Fundamentals of Roman Private Law

.
George Mousourakis

Fundamentals of Roman
Private Law
George Mousourakis
Faculty of Law
University of Auckland
Auckland
New Zealand

ISBN 978-3-642-29310-8 ISBN 978-3-642-29311-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-29311-5
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To the memory of Neil MacCormick, teacher and friend
.
Preface

Roman law, as transmitted through the sixth century codification of Emperor

Justinian, forms an important part of the intellectual background of many legal
systems currently in force in Europe, Latin America, Asia and other parts of the
world. Justinian sought to produce, on the basis of the legal heritage of ancient
Rome, an authoritative statement of the law of his own day. During the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance, however, his system (Corpus Iuris Civilis) was adopted
through a process known as ‘Reception’ and applied as the basis of the common law
(ius commune) of Continental Europe. The growth of the modern nation-state and
the unification of national law through codification in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries engendered the eventual displacement of the ius commune, and thus
Roman law ceased to exist as a direct source of law. But as the drafters of the
codes greatly relied on the ius commune, elements of Roman law were incorporated
in different ways and to varying degrees into the national laws of Continental
Europe and thereby into the legal systems of many countries around the world.
But why was Roman law adopted? The medieval reception of Roman law was
partly due to the lack of centralized governments and developed formal legal
systems and partly due to the fact that the lands formerly governed by the Romans
were accustomed to this style of thought, and accorded it wisdom and authority.
A third feature, deriving almost completely from the model of the Corpus Iuris
Civilis, was the desire of most countries to codify their law and the aspirations of
later jurists for their studies to conform to this model. But Roman law was adopted
not merely because it was admired, nor because its norms were particularly suitable
for the social conditions in the early European nation-states (in fact, many norms of
Roman law were entirely antiquated). Foremost, it was the perceived superiority of
Roman law as a logical, coherent and complete system that led to the adoption of its
norms. Thus, the conceptual and normative framework of Roman law furnished the
foundation of the legally organized relationships of life and an important common
denominator of most Western legal thinking. Knowledge of this framework there-
fore constitutes an essential component of a sound legal education, for without such
knowledge one cannot fully understand the evolution and functioning of contem-
porary legal systems and institutions rooted in Roman law. To common law

vii
viii Preface

students and lawyers, in particular, such knowledge can provide a key to the
common language of almost every other system of law that traces its origins to
the European ius commune.
The present book begins with a historical introduction, which traces the evolu-
tion of Roman law from the earliest period of Roman history up to and including
Justinian’s codification. This chapter examines the nature and development of the
sources of law in their social and political context, the mechanisms by which the
various sources were made effective and the ways in which each source influenced
the progress of the law. The last part of this chapter outlines the history of Roman
law from the early Middle Ages to modern times and illustrates the way in which
Roman law furnished the basis of modern European legal systems. Then follows an
exposition of the principal institutions of Roman private law: the body of rules and
principles relating to individuals in Roman society and regulating their personal and
proprietary relationships. Private law greatly overshadowed public law in both its
intrinsic merit and subsequent influence. This is because private law had a dominant
role in the development of legal norms and was the chief interest of the Roman
jurists, the most creative element in Roman legal life. In this part of the book special
attention is given to the Roman law of things, which forged the foundations for
much of the modern law of property and obligations in European legal systems.
Furthermore, since the Romans tended to shape their legal rules in terms of
procedural techniques rather than in terms of general and abstract norms, this part
of the book also explores the main features of the law of actions and elucidates the
implementation of legal judgements. Throughout the work care has been taken to
present the major features of Roman private law as a logically interconnected
whole. At the same time, emphasis has been laid on those aspects of Roman law
that have particular importance to today’s lawyer.
This introductory book has been written primarily for students whose course of
studies includes Roman law, European legal history and comparative law. It can
also prove of value to students and scholars interested in the fields of ancient history
and classics. The book endeavours to present the basic principles of Roman private
law as clearly and systematically as possible. Each chapter contains a large number
of explanatory notes and references to Roman juridical sources, designed to assist
the student who wishes to delve deeper into one or more of the topics mentioned.
Since readers may not necessarily possess the expertise to study the original ancient
texts, all the Latin words and phrases are translated and explained in clear and
simple but precise terms. The end of the book lists the bibliographical references for
further reading, together with the titles of the studies and research that formed the
basis of this work. As long as it is remembered that the book is not devised as a
thorough elaboration of all the complexities of Roman private law, and is therefore
likely to be used in conjunction with other more detailed materials, it has a place in
rendering Roman law more accessible to readers in many diverse fields of legal and
historical learning.
The impetus of this book grew from a series of lectures and seminars that I gave
at universities and other academic institutions in New Zealand, Australia, Japan,
Germany and Italy. I would like to thank, in particular, my students at the
Preface ix

