Tihitina Siyoum PDF

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ASSEMBLED STEEL TRUSS

BRIDGES
TIHITINA SIYOUM
OCTOBER 2007
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ASSEMBLED STEEL TRUSS BRIDGES
BY TIHITINA SIYOUM
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

OF ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
PROF. NEGUSSIE TEBEDGE

THESIS ADVISOR
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA
OCTOBER 2007
2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ASSEMBLED STEEL TRUSS BRIDGES
BY TIHITINA SIYOUM
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

OF ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Approved by Board of Examiners
Prof . Negussie Tebedge

Advisor Signature Date
External Examiner Signature Date
Internal Examiner Signature Date
Chairman Signature Date
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement………………………………………..……...……………........……i
List of Symbols ……… …………………………………….......…….………......…...iv
List of Tables…….....…………………………….…………...…....………..…………..vii
List of Figures……………….....…………………….……...………………...….....…...viii
List of Appendices…...……….....…………………….……...………………...…...…...xii
Abstract……...........………………………………………....…………….…….….…....xiii
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background…………………………...………..………………………………...1
1.2 Objective ………………...………...………………………………………….....1
1.3 Thesis Content .........…………….………………..........…………………..….....1
1.4 Application of the study and limitations..……………………............…....……...1
2. Bridge Structure.......................................................................................................3
2.1. General………………………....……………….……………………..….….…..3
2.2. Classification of Bridges…….................……....………………..…………..…...3
2.3. Selection of bridge type..................………. …………………..... …..…..….…...5
2.4. Steel truss of Bridges…………………………………….....……………….…....6
2.4.1. Description....................……………….. ……………………..……….…....6
2.4.2. Why use steel truss bridges?...……... …………………………………........6
2.4.3. Steel bridges in Ethiopia....…………………….. ………………….….........7
3. Analysis and Design of Steel Truss Bridges...........................................................8
3.1. Bridge loading.……………....................................……………………..…….....8
3.1.1. Dead Load.....……….…………... …………………….…………………....8
3.1.2. Live Load...................……………....…….……………………………........8
3.1.3. Dynamic load allowance..............................……..........………………….....10
3.1.4. Wind load..………................................………….…………………….........11
3.1.5. Earth quake Loading..........................................… ……………………........11
3.2. Load Factors and Combinations.. …….…....………..……................…………...11
3.3. Load Application.....................…………........ ………..…....….…………….…..13
3.4. Interior Stringers............................................ …………………………………....14
3.5. Exterior Stringers..................... …………………........……………………….….14
3.6. Floor beams........................................................................…………………….…14
3.7. Live load Truss Stresses...................…..……...........………….............................15
3.8. Truss dead loads ...............……..............………............................................…..15
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3.9. Selection of Truss member........................……...................... ……....................16
3.10. Bridge Truss Deflection.....................................................…….........……...16
4. Selected bridges survey and design example........................................................17
4.1. Assessment of locally built Baily bridges.............................. ……..….…....…..17
4.2. Analysis and Design Example. ………................................................................21
4.2.1 X-Shaped Panel..................................................................................................21
4.2.1.1 Design Data.....................................................................................................21
4.2.1.2 Design of stringers...........................................................................................21
4.2.1.3 Design of floor beams......................................................................................34
4.2.1.4 Design of truss ................................................................................................43
4.2.2 Diamond Shaped Truss.......................................................................................54
4.2.2.1 The first option.................................................................................................55
4.2.2.1.1 Design Data...................................................................................................55
4.2.2.1.2 Design of floor beams ..................................................................................56
4.2.2.2 The second option............................................................................................64
4.2.2.2.1 Definition of geometry, boundary conditions and loading...........................65
4.2.2.2.2 Selection of design criteria............................................................................65
4.2.2.2.3 Evaluation of plate thickness t, and/ or other selected design criteria..........66
4.2.2.2.4 Design procedure..........................................................................................66
4.2.2.2.5 Design of the deck plate...............................................................................67
4.2.2.2.6 Stiffened Plate Deck.....................................................................................70
4.2.2.2.7 Design of floor beams...................................................................................74
4.2.2.2.8 Design of truss..............................................................................................82
4.2.2.2.9 Design of connections...................................................................................95
4.2.2.2.9.1 Design of welded connections....................................................................95
4.2.2.2.9.2 Design of pin and pin plates for panel connection.....................................99
4.3 Cost comparisons .................................................................................................103
5 Conclusions and Recommendations........................................................................104
5.2 Conclusions……………………………………………………...………..........…....104
5.3 Recommendations…………………………………..……………...…….….............105
References….....................................................................................................................105
Appendix A.......................................................................................................................106
Appendix B.......................................................................................................................109
iii
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Ethiopia is a mountainous country characterized by topographic conditions such as
rough terrain, deep gorges, river crossings and other factors that make construction of
crossways such as culverts and bridges mandatory in road construction. The ease of
assembling and erecting panelized steel truss bridge makes it a good alternative for use in
remote areas. But these are usually imported from abroad. The high cost of importing it is
one of the reasons that prohibit its widespread application in inaccessible areas and for
temporary works.
The design and fabrication of this panelized steel bridge with locally produced steel
sections is a possible solution for this problem. This research explores this possibility. It
gives analysis and design procedures clarified by an example.
1.2. Objective
In our country most of the permanent bridges are made from reinforced concrete
and imported steel bridges being used mainly as temporary replacement for failed bridges
and in locations where access is not easy. The main objective of this thesis is to promote
the use of locally available steel profiles for the production and use of assembled steel truss
bridges.
The specific objective of the thesis is to develop analysis and design procedure for
steel truss bridges with emphasis on the design of the main panel that can serve as a
guideline for designers, and illustrate the application using a practical design example.
1.3. Thesis Content

The study of the thesis mainly focuses on literature review of books and design
standards of bridges. Based on the main objective of the thesis, the study has focused on
developing analysis and design procedure for a steel truss bridge. In addition to this the
developed guideline will be utilized in the design of up to 21m span steel truss bridge.
1.4. Applications and Limitations

The result of this study can be applied to design steel truss bridge with local steel
profiles. The study shall benefit the client and constructors as these bridges would only
take a short time to produce and assemble. This enables the quick restoration of traffic.
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The scope of the study has been limited to the preparation of analysis and design
procedure for main panel only. This research may be used as a basis for future study to
include the design of other parts of the bridge so that the whole bridge could be designed
and manufactured using local steel profiles. Finally, the application of analysis and design
procedure is illustrated through practical design example of a sample and common span of
a bridge.
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2. Bridge Structure
2.1. General
A bridge is a structure that crosses over a gorge, road, river, railway, or other
obstructions, permitting smooth and safe passage of vehicles, trains and pedestrians. A
bridge structure is divided into an upper part (the superstructure), which consists of the
slab, the floor system, the main trusses or girders, and a lower part (the substructure),
which are columns, piers, towers, footings, piles and abutments [3].
The super structure provides horizontal spans such as deck and girders and carries
the traffic loads directly. The function of sub structure is to support the super structure of
the bridge.
2.2. Classification of Bridges

Bridges can be classified using different criteria, some of which are listed below.
1. Classification by function
Highway bridges: bridges on highway
Railway bridges: bridges on railway
Aqueduct bridges: bridges supporting pipes
Viaduct bridges: bridges over a highway
Foot bridges: bridges carrying pedestrian traffic
2. Classification by material
Timber bridges: wooden bridges are used when the span is relatively short.
Concrete bridges: This can be reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
Steel bridges: A steel bridge may use a wide variety of structural steel
components and systems.
Masonry Bridge: This may be made of brick or stone masonry in arch form.
3. Classification by relative position of floor
This classification is based on the location of flooring deck with respect to
the supporting structures.
Deck bridge: the deck or flooring is supported at the top of supporting
structure.
Semi-through bridge: The flooring is supported at the intermediate level of
the supporting structures.
Through bridge: The flooring is supported at the bottom.
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4. Classification by method of providing clearance for navigation
Swing bridge: It is supported on a center pier and is rotated horizontally.
Vertical lift bridge: The movable span is lifted vertically above the
navigation area.
Bascule bridge: The span is turned vertically up at one end, usually by
some type of counterweight system.
5. Classification by structural system
Slab bridge: This is usually of solid rectangular section. Such a bridge is
generally constructed of reinforced concrete or pre-stressed concrete.
T-beam girder bridge: a number of reinforced concrete T-beams are placed
side by side to support the load.
Box girder bridge: the single (or multiple) main girder consists of a box
beam, which resists not only bending and shear but also torsion effectively.
Composite girder bridge: the concrete deck slab works in conjunction with
the steel girders to support the load as a united beam.
Truss bridge: Truss bar members are assumed to be connected with pins at
their ends. Each member resists an axial force, either in compression or
tension.
Arch bridge: The arch is a structure that resists load mainly in axial
compression.
Cable Stayed bridge: The highly strengthened cables that stem directly from
the tower support the girders. These are most suited to bridge long
distances.
Suspension bridges: Hangers tied to the main cables, which hang from the
towers, suspend the girders. The load is transmitted mainly by tension in
cable.
6. Classification by support condition
Simply supported bridge: The main girders or trusses are simply supported;
thus they can be analyzed using conditions of equilibrium.
Continuously supported bridge: Girders or trusses are continuously
supported, resulting in a structurally indeterminate system.
Cantilever bridge: a continuous bridge is rendered determinate by placing
intermediate hinges between the supports.
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7. Classification depending on the life of the bridge
Temporary bridge: A bridge that is used for short time and is then
demolished and used in other areas whenever the need arises as in military
bridges.
Permanent bridges: Bridge that is used through out its lifetime.

Based on the above classification, the study of the thesis will focus on simply
supported from support condition, on through type from relative position of floor, on steel
from material type and on truss from structural system. Therefore, a simply supported
through truss bridge made of steel is studied in this thesis.
2.3. Selection of Bridge Type

Selection of bridge type requires the collection of extensive data from which
possible options are chosen.
Factors Affecting the Selection of Type of Bridge

The following factors govern the selection of type of bridges: [4]
1) Volume and nature of the traffic
2) The nature of the river and its bed soil
3) The availability of materials and fund
4) Time available for construction of the bridge.
5) Physical feature of the country.
6) Whether the river is used for navigation purposes or not
7) Availability of skilled and unskilled workers
8) Facilities available for erection of bridge and maintenance.
9) Economic length of the span.
10) Level of high flood level and the clearance required
11) Climatic condition
12) Strategic condition
13) Hydraulic data
14) Length and width of the bridge
15) Foundation conditions for piers and abutment
16) Live load on the bridge
17) Appearance of bridge from aesthetic point of view
5
The above factors are taken into account and the type that is most economical and
can give maximum service and satisfaction is designed.
Some of the factors considered to be the main criteria for the selection of type of
bridge studied in the thesis are:
• Physical feature of the country.
• Availability of construction materials and fund
• Time available for construction of the bridge
• Availability of skilled and unskilled manpower
2.4. Steel Truss Bridges
2.4.1. Description
A truss is an assemblage of long, slender structural steel elements that are
connected at their ends. In design theory, individual members of a truss are subject to axial
tension or compression forces and not to bending forces. Trusses find substantial use in
modern construction, for instance as bridges, towers, roof trusses etc.
These trusses can be made of timber, steel or can be composite structure. In this
thesis, steel trusses used for building bridges are considered. Steel has higher strength,
ductility and toughness than many other structural materials such as concrete or wood.
However steel must be painted to prevent rusting. [3].
Like other bridge types, there are both simple and continuous truss bridges. The
members of a truss can be arranged in an almost unlimited number of ways, but the vast
majority of trusses encountered in bridge or building work belong to one of the common
types listed below. Some of these common types of trusses are the Warren truss, Warren
truss with verticals, subdivided Warren truss, the Pratt truss, subdivided Pratt (Baltimore)
truss, K truss, and the Howe truss.
2.4.2. Why use Steel Truss bridges?

Steel truss bridges are made of panels that are pin connected or fixed type to form
the bridge. Fabrication of panels by welding is conducted in the shop (at production site)
where the bridge components are prepared before being assembled on the construction site.
The relatively small size of individual parts makes it the ideal bridge for places where it is
difficult to transport large parts or where large cranes and heavy equipment can not be used
6
during erection or at remote places where it becomes very expensive to build reinforced
concrete bridges.
2.4.3. Steel Bridges in Ethiopia

According to information gathered from Ethiopian Roads Authority, steel bridges
were in use as early as 1945. The types of steel bridges used in Ethiopia are steel truss
bridges, steel girder bridges and temporary steel panel bridges. Currently the federal road
network has 50 temporary panel bridges, 7 permanent steel bridges and 11 steel girder
bridges under it [see Appendix A]. Some of these bridges have reinforced concrete deck,
others timber deck and some are of steel deck. Temporary steel bridges imported as close
as 10 years back were with timber deck. Usually such kind of deck serves only for short
time depending on volume of traffic. When it wears out it is replaced by local timber made
from Eucalyptus tree, which brings about undesired dynamic effect and movement of the
span while vehicles are passing. Thus overload plus over speed coupled with irregular
driving sometimes brings about failure of these bridges. Rohalomi bridge is an example of
such a failure. It was a 20mt long, single span steel truss bridge (Bailey type) with timber
deck located in Gonder on the Gonder-Humera road.
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3. Analysis and Design of Steel Truss Bridges
3.1. Bridge Loading

The various types of loading which need to be considered can broadly be classified
as permanent, or transient (variable). Permanent loads are those due to the weight of the
structure itself and of any other immovable loads that are constant in magnitude and
permanently attached to the structure. They act on the bridge through out its life. Transient
loads are those loads that vary in position and magnitude and act on the bridge for short
period of time such as live loads, wind loads and water loads etc. Some of these are
1.Permanent loads
• dead load of structure
• superimposed dead loads
2.Transient loads
• vehicular live loads
• pedestrian live loads
• impact loads
• wind loads
• earth quake loads
These loads are factored and combined to produce extreme adverse effect on the member
being designed.
3.1.1 Dead Load

The dead load on superstructure is the weight of all structural elements and non-
structural parts of the bridge above the bearing. This would include the main supporting
trusses or girders, floor beams, stringers, the deck, sidewalk, bracings, parapets and road
surfacing.
3.1.2 Live Loads

The live load for bridges consists of the weight of the applied moving load of
vehicles and pedestrians. The traffic over a highway bridge consists of a multitude of
different types of vehicles. To form a consistent basis for design, standard loading
conditions are applied to the design model of structure. These standard loadings are
specified in codes and manuals. Some of these are
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American Association of State Highway and transportation Officials (AASHTO):
Bridge Design Manual-2002, Ethiopian Roads Authority
Bridge Design Manual-2004, Addis Ababa City Roads Authority
In Ethiopia the design vehicle live load on roadways of bridges, designated HL-93, shall
consist of a combination of the:[1]
• design truck or design tandem
• design lane load
The live load model consists of either a truck or tandem with a lane load of 9.3KN/m at the
same place. The lane load is assumed to occupy 3m transversely within the design lane.
Design Truck
The weight and the spacing of the axle and wheel for design truck shall be as
specified in Fig. 3.1.
Figure 3.1 The Design Truck
A dynamic load allowance shall be considered [1]. Unless otherwise specified, the spacing
between the two 145kN axels shall be varied between 4.3 and 9m to produce extreme force
effect.
Design Tandem
The design tandem used for strategic bridge shall consist of a pair of 110kN axles
spaced at 1.2m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8m. A dynamic
load allowance shall be considered [1]. The design tandem load is shown in the Figure 3.2
9
Figure 3.2 Design Tandem Loads
Design Lane Load
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m, uniformly distributed in
longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over 3m width. A dynamic load allowance shall not be considered [1].
3.1.3 Dynamic Load Allowance (Impact)

