

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

When we take an absolute phase reading, we will get a single value, for
example 64 . What does 64 tell us? Absolutely nothing*. The reading
is based on the position of the reflective tape, so it could be anything
between 0 and 360 , or in most cases, between -180 and 180 .

* Actually, we will learn

later that if you know
where the accelerometer
is located relative to the
tachometer, and you
compensate for the
vibration units and
‚phase lag‛, you can
determine the location
of the heavy spot from a
single reading.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

The accelerometer can potentially be moved to another location to see

how the phase angle has changed. It could be moved to the other end
of the rotor to compare the vibration at both ends. In fact, that would
help us to distinguish between static, couple and dynamic unbalance.

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Understanding phase: Absolute phase

However, we would not move the phase reference. To do a proper

comparison, the phase reference is never moved when performing
phase analysis (to determine the true nature of the unbalance) or when
the balance job is underway.

Understanding phase: Absolute phase

Many analyzers have two vibration inputs, so the analyzer can make the
job more efficient by measuring the vibration from two accelerometers
at once. The two accelerometers can be positioned on the same
bearing, in order to look for the characteristic circular motion, or at
either end of the machine to check for static, couple and dynamic
unbalance.

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Understanding phase: Relative phase

We can utilize two accelerometers in a different way. We can measure

the vibration from each sensor, extract the vibration at the turning
speed, and then determine the phase difference between them. In this
case we would not use the tachometer as a once-per-revolution source.

Understanding phase: Relative phase

The analyzer will compare the two sources of vibration, at the turning
speed, and compare the relative positions of the high spot. (The red
“time” message shows the passage of time.)

Time »
One rotation: 360°

Time delay e.g. 150°

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Understanding phase: Relative phase

One other important point. When acquiring relative phase readings, it

is necessary to identify the frequency of interest. Although it is hard to
visualize, you can have phase readings at all frequencies. Therefore
you will either be required to enter the speed of the machine, or use
the tachometer input so that the analyzer knows the turning speed.

Understanding phase: Relative phase

The two sensors can be positioned at the vertical and horizontal

position on the bearing, or the two sensors can be positioned on
different bearings. The aim is to simply see how the phase angle
differs between those two points; i.e. we are measuring the relative
phase.

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Understanding phase: Relative phase

Just to clarify, we could measure the absolute phase with the

accelerometer in the horizontal position and read, for example, 64 . If
we then measure in the vertical direction it may read 154 . The key is
that the difference between the readings is 90 , and that confirms the
circular motion that we expect.

Understanding phase: Relative phase

On the other hand, we can take a relative phase measurement with a

two channel analyzer. The analyzer will compare the vertical reading
to the horizontal reading and report on the difference, which we
expect to be 90 .

Note that in reality we do

not expect exactly 90°. If
the machine is out of
balance we expect the
reading to be anywhere
from approximately 80° to
100°.

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Understanding phase: Summary

So, we have two types of phase measurement. Absolute phase will

have a timing reference, such as an optical tachometer. The reading
will be relative to that reference. This method is used when balancing.
A two channel analyzer can optionally be used so that it can take two
readings at once, which is especially helpful when balancing.

Understanding phase: Summary

The relative phase measurement method requires a two channel

analyzer. It will report on the difference in phase at the frequency of
interest. When trying to confirm the unbalance condition, the speed
of interest is the turning speed. The use of a tachometer is optional. It
will tell the analyzer the exact turning speed which saves you from
having to enter the speed.

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Thank you
That concludes ‚Understanding phase‛

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Section 5

Phase conventions
Understanding phase conventions so that you know which way to
move the weight during balancing

Phase conventions

When you perform a balance job and the system tells you to move the
weight by “32 ” – which way do you move it? Your analyzer may
handle this question for you, and it may give you options to control it;
but this section will explain what is going on. You see, it all comes
down to phase conventions.

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Phase conventions

Modern analyzers measure ‚phase lag‛. The term “lag” will be

explained in greater detail in the next section, but for the moment it is
easiest to think of it in this way: the analyzer reports ‚phase angles
increasing against the direction of rotation‛. This is called the
‚rotating protractor‛ convention. Confused? We’ll explain!

Phase conventions

Here is our situation. We have an accelerometer on the motor, but the

accelerometer signal is “double-integrated” to displacement so it reads
out in micron or mils. There is also a tachometer in line with the
accelerometer. On the top of the shaft is reflective tape, and the
keyway is generating unbalance; the heavy spot. We will explore some
of these terms in more detail in the next section.

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Phase conventions

If you look at this diagram you can see the normal phase convention
for a shaft rotating counter-clockwise. The shaft turns counter-
clockwise but the numbers get larger in the clockwise direction.

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Phase conventions

If you watch the animation you can see that as the shaft turns, the
phase angle gets larger. That is why we say ‚phase angles increasing
against the direction of rotation‛.

Phase conventions

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Phase conventions

The shaft is now rotating clockwise, therefore the phase angles

increase in the counter-clockwise direction.

Phase conventions

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Phase conventions

The balance analyzer may have the option of “Against rotation” [AR]
or “With Rotation” [WR]. Against Rotation is the standard convention
for all modern vibration analyzers that use an optical tach, laser tach or
keyphasor. But that was not always the case…

Phase conventions

There is another way to measure phase; with a strobe. Strobes can be

used in a number of ways to measure phase, but when used for
balancing, the strobe is tuned to the speed of the shaft and then the
“phase” of the strobe is tuned so that a physical mark (or keyway) is
aligned with a mark on the machine – e.g. a line placed at 12:00. The
output of the strobe is a “TTL” signal that triggers the analyzer.

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Phase conventions

When using a strobe, your reference protractor is fixed – the

convention is called “fixed protractor”. When using strobes, “phase
angles increase with the direction of rotation”; so you would use the
“With Rotation” [WR] option on your balancing program.

Phase conventions

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Phase conventions

This point will be mentioned

again, however when
performing a balance
calculation, and it is determined
that the final weight should be
added 32 from where the trial
32 weight was located (for
example), if you were using a
strobe you would place the final
weight 32 from where the trial
weight was located in the
direction of rotation. If you
were using a conventional
optical/laser tachometer or
keyphasor, you would place the
weight 32 against the direction
of rotation from where the trial
weight was located.

Phase conventions

T If you mark the direction of

Rotation rotation on the plot, and
remember the “against
rotation” convention, then you
will not make the mistake of
placing the final weight in the
32 wrong location.

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Thank you
That concludes ‚Phase conventions‛

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Section 6

Advanced phase
Understanding leading and lagging phase, high spot and heavy
spot, and the affect on the phase reading by the sensor type,
location, and system phase lag

Advanced phase

There is an “advanced” phase topic that we believe you should

know about. It is the relationship between the phase angle that is
displayed on the analyzer/balancing machine, and the actual heavy
spot on the rotor. There are three things to understand: the
relationship between velocity, acceleration and displacement and
the phase angle reported; the position of the sensor relative to the
tachometer; and the “dynamics” of the rotor and machine and how
that introduces a phase lag.

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Advanced phase

Understanding these issues will not only give you a far greater
understanding of the phase angles that you read, but it will help
you when adding a trial weight to the rotor. You see, if you have a
good estimate of the angle of the heavy spot, then you can place
your trial weight opposite the heavy spot. Even if you get it close to
the “light spot” you can be sure that the vibration amplitude will
not increase making the machine less safe to work around.

Advanced phase

So let’s look at each of those three issues in greater detail. We will

use the same model used in the previous section; the motor with a
key that is generating the heavy spot; and reflective tape at the key;
a sensor that can either provide an output in acceleration “A”,
velocity “V” or displacement “D”. We will start with the tachometer
mounted in-line with the sensor. We will also indicate the position
of the heavy spot and high spot with a flashing light.

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Advanced phase

We need a quick explanation of heavy spot and high spot. The high
spot is the peak in the vibration sine wave. We talk about a sine wave
because we are focused on just one frequency; the speed of the
machine.

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Advanced phase

The heavy spot is the physical angular location (e.g. the key on the
motor shaft) that is generating the unbalance forces. If the vibration is
measured in displacement, and the tachometer is aligned with the
sensor, and the reflective tape is aligned with the heavy spot, and there
is no mechanical lag (we’ll explain that soon) then we would measure
0 and the heavy spot and high spot would be in phase with each
other.

Advanced phase

Of course, if the reflective tape did not happen to line up with the
heavy spot we would measure a phase angle – in this example,
approximately 160 . Notice that we are measuring the delay or “lag”
between the time we see the tach pulse and the time we see the high
spot. The line you see moving is the passage of time; zero time is on
the left and time passes toward the right.

Time »
360°
160°

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Advanced phase

And it is worth commenting that in this case (displacement units,

sensor in line with tachometer, no mechanical phase lag) we would
know where the heavy spot was located – 160 against rotation (the
heavy spot lags 160 behind the reflective tape). We could therefore
place a trial weight opposite that spot: 20 with rotation (160 + 180 =
340 = 360 - 20 ) and the vibration would be reduced (as long as the
weight is not too large).

360°
160°

Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

Thus far we have discussed the case where the sensor produced an
output proportional to displacement (or the acceleration signal was
converted to displacement units in the analyzer). Let’s see what
happens if we use units of velocity. Velocity leads displacement by 90 .
This illustration comes from one of our classroom simulators.

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Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

Therefore, if we measure vibration in units of velocity, the angle would

be -90 . We measure phase lag, but velocity leads by 90 . So, before
you should attempt to think about where the heavy spot is located,
add 90 to the phase reading to compensate for velocity units.

90°

Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

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Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

Acceleration leads velocity by 90 , which means it leads displacement

by 180 . (One way to think of it is that the shaft must accelerate to
gain a velocity, and it must have a velocity before it can achieve a
displacement – therefore acceleration leads velocity which leads
displacement.)

Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

Therefore, if we measure vibration in units of acceleration, the angle

would be -180 . We measure phase lag, but acceleration leads by 180 .
So, before you should attempt to think about where the heavy spot is
located, add 180 to the phase reading to compensate for acceleration
units.

180°

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Advanced phase: Acceleration, velocity, and displacement

Advanced phase: Sensor position

There is another reason why the phase angle would not read zero if
the heavy spot happened to be located at the same angular position as
the reflective tape. If the sensor (reading in displacement units) and
the tachometer are not in line, we will have introduced another phase
shift. In this example the sensor is located at 3:00 on the motor. With
the rotor turning counter-clockwise, the heavy spot passes the sensor
before the reflective tape moves under the laser tachometer.

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Advanced phase: Sensor position

In this case we moved the sensor against the direction of rotation by

90 . Therefore the sensor senses the heavy spot before the tachometer
sees the reflective tape. Therefore it would register -90 ; i.e. a leading
phase angle.

90°

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Advanced phase: Phase lag

There is one more issue to consider – phase lag. When the heavy spot
moves under the sensor you may consider that the effect of the heavy
spot would have an immediate effect on the sensor – but it does not.
There are time delays between the heavy spot passing and the sensor
responding. The high spot corresponds to the sensor’s response to the
vibration, therefore there is a time delay between the heavy spot and
high spot. Time delay corresponds to phase lag.

Advanced phase: Phase lag

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Advanced phase: Phase lag

Phase lag comes from a number of sources: the electronics, the sensor,
and the machine. We will briefly consider the machine. If the rotor was
acting as a perfect rigid rotor then there would be no phase lag (from
that source). But there will be some phase lag. Without going into the
theory, if the rotor was operating at its critical (first bending mode)
speed, then there would be 90 phase lag.

Advanced phase: Phase lag

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Advanced phase: Phase lag

But we are balancing rotors that should be operating well below their
critical speeds, so we expect much less phase lag. In this example the
phase lag is 40 .

Advanced phase: Finding the heavy spot

So, what does this all tell us? When we are attempting to determine the
position of the heavy spot we start with the phase angle, then we add
90 if the units are velocity or 180 if the units are acceleration. Then
we add the angle between the sensor and the tachometer (measured
against the direction of rotation). Then we subtract an amount for total
phase lag. This number is hard to determine, but let’s just use 40 .
(That is, we add any phase shifts that lead, and subtract phase shifts that
lag.)

Position of heavy spot = Angle + Units + Position - Lag

Angle: Measured angle

Units: 0 for displacement | 90 for velocity | 180 for acceleration
Position: Angle of sensor against the direction of rotation
Lag: Total system phase lag e.g. 40
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Advanced phase: Finding the heavy spot

Let’s look at an example. We have a

phase readout of 32 . The vibration units
are velocity (mm/s or in/sec) and the
sensor is on the side of the motor. The
motor is rotating counter-clockwise. We
will assume 40 system phase lag.

Heavy spot = 32 + 90 + 90 – 40 = 172

The heavy spot is at 172 (approximately).

We should place our trial weight at 352
or -8 .

Position of heavy spot = Angle + Units + Position - Lag

Advanced phase: Finding the heavy spot

One question you may be asking; how do we know if 40 is a good value

to use for phase lag? We don’t really… It could be 20 or lower for a
low speed shaft that was operating well below first critical. It could be
higher for a higher speed shaft, but if it were a lot higher then the
machine would be operating too close to the critical and may start to
behave like a flexible rotor.

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Advanced phase: Finding the heavy spot

But more importantly, we do not really need to know exactly where it is,
we just want to place the weight in the quadrant opposite the heavy
spot. Anywhere in this area will reduce the vibration.

Light spot “zone”

Center of gravity

Heavy spot

Advanced phase: Finding the heavy spot

Even though this topic is advanced, it is

very important to understand what the
phase readings are telling you, and it will
help your balance job if you place trial
weights opposite the heavy spot.

Of course, you can make life easier for

yourself by using units of displacement
and mounting the tachometer and sensor
in line with each other.

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Advanced phase: Phase angles

One last comment. In all of the animations we have displayed a “true

protractor” that goes from 0 to 360 . Most modern vibration
analyzers actually provide readouts as -180 to +180 . This animation
demonstrates that convention.

Advanced phase: Phase lag

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Thank you
That concludes ‚Advanced phase‛

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Section 7

Understanding vectors
Understanding how amplitude and phase can be represented on
a polar plot as a vector

Understanding vectors

If you wish to perform a

single-plane balance with a
polar plot, then you must
understand vectors. If you
O wish to understand the
balancing process and the
effect of adding trial weights,
T
then it helps a great deal if
O+T you understand vectors.

Understanding vectors, and

knowing how to add and
subtract vectors may involve
learning some new concepts,
but I am sure that this section
will make it very clear to you.

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Understanding vectors

Vectors are a combination of an angle and a “scalar” amount. The

“scalar” amount could be wind speed, current flow in an ocean, or in
the vibration world, a vibration amplitude at the running speed of the
machine. For example, if a ship was sailing at 10 knots in a northerly
direction, then we can represent that as a vector: 10 knts @ 0 .
Readings such as 2 micron @ 45 and 0.5 in/sec @ 125 are vibration
vectors.

Angle

Scalar

Understanding vectors

0°
Vectors are normally
330° 30°
represented on a circular plot
called a “polar plot”.
Angle
300° 60°
The scalar value (amplitude)
is represented by the length
Amplitude of the line (arrow), and the
270° 90° angle is drawn with 0 at the
top.

240° 120°

210° 150°
180°

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Understanding vectors

The markings on the polar

plot make it possible to read
angles and lengths, although
Angle it can be helpful to also have
a ruler and a protractor;
especially when it comes to
vector addition and
Amplitude subtraction.

Understanding vectors

The radiating circles represent

the amplitude.

Here we have a simple

6 mils
example. We made the radius
5 mils of the plot equal to 6 mils
which means every ring
4 mils represents 1 mil (units of
displacement). The ruler will
3 mils
help us to measure the length
2 mils
of the vectors.

1 mil

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Understanding vectors

If we measured a vibration of
5 mils at 45 then we would
draw the vector as shown.

Understanding vectors

To make sure we really

understand vectors, let’s go
through a simple example.

Here we have a ship traveling

at its maximum speed of 10
knots towards the east. The
ship is moving due to its
engines. There is no wind and
no current.

Therefore the ship travels east

at 10 knots. As a vector we
would describe this as:

10 knts @ 90

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Understanding vectors

Unfortunately for the ship, a

wind blows up from the south
which has the effect of
pushing the ship to the north.
The wind is strong enough
such that if it turned its
engines off the ship would
travel at 10 knots to the
north.

