A PROJECT REPORT ON

Flex sensor
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
____________________________________ ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (-------------)
--------------------- (-------------)
--------------------- (------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled Flex sensor

is the work done by ____________________________ submitted in partial fulfillment for the
award of ‘BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.E)’ in Electronics and Communication
Engineering from _______ College of Engineering affiliated to _________ University,
Hyderabad.

________________ ____________

(External Guide) (Internal Guide)

______________
(External Examiner)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and encouragement
made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project, which is result of
studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor ______________,
Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support, encouragement and guidance.
We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable suggestions.
We express our thanks to the Head of the Department, Principal and College management for
all their support and encouragement.
We express our earnest gratitude and heartfelt thanks to M/S Wine Yard Technologies for
their technical support and guidance to complete the project in time.
Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or
indirectly for the completion of this project.

For: Project Associates

 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled Flex sensor, being submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Electronics and
Communication Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________
 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Introduction:

An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the

embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A
general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control,
monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact
that they are an integral part of the system. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer
may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will
be obvious.

All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these

computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function
or set of functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an
application program that enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a
specific application determines the functioning of the embedded system. The ability to have
programs means that the same embedded system can be used for a variety of different
purposes. In some cases a microprocessor may be designed in such a way that application
software for a particular purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after
which it is not possible to make further changes. The applications software on such processors
is sometimes referred to as firmware.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip”), which
may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated
Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or
activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine or, by operating a
valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engine.

As the embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware

 Embedded
System

Software Hardware

ALP Processor
C Peripherals
VB memory
Etc.,

Figure: Block diagram of Embedded System

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with
Processors, Peripherals, and Memory.

Memory: It is used to store data or address.

Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task
Applications of embedded systems
 Manufacturing and process control

 Construction industry
 Transport
 Buildings and premises
 Domestic service
 Communications

 Office systems and mobile equipment

 Banking, finance and commercial

  Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support

 Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems

Processors are classified into four types like:

 Micro Processor (µp)

 Micro controller (µc)

 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)

Micro Processor (µp):

A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms
microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and
most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all
digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

 Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

 Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.

 Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at
25MHz. In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being
either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).

A microprocessor has three basic elements, as shown above. The ALU performs all arithmetic
computations, such as addition, subtraction and logic operations (AND, OR, etc). It is
controlled by the Control Unit and receives its data from the Register Array.   The Register
Array is a set of registers used for storing data. These registers can be accessed by the ALU
very quickly. Some registers have specific functions - we will deal with these later.   The
Control Unit controls the entire process. It provides the timing and a control signal for getting
data into and out of the registers and the ALU and it synchronizes the execution of instructions
(we will deal with instruction execution at a later date).  

Three Basic Elements of a Microprocessor

Micro Controller (µc):

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor
core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of
NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of
RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.
 ALU

CU

Timer, Counter, serial

Memory communication ROM,
ADC, DAC, Timers,
USART, Oscillators
Etc.,

Figure: Block Diagram of Micro Controller (µc)

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Digital Signal Processors is one which performs scientific and mathematical operation.
Digital Signal Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed
specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. Like a general-
purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code.
DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like
their better-known general-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually
being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-chip" devices, often
containing both analog and digital circuitry.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
ASIC is a combination of digital and analog circuits packed into an IC to achieve the desired
control/computation function

ASIC typically contains

 CPU cores for computation and control

 Peripherals to control timing critical functions

 Memories to store data and program

  Analog circuits to provide clocks and interface to the real world which is analog in
nature

 I/Os to connect to external components like LEDs, memories, monitors etc.

Computer Instruction Set

There are two different types of computer instruction set there are:

1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and

2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set computer)

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

A RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a microprocessor that is designed to perform a

smaller number of types of computer instruction so that it can operate at a higher speed
(perform more million instructions per second, or millions of instructions per second). Since
each instruction type that a computer must perform requires additional transistors and circuitry,
a larger list or set of computer instructions tends to make the microprocessor more complicated
and slower in operation.

Besides performance improvement, some advantages of RISC and related design

improvements are:

 A new microprocessor can be developed and tested more quickly if one of its aims is to
be less complicated.

 Operating system and application programmers who use the microprocessor's

instructions will find it easier to develop code with a smaller instruction set.