The truckloads on bridges are applied not gently and gradually but rather violently,
causing stress increase. Therefore, additional loads called impact loads must be
considered[5].
These are taken into account by increasing the static effects of design truck or
tandem, with the exceptions of centrifugal and breaking forces, by the Dynamic Load
Allowance, IM percentage specified in Table 3.1 [1].
The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100). The
dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.
Table 3.1 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM
Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
All Other Limit States 33%
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3.1.4 Wind Load
Wind forces are resisted by the bracing systems for a through bridge. The bracing
systems are neither analyzed nor designed in this thesis since the load is considered
insignificant.
3.1.5 Earthquake Loading

Seismic analysis is not required for single-span Bridge, regardless of the seismic Zone [1].
3.2. Load Factors and Combinations

The LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) design method as per the
provision of ERA 2002 Bridge Design Manual is used. Load factors are applied to the
loads and resistance factors to the internal resistances or capacities of sections. The load
combinations, load factors and force effects are considered according to ERA 2002 Bridge
Design Manual clause 3.3 and shall satisfy Eq. (3.1).
∑ηi γi Qi < ϕ Rn = Rf (3.1)
Where:
for loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
ηi = ηD ηR ηI ≥0.95
for loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:
ηi = 1 / (ηD ηR ηI ) ≤1.0
where:
ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
Qi = force effect
ϕ= resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
Rn = nominal resistance
ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
Rf = factored resistance: ϕ Rn
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Table 3-2 - Load Combinations and Load Factors
DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Load DD IM these at a
CR
Combination DW CE time
EH BR SH
EV PL
ES LS EQ CT
Limit State EL
STRENGTH I γp 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II γp 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
STRENGTH III γp - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
STRENGTH IV γp - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - - - -
EH, EV, ES, DW,
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V γp 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -

EXTREME γp γEQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 -
EVENT I
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
FATIGUE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
LL, IM and CE
ONLY
where: γSE = load factor for settlement
BR = vehicular braking force DC = dead load of structural components
CE = vehicular centrifugal force DD = down drag
CR = creep DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
CT = vehicular collision force EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects γEQ = load factor for live load with seismic load
resulting from the construction process EQ = earthquake load
ES = earth surcharge load EV =vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
γp = load factor for permanent loading γTG = load factor for temperature gradient
FR = friction IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature WA =water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load WS = wind load on structure
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3.3. Load Application
To understand the manner of application of loads to a supporting truss it is
necessary for the arrangement of the members of the floor system to be carefully studied.
The most common type of bridge floor is supported by a series of stringers parallel to
traffic and running the length of each panel. The stringers frame into and are supported by
the floor beams (transoms). The floor beams frame into panel points of the supporting
trusses. The stringers and floor beams are for simplicity assumed to have simple end
supports (see Fig. 3.3).
Figure 3.3 Arrangement of floor system
A few explanatory remarks are made here concerning the application of the wheel
loads. Even though a wheel load is directly placed over an interior stringer it causes the
adjacent stringers as well as the stringer in question to deflect due to the stiffness of the
bridge floor. The obvious result is the distribution of the load and the AASHTO Article
3.23 and Table 3.23.1 specifications attempt to estimate the effect of this distribution. They
say the percentage of a wheel load to be taken is the center to center spacing of the
stringers divided by a certain value which is determined from the
• type of floor
• spacing of stringers
• number of traffic lanes
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For steel bridge with steel grid (less than 4'' thick)
DF=S/4.5 For bridge designed for one traffic lane
DF=S/4.0 For bridge designed for two or more traffic lanes
where S is the average stringer spacing in feet.
In calculating bending moment due to live load in stringers, no longitudinal distribution of
the wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution shall be determined as follows.
3.4. Interior Stringers

Interior stringers are subjected to dead load of the bridge floor and their own
weight. Live load bending moments are computed using one set of front and rear wheels
multiplied by distribution factor given in AASHTO Table 3.23.1. Impact is then
calculated. Live load bending moment coming from lane load is also computed. The
moments are summed up and used to calculate the section modulus required. A suitable
interior stringer is then selected.
3.5. Exterior Stringers

Exterior stringers are subjected to dead load coming from bridge floor, their own
weight, curbs, and railings. The live load bending moment is then calculated by applying
to the stringer the reaction of the wheel load determined by assuming the flooring to act as
a simple span between stringers (AASHTO Art. 3.23.2.3.1.1). Live load bending moment
coming from lane load is also computed. The calculation of impact and use of total
moments for the section modulus requirement is the same as in the interior stringer. A
suitable exterior stringer is then selected. In no case shall an exterior girder have less
carrying capacity than an interior stringer.
3.6. Floor beams

These are subjected to dead load reactions from outside and interior stringers.
These reactions are applied as concentrated loads to floor beams. AASHTO Article 3.23.3
specifications do not allow transverse distribution of wheel loads for design of floor
beams. Therefore, concentrated live loads applied to floor beams from stringers are
calculated and placed in the design lane to cause maximum live load moment. Live load
bending moment coming from lane load is also computed. Impact moment is then
calculated, the total moment summed up, the required section modulus calculated and used
for the selection of suitable floor beam.
14
3.7. Live load truss stresses
The live load stresses are to be computed for the HL93 loading. The design lane
loading is 9.3 kN/m uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction and across 3m
width and is to be placed in design traffic lane. The number of design traffic lane is
determined by taking the integer part of w/3000 where w is the clear roadway width
between curbs and/or barriers. The lane loading is moved as close as possible to one of the
trusses to cause maximum loads on that truss. From this arrangement, the live load
proportion going to the truss can be determined. The same is done for wheel loads and the
maximum percentage of the concentrated wheel loads going to the truss can be determined.
The impact percentage for various truss members will be determined as given in Table 3.1.
3.8. Truss dead loads

The dead load of a truss bridge consists of the weight of the floor system, truss, and
bracing. The weight of the floor system, which comprises a large percentage of the total
weight, can closely be estimated by making a preliminary design of the floor. From the
weight of the floor system and bracing the load applied to the truss can be determined.
Before dead load analysis of the truss can be made of the main trusses the weights of the
trusses must be estimated.
When using softwares, the self weight of the truss is calculated by the software. When
using hand calculation, the weight of the truss can be estimated by increasing the other
dead loads by some percentage or by using some approximate formula. The Hudson
formula, given as Eq. (3.2), can be used for estimating the weight of the truss.
W = 17 S L/ s (3.2)
where:
W is the total weight of the bridge truss including its bracing
S is the maximum total tensile stress in the most stressed chord member
L is the length of the truss in feet
s is the allowable tensile stress
Since S is the maximum total tensile stress due to live load plus impact plus dead load, a
value has to be assumed for the truss weight to apply the formula. For this effect, the
largest tensile chord member is assumed to extend for the full length of the truss and its
weight is assumed to equal 20 percent of the weight of the entire truss and bracing.
15
3.9. Selection of truss member
Article 10.7 of AASHTO need to be studied before the truss members are selected. In
this article the limiting lengths of members are specified as the maximum slenderness
ratio, KL/r, for compression and tension members. For the main tension members 200 is
the maximum value and 240 for bracing members. For compression members the
comparable values are120 and 140.
3.10. Bridge-truss deflection

Members having simple or continuous spans preferably should be designed so that the
deflection due to service live load and impact shall not exceed 1/800 of span [2].
According to ERA clause 2.6, deflection due to vehicular load and impact shall not exceed
1/500 of span. Trusses with horizontal bottom chords will sag down in the middle,
affecting their appearance and perhaps worrying the users of the bridge. These trusses
should desirably be cambered to avoid such sagging.
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4. Selected Bridges Survey and Design Example
4.1. Assessment of Locally Built Baily Bridges

Site visit was conducted on existing Baily bridges in Addis Ababa and on different
parts of panel bridge out side of Addis Ababa to appreciate the design problem.
Site visits were made at the Alemgena panel bridge parts store of Ethiopian Roads
Authority in Alemgena district and the visit area within Addis Ababa was the Baily bridge
at the entrance of Addis Ababa Tennis Club (see Fig. 4.1).
Figure 4.1 Baily bridge at the entrance to the Addis Ababa Tennis Club
Bridge Location: At the entrance to the Addis Ababa Tennis Club

Crossing: Filwoha River
Bridge Type: Baily bridge with timber deck
Number of spans: 1
Span Length: 15.20m
Roadway width: 3.35m
Foundation: Stone masonry head wall and wing wall
During the site visit at Alemgena, pictures (see Fig. 4.2) and measurements of
different parts were taken for the accompanying study. The measurements are listed below.
17
Figure 4.2 Panel bridge parts at ERA's store in Alemgena District.
-Panel
-made of top chord, bottom chord, verticals, diagonals and connection plates with the
following measured dimensions (see Fig. 4.3).
2210
Plate # 1
Plate # 1 280 x 116 x 5 mm
connection plate
3020
Plate # 2
279 x 198 x 5 mm
connection plate
Figure 4.3 Measured dimensions of locally available panel bridge part at ERA's store in
Alemgena District
18
-Bottom/ top chord
-made of two channels with the following measured dimensions (see Fig. 4.4).
8
8 102
45 45
Figure 4.4 Measured dimensions in mm of bottom /top channel

-
Cross-sectional area = 1368 mm2
-Vertical/ diagonal members
-made of single channel with the following measured dimensions (see Fig.
4.5).
10 77
42
Figure 4.5 Measured dimensions in mm of vertical / diagonal channel
-
Cross-sectional area = 1129.00 mm2
Using the above data as a starting point a local trial panel section shown in Fig. 4.6
is chosen. The panel members, stringers and floor beams are made of hollow rectangular
sections chosen from Kality Metal Products Factory products. The hollow rectangular
sections used in the trial panel are shown in Fig. 4.7 and Fig. 4.8. Steel deck section is
assumed and standard ERA specification loading conditions are applied on it. These loads
are transferred to the stringers and floor beams, which are lattice girders, and then
analyzed. The section capacities of the stringers and floor beams are checked for the
applied loading and the load is transferred to the truss. The section capacities of the truss
are then checked for sufficiency in the following structural arrangement.
19
-Panel
1500 1500
2300
Figure 4.6 Assumed dimensions of trial panel in mm

-Bottom/ top chord
-made of two RT128.
RT128
120 4
80
Figure 4.7 Dimensions of RT128 in mm
-available cross-sectional area = 1495 mm2
-Vertical/ diagonal members

-made of single ST100.
ST100
4 100
100
Figure 4.8 Dimensions of ST100 in mm
-available cross-sectional area = 1495 mm2
20
4.2 Analysis and Design Example
4.2.1 X-Shaped Panel
To illustrate the application of the design principles of the panel, a steel truss bridge
of 21m span with cross section shown in Fig. 4.9 is considered.
750
1100 1100 1100
Figure 4.9 Cross section of steel bridge showing deck and stringer in mm
4.2.1.1 Design Data

The following assumptions are used.
- The 21m span is made up of seven panels each 3m long.
- The road way width is 3300mm.
- The center-to-center distance of truss is 4060mm.
- The center-to-center distance of floor beams is 3000mm.
- The center-to-center distance of stringers is 1100mm.
- Structural hollow sections of Kality Metal Products Factory with yield
strength of 250MPa and ultimate tensile strength of 343MPa are used to
construct the trusses, stringers and floor beams.
- A steel deck with steel curb at edge currently used by ERA is assumed
designed and only its load is considered [6].
- A preliminary design of stringers and floor beams will be done.
- For live loads, ERA live loading of HL-93 are used.
4.2.1.2 Design of stringers

Interior and exterior stingers are designed separately.
Interior stringer design

Dead loads
Steel deck weight = (1018.37) (1.10) = 1120.21 N/m
21
Span of stringers = panel length = 3m
Assume built up RHS lattice stringer from ST100 with fy = 250 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m (see Fig. 4.12 and Fig 4.13)
The steel deck and curb currently used by ERA is shown in Fig. 4.10 and Fig 4.11
respectively.
Figure 4.10 Steel deck unit currently used by ERA
Figure 4.11 Steel curb unit currently used by ERA
22
750
1500 1500
Figure 4.12 Lattice stringer made from 100mm SHS section
100
650
X 750 X
425
100
100
Y
Figure 4.13 Cross section of lattice stringer
Total length of stringer members = 14.96 m

Total weight of stringer members = (11.73) (9.81) (14.96) = 1721.47 N/m
Weight per meter of stringer = 1721.47 / 3 = 573.82 N/m
Stringer weight = 573.82 N/m
Total dead load = 1120.21 + 573.82 = 1694.03 N/m
Dead load moment = (1694.03) (3) (3) / 8 = 1905.79 Nm = 1.91 kNm
Live Loads
Truck Load with impact (33%):
P1 = (1.33) (145) = 192.85 kN; for axle load of 145 kN
P2 = (1.33) (35) = 46.55 kN; for axle load of 35 kN
Tandem Load with impact (33%):
P3= (1.33) (110) = 146.30 kN; for tandem load of 110 kN
23
Lane Load: 9.3 kN/m uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction and
occupying 3m width transversely. The line load per meter on stringer is (3/4.06) (9.3)
= 6.64 kN/m.
Fraction of wheel loads carried by the interior stringer as specified by AASHTO clause
3.23.2.2 is = S /4.5
where, S is average stringer spacing in feet.
Fraction of wheel loads carried by the interior stringer = (1.10/0.3048)/4.5 = 0.802
For truck load

As the axle spacing is greater than the span of the stringers, only one axle can be placed
on the stringer at a time. The maximum load occurs when the heavier axle load is on the
span (see Fig. 4.14).
P1
1500 1500
R1 R 1 = R 2 = 0.5P 1 = 96.43 kN R2
Figure 4.14 Truck load on interior stringer
Maximum truck load moment = (96.43) (1.5) (0.802) = 116.01 kNm
The design moment is taken by applying limit load factors 1.25 for dead loads and
1.75 for live loads for strength I limit state, and also service load factor of 1.00 for dead
loads and 1.3 for live loads for service II limit state and then by combining the effects of
dead loads and live loads. The maximum design moment is the one, which is the maximum
of limit or service state moments.
Total limit truck and dead moment = (1.25) (1.91) + (1.75) (116.01) = 205.41 kNm
Total service truck and dead moment = (1.00) (1.91) + (1.30) (116.01) = 152.72 kNm
24
For tandem load
The axle spacing is 1.2m and so both axles can be placed on the stringer at a time. The
maximum load occurs when the center of span is mid way between the resultant load and
the heavier axle load as shown in Fig. 4.15.
R = 2P 3
P3 P3
300 300
1200 300 1500

R1 R1 = 0.8P 3 = 117.04kN R2
Figure 4.15 Tandem load on interior stringer
Maximum tandem load moment = (117.04) (1.2) (0.802) = 112.64 kNm

Total limit tandem and dead moment = (1.25) (1.91) + (1.75) (112.64) = 199.51 kNm
Total service tandem and dead moment = (1.00) (1.91) + (1.30) (112.64) = 148.34 kNm
For lane load (see Fig. 4.16)
6.64 kN/m
3000
R1 R2
Figure 4.16 Lane load on interior stringer
Maximum lane load moment = (6.64) (3) (3) / 8 = 7.47 kNm
The design moment is the maximum of the truck or tandem moment combined with lane
and dead moment. A summary of the combination is shown in Table 4.1.
25
Table 4.1 Combination of truck/tandem with lane and dead moment on interior stringer
No Loading Type Combined moment (in kNm) Remark

Truck load and dead load
1 152.72 + (7.47) (1.75) = 164.79
with lane load (service)
2 205.41 + (7.47) (1.75) = 218.48 Maximum
with lane load (limit)
Tandem load and dead load
3 148.34 + (7.47) (1.75) = 161.41
4 199.51 + (7.47) (1.75) = 212.58
Therefore the design moment is