Understanding vectors

But if the ship turns on its

engines and tries to sail to the
east, it would find that it does
not travel to the east; instead
it travels to the north-east.

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Understanding vectors

We can therefore represent

the actual movement of the
ship with a different vector,
one that points at 45 .

If we were to measure the

length of that vector we
would find that it was
14.14 knots in length. So the
good news for the ship is that
it is traveling faster than
before. The bad news is that
it is going in the wrong
direction…

Understanding vectors

We can determine the angle

and length mathematically or
we can plot the vectors on a
polar plot and either use the
scale provided or use a ruler
and protractor.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

What we have actually just

done is to add two vectors.
Let’s look at that a little more
closely.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Adding vectors is a case of

moving the tail of one vector
to the tip of the other vector.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

It does not matter which

vector is added first. No
matter how you add them
the result will be the same.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

And it does not matter how

many vectors must be added;
the process is the same.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Vectors can “easily” be

added mathematically. It is a
case of breaking each vector
into its “X” and “Y”
components, and then
adding the “X” components
and adding the “Y”
components.

The length of the vector “Z”

can be calculated using
Pythagoras’ theorem. And
the angle can be calculated
using ATAN (tan-1), as shown.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Z = SQRT(X2 + Y2) α = ATAN (X/Y)

X = X1 + X2

Y = Y1 + Y2 Z 2 Y2

X2
1 Y1

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

It is worth making a very

important point right now. If
you consider an out-of-
balance rotor, the source of
imbalance is probably not
just one source at precisely
one location (like a bolt that
has been attached to the
rotor in the wrong location).

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

More than likely there are a

number of sources of erosion
and material porosity,
dirt/grim build-up, and so on.

Each source of mass (or loss

of mass) can be represented
by a vector.

Porosity or erosion: this is

a loss of mass so the
vector points away from
these points.

Build-up of dirt/grime
that cannot be cleaned
off. They add mass.
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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

And just as before, we can

add the vectors together.
The red vector is the final
vector that we would
measure as the unbalance.

Please note that you would

not need to add these
vectors; this just happens
naturally. The point is that
each individual source of
unbalance contributes to the
final unbalance that causes
the machine to vibrate.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

There is one interesting

situation to consider. What
would happen if we added
these two vectors?

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Yes, that is correct. Because

they have the same length,
and their angles are
opposite, the result is a
vector with zero length!

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Why is this relevant?

Because that is exactly what
we are trying to do when we
balance the rotor. If the red
vector represents the sum of
the sources of unbalance
(porosity, erosion, etc.), then
we will add a weight that
would create the blue vector
– it will have an equal and
opposite effect.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Here is a simple simulator which should help you to get a good feel for
adding vectors. Use your mouse to click and drag the ends of the two
vectors.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

We have also created a “fun” simulator (on the next slide) that let’s you
experiment by creating different sources of wind to blow a boat around
a small ocean.

Each time you click the ‚+‛ button a new cloud will appear that will
blow the wind in the desired direction. Drag the cloud around the
ocean to set its direction, and use the slider to set its strength. If you
click the ‚V‛ button you will see the vectors, and if you click the ‚>‛
button the boat will move in response to the sum of all the sources of
wind.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

There are two special features in

our balance simulator that should
be pointed out. The addition of a
mass on a rotor will have a
certain effect, as we have seen.
But there are two “features” that
you may not have noticed.

First, you can add the weights at

different distances from the
center (i.e. different radiuses) – if
you watch the lengths of the
vectors, and how the rotor
rotates when it is unlocked, you
can see that they have a different
influence.

Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

Second, a 1 gram weight on a

large rotor will have a very
different influence than on a
small rotor. There is an option on
the right that allows you to
switch between a light, medium,
or heavy rotor. You can see how
the weights influence the rotor
differently (watch the center of
gravity “+” and how the rotor
spins).

You can experiment with the

simulator on the next slide.

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Understanding vectors: Adding vectors

We can take a look at this in a slightly different way If you click the
button (in the top-left) the ocean will be replaced by a rotor. When you
click “+” you will add weights to the rotor. And if you click the red
button, holes will be added (they have the opposite effect to weights).
The buttons in the lower-left allow you to change the density of the
rotor (changing its mass, and thus changing the influence of the masses).

Understanding vectors: Subtracting vectors

Subtracting vectors often causes a great deal of confusion. It is a

necessary step when performing single-plane balancing with vectors.

The confusion is unnecessary.

To subtract vector “A” from vector “B”, you simply turn vector “A”
around 180 and then add it!

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Understanding vectors: Subtracting vectors

If we have vectors “A” and

“B” and we want “A-B” then
we flip “B” around by 180
and then add its tail to the
tip of vector “A”.
A-B
B
A

Understanding vectors: Subtracting vectors

Note that subtraction is not

like addition: “A-B” is
different to “B-A” (sorry if
that sounds obvious).

The result is the same vector

A as last time, rotated 180 .
A

B-A B

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Understanding vectors: Subtracting vectors

Here is a simple simulator which should help you to get a good feel for
subtracting vectors. Use your mouse to click and drag the ends of the
two vectors.

Understanding vectors: Conclusion

0°
Hopefully you feel more
330° 30°
comfortable with vectors
now.
Angle
300° 60°
You will see them in action
in the “Splitting weights”
Amplitude and “Combining weights”
270° 90° sections, and they will be
applied in the “Single plane
balancing” section.

240° 120°
You can always come back
to this section and use the
210° 150°
simulators again if you ever
180° become a little confused.

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Thank you
That concludes ‚Understanding vectors‛

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Section 8

Terminology
The definition of a few common balancing terms

Terminology from Dennis H Shreve, Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”

Definitions are also available from ISO 1925: 2001
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Terminology

The following few slides contain definitions of commonly used

balancing terms:

BALANCE QUALITY GRADE – G### - for rigid rotors, G, is the product of

specific unbalance, e, and rotor maximum service angular velocity.
Service angular velocity is service RPM expressed in radians per second.

G = e x ω = constant

CENTER OF GRAVITY - the point in a body through which the resultant

of the weights of its component particles passes for all orientations of
the body with respect to a gravitational field C.G.

CORRECTION (BALANCING) PLANE – plane perpendicular to the shaft

axis of a rotor in which correction for unbalance is made.

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Terminology

COUPLE UNBALANCE - that condition of unbalance for which the

central principal axis intersects the shaft axis at the center of gravity.

CRITICAL SPEED - speed at which a system resonance is excited. The

resonance may be of the journal supports (rigid mode) or flexure of the
rotor (flexural mode).

Terminology

DYNAMIC UNBALANCE - that condition of unbalance for which the

central principal axis is not parallel to and does not intersect the shaft
axis.

Note: Dynamic unbalance is equivalent to two unbalance vectors in two specified

planes which completely represent the total unbalance of the rotor.
Note: Dynamic unbalance may also be resolved into static and couple unbalance
vectors whose vector sum is also equal to the total unbalance of the rotor.
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Terminology

FLEXIBLE ROTOR - a rotor that does not satisfy the rigid rotor definition
because of elastic deflection.

PERMISSIBLE RESIDUAL UNBALANCE Uper – the maximum residual

unbalance permitted for a rotor or in a correction plane.

Uper = eper x m

where m = rotor mass

PRINCIPAL INERTIA AXIS - the coordinate directions corresponding to

the principal moments of inertia. In balancing, the term principal inertia
axis is used to designate the central principal axis most nearly coincident
with the shaft axis of the rotor.

Terminology

RESIDUAL (FINAL) UNBALANCE - the unbalance of any kind that remains

after balancing.

RIGID ROTOR - a rotor is considered rigid if its unbalance can be

corrected in any two correction planes. After the correction, the residual
unbalance does not change significantly at any speed up to the
maximum service speed.

ROTOR - a body capable of rotation which generally has journals

supported by bearings.

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Terminology

STATIC UNBALANCE - that condition of unbalance for which the central

principal axis is displaced only parallel to the shaft axis.

SPECIFIC UNBALANCE - static unbalance U divided by rotor mass m (i.e.,

mass eccentricity).

Note: In the case of a rotor with two correction planes, specific

unbalance may refer to the unbalance in one plane divided by rotor
mass allocated to that plane.
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Balancing theory
Understanding the science and mathematics behind the unbalance
forces, and how unbalance and balance sensitivity is quoted

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Balancing theory

There are a number of concepts

that are very helpful to understand
when involved in field balancing.
Terms like “unbalance” (permissible
and residual), “sensitivity” and
“centrifugal force” should be
understood so that you can be
proficient in this field.

Balancing theory: Unbalance

When describing unbalance

we have thus far simply
Mass: m spoken of the “unbalance
mass” that exists at some
angle. For balancing
purposes we are
attempting to determine
the value of mass and the
angle.

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Balancing theory: Unbalance

There is one key parameter

that we should add to this
Mass: m equation – the radius of
that mass.

If we double the radius the

Radius: r
mass has twice the effect.
That is why trial weights
and balance weights should
be attached at the greatest
radius possible, and why all
of the trial weights and
final weights need to be at
the same radius.

Balancing theory: Unbalance

Therefore, when
attempting to quantify the
Mass: m unbalance, we combine the
mass and the radius. The
mass is quoted in ounces
[oz] or grams [gr]. The
Radius: r radius is typically measured
in inches [in] or millimeters
[mm].

(Note that grams is often

used around the world
including the USA.)

Unbalance [U] : mass [m] x radius [r]

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Balancing theory: Unbalance

Unbalance is therefore
quoted as [oz-in], [gr-in] or
Mass: m [gr-mm].

For example, if the

unbalance mass was 5 grams
Radius: r
and the radius was 10
inches, the unbalance would
be quoted as 50 gr-in.

Unbalance [U] : mass [m] x radius [r]

Balancing theory: Unbalance

Unbalance is not speed

related. Each of these
unbalance weights all
6 gr @ 2 in 4 gr @ 3 in provide the same level of
unbalance: 12 gr-in.
12 gr @ 1 in 3 gr @ 4 in

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Balancing theory: Force

Now we will consider the

Speed: ω force generated by the
Mass: m mass [m], operating at the
radius [r], which is rotating
at the speed ω.
Radius: r
When we bring them all
together, we can calculate
the force as follows:

F = m r ω2

Balancing theory: Force

The rotating speed ω is

Speed: ω
actually measured in
Mass: m
radians per second (radian
is a measure of angle).

Radius: r
ω=2πf
ω ≈ RPM / 10

F = m r ω2

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Balancing theory: Force

We can therefore re-state

Speed: ω the equation as follows:
Mass: m

F = m r (RPM / 10)2
Radius: r

F = m r ω2

Balancing theory: Force

The centrifugal force can be easily calculated knowing the speed, mass
and radius. The equations are as follows*:

Imperial: F = 1.77 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: lbF | Mass [m]: oz | Radius [r]: inches

Combination: F = 0.0625 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: lbF | Mass [m]: gram | Radius [r]: inches

Metric: F = 0.001 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: kgF | Mass [m]: gram | Radius [r]: mm

* David Bernhard “Machinery Balancing” page 34

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Balancing theory: Force

We can restate the metric equation in Newton which takes into

account the Earth’s gravitational constant “g”:

Victor Wowk “Machinery Vibration

Metric: F = 1.1 x m x r x (RPM / 10)2 Balancing” page 37

Force [F]: Newton | Mass [m]: gram | Radius [r]: mm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram-force
1 N = 0.22481 lbF

1 N = 0.10197 kgF
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity
g = 9.80665 m/s2

F = m r ω2 / g Art Crawford, “Simplified Handbook of

Vibration Analysis” page 107

Balancing theory: Eccentricity

There is another way to

Speed: ω describe the unbalance and
centrifugal force; via the
eccentricity.

If the rotor were perfectly

GC CG balanced the center of
gravity [CG] would coincide
with the geometric center
[GC].

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Balancing theory: Eccentricity

However, when there is an

unbalance, the center of
gravity [CG] would be
“pulled away” from the
geometric center [GC].
CG
GC The unbalance [U] can be
written in terms of the mass
Eccentricity: e of the rotor (not the out-of-
balance mass) and the
Mass of rotor: M eccentricity:

U=Me

Balancing theory: Force

The centrifugal force can

Speed: ω also be computed based on
the mass of the rotor [M]
and the eccentricity [e] due
to the unbalance:
CG
GC
F = M e ω2
Eccentricity: e
ω ≈ RPM / 10
Mass of rotor: M

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100

Thank you
That concludes “Balancing theory”

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101

Section 9
Different types of
unbalance
Understanding static, couple and dynamic unbalance

Different types of unbalance

It is important at this point to define the difference between static,

couple, and dynamic unbalance. These differences become very
important when it comes time to balance the machine.

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Static unbalance

Static unbalance has all of the unbalance forces in one “plane” only. A
rotor that is only statically unbalanced can be balanced with a single
weight, and once balanced the rotor can be spun and have no
“centrifugal” forces. (In reality you will never achieve a balance state
where no centrifugal forces will be generated.)

Static unbalance

A unique characteristic with static unbalance is that, if you watch the

two ends of the shaft you will see that they are in phase, with each
other – they rise and fall together. This is information that helps the
vibration analyst to distinguish it from other types of unbalance.

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Static unbalance

If the rotor was placed on a knife-edge it would roll so that the red
“out of balance mass” was at the bottom.

Couple unbalance

Pure couple unbalance does not have any static component. It is

modelled as two equal weights placed 180 opposite each other in two
planes.

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Couple unbalance

If you watch the rocking motion you will see that it pivots around a
point which is at the mid-point of the shaft because there is no static
unbalance.

Couple unbalance

And if you watch the rocking motion you will see that the two ends of
the shaft are perfectly out-of-phase with each other – one goes up as
the other goes down.

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Couple unbalance

Because it is statically balanced, if the rotor was placed on a knife edge

it would not roll. That is because the center of gravity is actually at the
same point as the geometric center (at the midpoint of the shaft).

Dynamic unbalance

Dynamic unbalance is a combination of static and couple unbalance.

Or another way to look at it is that it can be represented as one “out-
of-balance” mass at one position at one end of the rotor, and a
different out-of-balance mass at a different angular position at the
other end of the rotor.

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Dynamic unbalance

If you look at the vibration motion, you can see there is a rocking
motion, somewhat similar to the couple unbalance, but you can see
that the two ends of the rotor are not in-synch (or in-phase) with each
other, nor are they exactly opposite in phase.

Dynamic unbalance

In fact, depending upon the amount of couple unbalance and the

amount of static unbalance, the two ends of the shaft could be almost
in phase or almost exactly out of phase, or anywhere in between.

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Dynamic unbalance

As we can see, the center of gravity will be offset from the geometric
center. If placed on a knife edge, it would roll. Therefore dynamic
unbalance is a combination of static and couple unbalance.

Thank you
That concludes “Different types of unbalance”

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108

Section 10

Diagnosing unbalance
Determining if a machine is out-of-balance with spectrum
analysis, phase and other techniques

Diagnosing unbalance

The centrifugal forces generated when a machine is out-of-balance are

very simple. A strong once-per-revolution force will be generated
which results in a high peak at the turning speed of the shaft.

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Diagnosing unbalance

If the machine is running at 1755 RPM (or 1455 RPM) then the peak
in the spectrum will be at 1755 CPM (or 1455 CPM). We call this
peak the “1X peak” because the frequency is “one times the speed
of the machine”.

Diagnosing unbalance

If we are dealing with a belt driven machine, then the peak will be at
the frequency of the turning speed of the out-of-balance component.

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Diagnosing unbalance

It does not matter if the machine is suffering from static, couple or

dynamic unbalance, there will still be a peak at the turning speed of
the unbalanced rotor.

Diagnosing unbalance

If the rotor is center-hung, the vibration will increase radially

(vertically and horizontally) but not very much in the axial direction.
However, if the rotor is overhung, then there will be a much greater
increase in vibration at 1X in the axial direction.

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Diagnosing unbalance

For vertical machines, the vibration will become stronger in the radial
direction – it is all horizontal in this case. It will be a little lower in the
direction where it has the greatest stiffness from the piping.

Diagnosing unbalance

As we will see, however, there are a number of fault conditions that

can easily be confused with unbalance. Even someone with vibration
analysis experience can misdiagnose unbalance. Therefore it is
important to make sure that the rotor really is out-of-balance, and
that it is the dominant fault, before you attempt to balance the rotor.