 The simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a
microprocessor.

Higher-level language compilers produce more efficient code than formerly because they have
always tended to use the smaller set of instructions to be found in a RISC computer.
RISC characteristics

 Simple instruction set:

In a RISC machine, the instruction set contains simple, basic instructions, from which more
complex instructions can be composed.
 Same length instructions.
Each instruction is the same length, so that it may be fetched in a single operation.

 1 machine-cycle instructions.

Most instructions complete in one machine cycle, which allows the processor to handle several
instructions at the same time. This pipelining is a key technique used to speed up RISC
machines.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC, which stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, is a philosophy for designing chips
that are easy to program and which make efficient use of memory. Each instruction in a CISC
instruction set might perform a series of operations inside the processor. This reduces the
number of instructions required to implement a given program, and allows the programmer to
learn a small but flexible set of instructions.

The advantages of CISC

At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to
optimize computer performance.

 Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less

expensive than hardwiring a control unit.

 The ease of micro-coding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines
upwardly compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier
computers because the new computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the
earlier computers.
  As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to
implement a given task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main
memory.

 Because micro program instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-
level languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.

The disadvantages of CISC

Still, designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:

 Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every

new version --- so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each
generation of computers.

 So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least
possible wasted space, individual instructions could be of almost any length---this
means that different instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute,
slowing down the overall performance of the machine.

 Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence ---
approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.

 CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction.
Not only does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to
remember to examine the condition code bits before a subsequent instruction changes
them.

Memory Architecture

There two different type’s memory architectures there are:

 Harvard Architecture
  Von-Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture

Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There are two or
more internal data buses, which allow simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The
CPU fetches program instructions on the program memory bus.

The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and
signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I relay-
based computer, which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and data in electro-
mechanical counters. These early machines had limited data storage, entirely contained within
the central processing unit, and provided no access to the instruction storage as data. Programs
needed to be loaded by an operator, the processor could not boot itself.

Figure: Harvard Architecture

Modern uses of the Harvard architecture

The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to more than
one memory system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors using modern CPU
cache systems. Relatively pure Harvard architecture machines are used mostly in applications
where tradeoffs, such as the cost and power savings from omitting caches, outweigh the
programming penalties from having distinct code and data address spaces.
 Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio or
video processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be
extremely reproducible. The difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are
 of secondary concern to speed of execution. As a result, some DSPs have multiple
data memories in distinct address spaces to facilitate SIMD and VLIW processing.
Texas Instruments TMS320 C55x processors, as one example, have multiple
parallel data busses (two write, three read) and one instruction bus.

 Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash

memory) and data (SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the
Harvard architecture to speed processing by concurrent instruction and data access.
The separate storage means the program and data memories can have different bit
depths, for example using 16-bit wide instructions and 8-bit wide data. They also
mean that instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other activities.
Examples include, the AVR by Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc.
and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not all ARM chips have Harvard architecture).

Even in these cases, it is common to have special instructions to access program memory as
data for read-only tables, or for reprogramming.

Von-Neumann Architecture

A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program instructions and data
are stored. There is a single internal data bus that fetches both instructions and data. They
cannot be performed at the same time

The Von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that
uses a central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold
both instructions and data. It is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist
John von Neumann. Such computers implement a universal Turing machine and have a
sequential architecture.

A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as
its data, in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were
advancement over the program-controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and
the ENIAC, which were programmed by setting switches and inserting patch leads to route
data and to control signals between various functional units. In the vast majority of modern
computers, the same memory is used for both data and program instructions. The mechanisms
for transferring the data and instructions between the CPU and memory are, however,
considerably more complex than the original von Neumann architecture.

The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are generally used
interchangeably, and that usage is followed in this article.

Figure: Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture

 The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is
in the Von Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the same memory and
managed by the same information handling system.

 Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory devices
and they are handled by different subsystems.

 In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central

processing unit (CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data
to/from the memory. Both of these operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data
and instructions use the same system bus.

 In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an instruction and
access data memory at the same time without cache. This means that a computer with
Harvard architecture can potentially be faster for a given circuit complexity because
data access and instruction fetches do not contend for use of a single memory pathway.

 Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von Neumann
architecture template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and efficiencies
gained in designing, implementing, operating one memory system as opposed to two.
Von Neumann architecture may be somewhat slower than the contrasting Harvard
Architecture for certain specific tasks, but it is much more flexible and allows for many
concepts unavailable to Harvard architecture such as self programming, word
processing and so on.

 Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for very specific
uses. It is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for video and audio
processing products. It is also used in many small microcontrollers used in electronics
applications such as Advanced RISK Machine (ARM) based products for many vendors.
HARDWARE EXPLANATION
 Hardware Explanation:

RESISTOR:

Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance (measured
in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the
flow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the component drives the current
through it and this energy appears as heat in the component.

Colour Code:
CAPACITOR:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes
time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a
reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing)
signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Circuit symbol:   

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at
least one of their leads will be marked + or -.

Examples:  

DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes
were actually called valves.

Circuit symbol:   

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted
on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in small print; you may
need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes.

Example:       
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):
The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the schematic
symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the right. Light
emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics.

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low
consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources-
bulbs at first place.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is
limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to
correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diode’s voltage drop in
forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colors it is.
Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As seen, there are
three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current
diodes get full brightness at ten time’s lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more
intensive light than Standard ones.

Since the 8052 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins are
configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct confectioning to LEDs is carried
out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to output pin).

Switches and Pushbuttons:

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit depending on the
application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as industrial equipment control
handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals, and medical equipment, and etc. Push
button switches generally include a push button disposed within a housing. The push button may be
depressed to cause movement of the push button relative to the housing for directly or indirectly
changing the state of an electrical contact to open or close the contact. Also included in a pushbutton
switch may be an actuator, driver, or plunger of some type that is situated within a switch housing
having at least two contacts in communication with an electrical circuit within which the switch is
incorporated.
 Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap actuators that
reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically coupled to the
movement of the cap assembly, such that the actuator translates in a direction that is parallel with the
cap. A push button switch for a data input unit for a mobile communication device such as a cellular
phone, a key board for a personal computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover
member directly on a circuit board. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an
inexpensive means of providing an operator interface on industrial control products. In such push
button switches, a substrate which includes a plurality of movable sections is formed of
a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top surface thereof with a figure, a character or the like
by printing, to thereby provide a cover member. Push button switches incorporating lighted displays
have been used in a variety of applications. Such switches are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an
opaque legend plate, and a back light to illuminate the legend plate.
Block Diagram For Regulated Power Supply (RPS):

Figure: Power Supply

Description :

Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
 Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like a
transducer.

Figure: Transformer

Basic Principle

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to efficiently
raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the
current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
 Figure: Basic Principle

Transformer Working

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown in
figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a
magnetic field created in the core.
 Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of power.
They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be
created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing magnetic field in
the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing strength of the
magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to
a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage
is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents produced by
the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the
secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a
negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the core
without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely used
to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out / power in)
of 95% or more.
Classification of Transformer

 Step-Up Transformer
 Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down Transformer

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage is
greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied
to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country with a
220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power
distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically
rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current
levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around a
core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input)
it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the
secondary or output). The turn’s ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of
voltage transformation.

Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a ratio
of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror the
"turn’s ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondary).
A practical application of this 2 to 1 turn’s ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step down. Note
that if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and
output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than
the nameplate rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is
possible to do some non-standard applications using standard transformers.

Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected to step-
down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less than
1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns
to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output voltage
will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer

A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a larger induced
voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because the voltage output is larger than
the voltage input.

Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer
is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.

A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to another
voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be designed
to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and a step
down transformer decreases the voltage.
The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core and coil.
The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another or to
ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials.
As a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and
25 years.

Figure: Step-Up Transformer

Applications :

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

Types of Transformer

Mains Transformers

Mains transformers are the most common type.  They are designed to reduce the AC mains supply
voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low voltage. The standard
mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V are the values usually    
quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.

Figure: Main Transformer

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate primary coils
(windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in series for 240V (figure 2a) and
in parallel for 120V (figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way round as shown in the diagrams
because the coils must be connected in the correct sense (direction):

Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0-9V, 0-9V) which may be
used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series to create a center-tapped coil
(see below) or one coil with double the voltage.

