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SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF RECTANGULAR REINFORCED

CONCRETE COLUMNS WITH PARTIAL INTERACTION PLATING

By

Yu-Fei Wu

B.Sc. (Civil Engng., ZhejiangUni., p.R. China)

M.Sc. (Civil Engng., ZhejiangUni., p.R. China)

M.Eng. (Civil Engng., National Univ. Singapore)

A thesis presented for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

T}IE I-INIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

June 2002
PUBLICATIONS

The following publications were written based on the work presented in this thesis.

Book chapter

RETROFITTING REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES BY STEEL OR FRP

PLATING (Editor: D.J. Oehlers), Chapter l7 (authored by Y.F.'Wu): Composite plated

columns, John'Wiley & Sons. To be published.

Refereed journal papers

Wu, Y.F., Oehlers, D.J., and Griffith, M.C. (2002). "Partial interaction analysis of

composite beam/column members". Mechanics of Structures and Machines,

scheduled for publication in Vol.30, N.3.

Wu, Y.F., Griffith, M.C. and Oehlers, D.J. (2002). "lmproving the strength and ductility

of rectangular RC columns through composite partial-interaction: tests".

Submitted for publication to Journal of Structural Engineerirg., ASCE'

Oehlers, D.J., Wu, Y.F. and Griffith, M.C. (2002) "Rectangular RC columns retrofitted

for ductility by partial-interaction plating". Submitted for publication.

Wu, Y.F., Oehlers, D.J., and Griffith, M.C. (2002) "Numerical simulations of composite

plated reinforced concrete columns". Submitted for publication to Computers &

Struclures.

ll
vy'u, Y.F., oehlers, D.J., and Griffith, M.c. (2002) "Ductility of RC columns". In
preparation.

Conference paper

wu, Y.F., oehlers, D.J. and Griffith, M.c. (2001). "composite plated columns".

International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, CICE 2001,

Dec. l2-l4th, Hong Kong.

Departmental reports

wu, Y.F., Griffith, M.c. and oehlers, D.J. (2001). Behavior of plated RC columns.

Research Report No.Rl73, Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, The

University of Adelaide.

Wu, Y.F., Oehlers, D.J. and Griffith, M.C. (2001) "Numerical simulation of composite

plated columns", Research Report No. R172, Dept. of civil & Environmental

Engineering, The University of Adelaide.

ill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to Associate
Professors M.C. Griffith and D.J. Oehlers for being his supervisors for the research that is

described herein. Their genuine interest in both the research project and my future career,
their motivation, encouragement and intellectual supervision are sincerely appreciated.
Their full support has made the past three years most productive and rewarding as well as
an enjoyable stay. The new retrofit concept studied in this work was initially proposed by
Associate Professor Oehlers which is specifically acknowledged.
The author would also like to thank the laboratory staff, Mr. Bruce Lucas, Mr.
Gregory Atkins, Mr. David Hale, Mr Jeffrey Hiorns and Mr Steven Huskinson, in the
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at The University of Adelaide for all
their assistance with the experimental work. The laboratory technicians played an
important role in the design and manufacture of the test rigs and test specimens. Special
acknowledgement and thanks are due to Mr. David Hale for his full support and co-

operation, excellent workmanship and intellectual input into the experimental work.

The author is also thankful to Dr. Stephen Carr and Mr Paul Carter for providing
computing assistance, the departmental administrative staff, Ms. Diane Keable, Mrs.
Bernice Golledge and Ms Josie Peluso, for their help throughout the course of his study.
This research work was made possible only under the sponsorship of a University
of Adelaide Scholarship (UAS). The experimental work was funded by a Small

Australian Research Council grant as well as the departmental financial support. All these
supports are gratefully acknowledged.
The author appreciates the assistance and friendship of his fellow research

scholars, academics, staff and all his friends who have made his stay during the entire
period of the research a most rewarding and enjoyable one.
Special thanks are extended to his wife, daughter and son. This work is made
possible only under their understanding, patience and support.

Finally, the author dedicates this thesis to his parents as a mark of respect and
love.

lv
ABSTRACT

Both steel jacketing and fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping have been shown to

effectively enhance the seismic resistance of circular reinforced concrete (RC) columns

by confining the concrete. However, jacketing and wrapping are much less effective in

enhancing the flexural performance of rectangular shaped columns due to the

ineffectiveness of the rectangular jacket in providing confinement. Although numerous

efforts have been made in the literature to solve this problem, a satisfactory solution is yet

to be achieved. As a new effort in tackling this problem, an alternative procedure that

uses a completely different concept has been proposed and investigated in this work. This

new retrofit scheme makes use of composite action by bolting plates to the column

surfaces for improving the flexural strength and/or ductility of rectangular RC columns.

This new composite partial-interaction plating approach does not rely on confinement to

improve the strength/ductility but instead relies on the composite action between the plate

and the RC column.

Numerical, mathematical and experimental works are conducted in this study to

investigate the behaviour of the plated RC columns, from which the proposed retrofit
scheme is found to be effective in

o increasing both the strength and ductility of RC columns;or

. increasing the ductility without significant increase in strength.

Furthermore, a simple and practical methodology is developed for engineers to

design such a plating system based on the required inter-story drift ratio. Numerous

theoretical breakthroughs, discoveries or improvement are made from this work.