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Diagnosing unbalance

There are a few ways to ensure that the machine really is out-of-
balance:

1. Change the speed and see how the amplitude changes

2. Compare vertical and horizontal readings
3. Use your knowledge of the machine
4. Use phase readings

Diagnosing unbalance: Speed

As stated earlier, the forces generated by

the unbalanced rotor are proportional to
the speed squared. Therefore, as the
speed of the machine is increased, the
vibration amplitude will grow very quickly.

Force α Speed2

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Diagnosing unbalance: Speed

Therefore, if we double the speed of the machine, the vibration

amplitude should increase by a factor of four. If you halve the speed,
the vibration amplitude should drop to approximately 25% of the
original value. So, if you have the ability to change the speed of the
machine you can compare the speed change to the amplitude change.

Diagnosing unbalance: Comparison

If you look closely at the movement of the shaft, you will see that it
moves in a circular motion. In this animation we are mimicking the
effect of the rotor spinning in space – no gravity or any other
constraints.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Comparison

When the rotor is mounted in its bearings, gravity, and the stiffness of
the structure will result in more of an elliptical motion. Typically it will
move a little more in the horizontal direction than the vertical direction
because the structure will be weaker horizontally (or laterally). With
other fault conditions we do not see the same elliptical motion.

Diagnosing unbalance: Comparison

So, if you take a reading in the vertical direction and the horizontal
direction and see they are similar, then that would be one more
indicator that suggests the machine is out of balance.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Experience

If you are operating a fan and the air it is moving is dust-laden, and
you see the vibration amplitude at the turning speed rise gradually
over time, then the odds are that it is going out of balance. It is less
likely to be one of the other fault conditions that is confused with
unbalance.

Common sense and experience are valuable, and it may be possible

to briefly shut down the unit and quickly inspect and clean the
blades to confirm your suspicion. But if that is not possible then I
would suggest that additional tests should be performed, and the
best test is “phase”.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase

Phase is an excellent diagnostic tool for detecting unbalance and

determining whether the machine is statically unbalanced (requiring
a single plane balance) or if there is a couple, in which case a two-
plane balance is required.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Phase

Using a two channel analyzer is ideal as there is no need to establish

a once per revolution reference. However strobes and modern laser-
tachometers provide an excellent reference that means the machine
does not have to be stopped.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Vertical versus horizontal

The first point to note is that due to the centrifugal forces, the
motion of the shaft at the bearing will be circular. We therefore
expect that the phase difference between vertical and horizontal
will be close to 90 .

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Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Vertical versus horizontal

This rule is correct regardless of whether the rotor has static, couple,
or dynamic unbalance, or if the rotor is overhung. We expect to see
approximately 90 phase shift between vertical and horizontal.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Center-hung rotors

If the rotor is center-hung, we can test the bearings on either end of

the rotor. We can compare the vertical phase readings, or the
horizontal phase readings – the relationships should be the same.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Center-hung rotors

If there is static unbalance, we will see that the phase angles are in-
phase. If the difference is within 40 then you can assume the rotor
is statically unbalanced and can be corrected with a single-plane
solution.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Center-hung rotors

If the angle is greater than 40 then you know that there is a couple
component that must be corrected. If it was greater than
approximately 140 then it is dominated by couple unbalance and
there is very little static unbalance to correct.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Overhung rotor

An overhung rotor will also have distinct phase relationships that we

can look for. As stated, the 90 rule applies between vertical and
horizontal. But in addition to being able to look at the radial
readings, an overhung rotor generates axial vibration that can also
be checked.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Overhung rotor

In this animation you can see the effect of the rocking motion, or
“cross-effect”, that is created due to the couple-component. This
will generate axial vibration which can be measured on the two
bearings.

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Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Overhung rotor

We expect the axial readings to be in-phase as the rotor rocks back

and forth with the couple effect. Comparing the vertical readings
from both bearings (or comparing horizontal readings) we expect to
see an angle between 0 and 180 . It will be closer to 180 if the
couple effect is strong.

Diagnosing unbalance: Phase: Overhung rotor

Phase is a very useful diagnostic tool for confirming that unbalance

exists, and for confirming whether we need to perform a single-
plane balance or two-plane balance job.

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Thank you
That concludes “Diagnosing unbalance”

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122

Section 11
Confusing unbalance with
other fault conditions
Understanding that there are other fault conditions that also
result in unbalance or generate vibration just like an out-of-
balance rotor.

Confusing unbalance

There are a number of conditions which generate unbalance forces

(because the center of gravity is not in the same plane as the geometric
center) however the solution will not be to balance the machine.

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Confusing unbalance

In other cases, the vibration generated as a result of the fault condition

either looks identical to the vibration generated by unbalance, or it
looks similar enough under certain circumstances that it is easily
confused with unbalance. The point is that it is very important to
confirm that the machine is out-of-balance before trying to balance the
machine.

Confusing unbalance: Bent shaft

If the shaft is bent it will generate “centrifugal forces”, however the

solution is to straighten the shaft, not balance it. In the case of a
motor, the shaft may be bent because the rotor is heating unevenly,
perhaps because of broken rotor bars.

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Confusing unbalance: Bent shaft

Here we can see how the pulley (sheave) is moving as a result of the
shaft being bent. Even if it was balanced, you will not change the fact
that the bearings and belt are being affected by the bend.

Confusing unbalance: Bent shaft

Here is another view of the fan vibration that results from a bent shaft.

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Confusing unbalance: Eccentricity

If the pulley is eccentric, either because the hole is not centered

correctly, or because of a mismatch between the shaft size and the
pulley bore, then there will be unbalance forces, plus significant forces
on the belts.

Confusing unbalance: Eccentricity

Here you can see the affect of the eccentricity. The vibration
generated makes it look like the motor is out-of-balance, but balancing
would not solve the problem.

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Confusing unbalance: Shaft misalignment

If there is an offset or angle between two shafts, then forces will be

generated which appear to be related to unbalance. It is not easy to
understand the forces associated with misalignment; the key point for
now is that it is easy to confuse the two conditions.

Confusing unbalance: Shaft misalignment: Parallel/offset

As you can see, when offset (or parallel) misalignment exists, there
are strong radial forces on the bearings, coupling, shaft and seals.

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Confusing unbalance: Shaft misalignment: Angular/gap

As the shaft rotates there is a strong push-pull-push-pull force in the

axis of the shaft – i.e. in the axial direction. Unbalance in overhung
machines will generate a similar force, so it can be easily confused.

Confusing unbalance: Pulley (sheave) misalignment

If the pulleys are misaligned, the vibration generated will again appear
to be similar to unbalance. But once again, the solution is not to
balance the machine.

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Confusing unbalance: Pulley (sheave) misalignment

In this animation the pulleys are misaligned in a slightly different way.

Confusing unbalance: Pulley (sheave) misalignment

In this animation the pulleys are again misaligned but in a slightly

different way.

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Confusing unbalance: Runout

Runout will also generate vibration with the same forces as unbalance,
however, once again, balancing will not solve the problem.

Confusing unbalance: Conclusion

The bottom line is that it is very important to ensure that the machine
really is out-of-balance in such a way that balancing will correct the
fault. All other machine problems must be corrected before you
attempt to balance the machine.

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Thank you
That concludes “Confusing unbalance”

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Section 12

Safety first!
Making sure you are safe when working around rotating
machinery.

Preparing for the balance job: Safety first

You must ensure your safety

when performing the balance
job. There are four main
sources of danger: the machine
starting (or the rotor turning)
while you are working on the
machine; balance weights flying
off the rotor when the rotor is
spinning; working in a
hazardous environment; and
becoming entangled in the
rotor.

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Preparing for the balance job: Safety first

ISO 20806:2009 “Mechanical

vibration – criteria and
safeguards for the in-situ
balancing of medium and large
rotors” includes information on
safety.

Preparing for the balance job: Shaft rotating

Every plant should have safety procedures so that the machine you
are working on can be locked out. Sadly I have heard stories of the
wrong machine being locked out; override systems activating a
machine; or other people overriding the lock-out and starting a
machine. These situations are not supposed to be possible, but they
have happened – be careful!

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Preparing for the balance job: Shaft rotating

When working on fans, for example, a draft through the fan can
cause the rotor to turn, potentially quickly. It is important to secure
the rotor and to make sure that air cannot cause the rotor to turn.

Preparing for the balance job: Flying projectiles

When you add a trial weight to the rotor (we’ll explain more about
this soon), and later when you add the final weights, it is essential
that they are fixed in such away that they cannot become detached
and fly away from the rotor.

Images from www.balancingweights.com

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Preparing for the balance job: Flying projectiles

The balance weights will become high speed projectiles, potentially

tearing through enclosures, and potentially killing a person who is
struck. Therefore rule 1 is to ensure that the weights are secured
appropriately, and rule 2 is that you spend the least amount of time
possible “in the firing line”. Try to position yourself behind something
solid, or work in a location where the weight would miss you if it were
to fly off.

Images from www.balancingweights.com

Preparing for the balance job: Hazardous environment

Of course, when balancing the machine you will need to gain access
to the rotor. You must be careful about toxic fumes, hot air, hot
metal parts, and anything else that could harm you.

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The balancing check-list

Making sure that the machine can be field balanced

Preparing for the balance job

Now that we are more familiar with what unbalance is, and how to
diagnose the condition so that you know the machine needs to be
balanced, we must next make sure that the machine can be
balanced in-situ; otherwise the rotor will need to be removed and it
will need to be balanced in your workshop or at an external balance
workshop.

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Preparing for the balance job

You will need to meet all of these requirements in order to be able

to perform field balancing:

1. You can start and stop the machine

2. It is possible to add balance weights
3. It is possible to gain access to the rotor
4. It is possible to control the speed of the machine
5. It is possible to test the machine with steady amplitude and
phase readings
6. It is possible to take a phase reading
7. You have the required field balancing system

Preparing for the balance job

You can start and stop the machine

As you will learn when we describe the balance process, it will be

necessary to stop the machine, add a weight, start the machine, and
measure vibration. If you cannot stop and start the machine then
you cannot balance the machine.

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Preparing for the balance job

It is possible to add balance weights (you will need access to the

rotor, fan blades, etc.)

In order to balance a machine you must add weights and then run
the machine in order to measure the effect of those weights, and
then add final weights to balance the machine. The rotor must
provide a location to add the weight (ideally in such a way that they
can be easily removed afterwards in the case of the “trial weights”).

Note, it is also possible to remove weight instead of adding weight

by drilling holes or grinding.

Preparing for the balance job

It is possible to gain access to the rotor

When you balance a machine it is necessary to gain access to the

rotor*. It must therefore be possible (and safe) to access the
extremities of the fan blades (or whatever it is that you are
balancing) in order to add and remove the weights.

* Some machines can be

balanced without gaining
access the internal rotor
(motor shaft, gearbox shaft,
etc.). It may be possible to
balance the machine by
adding weights to a
component that is more
easily accessible.

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Preparing for the balance job

It is possible to control the speed of the machine

When you balance the machine you will take a number of vibration
readings. Each reading should be taken when the machine is
running at the same speed. If you cannot control the speed of the
machine then it will be difficult, if not impossible, to balance the
machine.

Preparing for the balance job

The speed, amplitude and phase must be steady during the tests

When recording the vibration readings during the balancing process

it is essential that the readings are “stable”. When machines start-
up they will heat-up and other physical and thermal changes can
occur. If you record the vibration readings during this time then the
balance calculations will be incorrect. You will need to monitor the
amplitude and phase reading until they no longer change before
you make the reading.

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Preparing for the balance job

It is possible to take a phase reading

Phase readings are required when

balancing the rotor, so you need a way
to record the phase. Typically that
means adding a piece of reflective
tape to an area of the shaft that is
visible from a point where the
tachometer can be positioned.

(Note that there other techniques

available that do not require phase
readings, for example the four-run-no-
phase technique.)

Preparing for the balance job

You will need the required instrumentation and a balance

program/method

I guess it goes without saying that you will need all the equipment
required to perform in-situ balancing. This equipment includes:

1. A vibration meter capable of measuring speed, amplitude and phase

2. A balancing instrument or calculator, or polar paper and a
protractor
3. Reflective tape for the phase reading
4. Balance weights and a means to secure them to the rotor
5. Scales to measure the mass of the weights

Note that items 1 and 2 are often combined into one unit. Many
portable data collectors (vibration analyzers) and balancing systems are
capable of measuring vibration and performing the balance
calculations.
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Thank you
That concludes “Preparing for the balance job”

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Section 13

Single-plane balancing
Balancing a rotor with static unbalance using a balance
program in your analyzer or a balancing system

Single plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

In this section we will discuss the process

that is followed to perform a single-
plane balance with a balancing system
or a vibration analyzer with a balancing
program.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

The focus in this section is to consider the issues that you should
consider as you go through each of the steps in the balance job. In the
next section we will describe how to perform the balance manually
using vectors. It is useful to understand the steps described in this
section before you look at the vector section.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Record the “as found” vibration

Assuming that the machine is already running, you should take an

initial reading and verify that the machine is out of balance. This
process is discussed in a separate section, but it is an essential step.
You can waste a lot of time trying to balance a machine that either
is not out of balance or has other fault conditions that should be
repaired first.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

You should also compare the vertical vibration to the horizontal. It

is a good idea to perform the balance job while measuring the
vibration in the axis with the highest vibration. This is normally the
horizontal axis, but you should check.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Stop the machine inspect the rotor

When you stop the machine, depending

upon the nature of the machine, you may
be able to inspect the rotor and look for
any obvious reason why it is out of
balance. If it is a fan, the blades should
be carefully cleaned. Rust or other
particulates should be brushed (or
scraped) off. You should inspect the
rotor for balance weights that have
fallen off (if you can tell), or any other
components that have come away and
caused the unbalance. If necessary, you
may perform a repair before you start
the machine.

Image: WEI: Wasil Electrical

Industries Please take all safety precautions!
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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Determine where the weights

will be installed

If you have not balanced this rotor

before you will need to check that
you have a way to add weight to
this rotor.

When you do determine the

location for the weights, if you
You think your job is hard; imagine
balancing a wind turbine!
intend to use balance quality
tolerances, you must measure the
radius of the weight location (i.e.
the distance in inches or mm from
the center of the shaft to the point
where the weight will be installed.)

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Install the accelerometer and phase reference

You must now install the phase reference (for example, the
optical/laser tachometer) in such a way that you can continue to
measure a consistent once-per-rev signal throughout the balance job.

You should also mount the accelerometer in the axis with the highest
vibration. It is a good idea, if possible, to mount the optical/laser tach
in the same axis as the accelerometer (it makes it easier to determine
the location of the heavy spot).

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Set up the balance software

Now you will need to set up the

balancing system. You may need to
tell it which way the shaft is rotating,
where the accelerometer is mounted
relative to the phase reference, units
preferences, and other settings.
Please refer to the operating manual
for your system.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Record the “original” vibration

Now you should start the machine, monitor the amplitude and phase
and wait until it is steady, and then record the vibration and phase.

If you did clean the rotor, or perform any other form of repair, you
should also recheck the vibration patterns to ensure that the
vibration measured is still related to unbalance.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the trial weight

Once you have the original reading

the machine can be stopped and
opened. You must safely access the
rotor in order to add the trial weight.
Knowing how much mass to use,
where to place it, and how to safely
fix it to the rotor is covered in its own
section.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Start the machine and record the “original + trial” reading

Now you should start the machine, monitor the amplitude and phase
and wait until it is steady, and then record the vibration and phase.

You must check that the phase has changed by 30 and/or the
amplitude has changed by 30%. If this goal is not achieved you will
need to stop the machine, add a larger weight (to the same location),
and restart the machine. (If you add the weight to a different location
you could have a much larger effect on the vibration, potentially
creating a dangerous situation.)

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Stop the machine and calculate

the unbalance

Now the balancing system will be

able to compute the balance solution.
It will provide a mass that must be
added to the rotor. It is a good idea
to look at the vectors if possible; just
to do a reality check.