MD = 218.48 kNm
The required section modulus for the above moment is
S = M / fb
where:
S is elastic section modulus
M is bending moment due to the applied loads
fb is maximum normal stress due to bending
fb = fy / γM1 = 250 / 1.1 = 227.27 MPa
S = 218.48 / ((227) (1000)) = 0.000962511 m3 = 962.51 x 103 mm 3
Check section modulus of lattice stringer:

SHS 100 x 100 x 4 mm (see Fig. 4.13)
A = 1495 mm2 I = 2,264,000 mm4
d = 800 / 2 = 400mm
Ixx = (2) (Io + A d2) = (2) (2264000 + (1495) (375) (375)) = 424.97 x 106 mm 4
Cy = 425 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 999.99 x 103 mm3 > 962.51 x 103 mm 3
The section is sufficient.
26
Exterior stringer design
Dead loads
Steel deck weight = (1018.37) (1.10) (0.5) = 560.10 N/m
Weight of steel curbs = (1026.09) (0.11) = 112.87 N/m
Span of stringers = panel length = 3m
Assume the same built up SHS lattice girder from ST100 with fy = 250 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m
Stringer weight = 573.82 N/m
Total dead load = 560.10 +112.87 + 573.82 = 1246.79 N/m
Dead load moment = (1246.79) (3) (3) / 8 = 1402.64 Nm =1.40 kNm
Live Loads
The axle load arrangement for maximum moment is the same as for interior stringers. The
position of outer wheel load as specified by ERA clause 3.9.1 is shown in Fig. 4.17.
Center of outer wheel loads
750
600 450
Figure 4.17 Position of wheel loads for exerior stringer
Part of wheel load supported by the exterior stringer as specified by AASHTO clause
3.23.2.3.1.2 is = 0.45 / 1.05 = 0.43
For truck load (see Fig. 4.18)
P1
1500 1500
R1 R1 = R2 = (P1)/2 = 96.43 kN R2
Figure 4.18 Truck load on exterior stringer
27
Maximum truck load moment = (96.43) (1.5) (0.43) = 62.20 kNm
For tandem load (see Fig. 4.19)
P3 P3
1200 300 1500

R1 R2
R 1= 0.8P 3 = 117.04 kN
Figure 4.19 Tandem load on exterior stringer
Maximum tandem load moment = (117.04) (1.2) (0.43) = 60.39 kNm

6.64 kN/M
3000
R1 R 1 = R 2 = 9.96 kN R2
Figure 4.20 Lane load on exterior stringer
Maximum lane load moment = (6.64) (3) (3) / 8 = 7.47 kNm

A summary of the combination of the truck or tandem moment with lane and dead moment
is shown in Table 4.2.
28
Table 4.2 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for exterior stringer

1 82.26 + (7.47) (1.75) = 95.33
2 110.60 + (7.47) (1.75) = 123.67 Maximum
3 79.91 + (7.47) (1.75) = 92.98
4 107.44 + (7.47) (1.75) = 120.51

MD = 123.67 kNm
S = 123.67 / (227,000) = (5.4480176) (10 -4) m3 = 544.80 x 103 mm 3
The required section modulus allows us to use a lattice stringer of lower depth. But
AASHTO clause 3.23.2.3.1.4 specifies that an exterior stringer shall not have lesser
carrying capacity than the interior one. Therefore, use the same lattice stringer as the
interior one.
Check stringer members capacity by analyzing the stringer as a truss

The simply supported stringer is checked for maximum member forces by applying
the truck load, the dead load and lane load at the joints on the top chord.
Maximum dead load on a joint = (1.25) (1.12) ((1.5/2) + (1.5/2)) = 2.10 kN.
Maximum truck and lane load = (1.75) (192.85+ (6.64) ((1.5/2) + (1.5/2)) = 354.92kN.
These loads are analyzed using SAP2000 version 8 and the maximum member forces
are taken for design (refer to attached CD). From the analysis the maximum forces on
chord are:
183.38 kN tension and
174.81 kN compression
diagonal are
29
vertical are
Design of stringer members

These are modeled as axially loaded compression or tension members. The axial
capacities of the members are determined first.
Member capacities as compression members

This is when the stringer members are subjected to compressive forces applied
through the centriodal axis of a member. A uniform compression force is developed at
each cross section. The strength of compression members is limited by instability. This
instability can be either local buckling or overall buckling.
Local buckling
The cross sections of structural steel elements are classified as plastic, compact,
semi-compact or thin walled sections depending on the width-thickness ratios of their
elements as specified in EBCS 3, 1995 Table 4.1.
Compression resistance of cross section

According to EBCS 3, 1995 Clause 4.5.4.1, for members in axial compression, the
design value of the compressive force Ncom,Sd at each cross section shall satisfy:
Ncom,Sd ≤ Ncom,Rd
where,
Ncom,Rd is the design compression resistance of the cross section, and may be
determined as follows:
Class 1, 2, or 3 cross sections: Ncom,Rd = A fy / γmo
Class 4 cross sections: Ncom,Rd = Aeff fy / γm1
where,
for class 1, 2, or 3 cross sections: γmo = 1.1
30
Classification of section used in the design (see Fig. 4.21)
ST100
t=4 h = 100
b = 100
Figure 4.21 Cross-section of ST100 in mm
Check flange
ε = √ (235/fy), fy in MPa
ε = √ (235/ 250) = 0.9695
For internal element of compression flange
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
where C = h-3tf
tf = thickness of flange
h = overall depth
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
22 ≤ 22.30 flange is plastic
Check web
Web, where the whole section is subject to compression
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
where d = b-3tw
tw = thickness of web.
b = overall width
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
22 ≤ 27.15 web is plastic.
The whole section is plastic. Therefore, cross section used in the design is plastic. The
design compression resistance is:
Ncom,Rd = A fy / γmo
Ncom,Rd = (A) (250) / 1.1 = 227.27 A.
For ST100, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (227.27) = 339.77 kN
31
Overall buckling
The most significant parameter affecting truss member stability is the slenderness
ratio KL/r, where L is the actual unbraced length of the truss member; KL is the effective
length of the truss member; and r is the radius of gyration of the truss member cross
section. KL/r is referred to as λ, KL as L and r as i in EBCS-3, 1995. According to
AASHTO article 10.7.1 and 10.7.5, the slenderness ratio shall not exceed 120 for
compression members and 140 for tension members subjected to stress reversal. Truss
member strength equations are normally written for ideal "pin ended" truss member. To
make the strength equations applicable to all truss members, an effective length factor K is
used to account for the influence of end conditions on truss member stability. The design
buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken as:
Nb,Rd = χβA A fy / γm1
where βA =1 for class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections.
γm1 = 1.1
χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode.
According to EBCS 3-1995 Table 4.11, the buckling curve about any axis for cold-
formed hollow section is curve b. Use λ to determine the value of χ from EBCS3-1995
table 4.9 and then the buckling load Nb,Rd ,
λ = (λ / λ1 ) [βA ] 0.5
where, λ is the non dimensional slenderness ratio
λ =L / i
where i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis.
L is the buckling length of a compression member.
λ1= π [E /fy] 0.5 = 93. 9ε
ε = [235 / fy ] 0.5 ( fy in MPa)
ε =[235 / 250] 0.5
= 0.9695
λ1 = 91.04
The stringer members are assumed as pin ended, so their buckling length is the same
as their member length. The longest member length from the verticals is 750 mm diagonals
is 1677 mm and from the chord members is 1500 mm. Buckling in the direction with the
lower radius of gyration governs.
32
For ST100 diagonal, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 167.70 cm , λ = 43.11
λ= (43.11 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.47
χ = 0.8968, Nb,Rd = (0.8968) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 304.71 kN
For ST100 vertical, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L = 75.00 cm , λ = 19.28

λ= (19.28 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.21
χ = 0.9964, Nb,Rd = (0.9964) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 338.55 kN
For ST100 chord, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 150.00 cm , λ = 38.56

λ = (38.56 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.42
χ = 0.9177, Nb,Rd = (0.9177) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 311.81 kN
Member capacities as tension members

When the truss members are subjected to tensile forces applied through the
centriodal axis of a member, the result is a uniform tensile stress at each cross section. The
design tensile strength of a structural steel depends on the appropriate cross sectional area.
The axially loaded tensile members are checked for resistance of cross sections. EBCS 3-
1995 clause 4.4.1 specifies that for members in axial tension the design value of the axial
tension force Nt,sd at each cross section shall satisfy:
Nt,sd ≤ Nt,Rd
where Nt,Rd is the design tension resistance capacity of the cross section, taken as the
smaller of:
(a) the design plastic resistance of the gross section
Npl,Rd = A fy / γm1
(b) the design ultimate resistance of cross section at the bolt hole
Nu,Rd = 0.9Aeff fy / γm2
The stringer members do not have holes on them and because of this checking the design
plastic resistance is sufficient.
33
For ST100,
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nt,Rd = Npl,Rd = 339.77 kN
The stringer members are sufficient.
4.2.1.3 Design of floor beams
The floor beam used is a lattice beam made from 100mm SHS as shown in Fig. 4.22.
Centerline of Centerline of
truss truss
900
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.22 Lattice floor beam made from 4mm thick ST100 section
Dead loads
Span of floor beam = 4.06m
The center-to-center distance of floor beam is 3.0m.
Assume built up SHS lattice beam from ST100 with fy = 250 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m
Total length of floor beam members = 22.10 m
Weight of floor beam members = (11.73) (9.81) (22.10) = 2524.14 N/m
Weight per meter of floor beam = 2524.14 / 4.06 = 626.14 N/m
Floor beam weight = 0.63 kN/m
Dead load reaction from interior stringer = (1.69) (3.0) = 5.08 kN
Dead load reaction from exterior stringers = (1.25) (3.0) = 3.74 kN
The dead load reactions from stringers are applied as concentrated loads to floor beam as
shown in Fig. 4.23.
34
3.74 kN 5.08 kN 5.08 kN 3.74 kN
380 1100 1100 1100 380

2030 2030
R1 R1 = R 2 = 8.82 kN R2
Figure 4.23 Concentrated dead loads on floor beam
Maximum dead load moment = (8.82) (2.03) - (3.74) (1.65) - (5.08) (0.55) + (0.63) (4.06)
(4.06) / 8 = 10.24 kNm
Live Loads
Article 3.23.3.1 of AASHTO doesn't permit transverse distribution of wheel loads
in calculating bending moments for floor beams. As the floor beam is placed transversely
on the trusses only one axle can be placed on the floor beam at a time as shown in Fig.
4.24.
For truck load

The truckload is placed so as to cause maximum live load moment (see Fig. 4.24 and
Fig. 4.25). The maximum load occurs when the heavier axle load is on the floor beam as
shown in Fig. 4.25.
Maximum truck load moment = (103.55) (2.78) – (96.43) (1.8))= 114.30 kNm
35
P2 P1 P1
4300 4300
Floor beam
900
3000 3000
Figure 4.24 Truck moving to the left on the bridge
0.5 P 1 0.5 P 1
1800
980 1050 750 1280
2030 2030
R1 = 103.55 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.25 The heavier axle load on the floor beam
For tandem load

For maximum force effect, the first axle is placed on the floor beam and the same
floor beam also carries a portion of the second axle as shown in Fig. 4.26. The
concentrated loads applied to floor beams from tandem are (see Fig. 4.27):
P3 + (1.8/3) P3 = 1.6 P3
Maximum tandem load moment = (125.69) (2.78) – (117.04) (1.8) = 138.75 kNm
36
P3 P3
1200
Floor beam 900
3000 3000
Figure 4.26 Tandem moving to the left on the bridge span
0.8 P3 0.8 P3
1800
980 1050 750 1280

2030 2030
R1 R1 = 125.69 kN R2
Figure 4.27 Tandem load on the floor beam
For lane load (see Fig 4.28)

Lane load in transverse direction 9.3 kN / 3m = 3.1 kN/m
Maximum lane load moment = (4.65) (2.03) -(3.10) (1.5) (1.5) / 2 = 5.95 kNm
37
3.10 kN/m
530 3000 530

R 1 = R2 = 4.65 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.28 Lane load on floor beam
Table 4.3 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for floor beam

Truck load and dead load with lane
1 158.83 + (5.95) (1.75) = 169.24
load (service)
2 212.83 + (5.95) (1.75) = 223.24
load (limit)
Tandem load and dead load with
3 190.61 + (5.95) (1.75) = 201.02
lane load (service)
4 255.61 + (5.95) (1.75) = 266.03 Maximum
lane load (limit)

MD = 266.03 kNm
S = 266.03 / (227,000) = 0.0011719163 m3 = 1.17 x 106 mm 3
Check section modulus of floor beam shown in Fig. 4.29.
SHS 100 x 100 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 I = 2,264,000 mm4
d = 900/2 = 450mm
Ixx = (2) (Io + A d2) = (2) (2264000 + (1495) (450) (450)) = 610.00 x 106 mm 4
Cy = 500 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 1.22 x 106 mm3 > 1.17 x 106 mm 3
38
Y
100
900
X 800 X
500
100
100
Y
Figure 4.29 Cross section of floor beam in mm
Check floor beam chord and diagonals capacity by analyzing the floor beam as a
truss
The simply supported floor beam is checked for maximum member forces by
applying the dead load (see Fig. 4.30), the tandem load (see Fig. 4.31) and lane load (see
Fig 4.32) at the joints on the top chord. As the stringers are not placed at the floor beam
joints, their loads are transferred to the two joints near the applied load in proportion to the
distance from the joints. The same is done for the live load. Using factors of 1.25 for dead
load and 1.75 for lane and tandem load these loads are factored.
These loads are analyzed using SAP2000 version 8 software and the maximum
member forces are taken for design (refer attached CD). From the analysis the maximum
forces on
diagonal are
chord are
vertical are
0.00 kN tension and
39
truss truss
4.68 kN 6.35 kN 6.35 kN 4.68 kN
900
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.30 Factored dead load on floor beam
truss truss
204.82 kN 204.82 kN
980 1800
900
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.31 Factored tandem load on floor beam at closest position to left truss
truss truss
3.1 kN/m
900
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.32 Lane load at closest position to left truss
40
Design of floor beam members
These are also modeled as axially loaded compression or tension members. The axial

Check local buckling
Classification of section used in the design (See Fig. 4.33)
ST100
4 100
100
Figure 4.33 Cross-section of ST100 in mm
Check flange
ε = 0.9695
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
The whole section is plastic.
The cross section used in the design is plastic. Therefore the design compression resistance
is:
Ncom,Rd = (A) (250) / 1.1 = 227.27 A.
Ncom,Rd = (1495) (227.27) = 339.77 kN
41
Check overall buckling
The design buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken as:
βA =1
 λ = (λ / λ1 ) [βA ] 0.5
λ1 = 93. 9ε
ε = 0.9695
λ1 = 91.04
The floor beam members are pin ended, so their buckling length is the same as their
member length. The longest member length from the verticals is 900 mm, from the
diagonals is 1880 mm and from the chord members is 1650 mm.
For diagonal, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 188 cm , λ = 48.33

λ = (48.33 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.53
χ = 0.8701,
Nb,Rd = (0.8701) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1 = 295.64 kN
For chord, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 165.00 cm , λ = 42.42
λ = (42.42 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.47
χ = 0.8968,
Nb,Rd = (0.8968) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1 = 304.71 kN
For vertical, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 90.00 cm , λ = 23.14
λ = (23.14 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.25
χ = 0.9821,
Nb,Rd = (0.9821) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1 = 333.69 kN