TABLE OF GONTENTS

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY...... .."......"...I

II

ABSTRACT v

LIST oF FIGURES"" """""""""xII

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .................".I

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORK .9

2.1 EXISTING RETROFITTING METHODS...................... l3

2.2 CONCRETE JACKETING l7

2.3 JACKETING OF CIRCULAR COLUMNS V/ITH STEEL OR COMPOSITE JACKETS...........18

2.4 JACKETING OF SQUARE/RECTANGULAR COLUMNS WITH STEEL OR COMPOSITE

JACKETS ..21

2.5 CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBULAR SECTION 27

CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NE\il RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING.............32

3.I INTRODUCTION OF A NEV/ SCHEME 32

3.2 COMPOSITE PLATING MECHANISM. .35

vl
3.3 LIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY 39

CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS 42

4.1 CROSS-SECTIONALANALYSIS 44

4. t.1 Discretisation of Cross-9ections............... 44

4. t.2 Slress-Strain Model for Concrete ...... 47

4.1.2.1 Triangularmodel 48

4.1 .2.2.1 Monotonic compression loading 50

4.1.2.2.2 Unloading branches of compression loading ..........................51

4.1 .2.2.3 Compression reloading branches 53

4.1.2.2.4 Tensile stress model ................5j

4.1 .2.2.5 Example of the modified Mander's model .............. ................59

4.1 .3.2 Menegotto-Pinto model 60

4. l. 4 Load-Deformation Relation for Bolt Shear Connector............ 62

4.2 CALCULATION OF DISPLACEMENT.............. 63

4.2.1 SmallDeflection........

4.2.2 LargeDeflection.......

4.2.3 Formation of Plastic Hinge ........... ...............68

4.2.4 Base Rotation ...............7 I


4.3 NUMERICAL CONVERGENCE TESTS 73

4.4 OVERALLNUMEzuCAL PROCEDURES 77

4.4.1 Procedure 77

4.4.2 P-A Effect..... 80

4.4.3 Numerical Examp\es.............. 90

4.5 COLUMNS VYITH PLATES BOLTED TO TENSION AND COMPRESSION FACES .....,,,,....96

vll
1.5.1 Existence ofSolution....... .........98

4.5.2 lterative Solution Procedure....... ....... I 00

4.5.3 IterationMethod......... .......1 01

4.5.4 Gap behueen Bolt and Plate.... t04

4.5.5 Numerical Examples........ t06

4.6 SUMMARY 107

CHAPTER5 NUIVIERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS.... 108

5.I EFFECT OF COMPOSITE PLATING 108

5.2 FACTORS AFFECTING RESPONSE I 13

5.2.1 P-A Effect 118

5,2.2 Sn'ength Stiffening........... t19

5.2.3 Yield Stength 125

5.3 SLIP DISTRIBUTIONS 't29

CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES.... ...............I33

6.1 LINEAR ELASTIC PLUS PLASTIC HINGE MODEL ... r33

6.2 LINEARELASTIC ANALYSIS 135

6.2.1 Generic Mathemqtical ModeL............ t35

11n
6.2.i.i Equiiibrium anii compati'oiiiiy lJt

6.2.1.2 Governing differential equation .......... r39

6.2.2 Solutionfor the Case of A Cantilever Co|umn.............. 140

6.3 COMPOSITEPARAMETERS 145

6.3.1 Fundamental Parameters Governing Longitudinal Slip 145

6.3.2 Parameters Affecting Deformations....... 149

6.4 SLIP DISTRIBUTION OF THE CANTILEVER COLUMN 154

6.4.1 Slip Due to Flexural Moment............. 156

6.4.2 Slip Due to Axial Load............. t58

6.4.3 Slip Due to Boundary 51ip........ 160

vill
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS 162

7.1 MONOTONIC MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONS OF PLAIN CONCRETE SECTIONS ....

162

7.1 .l Elastic Stage 165

7.1.2

7.1.3

7.1.4

7.1.5 Displacement Ductility of Plain Concrete Sections....... 170

7.2 EFFECT OF LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT ................... 17 4

7.2.I At Critical Axial Load........ 175

7.2.2 For Axial Load Level Lower Than Critical Load t76
7.2.3 For Axial Load Level Higher Than Critical Load...... ....................... I 7 7

7.2.4 Ultimate Curvature of RC Columns with Few Stirrups ..... ....................... I 78

7.3 NUMERICAL CASE STUDIES 179

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS.. 191

8.I GENERIC DEFORMATION - SLIP RELATION. 192

8.2 ULTIMATE PLASTIC HINGE ANALYSIS.. ...........I93

8.2.1 Slip in Plastic Hinge Region.......... t94

8.2.2 Cross-Sect ional Forces...... 196

8.2.3 Calculation of Plate Strain ........... t99

8.3 DISPLACEMENT BASED PLATING DESIGN PROCEDURE................... ......204

8.4 EXAMPLE 207

CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL \ryORKS ......................210

9.I TEST PLAN 2t0


9.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TEST SPECIMENS 2'ts

9.2.1 RC Specimens ..... 215

9.2.2 SteelPlating........ 2t8

IX
9.2.3 Gaps..................... ..22s

9.3 DESIGN OF TEST RIG ..226

9.4 INSTRUMENTATION....... 232

9.5 LOADING 238

9.5.1 Monotonic Loading........ 238

9.5.2 Loading Rate 240

9.5.3 Cyclic Loading 241

9.5.4 Initial Load and Initial Reading. ,',,................'.....243

9,6 CONVERSION OF MEASUREMENTS.. )^a

9.6.1 ColumnLateralForce............ .......................... 24 4

9.6.2 Deflection of Column .......................... 24 5

9.6.3 Shear Deþrmation...................... 248

CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS .25t

I0.l CONCRETE. .251

10.2 REINFORCING BARS........,

10.3 STEEL PLATES

10.4 ANCHOR BOLTS .....264

10.5 GLUING AND BOLTING 273

CHAPTERII COLUMNTESTS 277

ILt TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN IAMR .............277

11.2 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 24MF12............... 281

I 1.3 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN IBMP6 ............287

11.4 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 3ACR.

l l.5 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 4ACP6 299

I1.6

CHAPTER I2 COMPARSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS 317

I2,I COMPARSIONBETWEENTESTRESULTS.......... 317

X
1 2.1.1 Monotonic Tests.......... 317

1 2.1.2 Cyclic Tests..... 321

12.2 COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH NUMERICAL RESULTS. 323

12.2.1 Adjustment of Test Results to Include Self-Weight ..... JZ4

12.2.2 Column IAMR .....326

I 2.2.3 Column 2AMFI 2....... .....330

1 2.2.4 Column I 8MP6.................... .....33 I


12.2.5 Column 3ACR....... .....334

I2.2.6 Column 4ACP6 ............334

12.2.7 Column 28CP6G......... ............335

12.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS OF THE COMPARISON 338

CHAPTER 13 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 339

I3.I SUMMARY..... 339

13.2 CONCLUDINGREMARKS......... 341

1 3.2.1 Numerical Models 341

I 3.2.2 Numerical Simulatíons... 342

1 3.2.3 Linear Elastic Analysis........ 343

I3.2.4 Ultimate Displacement of Old RC Columns ........ 344

I3.2.5 Design of Plating System 344

I3.2.6 Expe rime nt al ll/ orks........ 345

I3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTHER WORK 345

REFERENCES.............. 349

APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS............... 375

APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS.. ......381

XI
LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1 .I Typical shear failure of columns in an earthquake (Seible et al. 1997) ...... ...........3