From this information you can

determine the unbalance. It is the
mass that the system has asked you to
add to the rotor, multiplied by the
radius at which you must place the
weight. The units are oz-in, gr-in, or
gr-mm.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the balance weight to the rotor

Now add that weight to the rotor. Here are a few quick points:

1. The weight must be added at the same radius as where the trial
weight was added. If that is not possible, then you must adjust the
weight according to the new radius (double the radius, halve the
mass).

2. If you only have discrete locations for the weights, the calculated
weight may need to be split into two weights. See the “Splitting
weights” section.

3. If the balance system does not provide clear instructions, the weight
will be added against the direction of rotation if you are using a
tachometer, or with direction of rotation if you are using a strobe.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Here are a few quick points (continued):

4. Always weigh the balance weights that you intend to add; don’t
assume that the weights are as marked (when using commercial
balance weights).

5. Make sure you also weigh any items used to fix the weight in place
(nuts, bolts, weld, rivets, etc.)

6. It is normally assumed that the trail weight will be removed before

adding the final weight. If you wish to leave the trial weight on the
rotor, the balancing system should have an option to compute a
different solution where the trial weight is left in place (assume it is
secure enough for the long term).

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Run the machine and take the final readings

Now start the machine again, monitor the amplitude and phase, and
when it is steady, record the final reading.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Calculate the trim solution

Ask the balancing system to compute

the weight required to perform a
trim balance. It will recommend a
new mass and angle. It is normally
assumed that the “final” weight that
you have already added will remain
on the rotor.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Determine if the rotor is balanced

At this point you can determine if the

rotor is balanced. You have a vibration
amplitude that can be compared to
one of three standards (or your
organization’s requirements) if that is
how you determine the balance state.
You will also know the residual
(remaining) unbalance Ures based on
the weight recommendation and the
radius at which you must place the
weight (in oz-in, gr-in, or gr-mm). This
is all explained in the “Balancing
quality and tolerances” section.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the trim weight

If you conclude that the unbalance is too high then you should add
the weight recommended by the balancing system. You will stop
the machine, add the weight, run the machine, record the vibration,
and then ask the system to compute another trim solution. Once
again you can determine if the residual unbalance is permissible.

And if it is not good enough then you will repeat this process.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Dealing with problems

You may get to a point where you feel like you are “chasing
shadows”. You add the trim weight, run the machine, and it is still
not good enough. You may also find it hard to get a good reading
at 1X or a steady phase reading if you are using a strobe. There are
a number of challenges you could face, however we address these
challenges in the “What can go wrong?” section.

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Consolidate the trim weights

Hopefully after just one or two (or

zero) trim runs you will believe that
the machine is now precision
balanced, ideally to G 1.0 (see the
section on balance quality later).

If you did have to add multiple trim

weights you may consider stopping
the machine and combining them
into just one weight which is fastened
to the rotor in a way that is suitable
for the long term operation of the
machine. This is discussed in the
“Combining weights” section.

Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Document your results

At this stage you should document your

results. The standard ISO 20806:2009
discusses the information that should be
recorded and how it should be reported.
But it is important to record the as-found
and final vibration readings, the balance
weight radius, the final location and
masses of the balance weights, and of
course, information which identifies the
machine, site, and balancer (you).

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Single-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

If you follow these steps, and think

everything through, and act
cautiously and sensibly, then you will
be able to safely and successfully
balance the machine.

If it was not possible to balance the

machine with a single plane balance,
it is possible that the rotor needs a
two plane balance. That is discussed
in the next main section. Of course,
there could be a number of other
reasons why the balance failed.
These are discussed in the section
“What can go wrong”.

Thank you
That concludes “Single-plane balancing”

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Section 14

Single-plane balancing
Balancing a rotor with static unbalance using vectors

Single plane vector balancing

Hopefully you went through the previous section to consider each of

the balancing steps. Now we will consider how each of the amplitude
and phase readings that will be collected during the balancing process
can be used to compute the final and trim balance weights. It will be
assumed that you understand vectors.

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Single plane vector balancing

Please note: Even if you have a balance program, you really should learn
how to balance with a polar plot, and as you are performing the
balance with your balance program, watch the vectors to make sure
that the rotor responds the way you expect when you add the trial and
balance weights.

Single plane vector balancing

Before you get started, you may like to experiment with this balance
simulation program that we developed*. You can drag the two vectors
around to change the “original” and “original + trial”, you can drag the
trial weight around and see how it affects the position of the final
“correction” weight. And you can change the conventions to see how
they affect the plot.

* Original program purchased from Steve Young. Modified by Mobius Institute.

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Single plane vector balancing: Getting started

The first step is to measure the

original vibration and phase
from the machine as this will
tell us about the unbalance
that we are trying to eliminate
(or reduce). Based on this
initial reading we will scale
our plot so that this reading,
and future readings should be
able to be drawn without
them being too small or
spilling off the graph paper.

Single plane vector balancing: Getting started

The shaft is turning counter-

clockwise, so our graph paper
has numbers increasing
clockwise (the assumption is
that we are using an analyzer
that uses the convention
“angles increasing against
rotation”).

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Single plane vector balancing: Original run

In this case our reading is

5 mils @ 45 . This is our
“original reading” so it is
labeled “O”.
O
(The goal is to find the mass
and position for a weight that
will have the opposite effect –
a mass that would create a
vector that was equal in
length but opposite in phase.
While we can attempt to
determine where the heavy
spot is located, we need to
“calibrate” our system with a
trial weight so we know the
exact position and mass to
add.)
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Single plane vector balancing: Trial run

Now we add that calibration

weight of 5 grams, known as
the trial weight.

O This is the “trial run”.

When we measure the

vibration we are measuring
the unbalance due to the
O+T
original unbalance PLUS the
unbalance due to the
addition of the trial weight.

So we label it “O+T”.

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Single plane vector balancing: Trial run

Effect of original
out-of-balance

Effect of original
unbalance + trial
weight

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

Now, this is where it can get

tricky… You can see on our
plot that we have the original
vibration and the vibration
O due to the original unbalance
+ trial unbalance “weights”.

What we wish to learn is the

O+T effect the addition of the trial
weight had on the rotor,
because we want to then
decide where we need a final
weight that will cancel out
the original unbalance. It
may need to be larger or
smaller in size, and it may
need to go in a different
position.

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Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

What we do now is perform

“vector math”. “O+T” – “O”
is equal to “T”.

O The vector is drawn from the

end of the “O” vector to the
end of the “O+T” vector.
T
O+T

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

Just to reiterate, the “O+T”

vector showed us what
happens when you add 5
grams to this rotor. The “T”
O vector shows us what would
happen if we added 5 grams
(at the same angular position
T and radius) to this rotor if it
O+T were perfectly balanced.

But we actually need to add a

weight that creates a vector
equal and opposite to the
“O” vector.

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Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

The desired effect of adding a

weight is to have the opposite
effect of the original unbalance

O+T
Desired effect of
final weight

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

We need less weight and it needs

to be placed in a different location

O+T

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Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

If we measure the angle

between the “O” and “T”
vectors, then we know how
much the weight needs to be
O moved on the rotor.

And if we compare the

T lengths of the “O” and “T”
vectors, we can determine
O+T
whether we need more or less
weight.

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

The angle between the

vectors is 40 . The final
balance weight would be
positioned on the rotor at a
position 40 around the rotor
from where the trial weight
was located.

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Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

Measure the angle: 40°

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

These angles are the

same.

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Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

And now we measure the

length of the vectors. We
know that the “O” vector was
“5 mil” long, and now we can
see that the “T” vector is 6 mil
long. Therefore the trial
weight was actually heavier
than it needed to be by a
factor or 6/5. Therefore the
final weight should be:

5 grams x 5 / 6 = 4.1 grams

Single plane vector balancing: Calculation

Measure the lengths of the O and

T vectors and compute the ratio.

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Single plane vector balancing: Final weight

So, we need to remove the

trial weight and add a new
4.1 gram weight 40 from
where we placed the trial
weight.

40 But the big question is; in

which direction do we
measure the 40 ; clockwise or
counter-clockwise? This is an
area where a lot of balance
jobs go wrong.

Hopefully if you read the

phase convention section you
will know the answer to this
question.

Single plane vector balancing: Final weight

In modern vibration analyzers

Rotation that use a photo-tach,
positive phase angles are
measured against the
direction of rotation.

40 Therefore:

If the rotor is rotating

clockwise, move opposite the
O+T shift

If the rotor is rotating

counter-clockwise, move with
the O+T shift

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164

Single plane vector balancing: Final weight

T In our example the shaft is

Rotation turning counter-clockwise, so
F we have to place the weight
40 against rotation, i.e.
clockwise.

Single plane vector balancing: Final weight

T Note that if you use a strobe

Rotation to measure phase, it reports
F positive phase angles in the
direction of rotation.

Therefore:
40
If the rotor is rotating
clockwise, move with the O+T
shift

If the rotor is rotating counter-

clockwise, move opposite the
O+T shift

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Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

T Everything we have discussed

Rotation assumes that the trial weight
F will be removed before the
final weight is added. But
that may not suit your needs.
You may like to leave the trial
40 weight in place and therefore
add a different final balance
weight to the rotor.

Let’s see how we can do that!

Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

Originally we wanted a weight

to counteract the “O” vector.

If we leave the trial weight on

O the rotor we must now
add a final weight that will
T counteract the “O+T” vector

O+T

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Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

The desired effect of adding a

weight is to have the opposite effect
of the original unbalance PLUS the
unbalance due to the trial weight

O
Desired effect of
final weight T

O+T

Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

We need less weight and it needs to

be placed in a different location

O+T

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Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

Measure the angle: 125°

Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

Measure the lengths of the O+T and

T vectors and compute the ratio.

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Single plane vector balancing: Trial weight left on

The solution is to add the

weight 125 around from the
location of the trial weight,
against the direction of
O rotation.

T The mass of the weight is:

O+T
Trial mass x (O+T)/T
5 x 4/6 = 3.3 grams

This assumes that the trial

weight of 5 grams is not
removed.

Single plane vector balancing: Residual unbalance

At this point we know what

the unbalance is. We have just
been told to add 3.3 grams. If
we are adding that weight at a
radius of 12 inches, or 300 mm,
then our unbalance is
39.6 gr-in or 990 gr-mm.

This is Ures – it is the residual

unbalance. We could now
look up the standards and
determine if that is
permissible.

We discuss this in FAR greater

detail in the tolerances section.

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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Now we would add the 4.1

grams (we removed the trial
weight) at 40 and run the
Final machine again. We are
hoping that the vibration
afterwards would be very low.
But we do not always find
that... We often have
vibration that is still a little
too high.

In this case we measured

3* mil @ 320 .

We need to perform another

step to further reduce the
vibration.
* Yes 3 mil is high, but it is hard to draw
and label vectors if they are too short!
This step is called the trim run.
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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

If you consider what we have

just done, it is very similar to
the trial weight process. We
measured a vibration and
T1 phase, added a weight, and
O then measured the vibration
O+T1 again. Like the situation we
discussed where we left the
trial weight on the rotor, in
this case we are going to
leave the final weight on the
rotor.

So now we have to use the

vectors to determine a new
weight and location.

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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Now we have re-labeled the

plot. The “O” original vector
is still the original. But the
“trial” is actually the vibration
T1 measured with the trial
O weight removed and the final
O+T1 weight of 4.1 grams added.

Note: we will leave the final

weight on the rotor, so we are
trying to balance out “O+T1”
not “O”.

We will label the trim run

“T1” (our first trim run) so we
have “O+T1” and the vector
“T1” is just the effect of
adding the 4.1 gram weight.

Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Now we are trying to counteract the

unbalance force due to the final
weight we added to the rotor

T1
O
O+T1
Actual effect of
final weight Desired effect of
trim weight

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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

You can see that the red vector is too long so we

need less weight, and it needs to be moved in
the opposite direction by approximately 120°

T1
O
O+T1
Actual effect of
final weight Desired effect of
trim weight

Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Measure the angle: 116°

T1
O
O+T1

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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Measure the lengths of the O+T1 and

T1 vectors and compute the ratio.

T1
O
O+T1

Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

The solution is to add the

Rotation balance weight 116 from
where you placed the “final”
weight in the direction of
T1 rotation.
O
O+T1
The weight is the ratio:
Final mass x (O+T1)/T1
116 4.1 x 3.0/5.5 = 1.8 grams

Note that “4.1” was the final

weight we added to the
machine; “3.0” was the
measured vibration in mils after
we added the final weight, and
we computed the effect “T1” as
5.5 mils.

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Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Once again we can calculate

Rotation Ures and check if it is less than
Uper based on G2.5 (or G1.0 or
whatever you choose to use).
T1

O
O+T1

116

Single plane vector balancing: Trim balance

Of course, we can repeat this

Rotation process again and again until
the vibration amplitude, or
Ures is low enough.
T1

O
If you have to repeat it more
O+T1
than a couple of times you
need to consider the “What
116 can go wrong?” section...

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Single plane vector balancing: Splitting weights

Whenever we come up with

1 a balance solution and need
to add a weight to the rotor
we may have restrictions due
6 2 to the available hole or
blade locations.

5 3

Single plane vector balancing: Splitting weights

There is a method we can use with

vectors to split the mass between two
blades or holes such that their
2 combination has the same effect as the
original mass we were supposed to
add.

This is all described in the “Splitting

weights” section.

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Single plane vector balancing: Combining weights

When we add weights to a

rotor we may prefer to
remove some of the
existing weights and
replace them with just one
weight. This is especially
true when the rotor has
holes or blades for weight
placement, and it is also
true if you have had to add
2
a number of trim weights –
you may like to consolidate
them into one weight.
1

Single plane vector balancing: Combining weights

There is a way to do this by

“simply” adding the vectors
together. We arrive at a
single weight at an angle
that has the same effect as
the other weights – which
will be removed.

This is all described in the

2 “Combining weights”
section.

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Single plane vector balancing

Now that you have learned all about vector balancing you may like to
try the simulation again. Remember, you can drag the two vectors
around to change the “original” and “original + trial”, you can drag the
trial weight around and see how it affects the position of the final
“correction” weight. You can even add blades to split the weights. And
you can change the conventions to see how they affect the plot.

* Original program purchased from Steve Young. Modified by Mobius Institute.

Thank you
That concludes “Single-plane vector balancing”

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Section 15

Two plane balancing

Balancing a rotor with the two-plane method using a balance
instrument or vibration analyzer with balancing software.

Two plane balancing

Two plane balancing is required when there is dynamic unbalance (i.e.

a static component and a couple). Although it is possible to perform a
two-plane balance with vectors, it is not often performed that way and
we will not discuss that method. Instead we will assume that you have
a balancing system or a vibration analyzer with a balancing program.

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Two plane balancing

The first issue we must quickly discuss is whether you need to perform
a two-plane balance. There are basically four ways to determine
whether a two plane balance is required:

1. You can allow the ISO standards to guide you.

2. You can decide based on a rule of thumb related to the ratio of the
length of the rotor to the diameter of the rotor.

3. You can attempt a single plane balance, and if that is unsuccessful,

attempt a two-plane balance

4. You can use phase readings to determine how the phase at the two
bearings compare.

Two plane balancing: ISO Standards

This table from the ISO standard 19499:2007 (repeated on the next two
slides) provide guidance; not only to answer the single-plane/two-plane
question, but also whether you need to treat the rotor as rigid or
flexible.

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Two plane balancing: ISO Standards

Here the different rotor configurations are presented with guidance

related to the speed of operation and the first natural frequency.

Two plane balancing: ISO Standards

The table continues:

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Two plane balancing: Rule of thumb

The general rule of thumb for determining whether a two plane

balance is required is presented below. It appears in MIL-STD-167A
(2005) and in numerous text books.

Rotor Speed (RPM) Type of balance

characteristics
L/D ≤ 0.5 0 - 1000 Single-plane
> 1000 Two-plane
L/D > 0.5 0 - 150 Single-plane
> 150 Two plane

While this method provides a guide, there are many situations where it
will not work. It is best to use phase readings to determine if there is a
couple component.

The Length and Diameter of the rotor are exclusive of the shaft.
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Two plane balancing: Phase readings

In other parts of this course we have explained how to measure phase

readings, we have explained static and couple unbalance, and we have
discussed how to determine if a machine has static unbalance or
dynamic unbalance using phase readings. While vibration analysis is
not a perfect science, and phase readings are not perfect, the
technique should give you a very good indication of whether a two-
plane balance is required.