The floor beam has no holes on it. Because of this the design resistance is taken as
the design plastic resistance.
The design plastic resistance of the gross section
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (250) / 1.1 = 339.77 kN
The floor beam chord and diagonal members are sufficient.
42
4.2.1.4 Design of truss
Dead loads - super imposed loads

Total dead load transferred to truss at panel points = 8.82 + (0.63) (4.06) / 2 = 10.10 kN.
The design dead load at panel point (see Fig. 4.34) = (1.25) (10.10) = 12.62 kN
12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN 12.62 kN
3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

R1 = R2 = 50.48 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.34 Concentrated dead loads on truss at panel points
Maximum moment = (50.48) (10.5) - (12.62) (10.5) - (12.62) (7.5) - (12.62) (4.5) - (12.62)
(1.5) = 227.16 kNm
Dead loads - self weight

Assume built up hollow truss from ST100 and RT128 with fy = 250 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m
Panel length = (1.5) (4) (2) + (2.3) (3) + (4) √ ((1.5) (1.5) + (2.3) (2.3)) = 23.88 m
Total length of steel truss = (7) (29.88) = 209.16 m
Weight of steel truss = (209.16) (9.81) (11.73) = 24.07 kN/m
Span of steel truss = 21m
Steel truss weight = 24.07 / 21 = 1.15 kN/m
Dead load- self weight moment = (1.15) (21) (21) / 8 = 63.39 kNm
Total dead load moment = 227.16 + 63.39 = 290.55 kNm.
Live Loads
Place the uniform lane loadings as close as possible to one of the trusses to cause
maximum loads on that truss as shown in Fig. 4.35.
43
Center of gravity of loading
truss truss
1500 2178
3000
3.1 kN/m
900
380 1100 1100 1100 380

4060
Figure 4.35 Lane load position for maximum load on left truss
From the figure part of the live load going to the left truss is determined to be 2.178/4.06
or 54 percent.
Uniform lane loading going to one truss = (3.1) (3) (0.54) = 5.02 kN/m
The lane loading transferred to a panel point = (5.02) (3) = 15.06 kN
Maximum lane load moment on truss = (5.02) (21) (21) / 8 = 276.73 kNm
Similarly determine the maximum percentage of concentrated truck loads going to the left
truss from Fig. 4.36 and Fig. 4.37.
For truck loads (see Fig. 4.36 for rear axle and Fig. 4.37 for front axle)
Centerline of Center of gravity Centerline of

truss of loading truss
0.5 P 1 0.5 P 1
1500 2178
600 1800
1000
380 1100 1100 1100 380

4060
Figure 4.36 Truck load rear axle position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage of the live load going to the left truss is 2.178 / 4.06 or 54 percent.
Concentrated truck loads going to one truss = (192.85) (0.54) = 104.14 kN
44
0.5P 2 0.5P 2
1500 2178
600 1800
1000
380 1100 1100 1100 380

4060
Figure 4.37 Truck load front axle position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage of the live load going to the left truss is 2.178/ 4.06 or 54 percent.
Concentrated truck loads going to one truss = (46.55) (0.54) = 25.14 kN.
The maximum moment for truck load is under the first heavy axle when the mid-span is
half way between the resultant and this axle as shown in Fig. 4.38.
Resultant
0.54 P2 0.54 P1 0.54 P 1
5473 4300 2845 6928

10500 10500
728 728
R1 = 122.73 kN R2 = 110.69 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.38 Truck load position on truss for maximum moment
Maximum truck load moment on truss = (122.73) (10.50 - 0.728) - (0.54) (46.55) (4.30) =
1091.29 kNm
45
For tandem loads (see Fig. 4.39)
0.5P 3 0.5P3
1500 2178
600 1800
1000
380 1100 1100 1100 380

4060
Figure 4.39 Tandem load position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage is 2.178 / 4.06 or 54 percent.

Concentrated tandem loads going to one truss = (146.30) (0.54) = 79.00 kN
The maximum moment for tandem load is under the first axle when the mid-span is half
way between the resultant and this axle as shown in Fig. 4.40.
Resultant
0.54 P 3 0.54 P 3
300 600
10200 9600
10500 300 10500
R1 = 76.74 kN R2 = 81.26 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.40 Tandem load position on truss for maximum moment
Maximum tandem load moment on truss = (76.74) (10.50 - 0.30) = 782.75 kNm
Total service tandem and dead moment = (1) (290.55) + (1.30) (782.75) = 1308.13 kNm
46
Table 4.4 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for truss
Combined moment
No Loading Type Remark
(in kNm)
Truck load and dead load with 1709.23 + (276.73) (1.75) =
1
lane load (service) 2193.51
Truck load and dead load with 2272.95 + (276.73) (1.75) =
2 Maximum
lane load (limit) 2757.23
Tandem load and dead load with 1308.13 + (276.73) (1.75) =
3
lane load (service) 1792.41
Tandem load and dead load with 1733.00 + (276.73) (1.75) =
4
lane load (limit) 2217.28

MD = 2757.23 kNm
S = M / fb = 2757.23 / (227,000) = 0.012146387 m3 = 12.15 x 106 mm3
Check section modulus of truss shown in Fig. 4.41:

Y
120 D1
80 100 80
120
4320
X X
4200 2110
Detail 1
80 100 80
Y
Figure 4.41 Cross section of truss in mm
RHS 120 x 80 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 Ix = 2,945,900 mm4
d = 4200 / 2 = 2100mm
47
Ixx = (4) (Io + A d2) = (4) (2945900 + (1495) (2100) (2100)) = 26,383.58 x 106 mm4
Cy = 2160 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 12.21 x 106 mm3 > 12.15 x 106 mm3
The section is sufficient but too long. Consider using double truss with each truss
carrying half the load. Therefore take half the required section modulus and check section
capacity (see Fig. 4.42).
S = 12.15. x 106 mm3 / 2 = 6.07 x 106 mm3
120 D1
80 100 80
120
2320
X X
2200
1160
Detail 1
80100 80
Y
RHS 120 x 80 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 Ix = 2,945,900 mm4
d = 2200 / 2 = 1100mm
Ixx = (4) (Io + A d2) = (4) (2945900 + (1495) (1100) (1100)) = 7,247.58 x 106 mm4
Cy = 1160 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 6.25 x 106 mm3 > 6.07 x 106 mm3
The bridge truss is modeled for analysis using SAP 2000 version 8 software. Four
sections namely RT128, RT106, ST100 and ST80 are chosen and checked for carrying
capacity and the two with better capacity are used as members of the panel. The top and
bottom chords are modeled using RT128 and the vertical and diagonal members using
ST100. The design dead load (see Fig. 4.34) is applied to all panel points, which are
located on the bottom chord at the end of each panel. The design live load i.e. half the
truck load shown in Fig. 4.38 is applied at few panel points at a time. Half the truck load
(see Fig. 4.43) is taken as double truss each carrying half the load is assumed. The analysis
48
is done repeatedly in three groups which apply the first, second and third axle load at panel
points respectively and distribute the effects of the other axles by considering their distance
from panel points near them. The maximum member forces for design of a typical panel
are found by varying the position of live load at panel points for each group for maximum
effect. The maximum member forces for the chord are when the rear (3rd) axle is placed on
the third panel point from the left (refer to attached CD).
0.27 P 2 0.27 P 1 0.27 P 1
10500 10500
R1 R2
Figure 4.43 Half the truck load to be applied for single truss
From the analysis, the maximum member forces found are

-for chord members
487.55 kN compression for RT128
483.01 kN for tension for RT128
-for vertical members
77.37 kN compression for ST100
26.02 kN for tension for ST100
-for diagonal members
Design of panel members
Types of members
There are three types of members in a typical panel; the chord (top or bottom), the vertical
and the diagonal. These are axially loaded compression or tension members. The axial
49
Classification of sections used in the design (see Fig. 4.44, Fig. 4.45, Fig. 4.46, and Fig.
4.47).
RT128
120 4
80
Figure 4.44 Cross section of RT128
Check flange
ε = 0.9695
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(80-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(120-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
The whole section is plastic
ST100
4 100
100
Figure 4.45 Cross-section of ST100
50
Check flange
ε = 0.9695
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
RT106
4 100
60
Figure 4.46 Cross-section of RT106
Check flange
ε = 0.9695
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(60-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
51
ST80
4 80
80
Check flange
ε = 0.9695
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(80-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.9695)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(80 - (3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.9695)
The whole section is plastic
The cross sections to be used in the design are plastic. Therefore the design compression
resistance is:
Ncom,Rd = (A) (250) / 1.1 = 227.27 A.
For RT128, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (227.27) = 339.77 kN

For ST100, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (227.27) = 339.77 kN
For RT106, Ncom,Rd = (1175) (227.27) = 267.04 kN
For ST80, Ncom,Rd = (1175) (227.27) = 267.04 kN
The top and bottom chord members are made from two RT128 members. Because of this
the capacity of the chord is = (2) (339.77) = 679.54 kN.
52
Of these four cross-sections the ones with better resistance, that is RT128 and ST100
are chosen to form the members of the truss. RT128 is used for top and bottom chords
while ST100 is used for the verticals and diagonals.

The design buckling resistance of a compression member is
βA = 1 for class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections.
λ = (λ / λ1 ) [βA ] 0.5
λ1 = 93. 9ε
ε = 0.9695
λ1 = 91.04
The truss members are pin ended, so their buckling length is the same as their
member length. The longest member length from the verticals is 2200mm, from the
diagonals is 2663 mm and from the chord members is 1500 mm. Buckling in the direction
with the lower radius of gyration governs.
For RT128 chord, ix = 4.44 cm, iy = 3.24, L = 150.00 cm , λ = 46.30

λ = (46.30 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.51
χ = 0.8795, Nb,Rd = (0.8795) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 298.83 kN
For ST100 diagonal, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L = 266.3 cm , λ = 68.46

λ = (68.46 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.75
χ = 0.7541, Nb,Rd = (0.7541) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 256.22 kN
For ST100 vertical, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L = 220 cm , λ = 56.56

λ = (56.56 / 91.04) [1]0.5 = 0.62
χ = 0.8264, Nb,Rd = (0.8264) (1) (1495) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 280.79 kN
53

The panel has holes on the pin plates for connection with other panels. But the
members of panel do not have holes on them and because of this checking the design
tensile plastic resistance is sufficient.
For RT128,
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (250) / 1.1
Npl,Rd = 339.77 kN
For ST100,
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (250) / 1.1
Npl,Rd = 339.77 kN
Using similar reasoning as given above for chord member compression capacity, the
tensile capacity of the chord is = (2) (339.77) = 679.54 kN. The sections used are
sufficient.
4.2.2 Diamond Shaped Truss

To search for more efficient panel truss, a second trial panel with diagonals of
diamond shape (see Fig. 4.48) and made from hollow sections with yield strength of fy =
400 MPa chosen is checked for two types of decking. The first one uses steel imported
decks (like the ones ERA uses but made to fit the bridge deck size) supported directly on
floor beams spaced 1.5 m apart. The deck is not designed here and it’s load is assumed to
be equal to the steel decks currently used by ERA. The second type uses checkered plate
for flooring supported on a system of steel stringers, spaced 550 mm apart, and floor
54
beams with a spacing of 750 mm. Here the checkered plate is designed for truck and dead
loadings. The first and second options are discussed below.
2210
Plate # 1
Plate # 1
Floor Beam
3020
Plate # 2
Figure 4.48 The second trial panel for the second option
4.2.2.1 The first option
For the first option floor beam at every 1.5 m (three per panel) made from hollow
sections with yield strength of fy = 400 MPa is used (see Fig. 4.49). This floor beam
supports the deck directly.
2210
Plate # 1
Plate # 1
3020 Floor Beam
Plate # 2
Figure 4.49 The second trial panel for the first option
4.2.2.1.1 Design Data

The following assumptions are used.
- The 21m span bridge is made up of seven panels each 3m long.
- The road way width is 3300mm.
- The center to center distance of truss is 4060mm.
- The center-to-center distance of floor beams is 1500mm.
- A steel deck and steel curb at edge currently used by ERA is assumed
designed and only its load is considered here.
- The deck is directly supported on the floor beam.
55
- Structural hollow sections of Kality Metal Products Factory with yield
strength of 400MPa are used to make the trusses, and floor beams.
- A preliminary design of floor beams will be done.
- For live loads ERA live loading of HL-93 are used.
4.2.2.1.2 Design of floor beams

The floor beam used is a lattice beam made from 4mm thick ST100mm as shown in Fig.
4.50.
truss truss
600
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Dead loads
Steel deck weight = (1018.37) (1.5) = 1527.56 N/m
Assume built up SHS lattice girder from 4mm ST100 with fy = 400 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m
Total length of floor beam members = 19.40m
Dead load moment = (2074.71) (4.06) (4.06) / 8 = 4274.83 Nm = 4.27 kNm
Live Loads
Fraction of wheel loads carried by the interior floor beam as specified by AASHTO clause
3.23.2.2 is = S /4.5 = ((1.5/0.3048)/4.5) = 1.09
56
For truck load
The truck load is placed so as to cause maximum live load moment (see Fig. 4.51
and Fig. 4.52). The maximum load occurs when the heavier axle load is on the floor beam
as shown in Fig. 4.52.
P2 P1 P1
4300 4300
1500 1500 1500 1500

Floor beam
0.5P 1 0.5P 1
1800
380 600 1050 750 900 380
2030 2030
R1 R1 = 103.55 kN R2
Maximum truck load moment = ((103.55) (2.78) – (96.43) (1.8)) (1.09) = 124.59 kNm
57
For tandem load
P3 P3
1200
1500 1500 1500 1500

Floor beam
For maximum force effect, the first axle is placed on the floor beam and the same floor
beam also carries a portion of the second axle as shown in Fig. 4.53. The concentrated
loads applied to floor beams from tandem are (see Fig. 4.54):
0.8P3 0.8P 3
1800
380 600 1050 750 900 380
2030 2030
R1 R1 = 125.69 kN R2
Maximum tandem load moment = ((125.69) (2.78) – (117.04) (1.8)) (1.09) = 151.23 kNm

Lane load in transverse direction 9.3 kN/ 3m = 3.1 kN/m
58
3.10 kN/m
530 3000 530

R1 = R2 = 4.65 kN
R1 R2
Maximum lane load moment = (4.65) (2.03) -(3.10) (1.5) (1.5) / 2 = 5.95 kNm.