Fig. I .2 Typical flexural plastic hinge failure of columns (Green, 1987) ...........3

Fig. 1.3 Stress-strain relation for confined and unconfined concrete (Mander et al .1988a)

...........5

Fig. 1.4 Confinement from rectangular jacket (Priestley et al. 1994b) 7

Fig.2.l Concrete jacketing (Frangou et al. 1995) ........... 14

Ftg.2.2 Steelcaging (Frangou et al. 1995) l5

Fig.2.3 Comparison of hysteretic response of circular RC columns (Chai et al t99t)...20

Fig.3.l Composite plating system of RC columns JJ

Fig.3.2 Forces on cross-section 35

Fig. 3.3 Strain profile and stress block in the cross-section 37

Fig.4.l Numerical modelof the cantilever column 43

F ig. 4.2 Typical cross section ................ 44

F ig. 4.3 Discretisation of the cross-section................ 45

Fig. 4.4Idealized stress-strain model of the concrete 49

Fig. 4.5 Mander's model........ 50

Fig. 4.6 Un-loading model.,...... 52

Fig. 4.7 Re-loading model 53

Fig. 4.8 Mander's tensile stress model................. 57

Fig.4.9 Modification to Mander's tension model 58

Fig. 4.10 Typical stress-strain curve of the modified Mander's model 59

Fig. 4.1 I Idealized bi-linear model of steel 60

xll
Fig.4.12 Menegotto-Pinto model of steel 6l

Fig.4.l3 Typical load-slip relation of an anchor bolt (Teh er al te99)..... 62

Fig.4.l4 Calculation of displacement at top ..66

Fig. 4.15 Large deflection 68

Fig. 4. l6 Typical curvature-moment relation of an RC section .... 69

Fi g. 4. 17 Calculation of base rotation........... 72

Fig.4.l8 P-A effect 83

Fig. 4.1 9 Comparison of simplified P-A method with rigorous method 89

Fig. 4.20 Test column by Watson and Park (1994) 9t

Fig.4.2l Discretised cross-section and confinement zones 91

F ig. 4.22 Curvature-moment relation 94

F ig. 4.23 Displacement-force relation .... 95

Fig. 4.24 Test result compared to Fig.4.23 95

Fig. 4.25 Complex confinement zone configuration 96

Fig. 4.26 Response of column with confinement configuration of Fig.4.25 ......... 96

Fig.4.27 Longitudinal discretization of plated column 97

Fig.4.28 Typical strain profile in a cross section with partial interaction......... 98

Fig.4.29 Slip-shear force relation of a bo|t........... 99

Fig. 4.30 Longitudinal gaps....... 104

Fig.4.3l Response of columns with different plating... 107

Fig. 5.1 Column details 108

Fig. 5.2 Lateral responses of columns ll0


Fig. 5.3 Variation of axial force on concrete I ll

xlll
Fig. 5.4 Response of columns with different axial loads.................. 112

Fi g. 5.5 Distribution of curvature ................ 113

Fig. 5.6 Responses of columns with different plate thickness.......... 114

Fig. 5.7 Responses of columns with different bolt stiffness (t=6mm,.for:250MPa).......1l5

Fig. 5.8 P-A effect........... 118

Fig. 5.9. Effect of column length to the softening slope 119

Fig. 5.10 Moment at the bottom section 121

Fig. 5.11 Distribution of axial forces at bottom section (t=6mm,K¿:23kN/mm) ..........122

Fig. 5.12 Gap between bolt and plate ..... .126

Fig. 5.i3 Effect of gap for the 6mm plated column, K¡:23kN/mm................................126

Fig. 5.14 Effect of stiffness of plating system ...........127

Fig. 5.15 Effect of strength of plating system 128

Fig.5.l6 Tension gap 129

Fig. 5.17 Distributions of slip 130

Fig. 5.18 Slip distributions when maximum slip occurs at the bottom l3l
1a a
Fig. 6.i Piastic-eiastic mociei. .lJ+

Fig. 6.2 Analytical model 136

Fig. 6.3 Model of the cantilever column 140

Fig. 6.4 Strain profile due to longitudinal shear force............. 150

Fig. 6.5 Typical slip distributions ..154

Fig. 6.6 Slip distributions compared with the numerical results ..155

Fig.6.7 Functions of 8q.6.40 157

Fig. 6.8 Functions of 8q.6.41 159

XIV
Fig.7 .l Plain concrete column and section

Fig. 7 .2 Variation of stress blocks in section A-4........... 164

Fig.7.3 Moment curvature relation of a plain concrete section....... 169

Fig. 7 .4 Moment drop-axial load relation................ t7l


Fig. 7,5 Ultimate strain profiles in an RC section 175

Fig. 7.6 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:5%oN"...... .184

Fig.7.7 Moment-curvature chart for section with 3.68% steel and N:So/oN".... 184

Fig. 7.8 Axial force-curvature chart for section with 3.68% steel and N:So/oN. 185