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Two plane balancing: Phase readings

In summary, if you compare the phase taken from the bearings on

either side of a rotor and find that it exceeds 50 , then you should
perform a two-plane balance. This is not a rule that can be found in an
ISO standard (to the author’s knowledge), it is just a guide.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

When performing two plane

balancing, vibration readings
are taken on two bearings, and
balance weights must be added
to two balance (or correction)
planes. The readings are
normally acquired with a two-
channel analyzer, although it
can be performed with a single
channel analyzer.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

When using a balancing

calculator/system or a two-plane
balancing program within an analyzer,
the process is quite similar to the single
plane process except that we must test
both balance planes with trial weights.

For completeness we have described

the entire process; many of the steps
will be very familiar if you have been
through the single plane section.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Record the “as found” vibration

Assuming that the machine is already running, you should take an

initial reading on each bearing into order to verify that the machine is
out of balance. This process is discussed in a separate section, but it is
an essential step. You can waste a lot of time trying to balance a
machine that either is not out of balance or has other fault conditions
that should be repaired first.

You should also compare the vertical vibration to the horizontal. It is a

good idea to perform the balance job while measuring the vibration in
the axis with the highest vibration. This is normally the horizontal axis,
but you should check.

Note that you do not have to measure both bearings in the same axis;
one can be horizontal and the other vertical.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Stop the machine inspect the rotor

When you stop the machine, depending upon the nature of the
machine, you may be able to inspect the rotor and look for any obvious
reason why it is out-of-balance. If it is a fan, the blades should be
carefully cleaned. Rust or other particulates should be brushed (or
scraped) off. You should inspect the rotor for balance weights that
have fallen off (if you can tell), or any other components that have
come away and caused the unbalance.

If necessary, you may perform a repair before you start the machine.

Please make sure you follow the strictest safety protocol to ensure the
machine cannot start, and the rotor cannot begin turning for other
reasons while you are accessing the rotor.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Determine where the weights will be installed

If you have not balanced this rotor before you will need to check that
you have a way to add weight to this rotor in two balance planes.

When you do determine the location for the weights, if you intend to
use balance quality tolerances, you must measure the radius of the
weight location (i.e. the distance in inches or mm from the center of
the shaft to the point where the weight will be installed.)

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Install the accelerometer and phase reference

You must now install the phase reference (for example, the
optical/laser tachometer) in such a way that you can continue to
measure a consistent once-per-rev signal throughout the balance job.

Assuming you have a two channel analyzer or balancing system, you

should also mount the accelerometers in the axes with the highest
vibration (one on each bearing). It is a good idea, if possible, to mount
the optical/laser tach in the same axis as the accelerometer (it makes it
easier to determine the location of the heavy spot).

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Set up the balance software

Now you will need to set up the balancing system. You may need to
tell it which way the shaft is rotating, where the accelerometers are
mounted relative to the phase reference, units preferences, and other
settings. Please refer to the operating manual for your system.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Record the “original” vibration

Now you should start the machine, monitor the amplitude and phase
and wait until it is steady, and then record the vibration and phase
from both bearings.

If you did clean the rotor, or perform any other form of repair, you
should also recheck the vibration patterns to ensure that the vibration
measured is still related to unbalance.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the trial weight to “plane A”

Once you have the original reading the machine can be stopped and
opened. You must safely access the rotor in order to add the trial
weight to the first plane, “plane A”. Knowing how much mass to use,
where to place it, and how to safely fix it to the rotor is covered in its
own section.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Start the machine and record the “original + trial A” reading

Now you should start the machine, monitor the amplitude and phase
and wait until it is steady, and then record the vibration and phase
from both bearings.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Stop the machine and add the trial weight to “plane B”

Now you must repeat the process. You will remove the trial weight
from “plane A”, and add a weight to “plane B”.

Note that some balancing programs allow you to leave the trial weight
attached to “plane A” while you perform this step. It will then
determine how the vibration changed from the first trial run instead of
from the original run.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Start the machine and record the “original + trial B” reading

Now you should start the machine, monitor the amplitude and phase
and wait until it is steady, and then record the vibration and phase
from both bearings.

Once again you must check that the phase has changed by 30 and/or
the amplitude has changed by 30%.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Stop the machine and calculate the unbalance

Now the balancing system will be able to compute the balance

solution. It will provide a mass that must be added to each balance
plane.

From this information you can determine the unbalance. It is the mass
that the system has asked you to add to the rotor, multiplied by the
radius at which you must place the weight. The units are oz-in, gr-in,
or gr-mm.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the balance weight to the rotor

Now add the weights to the rotor. Here are a few quick points:

1. The weights must be added at the same radius as where the trial
weight was added. If that is not possible, then you must adjust the
weight according to the new radius (double the radius, halve the
mass).

2. If you only have discrete locations for the weights, the calculated
weight may need to be split into two weights. See the “Splitting
weights” section.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Here are a few quick points (continued):

4. Always weigh the balance weights that you intend to add; don’t
assume that the weights are as marked (when using commercial
balance weights).

5. Make sure you also weigh any items used to fix the weight in place
(nuts, bolts, weld, rivets, etc.)

6. It is normally assumed that the trail weights will be removed before

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Run the machine and take the final readings

Now start the machine again, monitor the amplitude and phase on
both bearings, and when they are steady, record the final reading.

Calculate the trim solution

Ask the balancing system to compute the weight required to perform a

trim balance. It will recommend a new mass and angle. It is normally
assumed that the “final” weight that you have already added will
remain on the rotor.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Determine if the rotor is balanced

At this point you can determine if the rotor is balanced. You have a
vibration amplitude for each bearing that can be compared to one of
three standards (or your organization’s requirements) if that is how
you determine the balance state. You will also know the residual
(remaining) unbalance Ures based on the weight recommendation and
the radius at which you must place the weight (in oz-in, gr-in, or gr-
mm). This is all explained in the “Balancing quality and tolerances”
section.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Add the trim weights

If you conclude that the unbalance is too high then you should add the
trim weights recommended by the balancing system. You will stop the
machine, add the weights (one to each plane), run the machine, record
the vibration, and then ask the system to compute another trim
solution. Once again you can determine if the residual unbalance Ures
is permissible.

And if it is not good enough then you will repeat this process.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Dealing with problems

You may get to a point where you feel like you are “chasing shadows”.
You add the trim weights, run the machine, and it is still not good
enough. You may also find it hard to get a good reading at 1X or a
steady phase reading if you are using a strobe. There are a number of
challenges you could face, however we address these challenges in a
separate section.

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Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Consolidate the trim weights

Hopefully after just one or two (or zero) trim runs you will believe that
the machine is now precision balanced, ideally to G 1.0 (see the section
of balance quality later).

If you did have to add multiple trim weights you may consider stopping
the machine and combining them into just one weight which is
fastened to the rotor in a way that is suitable for the long term
operation of the machine. This is discussed in the “Combining
weights” section.

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

Document your results

At this stage you should document your results. The standard ISO
20806:2009 discusses the information that should be recorded and how
it should be reported. But it is important to record the as-found and
final vibration readings, the balance weight radius, the final location
and masses of the balance weights, and of course, information which
identifies the machine, site, and balancer (you).

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192

Two-plane balancing: Using an analyzer or balancer

If you follow these steps, and think everything through, and act
cautiously and sensibly, then you will be able to safely and successfully
balance the machine.

If it was not possible to balance the rotor then you could have a
number of potential problems to deal with: another fault condition is
generating turning speed vibration; the machine is “non-linear”, you
could be experiencing beating, or the machine is in resonance. These
possibilities are discussed in the section “What can go wrong”.

Optimized balancing
Special techniques available to improve the balance job

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193

Optimized balancing

In the traditional single-plane

balancing process we can either
use vectors or a program that
basically performs the same type
of simple mathematics. One
vibration sensor would be used,
and the balance job would be
performed at one speed only.

Optimized balancing

The same is true for two-plane

balancing. We would measure
vibration at two locations (with a
single-channel or two-channel
analyzer), and we would add weights
to two planes, and the result would be
a weight for balance plane A and a
different weight for balance plane B.
This solution should provide good
results at the running speed of the
machine used during the balance
process.

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194

Optimized balancing

However, there is a more advanced

way to perform the balance
calculations using “matrices” and
powerful mathematics. These
methods allow us to achieve
“optimized” results, and they allow
us to balance the machine without
performing a trial run (see the next
section).

Optimized balancing

When you normally balance a

machine a calculation is
performed that is intended to
provide “excellent” results at
both bearings (in the case of
two-plane balancing), at the
speed under test, in the axis
that the measurements were
taken.

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195

Optimized balancing

However, using this “optimized” style of balancing,

you can measure the vibration in more locations
than “necessary”, e.g. vertical and horizontal at
two bearings. You can also test the machine at
different speeds (or under different load
conditions).

The balance program will provide a solution that

provides the best possible balance across all the
measurement locations and axes, or for the
different speeds.

One run balancing

Using influence coefficients to balance a machine in one run

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196

One run balance

When you perform a balance job on a

rotor, be it a single plane balance or two
plane balance, the balance system has
internal information about the rotor called
“influence coefficients”. It has learned
how the rotor was influenced by the
addition of a mass at a certain angle. It
learned how the amplitude and phase
changed. In fact, it used this information
to compute the balance solution, and the
trim solution.

One run balance

That information can be saved for later use

when the same rotor becomes out-of-
balance in the future. You would still
perform an “original” run to measure the
(as found) amplitude and phase reading,
but rather than adding a trial weight, you
instead ask the balance program to use the
influence coefficients and compute the
“final” weight and position.

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197

One run balance

That weight is then added to the rotor (at

the location specified) and the machine can
be started. You would take another
reading and ask the balancing program to
compute the trim run. At that point one of
two things may happen.

One run balance

First, you may find that the vibration

amplitude is very low, and the amount
of unbalance (the residual unbalance) is
below the threshold from the ISO 1940
standard. In other words, Ures is below
Uper.

In that case you are done - the machine

is balanced. You can write your report
and move to the next job on your to-do
list.

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198

One run balance

Second, you may find that the solution is not

satisfactory. This could happen for a number of
reasons. But if it does happen, you can just
continue with the balance job as you would have
normally if you did not have the original influence
coefficients.

You now have the original run data, the trial

weight mass and position, and the trial run data.
The balancing program will now compute a new
weight to be added to the machine. You should
add that weight, test the machine again, and see if
another trim run is required.

One run balance

This technique can save you a

great deal of time. It will not
cost you any time because
you will have always needed
the “original” run data and
the “original + trial” data.
Therefore it is a very good
idea to look at your balancing
program and learn how to
use this capability.

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Thank you
That concludes “Two-plane balancing”

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200

Section 16

Static/couple balancing
Learn how to balance a rotor by first balancing out the static
component and then balancing the couple component.

Static/couple balancing

In the two plane balancing section, the solution provided is to correct

the unbalance in two balance/correction planes. The addition of those
two weights is intended to remove both the static and couple
components.

If you look closely at

the animation, you can
see the static
component (the offset
between the geometric
center and center of
gravity), and the
couple component.

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Static/couple balancing

Another way to balance the rotor, a more precise way, is to first balance
out the static component, and then balance out the couple component.
To do this correctly you would need three balance planes.

Couple plane 1 Static plane Couple plane 2

Static/couple balancing

Let’s work through an example so that you can better understand what
is the static component and what is the couple component.

Plane 1

Plane 2

Plane 1 Plane 2
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202

Static/couple balancing

Here we have the original vibration vectors from the original run. The
vectors show the amplitude and phase measured on the two bearings on
either side of the rotor.

Plane 1

Plane 2

Plane 1 Plane 2
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Static/couple balancing

If we attempt to balance the rotor with a two plane balance program,

we would be trying to find a solution that would generate the two red
vectors shown. These weights would cancel the vibration in both planes.

Plane 1

Plane 2

Plane 1 Plane 2
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203

Static/couple balancing

Instead we can break

these vectors into their
P1 static and couple
components.

The first step is to draw

them together in the
same plot.

Static/couple balancing

Next we draw a line

between the two tips of
P1 each vector.

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204

Static/couple balancing

Now we draw a line

from the origin to the
P1 midpoint of the line.

This new vector

represents the static
component. It
Mid-point
represents the offset
between the center of
geometry and the center
of gravity.

Static/couple balancing

In order to determine
the couple component,
P1 we draw two new
vectors, both half the
length of the line
between the two
original vectors.
Equal in
amplitude

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205

Static/couple balancing

We can now see the

couple components that
P1 we must correct with
Plane 1 couple weights at the two outer
balance planes
(positioned 180 apart),
and the static
component that we must
Mid-point
correct with a weight on
the center balance plane.

P2
Plane 2 couple

Static/couple balancing

You would now correct

the static component, all
P1 the way through to the
Plane 1 couple trim balance stage if
necessary, before
attempting to balance
the couple component.
Static component

P2
Plane 2 couple

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206

Static/couple balancing

In theory the static and couple components are independent of each

other, so you would be able to correct the static component before you
correct the couple component. In reality you should retest the machine
after correcting the static component and use that data to correct the
couple component.

Static/couple balancing

The end result will be a weight added to the center plane to correct the
static component, and weights added 180 apart on the left and right
planes to correct the couple component.

Balance the
static
component
Balance the
couple
component

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207

Static/couple balancing

The other benefit of this

method is that it helps
P1 you to visualize what is
P2 happening with the
rotor. For example, if
you were to plot the
readings taken from the
two bearings to find this
situation, then you
would be able to
perform a single plane
balance – there is very
little couple unbalance.

Static/couple balancing

As a side note, if you

Correction plane were to see those results
when balancing a long
rotor, you would be
advised to place the
balance weight in the
center of the rotor or
else you may introduce a
couple effect.

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208

Static/couple balancing

On the other hand, if

you saw these results,
P1 then you would know
that there was not really
a static component to
correct, it was almost
entirely couple
unbalance. (Maybe the
rotor was previously
statically balanced – i.e.
someone performed a
single-plane balance.)

Thank you
That concludes “Static/couple balancing”

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Section 17

Balancing overhung rotors

Learn two methods to balance a rotor when it is overhung

Balancing overhung rotors

Balancing an overhung rotor presents a unique challenge.

Conventional single and two plane methods do not work because of
the “rocking” motion of the rotor. We will present two methods for
balancing an overhung rotor.

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Balancing overhung rotors

In order to perform the two techniques we must identify the two

measurement points (“A” and “B”), and the two balance planes (“1”
and “2”) as illustrated here.

Balancing overhung rotors

The basic theory behind these methods is that the unbalance will
comprise of a static component and a couple component. It is believed
that the static component can be corrected by adding weight to
balance plane “1” and that it will affect the vibration at bearing “B”
more than bearing “A”.

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211

Balancing overhung rotors

It is also believed that the couple component will affect the bearing
closest to the motor (bearing “A”), and it is believed that the couple
effect can be corrected by adding a weight to plane “2” and a weight
of the same mass, but opposite angle, on plane “1”.

Balancing overhung rotors: Single plane method

The first method we will use will attempt to balance the static
component first, and then the couple component, but using a single-
plane balancing technique. It is assumed that you understand the
single plane balancing method.

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212

Balancing overhung rotors: Single plane method

STEP ONE: We will begin by performing a standard, single plane

balance using the bearing closest to the rotor “B” for the measurement
location, and the inboard balance (correction) plane, plane 1, for the
weights.

Balancing overhung rotors: Single plane method

STEP TWO: Now we must correct the couple component. We will again
perform a single plane balance, but with a difference. The vibration
sensor will be mounted on bearing “A” and we will use the second
correction plane (plane 2) for trial weights and final weights.

However, whenever a trial weight or final weight is attached to plane 2,

a weight of equal mass will be attached to plane 1, but at the opposite
angle.

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Balancing overhung rotors: Single plane method

STEP THREE: When the couple has been corrected, it is important to

check the static component. Place the sensor at bearing “B” again and
check the vibration. If the amplitude (or residual unbalance Ures) is still
too high, you should repeat STEP ONE.

Balancing overhung rotors: Two-plane method

STEP ONE: We will start like any other two-plane balance job. The two
accelerometers will be placed at bearings “A” and “B”. We will run the
machine and record the “original” run.

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214

Balancing overhung rotors: Two-plane method

STEP TWO: Then, as normal, we will place a trial weight on plane “1”
and measure the vibration at bearings “A” and “B”.

