04 Chapter-2
04 Chapter-2
electronic systems. These techniques are rapidly developing day by day due to
circuit fabrication and field programmable arrays (FPGA). With these, digital
signal processing has now become more reliable and speed processing is almost
near infinity [1-3]. DSP techniques find applications in variety of areas such as in
of nuclear explosion etc. There are many commonly used DSP operations such as
filtering is the operation that is invariably used in most of the applications. There
are various types of filters such as High pass (HP), Low pass (LP), Band stop
(BS), Band pass (BP), and Notch filters. Digital notch filters are of two types, IIR
and FIR. In this research work, we have focused our attention on the design
signal while leaving the broad band energy unchanged. This can be achieved by
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passing the signals through a notch filter where the notches are centered on the
A notch filter is essentially a band stop filter with a very narrow stop band
and two pass bands. The amplitude response, H1(ω), of a typical notch filter
(radians) and -3 dB rejection band width (RBW). For an ideal notch filter, this
RBW should be zero, the pass band magnitude should be unity and the attenuation
2.2. H2(ω) has 180 degrees phase shift at the notch frequency ωd i.e. it has
opposite signs in the two pass bands. However, the magnitude response | H2(ω) |
is of the same type as that shown in Figure 2.1. In this thesis, we propose the
design methodologies for both these type of filters. Before considering the design
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Notch filter characteristics of NF1 type
H1(
(0dB) 1 RBW
- 3dB
Normalized
amplitude
response
(-∞ dB) 0
d (radians)
Frequency in radians
Figure 2.1 The normalized amplitude response H1(ω) of the notch filter NF1
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Notch filter characteristics of NF2 type
H2(|H2(|
1
Normalised
amplitude
response H (
2
0
d
(radians)
H2(
-1
Figure 2.2 The normalized amplitude response H2 (ω) and | H2 (ω) | of the notch filter NF2
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(i) In the area of communications, control, instrumentation and bio medical
line interference.
(ii) Spatial notch filters are used in transmitting antenna arrays, which are
(iii) Notch filters are used to remove spectral lines from a broad band
(iv) Switching type of AC & DC motor drives, converters and inverters cause
frequency and its low order (2nd, 3rd and 4th order) harmonics. Use of notch
measurements.
(v) Besides the line frequency disturbances, mechanical resonance also cause
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applications. A servomotor is commonly coupled to its load by inherently
frequencies. The overall system may not operate smoothly if the resonance
the signal is registered for further analysis. The varying ECG contact
potentials and breathing artefacts (below 0.5 Hz) cause unwanted base line
drift [15]. For stress ECG recordings, this drift may some times make the
of an ECG is another use of notch filters [16]. Notch filters are also used
oculogram [17].
(vii) Adaptive and broad null width notch filters find application in electronic
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large interfering signals. This can be achieved with proper tuning of radar,
associated with adaptive notch filters to evade narrow band spot jamming.
(viii) A filter with broad null width can be used to suppress interference
The aforementioned list of application of notch filters is only indicative and not
complete. Now, we shall discuss the techniques commonly used to design the
notch filters.
Now the salient features of these techniques with special emphasis on FIR digital
not that important. These filters require much lower order compared to the FIR
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ones for the same set of magnitude response characteristics. This implies
simplified structure with fewer multipliers and adders. The commonly used IIR
analog filter. Through the use of known analog filter design techniques, analog
notch filter is designed first and then it is converted back to the digital domain
through inverse transformation. This approach has the advantage that the standard
results of analog filter design can be conveniently used. Based upon this
2 1 z 1
transformation connecting‘s’ and ‘z-1’ by the relation: s . This is a
T 1 z 1
domain without reference to the analog domain. There are three methods for
Among the above, we discuss the first method as this approach has influence on
our approach.