Fig.7.9 Concrete stress block at a curvature of 7.5x10-5 1l/mm) for section with 3.68%

steel and N:SYoN" .........185

Fiç.7.10 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:10%Àå 186

Fig.7.l 1 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:2\o/oN" 186

Fig.7 .12 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:307oÀ[ 187

Fig.7 .13 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:4}o/oN" 187

Fig.7.l4 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:507oN" 188

Fig. 7. l5 Axial load-r.,, relations.... 188

Fig.7 .16 Axial load- r..., relations............. 189

Fig.7 .17 Axial load- rr,u, relations 189

Fig.7 .18 Axial load- r,., relations 190

Fig. 8.1 Strains and forces in the cross-section ..... 192

Fig. 8.2 Top displacement due to hinge rotation... 195

Fig. 8.3 Concrete stress b|ock........ 197

Fig. 8.4 Area coefficienl p............. 198

XV
Fig. 8.5 Centroid coefficient ô. 198

Fig. 8.6 Strain at centroid of plate 200

Fig. 8.7 Profiles when tension side yielded in tension ... 203

Fig. 9.1 Single column test... 2tl


Fig.9.2 Double columns test 2n

Fig.9.3 Schematic testing system 212

Fig. 9.4 Strengthening of specimen 213

Fig. 9.5 Details of RC specimen 216

Fig. 9.6 Reinforcement cage 217

Fig. 9.7 Specimen ready for casting 2t8

Fig. 9.8 Plating details 2t9

Fig. 9.9 Drilling of holes in RC specimen through holes in steel plate.... 221

Fig. 9.10 Enlarged holes in concrete 222

Fig. 9.11 Injection of adhesive 222

Fig. 9.12 Re-fit of plate with packers ................ 223

r: la I -1-ll-rl---
rtB. ^Y.lJ rnslarrauurr ul
-fl--lr-
uulrs, LL.)
. ^41

Fig.9.l4 Completion of bolts installation .224

Fig. 9.15 The plated specimen... 224

Fig. 9.16 Gluing of plate 225

Fig. 9. 17 Gap setting...... 225

Fig. 9.18 Test set up....... 227

Fig. 9. I 9 Completed test rig ..................... 227

Fi5.9.20 Details of lateral movement restraining system 228

xvl
Fig.9.2l Right hand side pin support....... 229

Fig.9.22 Left hand side pin suppoft......... 229

Fig. 9.23 Details of left hinge ......... .230

Fig. 9.24 Vertical load application system ....231

Fig. 9.25 Displacement measurement points......... ....¿)J

Fig. 9.26 LVDTs and Strain gauges ....234

Fig. 9.27 Instal lation of strain gauges....... ....235

Fig. 9.28 Slip measurements....... ....237

Fig. 9.29 New Zealand loading history ....242

Fig. 9.30 Cyclic loading history adopted..... ....243

Fig. 9.31 Conversion of lateral force.......... ....244

Fie. 9.32 Calculation of lateral displacement........ 246

Fig. 9.33 Deflection of cantilever column .248

Fig. 9.34 Deformations of the measured rectangle............ .249

Fig. l0.l Tensile test result of Yl6 bar............ .254

Fig. 10.2 Tensile test result of R6 bar .254

Fig. 10.3 Stress-Strain curves of Yl6 bar sample Yl6d . .255

Fig. 10.4 Stress-Strain curye of Yl6 bar sample Yl6e... .256

Fig. 10.5 Stress-strain curve of Y16 bar sample Yl6f .... ...257

Fig. I 0.6 Strength hardening stiffness of Y I 6 bar 259

Fig. 10.7 Stress-strain test results of MS12 steel plate.............. 261

Fig. 10.8 Stress-strain test results of MS6 steel plate 262

Fig. 10.9 Stress-strain test results of HT6 steel plate 263

XVII
Fig. 10. l0 Bolt shear test... .264

Fig. l0.l I Bolt shear test set up......... 264

Fig. 10.12 Tvpes of bolts 265

Fig. 10.13 Tensile test result of the threaded rod........ .266

Fig. 10.14 Hifti HSL $12 bolt 1est............ .................267

Fig. l0.l 5 Hilti HIS $12 bolt test............ .................267

Fig. 10.16 Threaded rod bolt 1es1............. .................268

Fig. t0.17 Lifting up of second bolt .......269

Fig. t0.18 Failure mode of Hilti HSL Ql2 bolt test............ .........269

Fig. 10.19 Hilti HSL bolt and concrete block after test............ ...270

Fig. 10.20 Uniform distributed supports to prevent concrete block failure ....................270

Fig. 10.21 Failure mode of Hilti HIS bo1ts.......... ......271

Fig. 10.22 Failure mode of threaded rod bolts ... 271

Fig. 10.23 Load-slip model of threaded rod bolt 272

Fig. I 0.24 Test specimen of gluing plus bolting 273

Fig. 10.25 Gluing plus bolting test ............ 274

Fig. 10.26 Failed specimen of gluing plus bolting 275

Fig. 10.27 Failure p1ane......... 276

Fig. I l.l Response of column specimen IAMR 279

Fig. 11.2 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen 1AMR.., 279

Fig. I 1.3 Front view at displacement of l23mm for specimen IAMR 280

Fig. I 1.4 Rear view at displacement of 123mm for specimen IAMR. 280

Fig. I1.5 Response of column specimen 2AMF12 284

xvlll
Fig. I1.6 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen 24MF12..... .284

Fig. I1.7 Measured strains in steel plate for specimen ZAMF|2 .285

Fig. I1.8 Measured shear deformation for specimen2AMFl2.. .285

Fig. I 1.9 Rear view after test for specimen 2AMF 12 ................, .286

Fig. 1 l.l0 Front view after test showing major cracks for specimen 2AMF12 . .286

Fig. I Ll I Enlarged view of corner for specimen2AMFI2 .287

Fig. 11.12 Response of column specimen 18MP6.............. .291

Fig. I I .13 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen 18MP6........ .291

Fig. I I l4 Measured strains in steel plate for specimen lBMP6 .292

Fig. I I 15 Measured shear deformation for specimen lBMP6.. .292

Fig. I I l6 Measured slips for specimen lBMP6... ..................292

Fig. I I 17 Direct measured displacement for specimen IBMP6 .293

Fig. I Ll8 Enlarged rear view at displacement of l06mm for specimen 18MP6...........293

Fig. I1.19 Front view at displacement of l06mm for specimen lBMP6... ...294

Fig. I 1.20 Response of column specimen 3ACR 296

Fig. I 1.21 Measured strains in upper reinforcing bar for specimen 34CR........ .............297

Fig. I I .22 Measured strains in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 34CR........ .............297