Balancing overhung rotors: Two-plane method

STEP THREE: But now we do something different. We will remove the

trial weight from plane “1” and move it to plane “2”. However, we
will also place a weight on plane “1” which is equal in mass, but
located 180 opposite the trial weight on plane “2”.

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Balancing overhung rotors: Two-plane method

STEP FOUR: The balance program will come up with a solution for
weights that must be placed on plane 1 and 2. The weight on plane 1
should be added as reported. However, the recommended weight
should be added to plane 2, and another weight with the same mass
should be placed on plane 1 at the opposite angle.

Balancing overhung rotors

After all of these steps are complete the rotor should be balanced; the
static and couple components should be corrected.

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216

Thank you
That concludes “Balancing overhung rotors”

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217

Section 18

Four run, no phase balancing

Learn how to balance a single-plane rotor using the four-run-no-
phase method.

Four run, no phase balancing

There is a method that you can use

to balance rotating machinery that
does not require a phase reading.
Even though some may write it off
as an older technique that is no
longer used, in actual fact there
are still situations where it can be
useful.

Please note: We have a Flash

program that demonstrates this
method at the end of this group
of slides.

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218

Four run, no phase balancing

Obviously it is useful if it is not

possible to take a phase reading, but
it is also a method that can be tried
when the conventional single- and
two plane methods fail. Issues such
as non-linear rotor behaviors,
beating vibration and structural
resonance can be overcome with this
method. While it is possible to
perform a two-plane balance with
this method, we will only discuss a
single-plane method.

Four run, no phase balancing

Note that this method is often criticized

because it requires four runs, however
because it often comes up with a very
good balance solution the first time
(therefore no trim runs), and it does not
require the machine to be stopped in
order to install a piece of reflective
tape, you probably do not have to
perform more runs with this method
compared to the other methods we
have discussed.

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219

Four run, no phase balancing

Note also that while it is best to use a

vibration analyzer and use the 1X vibration
(i.e. the vibration amplitude at the turning
speed), it is also possible to use a vibration
“overall level meter” if the vibration is
dominated by unbalance.

Four run, no phase balancing

You will be recording

the vibration readings
on a polar plot –
although we will not
be recording or using
phase angles, we will
be placing weights at
different angles.

It is important to set a
scale that will
accommodate all of the
vibration readings that
you record.

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220

Four run, no phase balancing

It does not matter

which vibration units
you use; acceleration,
velocity, or
displacement – just as
long as you use the
same units for all of
the readings you are
about to collect.

Four run, no phase balancing

The first step is to

record the vibration
amplitude. Although I
have shown this
reading as a vector, we
do not have a phase
value. The angle does
not matter, only the
length matters.

Effect of original
out-of-balance

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221

Four run, no phase balancing

A circle should then be

drawn with a radius
equal to the vibration
reading.

Four run, no phase balancing

120 markings should

be added to the circle.
Note that it is possible
to use different angles
0° than 120 , however we
will use 120 for now.

240° 120°

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222

Four run, no phase balancing

Now we must begin the three

trial runs. A trial weight should
be added at 0 on the rotor and
the machine started and run until
the vibration readings are stable.

Please note that the mass of the

trial weight should be selected
using the same methods and
calculations as described in the
“Trial weight” section.

Four run, no phase balancing

Trial run 1
Once the amplitude
reading has been taken
it must be added to our
polar plot. The center
of the circle is placed at
the 0 mark on the
original circle, and the
radius is equal to our
new reading.

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223

Four run, no phase balancing

Trial run 1
For the sake of this
example, we will
assume that the
vibration level was now
higher than during the
original run. I have
drawn this circle so
that it goes off the
scale. You can either
select a different grid
spacing or just plot the
portion of the circle
that fits on the graph
paper.

Four run, no phase balancing

Now you should stop the machine and

move the same trial weight to a point
120 deg around from the first point.
With that done, start the machine, wait
for it to be running in a stable state,
and then take another vibration
reading.

By the way, if the reading is not stable

because of beating for example, try and
get an average value of vibration to use
for the balance reading.

224

Four run, no phase balancing

Trial run 1
Plot this vibration
amplitude on to the
graph paper, but this
time center the circle at
the 120 intersection
point. For the sake of
this example, this
reading had a lower
amplitude of vibration.

Trial run 2

Four run, no phase balancing

Trial run 1
And finally we repeat
the process, however
this time we move the
trial weight to the 240
Trial run 3 point and draw the
circle centered at the
240 intersection point.

For the sake of this

example, the third
reading had a very
Trial run 2
high vibration
amplitude. It is clear
that the final balance
weight should be
placed closer to the
120 position than the
240 position.
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225

Four run, no phase balancing

The three circles will

intersect at a point, if
the system is linear.

Draw a vector from the

center of the plot to the
O
intersection. The length
of this vector can be
compared to the
T
original vibration.

The ratio of the length

of the vector to the
original vibration gives
you the required mass.

The angle of this vector

Four run, no phase balancing

If we look closely at
our plot, the original
amplitude was 3
“vibration units”
(e.g. mils) and the
O length of the final
vector is 3.6 mils.

T The angle of the vector

is 86 .

226

Four run, no phase balancing

The final balance weight should

be placed 86 from the 0 weight
position (in the same direction as
you used when you determined
the position of the 120 and 240
weight positions), and the mass
of the weight can be calculated
in the same way as the single-
plane weight – as a ratio of the
length of the original vector to
the solution vector, multiplied by
the mass of the trial weight.

Four run, no phase balancing

Following our example, we had:

• “O” Original vibration: 3 mils

• “T” Final vector to the intersection: 3.6 mils
• Trial weight: 10 grams

Mass: 3/3.6 x 10 = 8.33 grams

Angle: 86

227

Four run, no phase balancing

In our example the

three circles intersected
perfectly. This will not
always happen.
Therefore you must
O find the geometric
center of the region
they create, as shown.
T

Four run, no phase balancing

Here is another
example where the
circles do not intersect.
The geometric center
must still be identified
O and used to determine
the mass and angle for
the balance weight.
T

228

Four run, no phase balancing

Your balancing system may be

able to perform the four-run, no
phase method, otherwise the
manual method that we have just
described is quite easy to
perform.

If you have a situation where you

cannot take a phase reading, or
you find that your single plane
method does not work, then you
will find this to be a very useful
method.

Four run, no phase balancing

Would you like to experiment with this method? On the following slide
you will see a flash simulator* of the four-run-no-phase technique. You
can enter the four readings and see what it comes up with.

* Original program purchased from Steve Young. Modified by Mobius Institute.

229

Thank you
That concludes “Four run, no phase balancing”

230

Section 19

Trial weight selection

How to select the best mass and position for the trial weight.

Trial weight selection

Trial weight selection is very important, but it can present some of the
greatest challenges. Those challenges can be broken up into three
categories:

1. Selecting the mass of the trial weight

2. Selecting the angular position for the trial weight
3. Determining where and how to attach the trial weight.

231

Trial weight selection: Mass

We must select the mass very carefully.

If the mass is too large then we could
cause the unbalance forces to be so
high that damage could be done to
machine, structure or foundations. If
the weight is too small then we will
not have influenced the rotor enough
to perform an accurate balance. It is
this second point that sometimes
causes confusion. We need to see a
significant change in the vibration
amplitude, or the phase, or both. The
widely accepted goal is 30% change in
amplitude and/or 30 change in phase.

Trial weight selection: Mass

Bad:
Ideal:
OK: Insufficient
Good change tochange
Significant to
amplitude, If the vibration amplitude or
anglechange
small or amplitude
amplitude and
tophase
phase phase do not change
sufficiently, inaccuracies will
come into the calculations
O
and the vector manipulations.
But the key point is that
because of non-linearities and
other factors, it is important
O+T
to see a substantial change.

232

Trial weight selection: Mass

There are basically two ways to determine the

mass to use:

1. Look at the existing balance masses on the

rotor and use something similar.
2. Compute the mass based on the speed of
the rotor and the mass of the rotor.

We will take a look at both of these options.

Trial weight selection: Mass: Existing masses

If you are able to open the machine and inspect the rotor, you should
see that it has been balanced previously. Although you may not be
aware of its previous balance state, the existing balance masses will
give you an idea of the amount of mass that will influence the balance
state.

233

Trial weight selection: Mass: Calculated

Knowing the mass of the

rotor, and the turning speed,
it is possible to calculate the
mass of a trial weight that
should not be too large or
small. According to Wowk*
and others, a mass that
generates 10% of the static
load of the rotor should
suffice. We can use the
equations for force that we
developed in the “Balancing
theory” chapter to compute
this trial weight.

* Victor Wowk “Machinery Vibration Balancing” page 99

Trial weight selection: Mass: Calculated

These are the equations for force*. In this situation, “F” (which we will
substitute with WR) is the weight of the rotor, and “m” (which we will
substitute for WT) is the mass of the trial weight.

Imperial: F = 1.77 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: lbF Mass [m]: oz | Radius [r]: inches

Combination: F = 0.0625 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: lbF | Mass [m]: gram | Radius [r]: inches

Metric: F = 0.001 x m x r x (RPM / 1000)2

Force [F]: kgF | Mass [m]: gram | Radius [r]: mm

* David Bernhard “Machinery Balancing” page 34

234

Trial weight selection: Mass: Calculated

Now we can simply enter the known RPM, approximate rotor weight
(WR) and the radius of the trial weight:

Imperial: WT = 56,375 x WR / (r x RPM2)

Rotor weight [WR]: pounds | Trial weight [WT]: oz | Radius [r]: inches

Combination: WT = 1,600,000 x WR / (r x RPM2)

Rotor weight [WR]: pounds | Trial weight [WT]: gram | Radius [r]:
inches
WT = 100,000,000 x WR / (r x RPM2)
Metric:

Trial weight selection: Mass: Calculated

Let’s go through a quick example*. If the rotor weighs 200 lbs, and a
weight was to be placed at a radius of 14 inches, and the shaft rotates
at 3580 RPM, then the trial weight should be calculated as follows:

WT = 56,375 x 200 / (14 x 35802) = 0.063 oz = 1.8 grams

Imperial: WT = 56,375 x WR / (r x RPM2)

Rotor weight [WR]: pounds | Trial weight [WT]: oz | Radius [r]: inches

* Victor Wowk “Machinery Vibration Balancing” page 100

235

Trial weight selection: Angle

Now that you know how much weight to add, you must decide which
angular position to place the weight. There are basically two schools
of thought:

1. Place the trial weight at the “zero” reference position on the rotor.
When you are asked to place the weight at 30 you will move it to
the 30 mark on the rotor.

2. Use the original vibration reading to determine the approximate

location of the heavy spot and then place the trial balance mass
opposite that point.

We will now explore both options.

Trial weight selection: Angle: 0 reference

You can place the trial weight anywhere* on the rotor; at the 0
reference mark or anywhere else that is convenient. However if you
tell the balance program that the trial weight is at 0 , the final weight
will be moved relative to that point. If the balance solution was to
place the final weight at 30 , for example, you will remove the trial
weight and add the final weight 30 from that location.

* Note that the trial weight and the final weight must be at the same
radius from the shaft. If not, then the weight values will have to be
adjusted linearly (double the distance from the center of the shaft
and half the mass.)

236

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

When you take your

“original” reading on the
machine you will have an
amplitude and phase reading.
O The phase reading is based on
the relative timing between
the phase reference and the
“high spot” in the vibration
waveform

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

This topic is explained in great

detail in the “Advanced
phase” chapter, however the
main point is that the “high
O spot” will be close to the
“heavy spot” (the angular
position of the unbalance
mass) when the machine is
operating well below the first
critical and the vibration units
are mils or µm, i.e.
displacement, and the sensor
is in line with the photo-tach.

237

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

If the speed of the machine is

closer to the natural frequency
1 there will be a greater “phase
lag” (delay between the heavy
O spot and the high spot).

The actual heavy spot will be

somewhere between  & :

1. If well below critical

2. At critical
2 3. Well above critical
3

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

Assuming you are working with

rigid rotors, the heavy spot
should be in the region shown.

238

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

And because velocity (in/sec and mm/sec) leads displacement by 90 ,

and acceleration (g and mm/s2) leads displacement by 180 , the actual
position of the heavy spot will not be the phase angle reported by the
analyzer.

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

You must also take into

account the position of the
sensor relative to the position
of the tachometer. The
difference in angle will also
affect the angle of the
“original” vector.

239

Trial weight selection: Angle: Based on original reading

However, assuming that all of

these issues have been taken
into account, you will know
the approximate angular
O position of the heavy spot.
You can then add a weight
opposite that angle. If the
mass of the weight was well
chosen, the unbalance
vibration should be reduced
drastically.

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

The next challenge is to attach the trial weight to the rotor. So much
depends upon the design of the rotor. You should thoroughly inspect
the rotor to see what options are available, and to see how previous
weights have been added. Normally the trial weights are attached
temporarily, so make sure they will safely remain attached to the rotor,
but that they can be removed later.

240

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Balance weights can be purchased that are specifically designed for this
purpose. They are designed to deal with a variety of situations that
you may encounter.

Images from www.balancingweights.com

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Depending upon the speed of the machine, you may be able to use
duct tape (aka gaffa tape) to hold weights in place. If there is a
suitable location, clay or putty may be used if the centripetal forces will
hold it in place. You may be able to lengthen a bolt and add washers
under the nut.

As described in the safety section, always shield yourself from the

possibility of flying balance weights, and keep out of the likely path of
the weights should they fall off.

241

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Rather than adding weight it is possible to remove weight at a point

opposite the required location. If possible you can remove material
and weigh it. If you know the density of the material, you can
calculate the depth that you will need to drill based on the drill bit
size.

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Additional trial weight addition options:

1. Add screws, bolts, plugs, rivets

2. Epoxy compounds
3. Solder

Additional trial weight removal options:

1. Milling or cutting
2. Welding
3. Grinding

242

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Additional tips for trial weights:

1. Try rotating the shaft after you attach the weight if there is any
possibility that it could rub or impact a part of the housing.

2. Make sure that all items used to fasten the balance weight are
included in the weight measurement.

3. Always weigh the balance weights, even if they are commercial

weights marked with their mass.

Trial weight selection: How to attach the trial weight

Additional tips for final weights:

1. Make sure the weight will not collect dust/dirt and thus cause an
unbalance.

2. Make sure the weight will not easily corrode. Consider coating the
weight.

243

Thank you
That concludes “Trial weight selection”

244

Section 20

Splitting weights
Learn how to split weights into available holes or blades.

Splitting weights

Once you have the final balance solution you will have to attach the
weight at the desired angle. In some situations, however, that can be
easier said than done. If the weight must be attached to blades or holes
at discrete angles, the desired weight will have to be split according to
the angle of the blades or holes.

245

Splitting weights

Let’s go through an example

to learn how to split weights.

We have been asked to add a

weight, 6 grams, at 75 . We
will scale the polar plot so
that each ring represents
1 gram.

Splitting weights

But we have to add the

1 weight to a fan as shown.
We only have 6 blades,
therefore we have six
6 2 locations where weights can
be added.

5 3

246

Splitting weights

It is clear that we must add

1 some weight to blade 2 and
some weight to blade 3. The
result of adding the two
6 2 weights should have the
same vectorial effect as
adding just one weight of
6 grams at 75 .

The question is, how much

5 3 weight should go on each of
those blades?

Splitting weights

First we need to determine

the angles of the two blades
and draw them on to our
polar plot.

The angles are 60 and 120 .

247

Splitting weights

Now we must draw a line that is

parallel with blade 2, at 60 , through
the balance weight we are trying to
2 split.

Where that line intersects the line

parallel to blade 3, at 120 , we draw
our new vector. That tells us how much
weight we should add on blade 3.

Splitting weights

Now we perform the same operation

except that we start with blade 3 to
find the weight that should go on
2 blade 2.

Draw a line through the tip of the

vector we are trying to split that is
parallel to blade 3.

248

Splitting weights

There is a check that we should

perform just to be sure that these
vectors are correct (and therefore the
2 balance weights are correct). If we add
the two vectors together we should
end up with the original vector.

Splitting weights

Based on this information we now

know how to split the weights.