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Suppose that the desired impulse response hd(n) is specified for n ≥ 0. The
b z
k 0
k
1
(2.1a)
H ( z) N
1 ak z k
k 0
(2.1b)
h( k ) z k
k 0
where h(k) is the unit sample response. The filter has L = M + N + 1 parameters,
namely, the coefficients {ak} and {bk}, which can be selected to minimize some
error criterion. Suppose that we minimize the sum of the squared errors
U
[h
n0
d ( n ) h ( n )] 2
(2.2)
with respect to the filter parameters {ak} and {bk}, where U is some preselected
upper limit in the summation. In general, h(n) is a nonlinear function of the filter
Suppose that the input to the filter is a unit sample [i.e. x(n) = δ(n)]. Then the
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h(n) = - a1 h(n-1) – a2 h(n-2) - . . . – aN h(n-N)
(2.4)
+ b0 δ(n) – b1 δ(n-1) + . . . + bM δ(n-M)
The set of ( M + N + 1 ) linear equations in (2.5) and (2.6) can be used to solve
for the filter parameters {ak} and {bk}. We set h(n) = hd(n) for 0 ≤ n ≤ M + N, and
use the linear equations in (2.6) to solve for the filter parameters {ak}, 1 ≤ k ≤ N.
Then we use these values of {ak} in (2.5) and solve for the parameter {bk}, 0 ≤ k
≤ M. Thus we obtain a perfect match between h(n) and the desired response hd(n)
for the first L = M + N + 1 values of the impulse response. This design technique
Some modified IIR notch filter designs have also been reported in the
literature. Hirano et al. [18] have realized IIR notch filter function by applying
requires only two multipliers and offers independent variation of notch frequency
(ωd) and the 3 dB rejection bandwidth (BW). Laakso et al. [13] have proposed
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first and second order IIR notch filters with zeros strictly on the unit circle and
poles close to the zeros to ensure a narrow notch width. The first order notch filter
is useful in eliminating zero frequency (i.e. dc component) only. The second order
1 2 cos 0 z 1 z 2 (2.7)
H 0 ( z) K 0
1 2r cos 0 z 1 r 2 z 2
can be designed for an arbitrary notch frequency ω0. In (2.7) ω0 is the normalized
frequency in radians, r is the radius of the complex conjugate pole pair located at
the frequency ω0 and K0 is a scaling factor such that the maximum gain of the
filter equals unity. In this design, the rejection bandwidth (RBW) can be
controlled through ‘r’. RBW decreases as ‘r’ goes closer to unit circle [13].
However, the quantization error increases when ∆ = 1-| r | is made small (since the
Much research has also been carried out in the area of adaptive notch
eliminate unknown or time varying narrow band or sine wave components from
the observed time series, it becomes necessary to use adaptive notch filters
(ANF). ANFs also find use in retrieval of sinusoids in noise and in tracking and
enhancing time varying narrow band / sinusoidal signals in wide band noise [53-
56]. Adaptive notch filter designs have been proposed by Thompson [54], Rao
and Kung [55], Friedlander and Smith [40], and Nehorai [41], amongst others.
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The computational efficiency, stability, convergence and numerical robustness of
Juan E.Cousseau, Stefan Werner and Pedro Dario Donate have introduced
a new family of IIR adaptive notch filters [56] that forms multiple notches using a
two new adaptive filtering algorithms that can achieve fast convergence at low
compromise between bias and signal to noise ratio (SNR) when compared with
realizations previously reported in the literature. It achieves lower bias than other
approaches at low SNR. This property is particularly attractive for the estimation
One of the major problems in IIR filters is that these designs have non
However, in this case, the advantage of lower order IIR filter is lost as cascading
an all-pass filter results in an increased order of the over all filter which may some
times be comparable to that of an equivalent FIR filter. Moreover, the IIR filters
tend to be unstable (due to quantization) when the pole is very near to the unit
circle. We, now examine some of the design techniques used for FIR notch filters.
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2.2.2 FIR Design Techniques
There are essentially three types of standard design techniques for linear
Window Method
The frequency sampling method is often not used for notch filter design because,
the desired frequency response changes rapidly across the notch point leading to
large interpolation error. The window method has the advantages that it is easy to
use and closed form expressions are available for the window coefficients.
Several windows have been reported in the literature, such as Hamming, Hann,
19] etc.