Fig. I1.23 Measured strains in stirrups for specimen 34CR..... ....................297

Fig. I I .24 Rear view at -56.3mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 34CR..........298

Fig. I 1.25 Front view at -56.3mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 34CR.........298

Fig. l1 .26Top view at failure for specimen 3ACR 299

Fig. I1.27 Response of column specimen 4ACP6 301

Fig. I 1.28 Measured strains in upper reinforcing bar for specimen 4ACP6 302

XIX
Fig. I L29 Measured strains in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 4ACP6 302

Fig. I 1.30 Measured strains in stirrups for specimen 4ACP6 302

Fig. I I .31 Measured strain in steel plate on upper external side for specimen 4ACP6 303

Fig. I L32 Enlarged part of Fig.l I .31 ............ 303

Fig. I1.33 Measured strain in steel plate on upper internal side for specimen 4ACP6, 303

Fig. I L34 Enlarged part of Fig.l L33 304

Fig. 11.35 Measured strain in steel plate on lower external side for specimen 44CP6..304

Fig. 1 1.36 Measured strain in steel plate on lower internal side for specimen 44CP6...304

Fig. 11.37 Open up of steel plate at -82mm of 2''d cycle for specimen 44CP6..............305

Fig. I 1.38 Rear view at +l50mm displacement for spccimen 44CP6............................305

Fig. I I .39 Rear view of plastic hinge zone after testing for specimen 44CP6...............306

Fig. 1 1.40 Front view of plastic hinge zone after testing for specimen 44CP6..............306

Fig. ll.4l Response of column specimen 28CP6G.... ...............31I

Fig. 1 1.42 Measured strain in upper reinforcìng bar for specimen 28CP6G..................31 I

Fig. I 1.43 Measured strain in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 28CP6G..................31 I

D:^
r rÉ. Ir 1 A /l l\Ã^^-,,-^l
r.TT -+-^i- i-
lYtvoùutvu ùtlcrrr uPù f^-
-+i--,,^-
rrr Jtrrl rur .^^^i*^^ 'lÞl1DÃ.(:
ùPvvrrrrvrr ¿uvl uu 211
J IL

F-ig. 1 1.45 Measured strain of' steel plate on upper external side fbr specimen 2tsCP6G

312

Fig. I 1.46 Measured strain of steel plate on upper internal side for specimen 2BCP6G3I2

Fig. I 1.47 Measured strain of steel plate on lower external side for specimen 2BCP6G

313

Fig. I 1.48 Error in measure point C due to plate lifting up.............. .............3 l3

Fig. I I .49 Last cycle of test for specimen 2BCP6G after changing instrumentation .....314

XX
Fig. I 1.50 Front view after testing for specimen 2BCP6G . 314

Fig. I l.5l Rear view after testing for specimen 2BCP6G .. 315

Fig. I 1.52 Bolts after testing for specimen 2BCP6G 315

Fig. 11.53 Enlarged view of Fig.11.52.............. 316

Fig.12.1 Comparison of monotonic test results 318

Fig. 12.2 Conditions of monotonically tested specimens...... 319

Ftg. 12.3 Comparison of cyclic test results 322

Fig. 12.4 Conditions of the cyclically tested specimens.. 323

Fig. 12.5 Adjusted test results to include self-weight of specimens................ 326

Fig. 12.6 Numerical results for specimen 14MR.... 328

Fig. 12.7 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen lAMR 330

Fig. 12.8 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen2AMF12......... 331

Fig. 12.9 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen IBMP6 )JZ

Fig. 12. l0 Slippage of reinforcing bars .JJJ

Fig. l2.l I Comparison of test result with theory for specimen 3ACR .. 334

Fig. 12.12 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen 4ACP6. 335

Fig.12.l3 Test result of column 2BCP6G 336

Fig. 12.14 Numerical simulation with un-symmetrical base gaps on two sides .............337

Fig. l3.l Plating schemes 346

Fig. 13.2 An improved plating system 348

Fig. A.l Young's Modulus test of CYLOI ......................37 5

Fig. A.2 Young's Modulus test of CYL02 .375

Fig. 4.3 Young's Modulus test of CYL03 376

XXI
Fig. 4.4 Young's Modulus test of CYL04... ..376

Fig. 4.5 Young's Modulus test of CYL05.. 376

Fig. 4.6 Young's Modulus test of CYL06.. 377

Fig. 4.7 Young's Modulus test of CYL07.. 377

Fig. 4.8 Young's Modulus test of CYL08., 377

Fig. 4.9 Young's Modulus test of CYL09., 378

Fig. A.l0 Young's Modulus test of CYLl0 378

Fig. A.1 I Young's Modulus test of CYLI I 378

Fig. A.l2 Young's Modulus test of CYLI2 379

Fig. A.l3 Young's Modulus test of CYLI5 379

Fig. 4.14 Young's Modulus test of CYLI6 379

Fig. A.I 5 Young's Modulus test of CYL I I 380

Fig. A.l6 Young's Modulus test of CYLI9 380

Fig. A.l7 Young's Modulus test of CYL20 380

Fig. 8.1 Front view at displacement of 7mm for specimen IAMR 381

n: ^ D ô ¡l-^-. -,1^.., ^¿ (JlòPldççlllçil1


l lE. D.L I lUttL Vlç}ry ¿rt l:--l^^^*^-+ ^f 11**
ul tLtlttlt f^- ^^^^:*^-
lul JPvvlrrrLrl Ir¡atvtl\
^
À rD
......... aol I
J()