Some mains transformers have a centre-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are labeled 9-
0-9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with just two diodes, unlike a
standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full-wave rectified DC.

A mains transformer is specified by:

1. Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.

2. Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (volt-amp). This
determines the maximum output (secondary) current, I max...
 ...where Vs is the secondary voltage.  If there are two secondary coils the maximum power
should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.

3. Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag connections) or
toroidal (a high quality design).

Audio Transformers

Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an audio amplifier
to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker.  This use is called 'impedance matching'
because it is matching the high impedance output of the amplifier to the low impedance of the
loudspeaker.

Figure: Audio transformer

Radio Transformers

Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio transformers and
they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores can be adjusted with a non-
magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole transformer is enclosed in an aluminum can
which acts as a shield, preventing the transformer radiating too much electrical noise to other parts of
the circuit.

Figure: Radio Transformer

Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...

...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number of
turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.

Diodes

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction.  The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow.  Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction.  In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there
will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V.  In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reverse-
biased' and no current will flow through it.

Rectifier

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier

converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage.  There are two different
rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers.  Both use components
called diodes to convert AC into DC.
The Half-wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as shown in
figure.

Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output.  As you can see,
when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through.  When
the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current
through, meaning the output is 0V.  Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the
peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

Figure: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a
power supply for a circuit.  Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-
0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all. 

The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output
voltage 0V.  This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of
the AC waveform are converted to DC.  The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased.  When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't
suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V
and Vs-1.4V.  So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

Capacitor Filter

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek
letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or undesired
frequencies from a signal.

Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier output, an
inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while it
offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an appreciable
amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero reactance to
the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the inductor while the AC
component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As a
result only the DC component appears across the load RL.
 Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:

’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:

’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator

SWITCHES:

Switches and Pushbuttons

In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,

interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.[1][2]

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or

more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts
can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity
can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non
conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed)
can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for
"on" or push-for "off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a

computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as alight switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example,
to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a
position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as
pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used
to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch
used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is
called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some
switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation
that can be pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during
maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

Push Button Switch with High quality and durable square tactile button which are easily fitted
in breadboard and PCB.Dimension: 6x6mm and button height is 2.5mm.

There is nothing simpler than this! This is the simplest way of controlling appearance of some
voltage on microcontroller’s input pin. There is also no need for additional explanation of how
these components operate.
Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... This is about something commonly unnoticeable
when using these components in everyday life. It is about contact bounce- a common problem
with m e c h a n i c a l switches. If contact switching does not happen so quickly, several
consecutive bounces can be noticed prior to maintain stable state. The reasons for this are:
vibrations, slight rough spots and dirt. Anyway, whole this process does not last long (a few
micro- or miliseconds), but long enough to be registered by the microcontroller. Concerning
pulse counter, error occurs in almost 100% of cases!

The simplest solution is to connect simple RC circuit which will “suppress” each quick voltage
change. Since the bouncing time is not defined, the values of elements are not strictly
determined. In the most cases, the values shown on figure are sufficient.

If complete safety is needed, radical measures should be taken! The circuit, shown on the
figure (RS flip-flop), changes logic state on its output with the first pulse triggered by contact
bounce. Even though this is more expensive solution (SPDT switch), the problem is definitely
resolved! Besides, since the condensator is not used, very short pulses can be also registered in
this way. In addition to these hardware solutions, a simple software solution is commonly
applied too: when a program tests the state of some input pin and finds changes, the check
should be done one more time after certain time delay. If the change is confirmed it means that
switch (or pushbutton) has changed its position. The advantages of such solution are obvious: it
is free of charge, effects of disturbances are eliminated too and it can be adjusted to the worst-
quality contacts.
FLEX SENSOR