1 166.24 + (5.95) (1.75) = 176.65
load (service)
2 223.37 + (5.95) (1.75) = 233.78
load (limit)
3 200.87 + (5.95) (1.75) = 211.28
lane load (service)
4 269.99 + (5.95) (1.75) = 280.40 Maximum
lane load (limit)

MD = 280.40 kNm
S = 280.40 / (363,000) = 0.000772458677 m3 = 772.46 x 103 mm 3
59
Y
100
600
X X
500
350
100
100
Y
SHS 100 x 100 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 I = 2,264,000 mm4
d = 600/ 2 = 300 mm
Ixx = (2) (Io + A d2) = (2) (2264000 + (1495) (300) (300)) = 273.628 x 106 mm 4
Cy = 350 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 781.79 x 103 mm3 > 772.46 x 103 mm 3
Check floor beam members' capacity by analyzing the floor beam as a truss
applying the dead load (see Fig. 4.57), the tandem load (see Fig. 4.58) and lane load (see
Fig 60) at the joints on the top chord. The deck dead load, live and lane load are not placed
on the joints and so their effects are applied to the joints near them in proportion to their
distance from the joints. These loads are factored using factors of 1.25 for dead load and
1.75 for lane and live load.
truss truss
1.91 kN/m
600
380 1650 1650 380

4060
60
truss truss
204.82 kN 204.82 kN
980 1800
380 1650 1650 380
600
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.58 Factored tandem load with impact on floor beam at closest position to truss
centerline of centerline of
truss truss
3.1 kN/m 150

150
380
380
600
380 1650 1650 380

4060
The tandem load in Fig. 4.58 is applied with the lane load in Fig. 4.59. These loads
are analyzed together with the dead load in Fig. 4.57, using SAP2000 version 8 software
and the maximum member forces are taken for design (refer to attached CD). From the
analysis:
the maximum forces on diagonal are

and the maximum forces on chord are
and the maximum forces on verticals are
61
0 kN tension and

Classification of section used in the design (see Fig. 4.60).
ST100
4 100
100
Check flange
ε = √ (235/fy), fy in MPa
ε = √ (235/ 400) = 0.7665
C / tf ≤ 28 ε
(100 - (3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
22 > 21.46 flange is class four.
λρ = (C/ tf ) / (28.4 ε √kσ) = 22/((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
Total area that should be ignored from the two flanges is
∆Af = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(100 - (3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
22 ≤ 21.46 web is class four.
λρ = (d/ tw ) / (28.4 ε √kσ) = 22 / ((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
62
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
Total area that should be ignored from the two webs is
∆Aw = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
A = Aeff i.e., the effective area is equal to total area.
The design compression resistance for ST100 is:
Class 4 cross section: Ncom,Rd = Aeff fy / γm1
For ST100, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (400)/1.1 = 543.64 KN

The longest member length from the diagonals is 1756 mm, from the verticals 600 mm and
from the chord members is 1650 mm.

λ1 = 71.97
λ = (45.14 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.63
χ = 0.8211, Nb,Rd = (0.8211) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 446.38 kN
For ST100 chord, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L = 165.00 cm , λ = 42.42
λ = (42.42 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.59
χ = 0.8418, Nb,Rd = (0.8418) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 457.63 kN
λ = (15.42 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.21
χ = 0.9964, Nb,Rd = (0.9964) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 541.68 kN

The floor beam members do not have holes on them and because of this checking the
design plastic resistance is sufficient.
For 4 mm thick ST100,
A = 1495 mm.2
63
Npl,Rd = (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nt,Rd = Npl,Rd = 543.64 KN
The floor beam members are sufficient.
4.2.2.2 The second option

The second option for the deck of the steel bridge is to use checkered steel plate with
a system of stringers and floor beams. The steel deck of a highway bridge is designed for
wheel loads of truck using plate bending theory in two dimensions. Often in design
practice, however, this plate theory is reduced to equivalent one dimensional beam theory
[3].
Metal plate is one of the major components of many heavy structures such as ships,
steel bridges, aircraft, sea platforms, etc. Most thin plate elements of plated structures
undergo deflections ranging from about 0.1 to several times the plate thickness under
working conditions. Due to this finite out of plate deflections w, the stiffness of the plate
changes, resulting in greater resistance to loading not predicted by the classical plate
theory. Such a plate is said to have gone large deflections, and design for these
deformations is referred to as large-deflection design [7].
A large-deflection design or check for a panel of plating under transverse loading
consists of the following steps:
1. Definition of panel geometry, boundary conditions and loading
2. Selection of design criteria and material.
3. Evaluation of plate thickness and/ or other selected design criteria.
A typical panel plate and idealizations is shown below in Fig. 4.61.
(i) Steel bridge deck showing typical plate panel
64
(ii) and (iii) Possible boundary-condition idealizations of deck plate between the rib webs
for the evaluation of local deck-plate stresses under wheel loading
Figure 4.61 Steel bridge decks and panel boundary-condition idealization
4.2.2.2.1 Definition of geometry, boundary conditions and loading
Aspect ratio of panel (ratio of length b to width a) = b/a
Flexural boundary conditions (FBC).
Membrane boundary conditions (MBC)
A combined flexural and membrane boundary conditions
Loading = Self weight and factored truck loading of HL-93 with impact.
4.2.2.2.2 Selection of design criteria
This can be in the control of out of plane deflections w, or the maximum equivalent
surface stress σemax. If it is desired to avoid permanent set in a plate panel, as a limit of
serviceability, material yielding should not take place anywhere in the plate under working
conditions. To use the yield criterion, first the biaxial state of stress in the element of plate
under considerations is converted into an equivalent uniaxial state of stress σe, using the
following relationship:
σe = (σx2 +σy2 -σxσy + 3τ2)1/2
The element of the plate is considered to yield when the when the magnitude of the
equivalent stress thus obtained reaches the yield stress of the material in uniaxial tension,
that is:
σe = σy = 400MPa
65
4.2.2.2.3 Evaluation of plate thickness t, and/ or other selected design criteria.
The non-dimensional parameters to be used in conjunction with the design curves
given [7] are
1. Transverse loading
For uniformly distributed loading q
Q = a4q/t4E
where Q is the non-dimensional parameter for uniformly distributed loading
2. Out of plane deflections

Transverse deflection w is given by
W = w/t
where W is the non-dimensional parameter for transverse deflection
3. Maximum equivalent stress

The maximum equivalent stress anywhere in the plate is given by the non-
dimensional parameter σe max, which is related to the actual maximum
equivalent stress by the expression
σe max = (a/t)2 σe max / E
4.2.2.2.4 Design procedure
For a given value of plate thickness t, it is required to check the deflection and
stresses resulting under the action of transverse loading. Using the given t, calculate the
non-dimensional value of the transverse loading P or Q. Refer to design curves, and for the
value of P or Q calculated read off the corresponding values of the non-dimensional stress
and deflection coefficients (σe max, W). Calculate the actual stresses.
66
4.2.2.2.5 Design of the deck plate
The deck is to be made up of 16mm thick checkered steel plate supported on

stringers spaced 550mm apart which are in turn supported on floor beams with 750mm
centerline spacing. To evaluate the central deflection and maximum equivalent stress, a
steel panel of the deck with the dimensions as shown in Fig. 4.62 and boundary conditions
as shown in Fig. 63, under a central truck wheel load is considered. The truck loading is
distributed uniformly over the patch area (u) (v),
550 u = 500 X
v = 385
750
Figure 4.62 Panel under wheel loading distributed over patch area
Dimensions:
a = 550 mm
b = 750 mm
t = 16 mm
Material:
High tensile steel, E = 210 GPa,
Poisson's ratio = 0.3
Yield stress = 400 MPa
Boundary conditions (see Fig. 4.63):
Two boundary conditions are necessary to represent the deck panels: one for the
interior panels and one for edge panels.
Combined flexural and membrane boundary conditions: The plate panel is

continuous over all edges in case (a) and on three sides in case (b).
67
Y
(a) (b)
Figure 4.63 Idealizations of panel as continuous on three and four sides
Loading:
Truck Loading p = Factored truck loading of HL-93 with impact. The concentrated
loading is assumed uniformly distributed over the patch area (u) (v) shown in Fig.
4.62. This load is assumed as distributed over the whole panel.
p = (1.75) (1.33) (72.5) = 168.74 kN.
Tire contact area according to ERA specifications clause 3.8.6 is
width = 500 mm
length = (2.28) (10-3) ( γ) ( 1+ IM/100) (P)
where:
γ = load factor for the limit state under consideration
IM = dynamic load allowance
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck
length = (2.28) (10-3) (1.75) ( 1+ 33/100) (72500) = 385 mm
u = 385 mm
v = 500 mm
P = p/uv = 168744 / ((500) (385)) = 0.876592 N/mm2
Lane loading: 9.3 kN/m2 uniformly distributed over 3m width including a live load
factor of 1.75.
q = (3.1) (10-3) (1.75) = 5.43 (10-3) N/mm2
68
Dead load: unit weight of steel multiplied by thickness including a dead load factor
of 1.25.
q = (7850) (9.81) (0.016) (1.25) = 1540.17 N/m2 = (1.54) (10-3) N/mm2
Total distributed load q = 0.88N/mm2
Q = a4q/t4E = (550)4 (0.88) / ((164) (210,000)) = 5.85
Aspect ratio of panel = b/a = 750 / 550 = 1.36
The related design curves are to be found in [7].
For maximum equivalent stress
Case (a) Case (b)
For b/a = 1.0
σe max = 1.88 σe max = 1.90
For b/a = 2.0
σe max = 2.19 σe max = 2.30
For b/a = 1.36 using linear interpolation
σe max = 1.99 σe max = 2.04
For central deflection
For b/a = 1.0
W = 0.275 W = 0.16
For b/a = 1.5
W = 0.313 W = 0.25
For b/a = 1.36 using linear interpolation
W = 0.289 W = 0.192
Actual deflection and stress are:
σe max = E (t /a) 2σe max
w = Wt
69
For case (a)
σe max = (16/550) (16/550) (210000) (1.99) = 353.66 N/mm2
σe max < fy / 1.1 = 363 MPa
w = (0.289) (16) = 4.62 mm
For case (b)
σe max = (16/550) (16/550) (210000) (2.04) = 362.55 N/mm2
σe max < fy / 1.1 = 363 MPa
w = (0.192) (16) = 3.08 mm
The thickness used is too big for deck, but lowering it would result in higher
equivalent stress. Therefore, stiffen the deck using RT106 hollow sections and use 6 mm
thick-checkered plate as shown in Fig. 4.64.
4.2.2.2.6 Stiffened Plate Deck

For steel bridges that utilize stiffened steel plate as deck, AASHTO article
10.41.1.2 specifies that an appropriate method of analysis such as the equivalent-
othotropic-slab method or equivalent-grid method shall be used in designing the deck. And
also the equivalent stiffness properties shall be selected to correctly simulate the actual
deck.
275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275
(a)
60
4 100
(b)
Figure 4.64 Stiffened deck (a) cross-section;(b) dimension of RT106 beam
In modeling of the stiffened deck, a combined model is used which represents the
checkered plate with plate elements and the RT106 beams with longitudinal grillage
members (see Fig. 4.65).
70
750
12@250
750
750
750
12@275
3300
Figure 4.65 Combined finite element and grillage mesh
The checkered plate is modeled using isotropic elements which are assigned a
thickness equal to the depth of the actual plate. They are also assigned the elastic properties
of the plate. The longitudinal grillage members are then assigned the stiffness of the
combined beam and associated portion of checkered plate minus those already provided
through the plate elements (see Fig. 4.66).
6
137.5 275
6
A2 A2 Y2
Y2
100 100 A1
Y Y
Y1 Y1
A1
(a) (b)
Figure 4.66 Combined RT106 beam and plate above it (a) edge (b) interior.
Location of neutral axis

(a) (b)
Y= (A1Y1 + A2Y2) / (A1+A2)
Y = 71.86 mm Y= 80.96 mm
Equivalent stiffness
Icomb = Ix1 + A1d12 + Ix2 + A2d22- Ix2
Icomb = 2,887,287.20 mm4 Icomb = 3,453,569.52 mm4
According to AASHTO article 10.41.2 wheel load shall be uniformly distributed to the
deck plate. A uniform load of factored live and dead load 0.88MPa is loaded on the
combined model and analyzed using SAP2000 version8. From the analysis the following
results are obtained.
71
Maximum stress on plate element
σ max ≤ fy / 1.1 = 363 MPa
σ x = 12.64 MPa < 363 MPa
σ y = 26.18 MPa < 363 MPa

σ xy = 1.55 MPa < 363 MPa
Maximum and minimum principal stress on plate element
σ max = 26.30 MPa < 363 MPa
σ min = -26.30 MPa < 363 MPa
Maximum moments on beam

Mmax = -11.83 kNm
Mmin = 11.17 kNm
Tmax = -5.86 Nm
Tmin = 5.86 Nm
Vmax = -76.11 kN
Vmin = 76.11 kN
Design of beam
RT106 Section properties
h = 100mm I =152.58 cm4 It = 156.27 cm4
b = 60mm A =11.75 cm2 Ct = 38.68 cm3
tf = 4mm i = 3.60 cm Wpl = 37.94 cm3
tw = 4mm Wel = 30.52 cm3
Section classification
Web, with neutral axis at mid depth
d / tf ≤ 79 ε
ε = √ (235/ 400) = 0.7665
(100- (3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (79) (0.7665)
22 ≤ 60.55
The section is plastic. → Class 1 cross-section
72
Determine the required section modulus
Wpl = M sd / (fy / γmo )
where, W pl = the required section design plastic resistance
Msd = the design bending moment
Wpl = ((11.83) (106)) / (400 /1.1) = 30250 mm3 = 30.25 cm3 < Wply = 37.94 cm3
Check for shear

Vmax = 76.11 kN
Shear resistance of section

Vpl, Rd = Av (fy / √3 ) / γmo
where, Vpl, Rd = the design plastic shear resistance
Av = the shear area
Av = (Ah) / (b+h)
Av = (1175) (100) / (60+100) = 734.38 mm2
Vpl, Rd = 734.38) (400/ √3 ) / 1.1 = 154.18 kN > 76.11 kN
Check for shear buckling

d/tw < 69ε
d/tw = 100/4 =25 < 69ε = (69) √(235/400) = 52.89
No need for shear buckling check.
Check for reduction of design resistance moment

V Sd /Vpl, Rd < 0.5
76.11 /154.18 = 0.494 < 0.5
Therefore, no reduction of design resistance moment is required.
Check for deflection

Maximum deflection ∆ = 0.53 mm
δall = L / 500
δall = 750 / 500 = 1.5mm
∆ < 1.5 Ok!
73
4.2.2.2.7 Design of floor beams
The floor beam used is a lattice girder made from 4mm thick ST100mm as shown in Fig.
4.67.
centerline of centerline of
truss truss
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Dead loads
Total steel deck weight per meter square = [(7850) (0.006) (3.3) (3.0) + (13)
(9.22) (3.0)] (9.81) / ((3.3) (3.0)) = 818.36 N/m2
Weight of steel deck = (818.36) (0.75) = 613.77 N/m
Assume built up SHS lattice girder from 4mm ST100 with fy = 400 MPa and
mass 11.73 kg / m.
Total length of floor beam members = 18.54 m
Dead load moment = (1139.24) (4.06) (4.06) / 8 = 2347.35 Nm = 2.35 kNm
The dead load is applied as distributed load to the floor beam as shown in Fig. 4.68.
Live Loads
Truck load
The truckload is placed so as to cause maximum live load moment (see Fig. 4.69 and
Fig. 4.70). The maximum load occurs when the heavier axle load is on the floor beam as
shown in Fig. 4.70.
74
truss truss
0.61 kN
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
R1 R 1 = R 2 = 1.01 kN R2
Figure 4.68 Uniform dead loads on floor beam
P2 P1 P1
4300 4300
750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750

Floor beam
0.5P1 0.5P 1
1800
380 600 1050 750 900 380
2030 2030
R1 R1 = 103.55 kN R2
Maximum truck load moment = (103.55) (2.78) – (96.43) (1.8))= 114.30 kNm
75
For tandem load
P3 P3
1200
700
750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750
Floor beam
For maximum force effect, an axle is placed on the floor beam as shown in Fig. 4.71. The
concentrated loads applied to floor beams from tandem are (see Fig. 4.72):
0.5P 3 0.5P3
1800
380 600 1050 750 900 380

2030 2030
R1 R1 = 78.56 kN R2
Maximum tandem load moment = (78.56) (2.78) – (73.15) (1.8) = 86.73 kNm

Lane load in transverse direction 9.3 kN/ 3m = 3.1 kN/m
76
3.10 kN/m
530 3000 530

R1 = R2 = 4.65 kN
R1 R2
Maximum lane load moment = (4.65) (2.03) - (3.10) (1.5) (1.5) / 2 = 5.95 kNm

1 150.94 + (5.95) (1.75) = 161.35
load (service)
2 202.96 + (5.95) (1.75) = 213.37 Maximum
load (limit)
3 115.10 + (5.95) (1.75) = 125.51
lane load (service)
4 154.72 + (5.95) (1.75) = 165.13
lane load (limit)