University of Auckland, Niigata University, Osaka University and the University of

Queensland for their encouragement and constructive criticism when the themes of
this book were discussed in class and seminar presentations. I also wish to thank
Professor A. B€ urge of the Leopold Wenger Institute at the University of Munich,
Professor W. Kaiser of the University of Freiburg, Professor M. Baelz of the
University of Frankfurt, Professor R. Eklund of the University of Stockholm,
Professor T. Minamikawa of Kyoto University, Professors Y. Ichihara,
K. Takeshita and T. Tsunoda of the Institute of Legal Studies at Kansai University,
Professor N. Yoshinaka of Hiroshima University, Professor A. Cadoppi of the
University of Parma and Dr Nigel Simmonds of the University of Cambridge for
their continuing generosity in allowing me access to the library resources and other
research facilities of their institutions. Finally, I would like to thank Miss L. Stroud,
who has been a superb editor and has made a number of helpful suggestions for
improvement, and my publishers for their courteous assistance.
.
Contents

1 Sources and Historical Development of Roman Law . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Divisions of Roman Legal History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Legal System of Archaic Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Historical and Constitutional Background . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 The Customary Origins of Roman Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 The Law of the Twelve Tables and the Rise of Legislation 12
1.2.4 The Role of Pontifical Jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Legal Development During the Late Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1 Historical and Constitutional Background . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.3 The Development of Magisterial Law-Making . . . . . . . 24
1.3.4 The Growth of Legal Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4 Law in the Age of Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.1 Historical and Constitutional Background . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.2 The Demise of Popular Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.3 The Consolidation of Magisterial Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.4 Senatorial Law-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.5 Imperial Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.6 The Culmination of Roman Legal Science . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5 Legal Development in the Later Imperial Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.5.1 Historical and Constitutional Background . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.5.2 The Emperor as a Law-Maker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.5.3 The Law of the Jurists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.5.4 Custom and the Rise of ‘Vulgar Law’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.6 The Codification of Justinian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.6.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.6.2 The Goals of Justinian’s Legislative Programme . . . . . 72
1.6.3 The Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.6.4 The Digest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

xi
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1.6.5 The Institutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

1.6.6 The Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.6.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.7 The ‘Second Life’ or Roman Law: A Brief Overview . . . . . . . 80
2 The Law of Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1 Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2 Status and Capacities of a Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2.1 The Institution of Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2.2 Free-Born Roman Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2.3 Family Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.4 Capitis Deminutio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.3 Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.3.1 The Betrothal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3.2 Requirements for a Valid Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.3.3 Forms of Marriage: Cum Manu and Sine Manu . . . . . . 101
2.3.4 Matters Relating to Matrimonial Property:
Dos and Donatio Propter Nuptias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3.5 Dissolution of Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.4 Guardianship and Curatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.4.1 Tutela Impuberum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.4.2 Tutela Mulierum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.4.3 Curatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3 The Law of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.1 Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2 Definition and Classification of Res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2.1 Res in Nostro Patrimonio and Res Extra Nostrum
Patrimonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.2 Res Corporales and Res Incorporales . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2.3 Res Mancipi and Res Nec Mancipi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.4 Res Mobiles and Res Immobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.5 Other Classifications of Res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.6 Real and Personal Actions and Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.3 Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.3.1 Forms of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.3.2 Acquisition of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.3.3 Protection of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.3.4 Limitations on Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.3.5 Joint Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.4 Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.4.1 Acquisition, Maintenance and Loss of Possession . . . . . 160
3.4.2 Protection of Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Contents xiii