Introduction:
The Flex Sensor patented technology is based on resistive carbon elements. As a
variable printed resistor, the Flex Sensor achieves great form-factor on a thin flexible substrate.
When the substrate is bent, the sensor produces a resistance output correlated to the bend
radius—the smaller the radius, the higher the resistance value.
In 1982 Thomas G. Zimmerman filed a patent (US Patent 4542291) on an optical flex
sensor mounted in a glove to measure finger bending. Zimmerman worked with Jaron Lanier to
incorporate ultrasonic and magnetic hand position tracking technology to create the Power
Glove and Data Glove, respectively (US Patent 4988981, filed 1989). The optical flex sensor
used in the Data Glove was invented by Young L. Harvill (US Patent 5097252, filed 1989)
who scratched the fiber near the finger joint to make it locally sensitive to bending.
A wired glove is a glove-like input device for human-computer interaction, often in
virtual reality environments. Various sensor technologies are used to capture physical data such
as bending of fingers. Often a motion tracker, such as a magnetic tracking device or inertial
tracking device, is attached to capture the global position/rotation data of the glove. These
movements are then interpreted by the software that accompanies the glove, so any one
movement can mean any number of things. Gestures can then be categorized into useful
information, such as to recognize Sign Language or other symbolic functions.
Expensive high-end wired gloves can also provide haptic feedback, which is a
simulation of the sense of touch. This allows a wired glove to also be used as an output device.
Traditionally, wired gloves have only been available at a huge cost, with the finger bend
sensors and the tracking device having to be bought separately.
Wired gloves are often called "datagloves" or "cybergloves". The latter term is a
trademark of Immersion Corporation (which acquired Virtual Technologies, Inc. and its patent
portfolio in September 2000).
An alternative to wired gloves is to use a camera and computer vision to track the 3D
pose and trajectory of the hand, at the cost of tactile feedback.
The Flex Sensor patented technology is based on resistive carbon elements. As a
variable printed resistor, the Flex Sensor achieves great form-factor on a thin flexible substrate.
When the substrate is bent, the sensor produces a resistance output correlated to the bend
radius—the smaller the radius, the higher the resistance value.
Spectra Symbol Designers can vary the actual nominal resistance of the Flex Sensors to
meet customer’s needs. We can produce our Flex Sensors on a variety of substrates, for
example, we can use DuPont’s Kapton material if you require high temperature operations.

Construction
Flex sensor element is sequentially serialized and quality tested to ensure the highest
repeatability and freedom from defects. In addition, our sensor assemblies feature ergonomic
and high quality Berg connectors, ensuring durable interconnection.

Our Capabilities
We will design and build bend sensors to your exact specifications of gauge, dimensions,
sensitivity, connector interface and environmental immunity. We perform all elements of R&D
and prototyping and are equipped to build our bend sensor into your supplied CAD drawings.

Description:

Working of flex sensor:

Flex sensor are sensors that change in resistance depending on the amount of bend on
the sensor. They convert the change in bend to electrical resistance the more bend the more the
resistance value. They are usually in the form of a thin strip from 1”-5” long that vary in
resistance. They can be made uni-directional and bi-directional.

Sizes -     1K     to     20K

               50K     to     50ohm

               50K     to      200k
Basic circuit operation of the flex sensor:

"The impedance buffer in the [Basic Flex Sensor Circuit] (above) is a single sided
operational amplifier, used with these sensors because the low bias current of the op amp
reduces error due to source impedance of the flex sensor as voltage divider. Suggested op amps
are the LM358 or LM324." "You can also test your flex sensor using the simplest circuit, and
skip the op amp." "Adjustable Buffer - a potentiometer can be added to the circuit to adjust
the sensitivity range."
`"Variable Deflection Threshold Switch - an op amp is used and outputs either high or low
depending on the voltage of the inverting input. In this way you can use the flex sensor as a
switch without going through a microcontroller."

"Resistance to Voltage Converter - use the sensor as the input of a resistance to

voltage converter using a dual sided supply op-amp. A negative reference voltage will give a
positive output. Should be used in situations when you want output at a low degree of bending"
Benefits over other technologies

Lightweight, thin and low profile

A fraction of the price of conventional actuators
Non mechanical. Solid state
Extraordinarily durable (>35 million cycles)
ATTRIBUTES:

Custom designed to match customer specs High level of reliability, consistency,

repeatability Harsh temperature resistance Variety of flexible or stationary surfaces for
mounting Infinite number of resistance possibilities and bend ratios Please call our full Design
Engineering team or Sales Engineers for any questions or ideas at One directional Flex Sensor
is a unique component that changes resistance when bent or flexed (Patent 5086785). A UN
flexed sensor has a nominal resistance of approximately 10,000 ohms (10 K). As the flex
sensor is bent in one direction the resistance gradually increases. Range of resistance's of the
FLX-03 sensor may vary between 10K and 40K depending upon the degree of the flex.