MD = 213.37 kNm
S = 213.37 / (363,000) = 0.0005867769 m3 = 587.80 x 103 14 mm 3
77
Y
100
470
X X
370
285
100
100
Y
SHS 100 x 100 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 I = 2,264,000 mm4
d = 470/ 2 = 235 mm
Ixx = (2) (Io + A d2) = (2) (2264000 + (1495) (235) (235)) = 273.63 x 106 mm 4
Cy = 285 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 595.27 x 103 mm3 > 587.80 x 103 14 mm 3
Check floor beam members' capacity by analyzing the floor beam as a truss
applying the dead load (see Fig. 4.75), the truck load (see Fig. 4.76) and lane load (see Fig
4.77) at the joints on the top chord. The deck dead load, live and lane load are not placed
on the joints and so their effects are applied to the joints near them in proportion to their
distance from the joints. These loads are factored using factors of 1.25 for dead load and
1.75 for lane and live load. These loads are analyzed using SAP2000 version 8 software
and the maximum member forces are taken for design (refer attached CD). From the
analysis:
the maximum forces on diagonal are
and the maximum forces on chord are
78
truss truss
0.77 kN/m
470
380 1650 1650 380
truss truss
168.74 kN 168.74 kN
980 1800
380 1650 1650 380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.76 Factored truck load with impact on floor beam
truss truss
150 3.1 kN/m

150
380 380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
79
and the maximum forces on verticals are
0 kN tension and

Classification of section used in the design (see Fig. 4.78).
ST100
4 100
100
Check flange
ε = √(235/fy), fy in MPa
ε =√(235/ 400) = 0.7665
C / tf ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
λρ = (C/ tf )/(28.4 ε √kσ) = 22/((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
∆Af = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
80
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
λρ = (d/ tw )/ (28.4 ε √kσ) = 22/ ((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
∆Aw = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
The 4mm thick ST100 cross-section is class 4 and its design compression resistance is:
Ncom,Rd = Aeff fy / γm1
Ncom,Rd = (1495) (400)/1.1 = 543.64 KN

The longest member length from the diagonals is 1716 mm, from the verticals 470
mm and from the chord members is 1650 mm.
For ST100 diagonal, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 171.6 cm , λ = 44.11

λ1= 71.97
λ = (44.11 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.78
χ = 0.7363, Nb,Rd = (0.7363) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 400.28 kN
For ST100 chord, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 165.00 cm , λ = 42.42

λ = (42.42 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.59
χ = 0.8418, Nb,Rd = (0.8418) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 457.63 kN
For ST100 vertical, ix = iy = 3.89 cm , L= 47.00 cm , λ = 12.08

λ = (12.08 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.17
χ = 1.0, Nb,Rd = (1.0) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 543.64 kN
81
The floor beam members do not have holes on them and because of this checking
the design plastic resistance is sufficient.
For 4 mm thick ST100,
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nt,Rd = Npl,Rd = 543.64 KN
The floor beam chord and diagonal members are sufficient.
4.2.2.2.8 Design of truss

The Second option
Dead loads - super imposed loads (see Fig. 4.79)

The design dead load transferred to truss at panel points = 1.01 + (0.53) (4.06)/2= 2.08 kN.
2.08 kN @ 750 mm
3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

10500
R1 R1 = R2 = 30.18 kN R2
Maximum moment = (30.18) (10.5) - (2.08) (10.5 + 9.75 + 9 + 8.25 + 7.5 + 6.75 + 6 +
5.25 + 4.5 + 3.75 + 3 +2.25 + 1.5 + .75) = 153.14 kNm
Dead loads - self weight (see Fig. 4.48)
Assume built-up SHS truss from ST100 with fy = 400MPa and mass 11.73 kg/m
Span of steel truss = 21m
Panel length = (2) (0.75) (8) + (0.68) (6) + (8)√ ((0.75) (0.75) + (0.68) (0.68)) =
24.12 m
82
Total length of steel truss = (7) (24.12) = 168.86 m
Total weight of steel truss = (168.86) (9.81) (11.73) = 19.43 kN
Steel truss weight = 0.93 kN/m
Dead load- self weight moment = (0.93) (21) (21) / 8 = 51.27 kNm
Total dead load moment = 153.14 + 51.27 = 204.41 kNm.
Live Loads
Place the uniform lane loadings as close as possible to one of the trusses to cause
maximum loads on that truss as shown in Fig. 4.80.
Center of gravity of loading
truss truss
1500 2178
3000
380 3.1 kN/m 380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.80 Lane load position for maximum load on left truss
From figure 4.80 part of the live load going to the left truss is determined to be 2.178/4.06
or 54 percent.
Uniform lane loading going to one truss = (3.1) (3) (0.54) = 5.02 kN per meter length
The lane loading transferred to a panel point = (5.02) (0.75) = 3.77 kN
Maximum lane load moment on truss = (5.02) (21) (21) / 8 = 276.73 kNm
Similarly determine the maximum percentage of concentrated wheel loads going to the left
truss.
For truck loads (see Fig. 4.81 for rear axle and Fig. 4.82 for front axle)
83
Center of gravity
of loading
Centerline of 0.5P 1 0.5P 1 Centerline of
truss truss
1500 2178
600 1800
380 380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.81 Truck load rear axle position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage of the live load going to the left truss is 2.178 / 4.06 or 54 percent.
Concentrated truck rear axle load going to one truss = (192.85) (0.54) = 104.14 kN
Center of gravity of
loading
truss 0.5P 2 0.5P 2 truss
1500 2178
600 1800 380
380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.82 Truck load front axle position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage of the live load going to the left truss is 2.178/ 4.06 or 54 percent.
Concentrated truck front axle load going to one truss = (46.55) (0.54) = 25.14 kN.
The maximum moment for truck load is under the first heavy axle when the mid-span is
half way between the resultant and this axle as shown in Fig. 4.83.
84
Resultant
0.54 P2 0.54 P 1 0.54 P1
5473 4300 2845 6928

10500 10500
728 728
R1 R2 = 110.69 kN R2
R1 = 122.73 kN
Figure 4.83 Truck load position on truss for maximum moment
Maximum truck load moment on truss = (122.73) (10.50 - 0.728) - (0.54) (46.55) (4.30) =
1091.29 kNm
For tandem loads (see Fig. 4.84)
Center of gravity
of loading
truss 0.5P 3 0.5P 3
truss
1500 2178
600 1800
380 380
470
380 1650 1650 380

4060
Figure 4.84 Tandem load position for maximum load on left truss
The percentage is 2.178 / 4.06 or 54 percent.

Concentrated tandem axle load going to one truss = (146.30) (0.54) = 79.00 kN
The maximum moment for tandem load is under the first axle when the mid-span is half
way between the resultant and this axle as shown in Fig. 4.85.
85
Resultant
0.54 P 3 0.54 P 3
10200 9600
300 300 600
10500 10500
R1 R1 = 76.74 kN R2 = 81.26 kN R2
Figure 4.85 Tandem load position on truss for maximum moment
Maximum tandem load moment on truss = (76.74) (10.50 - 0.30) = 782.75 kNm
Total service tandem and dead moment = (1) (204.41) + (1.30) (782.75) = 1221.99 kNm
Table 4.7 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for truss
Combined moment
No Loading Type Remark
(in kNm)
truck load and dead load (service) 1623.09 + (276.73) (1.75) =
1
with lane load 2107.37
truck load and dead load (limit) 2165.27 + (276.73) (1.75) =
2 maximum
tandem load and dead load 1221.99 + (276.73) (1.75) =
3
(service) with lane load 1706.27
tandem load and dead load (limit) 1625.33 + (276.73) (1.75) =
4
Therefore the design moment controlled by combination of truck load and dead load with
lane load is
MD = 2649.54 kNm
86
S = M / fb = 2649.54 / (363 x 103) = 0.00729900826 m3 = 7.30 x 106 mm3
Check section modulus of truss shown in Fig. 4.86:

Y
120 D1 80 100 80
2560
X 120
X
2680
1340
80 100 80
Detail 1
Y
RHS 120 x 80 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 Ix = 2,945,900 mm4
d = 2560/ 2 = 1280 mm
Ixx = (4) (Io + A d2) = (4) (2945900 + (1495) (1280) (1280)) = 9,809 x 106 mm4
Cy = 1340 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 7.32 x 106 mm3 > 7.30 x 106 mm3
The section is sufficient but too long. Consider using double truss with each truss carrying
half the load. Therefore take half the required section modulus and check section capacity
(see Fig. 4.87). 7,299,008.26
S = 7.30 x 106 / 2 = 3.65 x 106 mm3
87
Y
D1 80 100 80
120
1470 120
X X
1350
735
80
100 80 Detail 1
Y
RHS 120 x 80 x 4 mm
A = 1495 mm2 Ix = 2,945,900 mm4
d = 1350 / 2 = 675 mm
Ixx = (4) ( Io + A d2) = (4) ( 2945900 + (1495) (675) (675) ) = 2,736.42 x 106 mm4
Cy = 735 mm
Sxx = Ixx / Cy = 3.72 x 106 mm3 > 3.65 x 106 mm3
Check truss members' capacity by analyzing the truss using SAP 2000
The bridge truss is modeled for analysis using SAP 2000 version 8 software. The top
and bottom chords are modeled using RT128 and the vertical and diagonal members using
ST100. The design dead load (see Fig. 4.79) is applied to all panel points, which are
located on the bottom chord of each panel. The design live load i.e. the truck load shown in
Fig. 4.88 is applied on few panel points at a time. The analysis is done repeatedly in three
groups which apply the first, second and third axle load at panel points respectively and
distribute the effects of the other axles by considering their distance from panel points near
them. The maximum member forces for design of a typical panel are found by varying the
position of live load at panel points for each group for maximum effect.
88
0.27 P 2 0.27 P 1 0.27 P 1
10500 10500
R1 R2
Figure 4.88 Half the truck load to be applied on truss
From the analysis, the maximum member forces found are

-for chord members
757.63 kN compression for RT128
738.22 kN for tension for RT128
-for vertical members
-for diagonal members
The First option

The first option differs from the second only by the amount of super imposed dead loads.
1.53 kN/m
380 3300 380

R1 = R2 = 2.52 kN
R1 R2
Figure 4.89 Super imposed dead load on floor beam
Dead loads - super imposed loads (see Fig. 4.89 and Fig. 4.90)
89
The design dead load transferred to truss at panel points = 2.52 + (0.55) (4.06) / 2
= 3.64 kN.
3.64 kN @ 1500 mm
1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500

1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
R1 R1 = R2 = 27.3 kN R2
Maximum moment = (27.30) (10.5) - (3.64) (10.5 + 9 + 7.5 + 6 + 4.5 + 3 +1.5) = 133.70
kNm < 153.14 kNm for the stiffened plate option. Therefore, the analysis for the first
option is taken as being the same as the analysis for the second option.
Design of panel members

Classification of sections used in the design (see Fig. 4.91, Fig. 4.92 and Fig. 4.91).
RT128
120 4
80
Figure 4.91 Cross section of RT128
Check flange
ε =√(235/ 400) = 0.7665
90
C / tf ≤ 23 ε
(80-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.7665)
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(120-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
27 > 21.46 web is class four.
The whole section is thin walled
Stress distribution: Since the member is axially loaded, the stress distribution is uniform;
i.e., σ1 = σ2. From table 4.3 of EBCS 3, 1995 for ψ = σ1 / σ2 = 1.00, the corresponding
value of kσ= 4.0 According to section 4.3.4(4) of EBCS 3, 1995,
λρ = (d/t)/(28.4 ε √kσ) = 27/((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.62 < 0.673
ρ=1
deff = ρd = (1) (108) =108 mm
∆Aw = (2) (108-108) (4) = 0
This shows that the effective area is equal to total area.
ST100
4 100
100
Check flange
ε =√(235/ 400) = 0.7665
C / tf ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
λρ = (C/ tf )/(28.4 ε √kσ) = 22/((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
91
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
∆Af = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(100-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
λρ = (d/ tw )/ (28.4 ε √kσ) = 22/ ((28.4) (0.7665) (√4)) = 0.51 < 0.673
ρ=1
Ceff = ρC = (1) (88) = 88 mm
∆Aw = (2) (88-88) (4) = 0
ST80
4 80
80
Check flange
ε =√(235/ 400) = 0.7665
C / tf ≤ 28 ε
(80-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (23) (0.7665)
17 ≤ 17.63 flange is plastic.
Check web
d / tw ≤ 28 ε
(80-(3) (4)) / 4 ≤ (28) (0.7665)
92
The design compression resistance for RT128 and ST100 is:
Class 4 cross sections: Ncom,Rd = Aeff fy / γm1
For RT128, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (400)/1.1 = 543.64 KN
For ST100, Ncom,Rd = (1495) (400)/1.1 = 543.64 KN
The design compression resistance for ST80 is:

For ST80, Ncom,Rd = (1175) (400) / 1.1 = 427.27 kN

The design buckling resistance of a compression member is
where βA = Aeff /A for class 4 cross sections and βA =1 for class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections.
βA = 1
 λ = (λ / λ1) [βA ] 0.5
λ1 = 93. 9ε
ε =[235 /fy] 0.5 ( fy in MPa)
ε = [235 / 400] 0.5 = 0.7665
λ1 = 71.98
The truss members are pin ended, so their buckling length is the same as their
member length. The longest member length from the verticals is 675 mm, from the
diagonals is 1009 mm and from the chord members is 750 mm. Buckling in the direction
with the lower radius of gyration governs.
For RT128 chord, ix = 4.44 cm, iy = 3.24 cm, L = 75.00 cm , λ = 23.15

λ = (23.15 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.32
χ = 0.9565, Nb,Rd = (0.9565) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 519.99 kN
93
λ = (25.94 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.36
χ = 0.9413, Nb,Rd = (0.9413) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 511.72 kN

λ = (17.35 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.24
χ = 0.9856, Nb,Rd = (0.9856) (1) (1495) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 535.81 kN

λ = (25.94 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.46
χ = 0.9010, Nb,Rd = (0.9010) (1) (1175) (400) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 384.97 kN

λ = (17.35 / 71.97) [1]0.5 = 0.31
χ = 0.9603, Nb,Rd = (0.9603) (1) (1175) (250) / 1.1
Nb,Rd = 410.31 kN

The design tension resistance capacity of the cross section is:
For RT128,
A = 1495 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1495) (400) / 1.1
Npl,Rd = 543.64 kN
For ST100,
A = 1495 mm.2
94
Npl,Rd = (1495) (400) / 1.1
Npl,Rd = 543.64 kN
For ST80,
A = 1175 mm.2
Npl,Rd = (1175) (400) / 1.1
Npl,Rd = 427.27 kN
Using similar reasoning as given above for the chord members in compression, the
tensile capacity of the chord is = (2) (543.64) = 1087.28 kN.
The sections used are sufficient. The ST80 instead of ST100 can be used for the
vertical and diagonal members to bring in a more economical design.
4.2.2.2.9 Design of connections
4.2.2.2.9.1 Design of welded connections