Fig. 8.3 Top view at displacement of 28mm f'or specimen 14MR............ 382

Fig. 8.4 Rear view at displacement of 4lmm for specimen lAMR 382

Fig. 8.5 Front view at displacement of 57mm for specimen 1AMR......... 383

Fig. 8.6 Rear view at displacement of 89mm for specimen IAMR 383

Fig. 8.7 Rear view at displacement of lOmm for specimen 2AMF 12 ....... 384

Fig. 8.8 Rear view at displacement of l6mm for specimen 2AMF12....... 384

Fig. 8.9 Rear view at displacement of 42mm for specimen 2AMF 12 ....... 38s

XXII
Fig. B.l0 Rear view at displacement of 52mm for specimen2ÃMFl2 ........385

Fig. 8.1 I Rear view at displacement of 82mm for specimen 2AMF12 ........386

Fig. B.12 Rear view at displacement of l24mm for specimen2AMFI2 ......386

Fig. 8.13 Rear view at displacement of 6.5mm for specimen IBMP6 .........387

Fig. B.l4 Rear view at displacement of l9mm for specimen IBMP6 ..........387

Fig. B.l5 Rearview at displacement of 46mm for specimen IBMP6 ..........388

Fig. 8.16 Enlarged view of Fig.8.15................ .........388

Fig. B.l7 Rear view at displacement of 93mm for specimen IBMP6 ..........389

Fig. B.l8 Enlarged view of Fig.B.l 7 ................ .........389

Fig. B. l9 Rear view at displacement of l06mm for specimen I BMP6 ........390

Fig. B.20 Rear view at+24.5mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 34CR..........390

Fig. B.2l Front view at -25.8mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 3ACR.........391

Fig.8.22 Rear view at -39mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 3ACR ..............391

Fig.B.23 Rear view at *39mm displacement of 2"d cycle for specimen 34CR........ .....392

Fig. 8.24 Rear view at +26mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............392

Fig. 8.25 Rear view at -26mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 44CP6...... .......393

Fig.8.26 Rear view at r26mm displacement of 2"d cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ...........393

Fig.B.27 Rear view at -26mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............3g4

Fig. B.28 Rear view at t39mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............394

Fig.B.29 Rear view at -39mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 4ACP6.............395

Fig. 8.30 Rear view at +39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ...........395

Fig. 8.31 Rear view at -39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............396

Fig.B.32 Rear view at-r52mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............396

XXIII
Fig. 8.33 Rear view at -52mm displacement of l " cycle for specimen 4ACP6 .............397

Fig. 8.34 Rear view at+52mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ...........397

Fig. 8.35 Rear view at -S2mmdisplacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ....,.......398

Fig. 8.36 Rear view at -65mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 44CP6.............398

Fig. 8.37 Rear view at +65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ...........399

Fig. 8.38 Rear view at -65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............399

Fig. 8.39 Rear view at *78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............400

Fig. 8.40 Rear view at -78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6.............400

Fig. B.4l Rear view at +78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6...........401

Fig.B.42 Rear view at -78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 44CP6....,.......401

Fig. 8.43 Front view after 2 cycles of t78mm displacement for specimen 4ACP6 .......402

Fig. 8.44 Rear view at *91mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............402

Fig. 8.45 Rear view at -83mm displacement of l" cycle for specimen 4ACP6 .............403

Fig. 8.46 Rear view at +91mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ...........403

Fig. 8.47 Rear view at -82mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6 ............404

Fig. 8.48 Front view after 2 cycies oi-82mm to -|9imm for specimen 4ACPó... .........4A4

Fig. 8.49 Rear view at -26mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 28CP6G...........405

Fig. 8.50 Rear view at-r26mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G.........405

Fig. B.5l Rear view at -2îmmdisplacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G... .......406

Fig. 8.52 Rear view at l39mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... ......406

Fig. 8.53 Rear view at -39mm displacement of l " cycle for specimen 2BCP6G. ..........407

Fig. 8.54 Rear view at *39mm displacement of 2"d cycle for specimen 2BCP6G... ......407

Fig. 8.55 Rear view at -39mm displacementof 2"d cycle for specimen 28CP6G..........408

XXIV
Fig. 8.56 Rear view aI-r52mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 28CP6G..........408

Fig. 8.57 Rear view af -52mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... .......409

Fig.8.58 Rearview att-52mm displacementof 2"d cycle for specimen 2BCP6G.........40g

Fig. 8.59 Rear view at -52mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G..........410

Fig. 8.60 Rear view at +65mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 28CP6G..........410

Fig. 8.6l Rear view at -65mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... .......411

Fig. 8.62 Rear view at *65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... .....411

Fig. 8.63 Rear view at -65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... ......412

Fig. 8.64 Rear view at l78mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G. .........412

Fig. 8.65 Rear view at -78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... .......413

Fig. 8.66 Rear view at t78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... .....413

Fig. 8.67 Rear view at -78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G.... ......414

Fig. 8.68 Rear view at +9lmm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G .........414

Fig. 8.69 Rear view at +l54mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G ........415

Fig. 8.70 Front view at +l54mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G ......415

Fig. B.7l Rear view at - I 00mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G ........416

Fig.B.72 Front view at -100mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G ........416

XXV
LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Numericalresults of the moment 74

Table 4.2 Numericalresults of displacement

Table 5.1 Displacement ductility factors of plated columns .......117

Table 10.1 Compression test results of concrete 252

Table 10.2 Tensile test results of concrete ........, 253

Table 10.3 Tensile test results of reinforcing bars. 2s3

Table 10.4 Summary of reinforcing bar properties 2s9

Table 10.5 Summary of steel plate properties 260

Table 10.6 Summary of bolt properties.............. 272

Table I I .1 Test results of specimen I AMR 278

Table I1.2 Test results of specimen ZAMF12.... 283

Table I1.3 Test results of specimen lBMP6 290

Tqhlc I? I Summqrrr nf fecf recrlfc 3r8

XXVI
NOTATION

Ab : aÍea of stirrups of one leg

A, : cross-sectional area ofconcrete

A,¡ : cross-sectional area ofsub-section 'i' ofconcrete

As : gross cross-sectional area of concrete column

A : cross-sectional area ofplate

Ap, : cross-sectional area ofsub-section 'i' oftop/bottom plate

A P\t : cross-sectional area of sub-section 'i' of side plate

4,, : transformed cross-sectional area of concrete of RC cross-section

A, : cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement

4,, : cross-sectional u..u of longitudinal reinforcement at compression side

A,¡ : cross-sectional area of layer 'i' longitudinal reinforcement

An : cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement at tensile side

a : thickness of concrete cover to centre of longitudinal reinforcement bar

ao : +, unit longitudinal flexibility of shear connector/bolr


Kh'