2 We have scaled our plot such that each

ring is 1 gram. We now look closely at
the scale and find that the mass of the
weight on blade 2 should 4.9 grams,
and the mass on blade 3 should be
1.9 grams.

249

Splitting weights

Rather than scaling the plot you can

just compute the ratio of the lengths of
the vectors.
2
A
The mass placed on blade 2 is the ratio
X of O-A to O-X times the mass to be
split, and the mass of the weight on
O blade 3 is O-B to O-X times the mass to
be split.
B

Splitting weights

The equations are as follows:

Weight on 2 = O-A
------- x final weight
2 O-X
A
4.9
X
= ------- x 6.0 = 4.9 grams
6.0
O

Weight on 3 = O-B
------- x final weight
B O-X
1.9
3 = ------- x 6.0 = 1.9 grams
6.0

250

Splitting weights

In this example, because the plot was

scaled correctly, the equations are
simple and obvious. But if you simply
2 make the outer ring of the polar plot
A equal to the mass of your balance
X weight, then these equations make it
very easy to calculate the final weights.
O

Splitting weights

Your balance program should be able

to perform this function (if you have
one), but it never hurts to know how to
2 do it yourself.
A

251

Combining weights
Learn how to combine a number of balance weights into a single
balance weight that has the same effect.

Combining weights

When balancing a machine there will be times when you will need to
take weights off the rotor and replace them with just one weight. For
example, when you trim balance the rotor you may end up with a few
temporary weights which should be consolidated into a single weight.

In this section we will describe how to perform this function.

Images from www.balancingweights.com

252

Combining weights

The basic principle is that each

weight must be represented by a
vector, and then we simply add the
vectors together. When we remove
the existing weights and add a
weight in accordance with the final
vector sum, we will have achieved
our goal.

Combining weights

Let’s learn via an example.

Here we have a rotor with
three weights at the
positions shown.

253

Combining weights

For convenience, we will

assign each of these weights
a mass of 1, 2, and 3 grams.

Combining weights

Now we should draw

vectors on to a polar plot.

The scale of the polar plot

should be based on the
masses that you must
combine. It must allow for
a vector that is longer than
what you anticipate the
2 greatest mass will be. For
simplicity. We will set the
scale to 6 grams (because
1 there are six rings).

254

Combining weights

We can start with the

vectors drawn individually.
The length of each vector is
drawn in proportion to the
mass of the weight. The
angle of each vector is
based on the position of the
weight.

Combining weights

Now we “simply” add the

vectors together. The end
of each vector is added to
the tip of the other vector.
It does not matter in which
order you add them
together; the end result will
be the same.

2 If you have a drawing tool

to help you to draw parallel
lines it will help. Otherwise
1 you should use a protractor
and a ruler.
3

255

Combining weights

The final step is to draw the

final vector; the sum of the
three vectors. The angle of
this vector tells us where to
place the new weight (once
we have removed the other
three weights) and the
length of the vector tells us
the mass of the weight.
2

1
4.5
3

Combining weights

Combining weights is not

complicated once you feel
comfortable with vectors.
You may find that your
balance program (if you
have one) is able to
combine weights, but it is
always helpful to know how
to do it yourself.

4.5

256

Thank you
That concludes “Splitting and combining weights”

257

Section 21

What can go wrong?

Learn about a number of common problems that can make
the balance job very difficult to complete

What can go wrong

Assuming that you can fulfill all of the

requirements listed in the balance
checklist, the standard single and two
plane balancing techniques that we
have described should allow you to
successfully balance any rotor (that is
not flexible). But sometimes the
balance job does not go to plan. The
readings may not make sense. Every
time you calculate the residual
unbalance it is still too high. The
vibration levels will not come down
sufficiently. What do you do then?

258

What can go wrong

ISO 20806:2009 “Mechanical

vibration -- criteria and safeguards
for the in-situ balancing of medium
and large rotors” and ISO 1940-
2:1997 “Mechanical vibration --
Balance quality requirements of rigid
rotors -- Part 2: Balance errors“
include information on a number of
areas where balancing jobs can go
wrong, from safety issues (covered in
its own section), to measurement
and other areas, that we will cover in
this section.

What can go wrong

There are a number of factors that

can cause the balance job to fail.
We will discuss them in this
module in the hope that you will
either avoid the problems, or
know how to deal with them
should you experience them.

259

What can go wrong: The machine is not out of balance

By far the most likely reason for a

balance job failing is because the
machine does not need to be
balanced (or does not only need to
be balanced). The balancing process
assumes that the vibration is
dominated by the unbalance forces.
We use trial weights to determine
how the addition of a mass at a
location will influence the
unbalance. But if there is high
vibration due to misalignment, bad
bearings, or looseness, the addition
of a trial weight will have little or no
effect.

What can go wrong: The machine is not out of balance

The problem is that when people

observe high vibration, the assumption
made is that the machine needs to be
balanced. And with many of the
balancing systems that only provide an
amplitude and phase reading, it is very
difficult to know what is wrong with
the machine.

260

What can go wrong: The machine is not out of balance

You really should use an analyzer to look

at the vibration pattern, and ideally take
phase readings from around the machine,
in order to confirm that the rotor does
need to be balanced (other fault
conditions can cause the spectrum to have
an increase in vibration at 1X). And it is a
good idea to keep monitoring the
vibration pattern during the balancing
process to make sure that you are not
trying to trim balance when the dominant
fault is some other fault condition.

What can go wrong: Linearity

The term linearity may not be a very familiar term, especially when it
comes to rotating machinery, but it is an important concept which is
actually quite simple to understand. Linearity simply means that you
expect to witness a consistent relationship between an input and an
output.

261

What can go wrong: Linearity

In the case of balancing it means that we expect there to be a linear

relationship between the weight we add and the vibration we measure.
If we determine that 5 grams has a certain effect, then we expect twice
the effect from 10 grams. When we add a trial weight we are trying to
determine the sensitivity oz-in/mil (for example). But the machine may
not be linear.

What can go wrong: Linearity

The machine may respond differently when there is high vibration

compared to when there is low vibration. With low vibration (e.g. after
the final run) the machine may operate in a different way to when the
vibration is high and there is physically more movement. As the
bearings attempt to deal with the high vibration, the actual stiffness
and damping could be quite different.

262

What can go wrong: Linearity

The result will be that when you add the final weight and measure the
vibration it will be higher than you expect. And then when you
calculate the trim weights they will not have the effect that you expect
– it behaves like a different machine.

What can go wrong: Linearity

One solution is to effectively start the

balance job again after you have observed
a large change in amplitude. Use that
reading as the “original” run, add a trial
weight (i.e. add the the recommended trim
weight but call it a trial weight) and let
the balancing program compute the new
“influence coefficients”. The next trial
weight recommendation may do a much
better job (i.e. lower vibration).

263

What can go wrong: Linearity

The machine may act in a non linear way

because there are other sources of
turning speed (1X) vibration that are not
affected by your balancing efforts. For
example, if 1/3 of the vibration was
related to a fault other than unbalance,
then there will be a nonlinearity
between the measured sensitivity (oz-
in/mil) and the actual sensitivity. It is not
just that you can only remove 2/3 of the
vibration with balancing, the problem is
that the machine never acts linearly
therefore the mass and position of the
weights calculated will always be wrong.

The solution – make sure you have

What can go wrong: Instability

When we use a vibration amplitude or

phase reading in the balance
calculations (or vector plot) it is assumed
that those readings are a correct
representation of the machine vibration.
But if, for any reason, the amplitude and
phase are not stable (phase varying by
more than 2 ), then the data we are
using is not correct. You could test the
machine a few moments later and
receive a different balance result.

264

What can go wrong: Instability

It is therefore important to use stable, repeatable readings. There are

basically two ways to achieve that goal. First, you can determine why
the readings are not stable and try to correct the sources
(instrumentation, phase reference, machine operation, etc.). If that is
not possible, you will need to use averaged readings. You will need to
check how to do this on your analyzer or balancing system. The system
should be able to average together the phase angles and average
together the amplitude readings to use values that represent the state
of the machine as accurately as possible.

What can go wrong: Incorrect balance plane

If you perform a single-plane balance, the weight added to the rotor

will be in just one plane. If the rotor was very narrow, then the balance
plane should successfully counteract the unbalance forces.

265

What can go wrong: Incorrect balance plane

However, if the rotor is not narrow (but your phase readings told you
that the rotor was statically unbalanced) then adding the balance
weights in a chosen plane may not solve the problem – when that plane
is not where the source of static unbalance is located.

Correction plane

Source of
unbalance

What can go wrong: Incorrect balance plane

If you recognize that this is the problem then you have a chance to
solve it – otherwise you will scratch your head in despair. You will need
to either try a different balance plane or try a two plane balance. You
will need to be resourceful and persistent.

Correction plane

Source of
unbalance

266

What can go wrong: Resonance

This course has assumed that the rotor you are balancing is a rigid rotor.
If that is not the case then these techniques may not work. However it
is also a problem if the structure itself is resonating, with a natural
frequency at or near the turning speed of the shaft. We cannot provide
a complete course on resonance in this module, however it is important
to know that if the machine is operating near a natural frequency, the
amplitude will be amplified, and the phase will change quickly with just
a small change in speed.

What can go wrong: Resonance

It is also true that the machine will not act linearly, which, as we have
just described, is a key assumption in the standard single- and two-plane
balance process. The bottom line is that it is very difficult to balance a
rotor when the structure is resonating.

267

What can go wrong: Resonance

One solution is to balance the machine at another speed where it does

not resonate. It is still advised not to run the machine near a natural
frequency, even if it is balanced, but if possible operate the machine at
a lower speed so that the amplitude and phase are not affected.

What can go wrong: Beating

If you have more than one machine running in close proximity, you may
find that the vibration from each machine interacts and cause beating.
Beating is the rise and fall of vibration amplitude. It occurs when there
are two sources of vibration that are only separated by less than 2 Hz.
In brief, the vibration adds together when the two waveforms are in-
phase with each other, and they cancel when they are out of phase. If
the two sources of vibration are 1 Hz apart (60 CPM) then there will be a
1 second beat – the vibration will rise and fall once every second. If the
frequency difference is 0.5 Hz (30 CPM), there will be a 2 second beat.

268

What can go wrong: Beating

If you do need to balance a machine that is beating (the 1X amplitude

rising and falling) then you will need to follow one of these three
procedures:

1. Stop the other machine so there is no beating

2. Use averaging that collects readings over the entire beat cycle
(2 seconds for a 0.5 Hz frequency difference)
3. Use time synchronous averaging.

What can go wrong: Four-run-no-phase

As a general comment, the four-run-

no-phase balancing method can
provide a solution to many of these
problems. Because each run is
independent, and you are not trying
to “extrapolate” based on the effect
that a trial weight had on the original
vibration, this method can give you a
better solution to many of these
“non-linear” response issues.

269

Thank you
That concludes “What can go wrong?”

270

Section 22

Tolerances and quality

An introduction to using standards and balance grades to
determine if a balance job is satisfactory

Tolerances and quality

When balancing a machine the obvious question can arise; are we

there yet? When you add the final weights, the vibration amplitude
will (should) be reduced – but it will never be entirely eliminated. But
is the amplitude low enough? You can continually perform trim runs,
but again, how do you know when to stop?

271

Tolerances and quality

We will look at four methods, with a focus on the fourth option:

1. Using the “lights-out” method when using a stroboscope

2. Using generic values of unbalance
3. Using standards based on vibration amplitude
4. Using standards based on residual unbalance

Tolerances and quality: “Lights-out” balancing threshold

When balancing a rotor, the 1X

peak in the spectrum will be
reduced in amplitude. When
using a strobe that is triggered by
the accelerometer, the trigger will
no longer work when the
amplitude is low (compared to
other sources of vibration).
Therefore some people consider
the balance job is done when
they can no longer trigger their
strobe. Of course, there is no
repeatability to this method; it
depends so much on the
individual circumstances.

272

Tolerances and quality: Generic Unbalance specification

Some people will also use a

Speed: ω generic value of unbalance in
Mass: m oz-in, gr-in or gr-mm to
specify the permissible
unbalance. However the
speed of the rotor must also
Radius: r be included in such a
specification in order to be
meaningful. As discussed in
the balancing theory section,
the force generated is
proportional to the speed
squared. A generic value of
unbalance cannot be used
for all rotors.
F = m r ω2

Tolerances and quality: Balance standards

Balance standards exist and are

commonly used to specify a balance
job. Using a balance standard does
provide repeatability and
accountability. Manufacturers and
corporations may also have their
own criteria for balance quality, but
we will focus on the published
standards.

273

Tolerances and quality: Balance standards

There are two types of standards:

standards based on the final
amplitude of vibration, and
standards that specify the
“permissible residual unbalance”.
The residual unbalance is the
unbalance that remains once the
balance job is complete.

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits

It is not normally recommended

that standards based on amplitude
level be used for determining
balance quality. Although
ISO 14694 is designed specifically
for fans, the ISO 10816 and
ISO 7919 standards are designed
for assessing overall condition.
They are normally used initially to
determine the necessity for
balancing, but not to determine
whether the balance is good
enough. This section is included
because these standards are
sometimes used for this purpose.

274

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits

The ISO standards presented in this

section focus on amplitude of
vibration readings taken from
machines of different types (fans,
steam turbines, gas turbines,
reciprocating machines, and others),
measurements of different type
(machines tested with accelerometers
and machines tested with non-contact
displacement probes) and different
mounting (flexible and rigid).

We will now take a look at these

standards.

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 7919

ISO 7919: Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines –

Measurements on rotating shafts and evaluation criteria

This standard provides guidelines for measurement and evaluation

criteria for a variety of machine types:

• Part 1 – General Guidelines

• Part 2 - Land-based steam turbines and generators in excess of 50MW with
normal operating speeds of 1500 r/min, 1800 r/min, 3000 r/min and
3600 r/min
• Part 3 - Coupled industrial machine
• Part 4 - Gas turbine sets
• Part 5 - Machine sets in hydraulic power generating and pumping plants

275

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 10816

ISO 10816: Mechanical vibration – Evaluation of machine vibration by

measurements on non-rotating parts

This standard provides guidelines for measurement and evaluation

criteria for a variety of machine types:

• Part 1 - General guidelines

• Part 2 - Land-based steam turbines and generators in excess of 50 MW with
normal operating speeds of 1500 r/min, 1800 r/min, 3000 r/min and
3600 r/min
• Part 3 - Industrial machines with nominal power above 15kW and nominal
speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in situ
• Part 4 - Gas turbine sets with fluid film bearings
• Part 5 - Machine sets in hydraulic power generating and pumping plants
• Part 6 - Reciprocating machines with power ratings above 100 kW

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 10816

276

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 10816

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 14694: 2003

ISO 14694: Industrial fans – Specifications

for balance quality and vibration levels

This standard is specifically designed for

fans. It describes the measurement
locations, vibration amplitudes, and
satisfactory/alarm/shutdown limits. We are
not allowed to reproduce the standard,
but we can share three key tables.

277

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 14694: 2003

278

Tolerances and quality: Amplitude limits: ISO 14694: 2003

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

Now we will look at the standards that define balance quality in terms
of “residual permissible” unbalance.

When you take readings on a machine after you have added a trial
weight, you will know the amount of unbalance “U” in oz-in, gr-in, or
gr-mm. You will then add weight(s) and take a new reading, and
compute the unbalance “U” once again. At that point you could
perform a trim balance to further reduce the unbalance.

At any point in the process there is therefore a “residual unbalance”,

Ures, which is the amount of unbalance that still remains.

279

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

The following standards provide a guide as to how much residual

unbalance is permissible (or allowed). This is named Uper.

The standards are:

1. ISO 1940-1:2003 (and ANSI S2.19-1989)

2. American Petroleum Institute: API (standard for centrifugal pumps
and compressors)
3. MIL-STD-167-1A (2005) Mechanical Vibrations of Shipboard
Equipment [supersedes MIL-STD-167-1 1974 (SHIPS)]

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

The first task, therefore, is to determine

the residual unbalance that exists and
then refer to the standard to determine
if that amount of unbalance is
permissible. Therefore it is not possible
to simply walk up to a machine, take a
vibration reading and determine if the
vibration level is acceptable (unless you
wish to use the standards presented in
the previous section).