The required strength of a connection is determined from analysis of the entire
structure with factored loads acting on it. A detailed analysis of the connection produces
required strengths for its components. The components of connections are the connectors
(i.e., welds and pins) and the connecting elements (plates or the members themselves).
According to AASHTO article 10.19.1.1, connection shall be designed for not less than the
average of the required strength at the point of connection and the strength of member at
the point but in any event not less than 75% of the strength of the member.
Groups of welds that transmit axial force into a member should preferably be
proportioned so that the center of gravity of the group coincides with the centroidal axis of
member.
Of the different types of welds, fillet welds are chosen for connecting members. On
the panel end vertical at mid height three members (one vertical and two diagonal) are
connected while on mid panel vertical five members (one vertical and four diagonals) are
connected. On the panel corners one vertical and two chord members are connected. The
top and bottom chords also have two diagonals connected to them at quarter lengths.
The design strength of welds is the lower value of
φFbm Abm and φFw Aw
where,
Fbm = nominal strength of the base material, ksi
95
Fw = nominal strength of the weld electrode, ksi
Abm = cross sectional area of the base material, in2
Aw = cross sectional area of the weld, in2
φ = resistance factor
Values for φ, Fbm, and Fw are given in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Values for φ, Fbm, and Fw

Fillet welds
Nominal
Resistance
Type of weld or stress Material strength, Required weld strength
factor , φ
Fbm or Fw level
Base weld Weld metal with a
Stress on effective area
electrode 0.75 0.6 FEXX strength level equal to or
Compression or tension less than " matching" weld
parallel to axis of weld Base 0.90 fy metal may be used.
where, FEXX = nominal tensile strength of the weld metal, ksi
Throat = 0.707 of Leg
Leg
Leg
Figure 4.93 Weld throat
Aw = (length of weld) (throat)

The throat length is shown in Fig. 4.93
For fillet weld the minimum weld size is determined by the thicker of the two parts joined.
The minimum size of fillet weld is given in Table 4.9 below [8].
Table 4.9 Minimum size of fillet weld

Material thickness of the thicker parts joined, t, in Minimum size of fillet weld,* in
t ≤ 1/4 1/8
1/4 < t ≤ 1/2 3/16
½ < t ≤ 3/4 1/4
t > 3/4 5/16
* Leg dimension of fillet welds
96
Design of fillet weld
The full and 75% member capacities of ST100, RT128 and ST80 are listed below. E70
electrodes are to be used. Tensile capacities of the main members are:
RT128: Nt,Rd = 543.64 kN 75% Nt,Rd = 407.73 kN
ST100: Nt,Rd = 543.64 kN 75% Nt,Rd = 407.73 kN
ST80: Nt,Rd = 427.27 kN 75% Nt,Rd = 320.45 kN
For E70 electrodes the design strength is:

φFw = (0.75) (0.6) (FEXX) = (0.75) (0.6) (70) = 31.5 ksi
φFw = (31.5) (6895) = 217.19 MPa
For E60 electrodes the design strength is:
φFw = (0.75) (0.6) (FEXX) = (0.75) (0.6) (60) = 27 ksi
φFw = (27) (6895) = 186.17 MPa
Capacity of weld = φFw Aw = (217.19) (3.54) (L) = 767.77 L

Capacity of weld / L = φFw Aw / L = 0.77 kN/ mm
The plate connection is done using a set consisting of two plates, 5mm thick, one on
top and the other at the bottom of the diagonal members and is located at mid height and
on the chords of panel. It connects the vertical and diagonal members. The weld on one
plate is to be designed to carry half the 75% capacity of the member, the other half being
carried by the other plate weld. The vertical members are connected to the chord members
with out the use of plates. One side of the connection carries half the 75% capacity of the
member. The weld to be used is a fillet weld of size 5 mm on the sides and the end.
Check the length requirement to carry this force by the plate and weld.
Capacity of base plate = φFbm Abm = (L/25.4) (5/25.4) (0.9) (400/6.895) = 0.40L kip
Capacity of base plate = (0.40L) (4.448) = 1.80L kN
Capacity of base plate/L= 1.80 kN/mm > 0.77kN/mm.
Therefore, use weld capacity to determine weld length.
From Table 4.9 minimum leg dimension for t = 5 mm = 0.2 in is (1/8) (25.4) = 3.18mm
Use a leg dimension of 5mm.
97
Throat thickness = (0.707) (leg dimension)
= (0.707) (5) = 3.54 mm
The maximum required of the capacities is 407.73 /2 =203.87 kN
Length of weld required = 203.87 / (φFw Aw / L) = 203.87/0.77 = 264.77mm
Use 280 mm long weld.
Use end return length = 2 weld size = (2) (5) = 10mm for plate corners.
Plate types used

A. Plate #1
Plate #1 is a 44 x 23 cm, 5 mm thick plate with fy = 400 MPa that connects the two
diagonals with the vertical at panel ends using welds as shown in Fig. 94 an Fig. 4.95
below.
B. Plate #2
Plate #2 is a 44 x 46 cm, 5 mm thick plate with fy = 400 MPa that connects the four
diagonals with the vertical at mid panel using welds as shown in Fig. 94 and Fig. 4.96
below.
C. Plate #3
Plate #3 is a 56 x 5 cm, 5 mm thick plate with fy = 400 MPa that connects the two
diagonals with the chord using welds as shown in Fig. 94 below.
20
100
50 560 50 560
B 395
C
140
440 440 440 1470
230 460 A 230

833
80 395
D 560 50 560 50
100
80 1420 1420 20
80 80
3080
Figure 4.94 Weld connections on panel
98
Two 560 x 5 Plates
B 5 140
A 80
40
560 50
Two 440 x 5
440
Plates
5 560
230
5 100 5 100 5 440
5 80
5 140
Figure 4.95 Detals A and B of weld connections on panel
5 140
5 440
80
C
Two 440 x 5
Plates D 80
440 120 100
460
5 140 5 80 5 100
5 140
5 140
Figure 4.96 Detals C and D of weld connections on panel
4.2.2.2.9.2 Design of pin and pin plates for panel connection

The capacity of pin connection shall be determined from the shear capacity of the pin
at the shear plane and the bearing capacity on each connected ply. The bending moment on
pin shall also be checked [9].
The shear capacity FV,RD of a pin shall be taken as:
FV,RD = 0.6 A fup / γ MP
where, FV,RD is the specified minimum ultimate strength of pin
A is the cross sectional area of pin
The bearing capacity Fb,RD of a pin shall be taken as:
Fb,RD = 1.50 d t fy / γ MP
99
where, d is the diameter of pin
t is the thickness of the connected part
fy is the lower of the nominal yield strength of pin and the connected part.
The moment capacity of the pin MRD shall be taken as:
MRD = 0.8 W fyp / γ MP
where, f yp is the nominal yield strength of pin
W is the section modulus
Design of pin connection

Check for shear capacity
Assumed pin material is Fe510 fup = 490 MPa, fy = 335 MPa
97 77 57
320 40
10 5 5
Figure 4.97 Pin dimension in mm
Assumed diameter of pin = 7.7 cm (see Fig. 4.97)

γMP = 1.25
A = (77) (77 ) (3.14) / 4 = 4656 mm2
FV,RD = (0.6) (4656) (490) / 1.25 = 1095.09 kN
The full member capacity of RT128 chord is:
RT128: Nt,Rd = (2) (543.64) = 1087.28 kN < 664.91 kN
Check for bearing capacity

Use Fe510 steel plates for connection of panels with pin welded at the ends of
bottom and top chords. On one side of the panel four plates, one on each chord, are
connected to the inside of the chords. On the other end another four plates, one on each
chord, are connected to the outside of the chords. These plates contain holes for the pin
connection.
100
According to AASHTO article 11.4.9.2, the diameter of pin hole shall not exceed
that of the pin by more than 1/50 inch for pins 5 inches = 12.7 cm or less in diameter.
Use pin hole diameter of 78 mm. Also use EBCS3, 1995 article 6.3.2 to dimension the
plates (see Fig 4.98 and Fig. 4.99).
80
c = 69 mm
b= 106 mm 90
78 100 d = 120mm
108
c = 69 mm
a>b
105 88 96 90
379
Figure 4.98 Pin connection plate
Assumed thickness of inside plate = 3 cm

Assumed thickness of outside plates = 3 cm
A = dt = (100) (30) = 3000 mm2
t ≥ 0.25C = (0.25) (69) = 17.25 mm
bt = (106) (30) = 3180 mm2 ≥ A = 3000 mm2
2ct = (2) (69) (30) = 4140 mm2 ≥ 1.33 A = 3990 mm2
80 10 90
288
30
80
30
80
30
80
30
90 288
Figure 4.99 Pin plate plan view
Fb,RD = 1.50 d t fy / γ MP
d = 77 mm
101
t = 30 mm
fy = 355 MPa
Fb,RD = (1.5) (77) (30) (355) / 1.25 = 984.06 kN > 543.64kN
Check for bending moment capacity

P P = 564.43 kN
t = 30mm
t + 80
center line of pin
P P
Figure 4.100 Forces on pin
The section modulus of a solid pin W = π d3/32

The resisting moment capacity of the pin MRD is
MRD = (0.8) (π) (773) (335)/ 1.25 = 307.5 kNm
Moment on pin (see Fig 4.95) = (543.64) (30+80) = 59.80 kNm << 307.5 kNm
The pin and pin plates are okay.
102
4.3 Cost comparisons
Even though it is possible to design and manufacture assembled steel truss bridges
locally, the cost of local design and production as compared with the imported ones is a
significant factor in decision making. To get some idea of the cost of local production, an
estimate was done by Kality Metal Products Factory for the production of the panel in the
design example and compared with the cost of previously imported panels from two
different companies in two different countries (see Table 4.10 and appendix B).
Table 4.10 Cost comparison for panel per kg

Material Weight, Cost
Year Country Company Cost / Kg
Type Kg (after tax)
Panel 1009.82 3.01
2001 Austria Waagner Biro 335.40
Standard (in USD) (in USD)
Shaanixi Machinery
Panel 508.88 1.62
2006 China and equipment Import 315.00
Standard (in USD) (in USD)
and Export Corporation
Kality Metal Products Panel in 9258.54 27.34
2007 Ethiopia 338.59
Factory example (in Birr) (in Birr)
As shown in table 4.10 the cost of local production is closer to importing from
Austria but is definitely more expensive than importing from China. It should be noted that
the local cost estimate includes all taxes thus making the total cost higher.
103
5 Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
The study has addressed the possibility of analysis and design of steel bridges with
locally available steel profiles. Based on the analysis and design made so far, the study has
proved that, construction of steel bridge with locally available steel profiles is an option
worth considering for remote and inaccessible areas. Even though the cost of local
production is closer to importing from Austria, it is still a good choice because it helps in
the capacity building of local design, fabrication and construction firms, creates job
opportunities for many people and is a saving in foreign currency for our country. For
many short span temporary bridges in road construction projects, these local assembled
steel truss bridges can be used as temporary bridges.
In addition to the fact that these assembled steel bridges are preferable in
inaccessible areas they also take very short time to erect. Furthermore, the construction of
steel bridges will reduce the volume of false and form work requirements through which
deforestation with in the country can be reduced. If the superstructure of a short span
highway bridge fails during the rainy season, the construction of false work and detour
may be difficult. In such cases the use of assembled steel truss bridges without false work
at the site will solve such problem.
The analysis and design method developed in this study will lead to the design,
fabrication and construction of assembled steel truss bridge which is not practiced in
Ethiopia at this time by local construction or design companies.
104
5.2 Recommendations
Being an alternative solution to the method of bridge construction in remote and

inaccessible parts of the country, the following recommendations can be made based on the
study:
1. Fabrication of standard steel sections with higher strength and large thickness
should be encouraged.
2. A counter check on quality needs to be conducted on imported steel bridges to
confirm quality standards.
3. The government should take measures that encourage local design and production
such as making such productions tax free.
4. The road construction sector needs to be aware of this alternative assembled steel
bridge construction method.
5. An emphasis should be made in the utilization of other construction methods of a
bridge like assembled steel bridges.
6. Private companies should be encouraged to engage in the design and fabrication
steel bridges with locally available steel profiles in designing and building bridges
and given supports for the development of the system.
7. The owners of bridges have to be aware of and lead consulting firms to use the
developed method in remote areas as an alternative option.
8. The possibility of using steel superstructure for foot bridges should be checked.
9. In the thesis the steel deck was analyzed and designed, so a further study to should
be conducted to include the detailing.
10. A study should be conducted to include the design of other parts the bridge so that
the whole bridge could be designed and manufactured using local steel profiles.
11. The cost of local production could significantly be reduced if the government
introduces a policy of tax reduction for steel intended for assembled steel truss
bridges.
12. Fatigue loading was not considered as low traffic was assumed, but has to be
accounted for as the traffic gets larger.
105
References
1. Ethiopian Roads Authority. (2002), Bridge Design Manual, Addis Ababa: ERA
2. American Association of State Highway Officials. (1996), Standard Specification for
Highway Bridges, 16th edition, Washington D.C., AASHTO
3. W.F. Chen (1999), Structural Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, USA
4. V.N. Vazirani and S.P. Chandola. (2003), Railway, Bridges and Tunnels, 4th edition,
Delhi, KHANNA Publishers
5. Jack C. McCormac. (1971), Structural Steel Design, Pennsylvania, International
Textbook Company
6. Waagner Biro Brückenbeau AG (2001), Waagner Biro Panel Bridge Design and
Erection Manual, Austria, Waagner Biro
7. B. Aalami and D.G. Willams (1975) Thin Plate Design for Transverse Loading, Great
Britain, Granada Publishing Limited.
8. Abraham J. Rokach (1991), Structural Steel Design, USA, McGraw-Hill Companies
9. Ministry of Urban Works & Development (1995), EBCS-3 Design of Steel Structures,
(Addis Ababa): Ministry of Urban Works & Development.
106
APPENDIX A
STEEL BRIDGES INFORMATION
107
108
109
APPENDIX B
IMPORTED TEMPORARY STEEL BRIDGES