EI
a1 , passive slip strain coefficient

(L tL
a2 : \
active sliP strain coefficient
ffi'
a-J , axial flexibility of element I
(EA),

XXVII
_ (h, 'r / EA
\"r+ h,). --- , unit slip curvature
a4
EI

os : a,
rJ-, slip resistance ability coefhcient
ao

B : breadth of column section

b : t/r,, strain hardening ratio of steel

b" : height or depth of concrete core of column section enclosed by stirrups

measured from centre of stirrups

C : constant of integration

D : depth or diameter of cross-section

d : distance from centroid of stress block to compression face

dh : diameter of longitudinal reinforcement

d, : width of concrete core of column section enclosed by stirrups measured from

centre ofstirrups

d : distance from centre of layer'i' to centroid of concrete section

E : modulus of elasticity

E : modulus of elasticity of concrete

.f,o
Ec ) slope of softening part of stress-strain curve
t", - t,

Eh : strain hardening stiffness of steel

E : modulus of elasticity of plate

E Pil^,. : strain hardening stiffness of plate

XXVIII
E, : modulus of elasticity of reloading branch of concrete

8," : return point modulus of elasticity on monotonic stress-strain curve of concrete

E
" : modulus of elasticity of steel

E sec : secant modulus of confined concrete at peak stress

E, : tensile modulus of elasticity of concrete

Eu : initial concrete modulus of elasticity at onset of unloading

EA :definedu, !
EA (E.A), (E.A),

(EA), : axial rigidity of element I

(EA), : axial rigidity of element 2

EI :Zu + EA-(h, +hr)2

(EI), : flexural rigidity of element I

(EI), : flexural rigidity of element 2

Zu :(E . r), + (E . r),

ec : eccentricity of compressive resultant

et : eccentricity of tensile resultant

F : lateral force applied at top of cantilever column

F' : lateral force at top of column considering P-A effect by simplified method

Fb : bolt shear force

Fon : yield strength of bolt in shear

xxlx
4 : longitudinal shear force on shear connectors in shear span of length x from top

of column due to lateral force ,F only

Fn : longitudinal shear force on shear connectors in shear span of length x from top

of column due to axial force N only

F,n, : Fl + F,,* F,n, total longitudinal shear force on shear connectors in shear span of

length x from top of column

F,n : longitudinal shear force on shear connectors in shear span of length x from top

of column due to non-zero boundary slip sn only

.f, : longitudinal concrete stress

.f"o : compressive strength (peak stress) of unconfined concrete

-f,, : compressive strength of confined concrete

.f,., : tensile strength of concrete


f ,, : Yield strength of stirruPs

f, : lateral confining pressure of column

-f, : effective confining pressure

fn"u, : new concrete stress on reloading branch at strain of e

f ,, : yield strengh of plate

f ," : concrete stress at common return point from reloading branch to envelope curve

in Mander's model

.f ,,,
: stress at onset of reloading branch in Mander's model

f,, : yield strength of steel reinforcing bar

XXX
-f, : tensile strength of concrete under monotonic loading in Mander's model

-fu, : concrete stress at start of unloading branch in Mander's model

f, : yield strength of steel

H : height or depth of column section

hl : distance from centroid of element I to interface

h2 : distance from centroid of element2to interface

I : second moment of area

I, : second moment of area of concrete cross-section

Ip : second moment of area of plate

1,, : second moment of area of RC cross-section

K : elastic shear stiffness of bolt

Koo : shear strain-hardening stiffness of bolt

k" : confinement effectiveness coefficient

L : length of cantilever column

L : length of elastic part of member, L" - L- Lo

Li : length from top of column to section i (i:0-n)


Lp : plastic hinge length of column

L. : longitudinal spacing of bolts

M : moment of section

Mo : moment at section where lateral load is applied

M : moment due to element I

XXXI
M 2 : moment due to element 2

M uo, : moment due to reinforcement bar in composite cross-section

Mc(, : moment of cross-section when compressive strain at extreme fiber equals to e,o

M,u," : moment due to concrete in composite cross-section

Mclt : moment of cross-section when compressive strain at extreme fiber equals to t,,,

M : moment at section i (i : l-n)

M rt, : moment due to plate in composite cross-section

N : axial load of column or total axial force in a cross-section

Nr : axial force on element 1

N 2 : axial force on element 2

N uo, : axial force due to reinforcement bar only in an RC section

N. : f,u.B-D, axial crush load ofconcrete section

N : axial force on concrete


"u,r"

N", : compressive resultant in cross-section

N
ot,
: axial f-orce on plate

N." : axial force in compressive reinforcement bar

N,, : axial force in tensile reinforcement bar

NLc : number of layer of discretised concrete section

NLp : number of layer of discretised top/bottom plate

NR : number of row of discretised concrete section

n : number of bolts

XXXII
p : intensity of distributed load

a : shear force in cross-section

Qt
: shear force on element I

Q,
: shear force on element 2

q : longitudìnal shear force per unit length or shear flow

Ru : experimentally determined material constant for Menegotto-Pinto model

R, : slip radius

r : radius of curvature:' or / -
E"
E" - Er",


: longitudinal slip of bolt; or coordinate along length; or longitudinal centre to

centre spacing of stirrups

,s
: clear longitudinal spacing between stirrups

.tó : lateral deformation of bolt/shear connector

SJ : slip term due to lateral force F

.ç : slip term due to axial force N

so : slip at support of elastic member or top of plastic hinge

spt : slip component due to change of length of plate

.ç : plastic or residual deformation of bollshear connector

.s : slip component due to change of length of RC column

sro : slip component due to rotation of cross-section

st : slip term due to non-zero boundary slip s,

t : depth of element I or thickness of plate

xxxiii
v : lateral deflection of column

I
v Jitll : lateral deflection induced by lateral force ,Fwith full interaction

vfnll : lateral deflection induced by axial loadNwith full interaction

w, : longitudinal gap width between side of plate hole and side of bolt

wi : ith clear transverse spacing between adjacent longitudinal bars

x : depth of neutral axis in a cross-section; or distance along beam; or .r - !-t; or

some intermediate variable

y :ycoordinate;functions

lt : y coordinate of focal point I

lz : y coordinate of focal point 2

d : L'Ja'