280

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

Quick review:

The quantity “Unbalance” is discussed in detail in the “Balancing

theory” section. In that section it describes that we can describe the
unbalance in terms of the force generated by an unbalance mass [m] at
a set radius [r] on a shaft rotating at a given speed ( ω or RPM), AND it
can be described in terms of the eccentricity [e] created due to a rotor
of mass [M] rotating.

The following two slides are from that section and will provide a
reminder.

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

The unbalance “U” and

Speed: ω centrifugal force “F” can be
Mass: m computed based on the
mass of the unbalance [m]
operating at the radius [r]:

Radius: r

U=mr

F = m r ω2
ω ≈ RPM / 10
F = m r ω2

281

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

The unbalance “U” and

Speed: ω centrifugal force “F” can
also be computed based on
the mass of the rotor [M]
and the eccentricity [e] due
CG to the unbalance:
GC

Eccentricity: e U=Me

Mass of rotor: M F = M e ω2
ω ≈ RPM / 10

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance

In the next section we will look at

how we can use the
measured/calculated residual
unbalance to determine if the
balance job has achieved a high
enough level of quality.

282

Thank you
That concludes “Tolerances and quality”

283

Section 23
Tolerances and quality:
ISO 1940-1:2003
A review of how to use ISO 1940-1:2003 and ANSI S2.19-1989

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

ISO 1940-1:2003 and ANSI S2.19-1989

provide a means of determining the
permissible residual unbalance based on
the type of machine. It uses quality grade
numbers: G1.0, G2.5, G6.3, etc. On the
following slide is an excerpt from the
standard. It shows that G6.3 covers many
of the industrial machines that are found
in industrial plants, however these days,
G6.3 is not acceptable. G2.5 is more
common, and we would argue that G1.0
should be the goal.

284

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

Note: The author believes that a great

deal of confusion has been generated by
the ISO 1940 standard because of the
units used in the magnitude column:
mm/s. For example, if the balance grade
G2.5 were used, it would be easy to
assume that it meant the vibration
amplitude would be 2.5 mm/s (0.1 in/s);
which is quite high.

In actual fact, the “mm/s” refers to the

product of eccentricity [e] in units of
“mm” and angular velocity (typically ω
but listed here as Ω) which has units of
“rad/sec” which makes it “mm/s”.

If you work through all of the equations, it turns out that if the rotor
was operating in space then it would generate 2.5 mm/s (0.1 in/s). But I
assume you are not working in space…
THESE SLIDES ARE NOT TO BE USED IN AN INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING COURSE COPYRIGHT © 2011 MOBIUS INSTITUTE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

285

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

There are two ways to apply these

standards.

First, the standard provides a chart for

“easy” look-up. You can search along
the bottom of the chart (see the next
slide) for the RPM of the machine in
question. You then search upwards for
the G grade number you wish to apply,
and then you move across to the y-axis
for the “Permissible residual specific
unbalance” (g-mm/kg) per correction
plane. Knowing this value, and the
rotor mass, we can compute how much
unbalance is permissible in each
correction (balance) plane.

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

In this example the

speed is approximately
1800 RPM and we are
aiming for G2.5.

The unbalance
permissible is 20 g-mm
per kg of rotor. 20 g-mm/kg

For a rotor of 10 kg we
can allow 200 g-mm of
unbalance.

286

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

This metric version of

the chart is a little
more clear. It was
taken from the
reference cited below.

Chart from Dennis H Shreve,

Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid
Rotors”

ISO 1940

This is the imperial

version of the chart,
also taken from the
reference cited below.

Chart from Dennis H Shreve,

Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid
Rotors”

287

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: ISO 1940

You can also calculate the permissible residual unbalance. The ISO and
ANSI standard provides the detail, but you can simply enter the balance
grade G (1.0, 2.5, 6.3) to compute the permissible unbalance Uper:

Imperial: Uper = 6 x G x W / N oz-in

Unbalance [Uper]: oz-in | Rotor weight [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Combination: Uper = 170 x G x W / N gr-in

Unbalance [Uper]: gr-in | Rotor weight [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Metric: Uper = 9549 x G x W / N gr-mm

Unbalance [Uper]: gr-mm | Rotor weight [W]: kgs | Speed [N]: RPM

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper

Please note that the permissible unbalance must be allocated to each

balance plane. For a single plane balance, then the permissible
unbalance you read from the chart, or calculate, is applied to the single
plane. If the rotor was center hung, with an equal amount of weight
on each bearing, then the unbalance allowance would be halved for
each balance plane. However, if that is not the case then the unbalance
must be allocated to each plane accordingly.

Left correction plane Right correction plane

288

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper

Just to make sure this is clear, let’s just go through those points again. If
we have a single plane balance (we have measured vibration at one
point and there is one correction plane), then the Uper will be applied to
that plane. Based on the RPM, and the G balance grade (e.g. 2.5) and
the rotor weight, you will determine the oz-in, gr-in, or gr-mm value
that is permissible.

When you go through the balance process and take a final reading the
balance calculations will offer a trim balance weight that can be added,
for example, 0.5 grams. If the radius at which you must place that
weight is 10 inches, then the residual unbalance is 5 gr-in. If that value
is lower than the value calculated (or extracted from the chart), then
you can pack up your gear because the machine is balanced.

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper

And to continue with the explanation, if you performed a two plane

balance, and were looking at the trim balance recommendations for
each plane (i.e. a mass at plane one and a different mass at plane two)
then you can determine the residual unbalance Ures at each correction
plane if you know the radius where the weights will be added.

If you know the mass of the rotor, and the speed (maximum continuous
service speed), and the G balance grade, then you can determine the
permissible unbalance Uper for the rotor.

However, the Uper must be halved (the weight is spread evenly between
the two bearings), and the residual unbalance Ures calculated for each
plane must be compared to the revised Uper target.

289

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper

If the weight of the rotor is not evenly distributed between the two
bearings, then the permissible unbalance Uper would be adjusted in
proportion to the weight ratio. If one bearing took 40% of the weight
and the other bearing took 60% of the weight, then you would take
the Uper value and adjust it accordingly (0.4 x Uper assigned to one
bearing and 0.6 x Uper assigned to the other bearing).

Left correction plane Right correction plane

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper

OK, let’s look at a few rotor shapes and see how the permissible
unbalance should be allocated. The diagrams and a number of the
equations came from a paper by Dennis H Shreve of Commtest
(previously of IRD), “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”, and from
ISO 1940-1.

Left correction plane Right correction plane Left correction plane Right correction plane

290

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper - Symmetrical

If the rotor is symmetrical, and the correction planes are within the
bearings, and distance “b” is greater than 1/3 “d”, and the correction
planes are equidistant from the center of gravity, then the unbalance
Uper can be split between the two balance planes.

Left correction plane Right correction plane

Uper
Uper left = Uper right = 2

hL hR
a b
d
Equations and diagrams from Dennis H Shreve, Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”
THESE SLIDES ARE NOT TO BE USED IN AN INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING COURSE COPYRIGHT © 2011 MOBIUS INSTITUTE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Non-symmetrical

From ISO 1940 we are given the following equations for a center hung
rotor. The challenge is to know where the center of mass (gravity) is
located. As described, the permissible unbalance Uper is then distributed
between the two balance planes.

LB x Uper
Uper A = L

B
L A x Uper
A
Uper B = L
LA LB

291

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Non-symmetrical

When the correction planes are not equidistant from the center of
gravity then the permissible unbalance Uper must be allocated to the
two balance planes in proportion to the distance.

Left correction plane Right correction plane

hR x Uper
Uper left = d

hL x Uper
Uper right = d
hL hR
a b
d
Equations and diagrams from Dennis H Shreve, Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”
THESE SLIDES ARE NOT TO BE USED IN AN INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING COURSE COPYRIGHT © 2011 MOBIUS INSTITUTE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Non-symmetrical

Having said that, there are limits in the standard according to how
much can be allocated to each correction plane. With a center hung
rotor, no more than 70% can be allocated to any one plane, and
therefore, no less than 30% can be allocated to the other plane.

Left correction plane Right correction plane

hR x Uper
Uper left = d

292

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – “Dumb bell”

Special rules exist when the correction planes are located outside the
bearings. If the correction planes are equidistant from the center of
gravity the permissible unbalance is split between the two planes.

Left correction plane Right correction plane

hL hR Uper left = Uper right = Uper x d

b
Equations and diagrams from Dennis H Shreve, Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”
THESE SLIDES ARE NOT TO BE USED IN AN INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING COURSE COPYRIGHT © 2011 MOBIUS INSTITUTE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – “Dumb bell”

When the correction planes are not equidistant from the center of
gravity, the allocation between the left and right planes are as follows:

Left correction plane Right correction plane

hL hR
hR x Uper
Uper left = b

hL x Uper
Uper right = b
d

293

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

From ISO 1940, if the location of the center of mass is known for an
overhung rotor, then the permissible unbalance for each of the bearings
can be allocated as follows.

e x Uper
Uper A = c

d x Uper
A B Uper B = c
d e

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

And, per the standard, for overhung rotors, no more than 130% can be
allocated to any one plane, and no less than 30% can be allocated to
the other plane.

A B

d e

294

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

Alternatively, you may define two balance planes on the overhung

rotor, and optionally a third static plane (if the left plane is not to be
used).

Static correction plane

Left correction plane Right correction plane

c
Equations and diagrams from Dennis H Shreve, Commtest, “Balance Quality of Rigid Rotors”
THESE SLIDES ARE NOT TO BE USED IN AN INSTRUCTOR-LED TRAINING COURSE COPYRIGHT © 2011 MOBIUS INSTITUTE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

If the distance between the balance planes “d” is less than 1/3 the
distance between bearings, i.e. b <1/3 d, and the bearings are equally
able to carry the dynamic load, then the permissible unbalance can be
allocated between the static and couple planes.

Static correction plane

Left correction plane Right correction plane

Uper d
x
Uper static = 2 2c

Uper 3d
x
Uper couple = 2 4b
d Positioned 180° apart

295

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

The couple corrections are placed 180 apart in their respective planes.
The static correction may be made in a third plane.

Static correction plane

Left correction plane Right correction plane

Uper d
x
Uper static = 2 2c

Uper 3d
x
Uper couple = 2 4b
d Positioned 180° apart

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Overhung

To clarify the concept of

breaking the solution
P1 into the static and
Plane 1 couple couple components,
please refer to the
section on “Static-
couple balancing”.
Static component

P2
Plane 2 couple

296

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Example

Let’s go through an example (from the standard).

Rotor mass [m] = 3600 kg

Speed [N] = 3000 r/min
LA = 1500 mm
LB = 900 mm
L= 2400 mm A B
Balance grade [G] = 2.5 mm/s 1500 900

We can perform the calculation: 2400

Uper = 9549 x 2.5 x 3600 / 3000 = 28647 g-mm

Uper = 9549 x G x W / N gr-mm

Tolerances and quality: Allocating Uper – Example

Example continued:

Uper A = 28647 x 900 / 2400 = 10742 gr-mm

Uper B = 28647 x 1500 / 2400 = 17904 gr-mm

Check that Uper A and Uper B are within limits: 0.7 x Uper (20052 gr-mm)
and 0.3 x Uper A (8594 gr-mm) – it is OK.

Now it is possible to compare these values to the results from the two-
plane balance performed on the machine. If the residual balance
computed for the A and B planes are less than 10742 gr-mm and
17904 gr-mm respectively, then the balance is within tolerance.

297

Thank you
That concludes “Tolerances and quality: ISO 1940-1: 2003”

298

Section 24
Tolerances and quality:
API & MIL-STD-167 standards
A review of the API and MIL-STD standards

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: API

The API standard provides an equation to calculate the allowable

residual unbalance as described below – notice there are no balance
grades – it is one rule for all machines:

Imperial: Umax = 4 x W / N oz-in

Unbalance [Umax]: oz-in | Journal static load [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Combination: Umax = 113 x W / N gr-in

Unbalance [Umax]: gr-in | Journal static load [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Metric: Umax = 6350 x G x W / N gr-mm

299

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: API

Note, however, that “W” is not the rotor weight, it is the “journal static
rotor load”. With the provided equation you are calculating the
permissible residual unbalance on each journal.

For example, for a single plane balance you can compare the ISO to the
API standard:

ISO: Uper = 6 x G x W / N oz-in

API: Umax = 4 x W / N oz-in

As you can see, the API standard is equivalent to using a balance grade
G of 0.67 – which is, of course, even lower than G1.0. For example, for a
100 lb rotor operating at 1800 RPM, ISO G2.5 would specify 0.8 oz-in
whereas API would specify 0.2 oz-in.

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: API

For a two plane balance, it is necessary to determine the static load on

each bearing (journal) and then calculate the value for Umax. For a
center hung rotor where the weight is evenly distributed between the
bearings, the static load is half the rotor weight. This is a similar process
as was used in the ISO permissible unbalance Uper allocation.

Left correction plane Right correction plane Left correction plane Right correction plane

300

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: MIL-STD-167

The US Navy also has a standard

for balance quality. The current
standard is MIL-STD-167-
1A:2005, which replaces the
widely quoted MIL-STD-167
(SHIPS) 1974.

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: MIL-STD-167

In MIL-STD-167 (SHIPS) 1974 the permissible unbalance was based on

the machine RPM:

Uper = 0.177 x W oz-in 0-1500 RPM

Uper = 4000 x W / N oz-in 150-1000 RPM

Uper = 4 x W / N oz-in Above 1000 RPM

Unbalance [Umax]: oz-in | Rotor weight [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

301

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: MIL-STD-167A

The US Navy standard MIL-STD-167-1A:2005 (which replaces MIL-STD-

167 (SHIPS) 1974) provides an equation that is based on the ISO balance
quality grade G:

Imperial: Uper = 6 x G x W / N oz-in

Unbalance [Umax]: oz-in | Rotor weight [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Combination: Uper = 170 x G x W / N gr-in

Unbalance [Umax]: gr-in | Rotor weight [W]: lbs | Speed [N]: RPM

Metric: Uper = 9549 x G x W / N gr-mm

Unbalance [Umax]: gr-mm | Rotor weight [W]: kgs | Speed [N]: RPM

Tolerances and quality: Residual unbalance: MIL-STD-167A

However, the standard then goes on to say: “if the RPM is less than
1000 RPM then G2.5 should be used; if the RPM is above 1000 then G1.0
should be used; and if low noise operation is required, then G1.0 should
be used regardless of the speed.”

Note also that when allocating the unbalance between the two planes,
the allocation ratio must not be greater than 2 to 1.

Operating speed Balance grade

< 1000 RPM G2.5
> 1000 RPM G1.0
Low noise G1.0

302

Tolerances and quality

Establishing a target for precision

balancing is very important. While it
is always valuable to reduce the
unbalance to any degree, the
greatest benefits are gained when
the unbalance forces are minimized
to the greatest possible extent.

Using API standards, or using G1.0 as

the target balance grade, will ensure
that the machine will have the
longest life and use the least energy.

Thank you
That concludes “Tolerances and quality: API & MIL-STD-167”

303

Section 25

Conclusion
Wrapping it all up

Conclusion

We hope you have found this

course to be helpful.

By now you should

understand that unbalance
will reduce the reliability of
the structure and bearings,
and potentially reduce
operator safety. You should
understand the unbalance
forces, and the ways in which
you can balance the rotor.

304

Conclusion

The modern balancing systems

make the measurement and
calculations easier than ever
before. But the people who
understand the process, who
can recognize situations that
will lead to difficult (if not
impossible) balancing jobs,
and who can fall-back and use
manual techniques, will
always have far greater
success balancing rotors in the
field.

We hope you feel that you are

now one of those people.

Thank you.
That concludes this training course.

References on next slide

305

References

There are a large number of excellent books, articles and papers

available from various companies and out there on the Internet. The
following is a list of some of the material used to assist in the
development of this course:

Machinery Balancing
A practical approach to balancing, vibration measurement and analysis
David L. Bernhard

Machinery Vibration: Balancing

Victor Wowk

Balance Quality Requirements of Rigid Rotors

Dennis H Shreve

References

Reference continued:

The Simplified Handbook of Vibration Analysis

Arthur R. Crawford

Determination of Balancing Quality Limits

Ali M. Al-Shurafa, Vibration Engineer
Saudi Electricity Company- Ghazlan Power Plant

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