3.5 Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

3.5.1 Praedial Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.5.2 Personal Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.5.3 Constitution of Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.5.4 Protection of Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.5.5 Termination of Servitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.6 Emphyteusis and Superficies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.6.1 Emphyteusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.6.2 Superficies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.7 Real Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.7.1 Fiducia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.7.2 Pignus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.7.3 Hypotheca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.7.4 Termination of Real Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4 The Law of Obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.1 Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.2 The Nature of Obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.2.1 Sources and Classifications of Obligations . . . . . . . . . 185
4.3 Obligations Arising from Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3.1 Content and Classification of Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3.2 Formation of a Valid Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.3.3 Defects in Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.3.4 Conditions and Terms in Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.3.5 Contractual Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.3.6 Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.3.7 Contractual Agreements in Favour of a Third Party . . 203
4.3.8 Contractual Agreements Involving More Than One
Debtor and/or Creditor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.3.9 Breach of Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4 Real Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.4.1 Mutuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.4.2 Commodatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.4.3 Depositum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.4.4 Pignus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.5 Verbal Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.5.1 Stipulatio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.6 Literal Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.7 Consensual Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.7.1 Emptio Venditio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.7.2 Locatio Conductio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.7.3 Societas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.7.4 Mandatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
xiv Contents

4.8 Quasi-Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

4.8.1 Negotiorum Gestio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.8.2 Solutio Indebiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.8.3 Other Quasi-Contractual Condictiones . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.9 Other Types of Contractual Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.9.1 Contractus Innominati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.9.2 Pacta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.9.3 Donation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.9.4 Suretyship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.10 Obligations Arising from Delicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.10.1 Furtum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.10.2 Rapina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.10.3 Damnum Iniuria Datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.10.4 Iniuria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.11 Quasi-Delicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.11.1 Iudex Qui Litem Suam Facit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.11.2 Res Deiectae Vel Effusae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.11.3 Res Suspensae Vel Positae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.11.4 Nauta, Caupo, Stabularius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.12 Other Forms of Delict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.12.1 Praetorian Delicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.12.2 Noxal Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4.13 Termination of Obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.13.1 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.13.2 Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.13.3 Set-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.13.4 Merger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.13.5 Novation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.13.6 Delegation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.13.7 Cession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.13.8 Further Modes by Which Obligations
Were Extinguished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5 The Law of Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.1 Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.2 Intestate Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.2.1 Intestate Succession Under the Law of the Twelve Tables 280
5.2.2 Praetorian Intestate Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.2.3 Intestate Succession in Justinian’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.3 Testamentary Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.3.1 Early Forms of Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.3.2 Testamentum Tripertitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.3.3 Extraordinary Wills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.3.4 Testamenti Factio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.3.5 Institution of Heirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Contents xv

5.3.6 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

5.3.7 Disinheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.3.8 Querela Inofficiosi Testamenti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.3.9 Invalidity and Revocation of a Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.4 Codicil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.5 Acquisition and Administration of the Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.5.1 Acceptance of the Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.5.2 Separatio Bonorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.5.3 Beneficium Inventarii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.5.4 Co-heirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.5.5 Collatio Bonorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.5.6 Remedies of the Heir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.6.1 Restrictions on Legacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.6.2 Remedies of the Legatee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.7 Fideicommissum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.8 Donatio Mortis Causa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
6 The Law of Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.1 Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.2 The Legis Actio Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.3 The Formulary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.3.1 The Course of the Formulary Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.3.2 Extraordinary Praetorian Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6.4 Civil Procedure in the Principate Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.4.1 The Formulary Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.4.2 The Cognitio Extraordinaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.5 Civil Procedure in the Late Imperial Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.5.1 Resolving Private Disputes Through Arbitration . . . . . . 341
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
.
Abbreviations

Bruns, Fontes Fontes iuris romani antiqui, ed. C. G. Bruns, Tubingen 1909,
repr. Aalen1969
C Codex of Justinian
C Th Codex Theodosianus
D Digest of Justinian
FIRA Fontes Iuris Romani Anteiustiniani, I-III, ed. S. Riccobono,
J. Baviera and V. Arangio-Ruiz, Florence 1940–1943, 2nd edn,
1968
G Institutes of Gaius
Girard, Textes Textes de droit romain, ed. P. F. Girard and F. Senn, 7th edn, Paris
1967
Inst Institutes of Justinian
Nov Novels of Justinian
XII T Law of the Twelve Tables

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