Vaidyanathan and Nguyen [20] introduced FIR eigen filters which are
optimal in the least squares sense. Here, the objective function is defined only as
the sum of pass band and stop band errors; the error of approximation in the
transition band is not included. One of the advantages of eigen filters over other
FIR filters is that, they can be designed to incorporate a wide variety of time
domain constraints such as the step response and Nyquist constraint in addition to
the usual frequency domain characteristics. This method has also been extended
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The filters designed by using Kaiser window and eigen filter approaches
are such that the ripple size grows as we move closer to the band edge. Because of
this, the filter performance exceeds (i.e. better than the specification) for most
frequencies, except around ωp and ωs [10], where ωp and ωs are respectively the
pass band and stop band edges. The filter is thus, over designed and it is possible
to reduce the filter length ‘N’ to meet the given set of specifications. This is
achieved by the mini-max design method where the error is uniformly distributed
in the pass band and stop band. Using Alternation Theorem and Remez –
algorithm [23] for designing various types of FIR filters including differentiators
Out of all the FIR designs, Parks and McClellan iterative design yields the
best results, although, it too has some inherent limitations. Equiripple designs
only consider the specified pass bands and stop bands but the transition bands are
not considered in the numerical solution. In fact, the transition regions are
numerical solution may fail, especially in the transition region. For the optimum
design, the filter length is determined by the narrow transition band. If the
transition band is too wide, the algorithm will fail in the transition region resulting
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Besides the standard techniques, a number of other methods are proposed
for the design of notch filters in the literature. Among them, a few are discussed
here. Tian-Hu yu et al. [24] has proposed two methods for designing the notch
a notch filter H(ω) is derived from a low pass filter HLP(ω) by using the relation
(2.8)
(2.8)
H(ω) = 2HLP(ω) - 1
when HLP(ω) has the passband 0 to ωd. This transformation provides a change of
phase by 180 degrees at the notch frequency ωd. The frequency response H(ω)
may further be sharpened by using the amplitude change function (ACF) [25] . An
Obviously, a narrow band filter B(ω) will have a large filter order. A number of
techniques are, however, available in the literature [26-28] for reducing the
number of multiplications.
whose magnitude on the unit circle is close to a constant in all the directions
except one. Such polynomials are used to design transmitting antenna arrays,
which are omni-directional except for one null. The designed filter, however, is a
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nonlinear phase FIR filter. Also, in this design the weights are complex in nature
Another method for designing FIR notch filter was proposed by M.H.Er
[30] where the symmetry constraint for the coefficients h(n) was relaxed and
therefore the design yields nonlinear phase FIR filters. Two procedures have been
proposed in [30] for varying the null width. In the first approach, the mean
squared error between the desired unity response and the response of the filter
over frequency band of interest is minimized subject to a null constraint and its
zero derivative constraints at the frequency of interest. The null width can be
frequency. In the second approach, a null power constraint over a frequency band
yields nonlinear phase, and does not provide closed form mathematical formula
for computation of design weights. Every time the notch frequency ωd changes,
Novel analytical designs for maximally flat (MF) and equiripple (ER) FIR
notch filters have been proposed in [31-33, 57], based on Zolotarev polynomials
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and Jacobs’s elliptical functions. In [31] P. Zahradnik and M. Vlcek have
presented a fast analytical tuning procedure for FIR notch filters. This analytical
the frequency response to the desired value while preserving the nature of the
filter.
The same authors have presented a novel analytical design method [32]
for highly selective digital optimal equiripple FIR comb filter. So designed comb
filters are optimal in the Chebyshiv sense. In this method the number of notch
bands, the width of the notch bands and the attenuation in the pass bands can be
independently specified. Next with these specifications they have evolved the
degree formula and differential equation for generating polynomial of the comb
recursive procedure for the evolution of impulse response of the filter. This
procedure is very robust but highly involved. By using this, highly selective
manipulations. These notch filter designs are optimal and very useful ones though
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parameters. In this method the recursive algorithms are derived which lead to the
[57] is an extension to the analytical design of digital FIR comb filter [32]. This
design runs from the filter specification through the degree formula to evaluate
speed and robustness. Here also, the design approach requires highly involved
mathematics.
(2) The eigen filter approach results in excessive ripples near the band edges
[20].
(3) Parks-McClellan method [22-24] as well as Er’s method [30] are iterative
and give no explicit or recursive formulas for computing the design weights.
(4) The classical method of Byrnes [29] uses complex weights and requires
excessive multiplications.
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(6) Algorithms proposed by Zahradnik and Vlcek [31-33, 57] require highly
We, in this thesis, have proposed alternative design approaches for the
design of application specific FIR notch filters. These approaches are free from
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