The flex sensor operating temperature is -45F to 125F.

Connection - Pin connector .100" spacing

The sensor measures 1/4 inch wide, 4 1/2 inches long and only .019 inches thick!
Common applications include

Human body interface, biomechanics, ergonomic research

Air / fluid flow
Industrial controls
Consumer / industrial products

FEATUTRES:
 Size: approx 0.28" wide and 1"/3"/5" long
 Resistance Range: 1.5-40K ohms depending on sensor. Flex point claims a 0-250
resistance range.
 Lifetime: Greater than 1 million life cycles
 Temperature Range: -35 to +80 degrees Celsius
 Hysteresis: 7%
 Voltage: 5 to 12 V
SPECIFICATION:

 parameter  value

Operating Voltage +5V DC regulated

Operating Current 100mA

Output  Analog output

Flex Bending Nominal,45 degree,90 degree

 

Mechanical Specifications:
1. Life Cycle: >1 million
2. Height: 0.43mm (0.017")
3. Temperature Range: -35°C to +80°C

Electrical Specifications:
1. Flat Resistance: 10K Ohms
2. Resistance Tolerance: ±30%
3. Bend Resistance Range: 60K to 110K Ohms
4. Power Rating: 0.50 Watts continuous. 1 Watt Peak
Advantages of the flex sensor:
 Environmental impact. Ethanol burns cleaner than gasoline and therefore is responsible
for fewer toxic fumes, which is highly advantageous from an anti-pollution point of view.
The fact that ethanol does not contribute significantly to greenhouse gasses, makes it a
popular alternative among the environmentally conscious
 Burning facility. Possibly the greatest advantage is that the flex fuel vehicle has been
designed to burn whatever proportion of mixture is in its combustion chamber. Electronic
sensors gauge the blend, while microprocessors adjust the fuel injection and timing.
 Alternative to oil. Many flex fuel vehicles make use of ethanol, which originates from
corn and sugar cane, a viable alternative to purchasing foreign oil.
 Tax benefit. Another significant advantage of driving a flex fuel vehicle is the flex fuel tax
credit which replaced the clean-fuel burning deduction. This tax credit substantially
reduces and may even eliminate a taxpayer's tax obligation
Disadvantages of the flex sensor:

Flex does not read or write files to the end-user's computer. This is a
restriction of the Flash Player. You may find information in this forum about
ways to circumvent that, but it is tricky, tedious, and messy. If you need an
app that works like a stand-alone application, Flex isn't it. If you data lives
on a server and you want to easily deploy a good-looking application with quick
development and excellent return-on-investment, then Flex is the way to go.

Flex does not 'naturally' handle lots of records easily. That's similar to any
client/server application however. If you write a Java/Swing application that
needs to get 3000 records from a server, it is going to take awhile. Flex is
better than HTML for displaying large quantities of data, but you should look
into better ways of managing data.

Uses:
Spectra Symbol has used this technology in supplying Flex Sensors for the Nintendo Power
Glove, the P5 gaming glove, and the below applications:

 Automotive controls
 Medical devices
 Industrial controls
 Computer peripherals
 Fitness products
 Musical instruments
 Measuring devices
 Virtual reality games
 Consumer products
 Physical therapy
 Connect regulated DC power supply of 5 Volts. Black wire is Ground, Next middle wire is
Brown which is output and Red wire is positive supply. These wires are also marked on
PCB.
 To test sensor you only need power the sensor by connect two wires +5V and GND. You
can leave the output wire as it is.
 The flex sensor analog resistors. They work as analog voltage dividers.
 When the substrate is bend the sensor produces resistance output relative to bending radius
nominal, 45 degree and 90 degree.
 Measure the output voltage through multi-meter between OUT and Ground pins or Use a
microcontroller to measure the voltage output.

Some applications for the Flex Sensor are:

 Collision detection on mobile robots
 VR Gloves and VR suits
 Physics applications and experiments
 gaming gloves
 auto controls
 fitness products
 measuring devices
 assistive technology
 musical instruments and joysticks