COST AND LOCAL COST ESTIMATE
110
111
112
Declaration
I the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my work and all sources of materials used for
this thesis have been duly acknowledged.
Name: Tihitina Siyoum
Signature:
Place: Addis Ababa University
Date of Submission: October 2007
113
114
Acknowledgements
I thank God for each and every success in my life.
I would like to extend my love and heart felt appreciation to Enate and my families not only
for their financial support and encouragement but also for their being with me in all ups and
downs.
My deepest gratitude goes to my thesis advisor Prof. Negussie Tebedge for his professional,
genuine guidance and valuable advice to accomplish the thesis.
I seize this opportunity to thank Ato Daniel Nebro, Ato Khalid Yassin, Ato Mekoya kassa,
W/t Enatenesh Mekuria, W/t Emebet Worku and W/o Kidist Tsegaye for their technical
assistance and providing materials. I am also grateful to W/t Anketse Solomon and W/t
Alemeshet Ayele for their support.
At last, but not least, I would like to express my profound and special thanks to those people
who have collaborated with me.
i
List of Symbols
a= width
A = cross-sectional area
Abm = cross sectional area of the base material
Aeff = effective area
Av = the shear area
Aw = cross sectional area of the weld
b = length
b = overall width
BR = vehicular braking force
C = outstand
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
Ceff = effective outstand
CR = creep
Ct = torsion constant
CT = vehicular collision force
Cy = distance from the centroid to the extreme fiber
d = diameter of pin
d = distance between two axes
DC = dead load of structural components
DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
E = modulus of elasticity
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
EQ = earthquake load
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
fb = maximum normal stress due to bending
FBC = Flexural boundary conditions.
Fbm = nominal strength of the base material
Fb,RD = bearing capacity of a pin
FEXX = nominal tensile strength of the weld metal
FR = friction
FV,RD = specified minimum ultimate strength of pin
Fw = nominal strength of the weld electrode
fy = yield strength
h = overall depth
i = radius of gyration about the relevant axis
I = second moment of inertia
Icomb = Equivalent stiffness
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
It = torsion constant
Ixx = second moment of inertia about the major axis
KL = effective length of the truss member
KL/r = the slenderness ratio
kσ = buckling factor corresponding to stress ratio
L = length
L = actual unbraced length of the truss member
ii
L = buckling length of a compression member.
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
M = bending moment due to the applied loads
MBC = Membrane boundary conditions.
MD = design moment
Mmax = Maximum tensile moment on beam
Mmin = Maximum compressive moment on beam
MRD = moment capacity of the pin
Msd = the design bending moment
Nb,Rd = design buckling resistance of a compression member
Ncom,Rd = design compression resistance of the cross section
Ncom,Sd = design value of the compressive force
Npl,Rd = design plastic resistance of the gross section
Nt,Rd = design tension resistance capacity of the cross section
Nt,sd = design value of the axial tension force at each cross section
Nu,Rd = design ultimate resistance of cross section at the bolt hole
p = Truck loading
P = transverse loading
P = Truck loading uniformly distributed over the patch area
P1 = rear truck axle load
P2 = front truck axle load
P3= tandem axle load
PL = pedestrian live load
q = uniformly distributed loading
Q = non-dimensional parameter for uniformly distributed loading
Qi = force effect
r = radius of gyration of the truss member cross section
Rf = factored resistance
Rn = nominal resistance
S = average stringer spacing
S = maximum total tensile stress in the most stressed chord member
s = allowable tensile stress
S = elastic section modulus
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
Sxx = section modulus about the major axis
t = plate thickness
tf = thickness of flange
TG = temperature gradient
Tmax = Maximum torsion on beam
TU = uniform temperature
tw = thickness of web.
u = width of the patch area
v = length of the patch area
Vmax = Maximum shear on beam
Vpl, Rd = the design plastic shear resistance
V Sd = the design shear force
w = out of plate deflections
iii
w = clear roadway width between curbs and/or barriers
W = total weight of the bridge truss including its bracing
W = non-dimensional parameter for transverse deflection
WA =water load and stream pressure
Wel = elastic section modulus
WL = wind on live load
Wpl = the required section design plastic resistance
WS = wind load on structure
Y = ordinate to the centroid of the total area
Y1 = ordinate to the centroid of the component area
Y2 = ordinate to the centroid of the component area
βA = factor
γ = load factor for the limit state under consideration
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
γmo = partial safety factor for class 1 cross-section
γm1 = partial safety factor for class 4 cross-section
γp = load factor for permanent loading
γSE = load factor for settlement
γTG = load factor for temperature gradient
δall = allowable deflection
∆ = Maximum deflection
∆Af = area that should be ignored from the two flanges
∆Aw = area that should be ignored from the two webs
ε = factor
ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
λ = the slenderness ratio
λ = non dimensional slenderness
λ1 = slenderness
λρ = non dimensional slenderness corresponding to appropriate width
ρ = reduction factor
σe = equivalent uniaxial state of stress
σemax. = maximum equivalent surface stress
σe max = non-dimensional parameter related to the actual maximum equivalent stress
σ max = Maximum principal stress on plate element
σ min = minimum principal stress on plate element
σx = stress in the x direction
σ xy = shear stress
σy = stress in the Y direction
ϕ = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
φ = resistance factor
χ = reduction factor for buckling
List of Tables
iv
Table 3.1 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM .............................................................................10
Table 3.2 Load Combinations and Load Factors .................................................................12
Table 4.1 Combination of truck/tandem with lane and dead moment on interior stringer....26
Table 4.2 Combination of truck /tandem with lane and dead moment for exterior stringer..29
Table 4.3 Combination of truck /tandem with lane and dead moment for floor beam..........38
Table 4.4 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for truss.................47
Table 4.5 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for floor beam.......59
Table 4.6 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for floor beam.......77
Table 4.7 Combination of truck or tandem with lane and dead moment for truss.................86
Table 4.8 Values for φ, Fbm, and Fw.......................................................................................96
Table 4.9 Minimum size of fillet weld...................................................................................96
Table 4.10 Cost comparison for panel per kg ......................................................................103
v
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 The Design Truck ……………………..………………………….……..9
Figure 3.2 Design Tandem Loads …………………..…......................................….10
Figure 3.3 Arrangement of floor system ...................................................................13
Figure 4.1 Baily bridge at the entrance to the Addis Ababa Tennis Club.................17
Figure 4.2 Panel bridge parts at ERA's store in Alemgena District....…..................18
Figure 4.3 Measured dimensions of locally available panel bridge parts………..…18
Figure 4.4 Measured dimensions of bottom/ top channels.………………………...19
Figure 4.5 Measured dimensions of vertical / diagonal channels.………..…….…..19
Figure 4.6 Assumed dimensions of trial panel...................……………………..…..20
Figure 4.7 Dimensions of RT128..…………………………………………..…...…20
Figure 4.8 Dimensions of ST100..…………………………………………..…...…20
Figure 4.9 Cross section of steel bridge showing deck and stringer..........................21
Figure 4.10 Steel deck unit currently used by ERA……….….….…........................22
Figure 4.11 Steel curb unit currently used by ERA……….….….…........................22
Figure 4.12 Lattice stringer made from 100mm SHS section....................................23
Figure 4.13 Cross-section of lattice stringer .............................................................23
Figure 4.14 Truck load on interior stringer................................................................24
Figure 4.15 Tandem load on interior stringer ...........................................................25
Figure 4.16 Lane load on interior stringer ................................................................25
Figure 4.17 Position of wheel loads for exterior stringer..........................................27
Figure 4.18 Truck load on exterior stringer...............................................................27
Figure 4.19 Tandem load on exterior stringer ...........................................................28
Figure 4.20 Lane load on exterior stringer ................................................................28
Figure 4.21 Cross-section of ST100 .........................................................................31
Figure 4.22 Lattice floor beam made from 4mm thick ST100 section......................34
Figure 4.23 Concentrated dead loads on floor beam ................................................35
Figure 4.24 Truck moving to the left on the bridge...................................................36
Figure 4.25 The heavier axle load on floor beam......................................................36
Figure 4.26 Tandem moving to the left on the bridge span.......................................37
Figure 4.27 Tandem load on floor beam....................................................................37
Figure 4.28 Lane load on floor beam........ ................................................................38
Figure 4.29 Cross section of floor beam ...................................................................39
Figure 4.30 Factored dead load on floor beam .........................................................40
vii
Figure 4.31 Factored tandem load on floor beam at closest position to left truss.....40
Figure 4.32 Lane load at closest position to left truss...............................................40
Figure 4.34 Concentrated dead loads on truss at panel points...................................43
Figure 4.35 Lane load position for maximum load on left truss................................44
Figure 4.36 Truck load rear axle position for maximum load on left truss...............44
Figure 4.37 Truck load front axle position for maximum load on left truss.............45
Figure 4.38 Truck load position on truss for maximum moment..............................45
Figure 4.39 Tandem load position for maximum load on left truss .........................46
Figure 4.40 Tandem load position on truss for maximum moment..........................46
Figure 4.41 Cross section of truss in mm .................................................................47
Figure 4.42 Cross section of truss in mm .................................................................48
Figure 4.43 Half the truck load to be applied for single truss ..................................49
Figure 4.44 Cross-section of RT128.........................................................................50
Figure 4.45 Cross-section of ST100 ........................................................................50
Figure 4.46 Cross-section of RT106 ........................................................................51
Figure 4.47 Cross-section of ST80 ...........................................................................52
Figure 4.48 The second trial panel for the second option.........................................55
Figure 4.49 The second trial panel for the first option..............................................55
Figure 4.50 Lattice floor beam made from 4mm thick ST100 section.....................56
Figure 4.51 Truck moving to the left on the bridge..................................................57
Figure 4.52 The heavier axle load on floor beam......................................................57
Figure 4.53 Tandem moving to the left on the bridge span.......................................58
Figure 4.54 Tandem load on floor beam...................................................................58
Figure 4.55 Lane load on floor beam .......................................................................59
Figure 4.56 Cross section of floor beam ..................................................................60
Figure 4.57 Factored dead load on floor beam .........................................................60
Figure 4.58 Factored Tandem load on floor beam at closest position to truss..........61
Figure 4.59 Lane load on floor beam ........................................................................61
Figure 4.61 Steel bridge decks and panel boundary-condition idealization..............65
Figure 4.62 Panel under wheel loading distributed over patch area..........................67
Figure 4.63 Idealization of panel as continuous on three and four sides...................68
Figure 4.64 Stiffened deck ........................................................................................70
viii
Figure 4.65 Combined finite element and grillage mesh.............................................71
Figure 4.66 Combined RT106 beam and plate above it..............................................71
Figure 4.67 Lattice floor beam made from 4mm thick ST100 section.......................74
Figure 4.68 Uniform dead load on floor beam...........................................................75
Figure 4.69 Truck moving to the left on the bridge....................................................75
Figure 4.70 The heavier axle load on floor beam.......................................................75
Figure 4.71 Tandem moving to the left on the bridge span........................................76
Figure 4.72 Tandem load on floor beam....................................................................76
Figure 4.73 Lane load on floor beam .........................................................................77
Figure 4.74 Cross section of floor beam ....................................................................78
Figure 4.75 Factored dead load on floor beam ..........................................................79
Figure 4.76 Factored Truck load with impact on floor beam.....................................79
Figure 4.77 Lane load on floor beam .........................................................................79
Figure 4.78 Cross-section of ST100 ..........................................................................80
Figure 4.79 Concentrated dead loads on truss at panel points....................................82
Figure 4.80 Lane load position for maximum load on left truss................................83
Figure 4.81 Truck load rear axle position for maximum load on left truss................84
Figure 4.82 Truck load front axle position for maximum load on left truss..............84
Figure 4.83 Truck load position on truss for maximum moment...............................85
Figure 4.84 Tandem load position for maximum load on left truss ...........................85
Figure 4.85 Tandem load position on truss for maximum moment............................86
Figure 4.86 Cross section of truss in mm ...................................................................87
Figure 4.87 Cross section of truss in mm ...................................................................88
Figure 4.88 Half the truck load to be applied on truss ...............................................89
Figure 4.89 Superimposed dead load on floor beam...................................................89
Figure 4.90 Concentrated dead loads on truss at panel points....................................90
Figure 4.91 Cross-section of RT128 ..........................................................................90
Figure 4.92 Cross-section of ST100 ...........................................................................91
Figure 4.93 Weld throat................ ..............................................................................96
Figure 4.94 Weld connections on panel ......................................................................98
Figure 4.95 Details A and B of weld connections on panel ......................................99
Figure 4.96 Details C and D of weld connections on panel ......................................99
Figure 4.97 Pin dimension in mm .............................................................................100
Figure 4.98 Pin connection plate.............................................................................101
ix
Figure 4.99 Pin plate plan view .............................................................................101
Figure 4.100 Forces on pin ....................................................................................102
x
List of Appendices
Appendix A Steel Bridges Information.............................................................................107

Appendix B Imported Temporary Steel Bridges Cost......................................................110
xi
Abstract
The level of development of the transportation network is an indication of the

economic development of a country. This transportation network consists of urban and
rural road networks. Rivers and mountains form physical barriers creating gaps in the
network. This necessitates the construction of bridges to form a link between the highways
at obstacles.
Ethiopia being a mountainous country has numerous rivers and ravines, thus
requiring construction of many bridges for rural communication. Conventional construction
of bridges using reinforced concrete will be very expensive and sometimes impractical at
remote places. Construction of steel truss bridge made by assembling panels of smaller
units of trusses will be a practical solution for such situations.
Moreover, in Ethiopia there are many locations that have bridges in deteriorated
conditions and require immediate replacement. Regional Roads Authorities and Ethiopian
Roads Authority require replacing failed bridges on the same bridge if a failure of the
bridge superstructure only occurs or build a new one. This usually takes time. Therefore, to
minimize the disruption of traffic flow detours are constructed and temporary steel bridges
are used to cross the obstacle, usually a river, until a replacement or a new bridge is in
place. These temporary bridges are of ‘through’ type steel truss bridges with the road way
being carried between two main trusses. These units can easily be handled and transported
by trucks. They can be assembled and erected within a few days and these enable the quick
restoration of traffic. After the bridge is rebuilt the temporary steel bridge on detour will be
disassembled. These temporary steel bridges are occasionally being used as permanent
superstructure in some regions. The main disadvantage in the use of these temporary steel
bridges is that they are imported at high cost.
This problem calls for the design and production of assembled steel bridges with
locally available steel profiles. Thus this research is intended to prepare analysis and
design procedures that may serve as a reference for designers in the design of assembled
steel bridge with locally available steel profiles.
xii
References
1. Ethiopian Roads Authority. (2002), Bridge Design Manual, Addis Ababa: ERA
2. American Association of State Highway Officials. (1996), Standard Specification for
Highway Bridges, 16th edition, Washington D.C., AASHTO
3. W.F. Chen (1999), Structural Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, USA
4. V.N. Vazirani and S.P. Chandola. (2003), Railway, Bridges and Tunnels, 4th edition,
Delhi, KHANNA Publishers
5. Jack C. McCormac. (1971), Structural Steel Design, Pennsylvania, International
Textbook Company
6. Waagner Biro Brückenbeau AG (2001), Waagner Biro Panel Bridge Design and
Erection Manual, Austria, Waagner Biro
7. B. Aalami and D.G. Willams (1975) Thin Plate Design for Transverse Loading, Great
Britain, Granada Publishing Limited.
8. Abraham J. Rokach (1991), Structural Steel Design, USA, McGraw-Hill Companies
9. Ministry of Urban Works & Development (1995), EBCS-3 Design of Steel Structures,
(Addis Ababa): Ministry of Urban Works & Development.
xiii
Appendix A
Steel Bridges Information
Appendix B
Imported Temporary Steel Bridges Cost
14

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ASSEMBLED STEEL TRUSS

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

PROF. NEGUSSIE TEBEDGE

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Approved by Board of Examiners

Prof . Negussie Tebedge

External Examiner Signature Date

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Chairman Signature Date

1.3. Thesis Content

1.4. Applications and Limitations

2.2. Classification of Bridges

Permanent bridges: Bridge that is used through out its lifetime.

2.3. Selection of Bridge Type

Factors Affecting the Selection of Type of Bridge

2.4. Steel Truss Bridges

2.4.2. Why use Steel Truss bridges?

2.4.3. Steel Bridges in Ethiopia

3.1. Bridge Loading

3.1.1 Dead Load

3.1.2 Live Loads

Figure 3.1 The Design Truck

Design Lane Load

3.1.3 Dynamic Load Allowance (Impact)

Table 3.1 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

3.1.5 Earthquake Loading

3.2. Load Factors and Combinations

STRENGTH V γp 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -

Figure 3.3 Arrangement of floor system

3.4. Interior Stringers

3.5. Exterior Stringers

3.6. Floor beams

3.8. Truss dead loads

3.10. Bridge-truss deflection

4.1. Assessment of Locally Built Baily Bridges

Bridge Location: At the entrance to the Addis Ababa Tennis Club

Figure 4.4 Measured dimensions in mm of bottom /top channel

Figure 4.5 Measured dimensions in mm of vertical / diagonal channel

Figure 4.6 Assumed dimensions of trial panel in mm

-available cross-sectional area = 1495 mm2

-Vertical/ diagonal members

-available cross-sectional area = 1495 mm2

1100 1100 1100

4.2.1.1 Design Data

4.2.1.2 Design of stringers

Interior stringer design

Figure 4.10 Steel deck unit currently used by ERA

Figure 4.11 Steel curb unit currently used by ERA

Figure 4.12 Lattice stringer made from 100mm SHS section

Total length of stringer members = 14.96 m

For truck load

Figure 4.14 Truck load on interior stringer

Maximum truck load moment = (96.43) (1.5) (0.802) = 116.01 kNm

1200 300 1500

Figure 4.15 Tandem load on interior stringer

Maximum tandem load moment = (117.04) (1.2) (0.802) = 112.64 kNm