Q,1
: experimentally determined material constant for Menegotto-Pinto model

d : experimentally determined material constant for Menegotto-Pinto model

P = area coefficient of concrete stress block

A = lateral displacement of cantilever column

Ào : top displacement of cantilever column without P-A effect

ar : longitudinal displacement of element I or RC column at centroid of cross-

section

4," : axial shortening of element I at centroid

L2 : longitudinal displacement of elem ent 2 or plate at centroid of cross-section

XXXIV
Lr, : axial shortening of element 2 at centroid

L" : lateral displacement at top of column due to elastic deformation above plastic

hinge

A¡ : lateral displacement of column at section i (i:O-n)

P
: lateral displacement at top of column due to plastic hinge rotation only
^
: lateral displacement at first yield of tensile reinforcement
^v
u
: ultimate lateral displacement when lateral force equals to 80% of lateral force at
^
yield point

4,rc : increment of curvature

AI, : length of segment i (i:l-n)

6 : d/x, centroidal relative height

c
= strain

o
: (when used in Menegotto-Pinto model) strain at point where two asymptotes of

branch under consideration meet

et : strain of element I at interface

tt" : strain at centroid of cross-section of element I or RC column

t2 : strain of element 2 at interface

t2" : strain at centroid of cross-section of element 2 or plate

tq : common strain at intersection of initial tangent and plastic unloading slopes

€, : longitudinal strain of concrete

co
: strain at maximum stress ;{., of unconfined concrete

XXXV
cc
: strain at maximum stress /1, of confined concrete

t"., : strain of concrete on the plate/concrete interface

e
cll
: ultimate compressive strain of concrete

E¡ : strain at layer number i of section

t pt : plastic strain of concrete in Mander's model

€0, : strain of plate on the plate/concrete interface

I PY : yield strain of steel plate

: (when used in Menegotto-Pinto model) strain at point where last strain reversal

with stress of equal sign took place

tr" : concrete strain at common return point from reloading branch to envelope curve

in Mander's model

: strain at onset of reloading branch in Mander's model

a,
.l
: steel strain

: strain of reinforcement bar at compression side

t .,tp : slip strain

r,n,u* : ultimate fracture strain of steel

: strain at which cover concrete is considered to have completely spalled and

ceases to carry any stress

tst : strain of reinforcement bar at tension side

t,, : yield strain of steel reinforcing bar

E : tensile rupture strain of concrete : -f, lE.; strain at tension tace

XXXVI
: concrete strain at start of unloading branch in Mander's model

t, : yield strain of steel

K : curvature ofsection

K co : curvature of section when extreme compressive fiber reaches yield strain e",

K",, : ultimate curvature or curvature of section when extreme compressive fiber of

concrete reaches ultimate strain r.,,

K¡ : curvature of section i (i:1-n)

K ,rn : curvature of section when compressive steel first yields

K.,ty : curvature of section when tensile steel first yields

p : Poison's ratio; ductility factor

e : rotation ofa cross-section; inter-storey drift ratio

0P : rotation of plastic hinge

P,, = ratio of area of longitudinal reinforcement to core of section

p"- = volumetric ratio of transverse reinforcement

6 = stress

oo : (when used in Menegotto-Pinto model) stress at point where two asymptotes of

branch under consideration meet

o1 : axial or longitudinal stress

02 : lateral or transverse stress

oc : stress ofconcrete

a,.¡ : stress of concrete sub-section 'i'


XXXVII
o, : stress of plate

ap¡ : stress of topibottom plate sub-section 'i'

ap"¡ : stress ofside plate sub-section 'i'

o r : stress in transverse radial direction;

(when used in Menegotto-Pinto model) stress at point where last strain reversal

with stress of equal sign took place

a : stress of longitudinal reinforcement bar


"
õ,¡ : stress of reinforcement layer 'i'

JI
b , normalized coordinate x; variable of integration; plastic strain of last
L

excursion when used in Menegotto-Pinto model

XXXVIII
Symbols:

A : point when concrete on the tension face first cracks

X : point wherefo at e.o attained at compression face of concrete

+ : onset of yielding of tension reinforcing bars

X : onset of yielding of compression reinforcing bars

0 : crushing of concrete at qu at compression face

: crushing of concrete at 4, adjacent to compression reinforcing bars

T : onset of yielding of one bolt

a : yielding of all bolts

A : yielding of plate in the whole bottom cross-section

a : tensile yielding of compression reinforcing bars


CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Many existing reinforced concrete structures that were designed and constructed prior to

the adoption of modern earthquake resistance design codes are vulnerable to the attack of

an earthquake above the moderate scale. It has been repeatedly highlighted overseas as

well as in Australia in recent earthquake experience that a large percentage of the

buildings and elevated freeway/bridge structures that collapsed were designed and

constructed before the application of modern earthquake codes (Melchersl990; Moehle

and Mahin l99l;Blong 1993; Pham and Griffith 1995; Bracci et al. 1995a & b; Lynn et

al. 1996; Seible et al. 1997; Park 2001). Therefore, "The improvement of the seismic

perþrmance of vulnerable buildings is an urgent issue. Undoubtedly, seismic retrofitling

before qn event is one of the most essential strategies to mitigate disaster." (CEB report

tee7)

Particularly vulnerable are reinforced concrete columns resulting from the then

typically used nominal and inadequately detailed transverse reinforcement (Park 2001).

Bridge columns in the U.S. that were designed before the l97l San Fernando earthquake

typically involved the use of No.4 (l2.7mm diameter) transverse peripheral hoops placed

at 12 in. (305mm) centers for both circular and rectangular columns, regardless of the

column section dimension (Chai et al. 1991). These hoops were often closed by lap
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

splices in the cover concrete instead of being lap-welded or anchored by bending back

into the core concrete. As a result, the ultimate curvature that can be developed within the

potential plastic hinge region is limited by the strain at which the cover concrete begins to

spall, which is typically around 5olo strain. The hoop steel unravels when the longitudinal

strain is higher than 5o/o, resulting in the loss of the small confinement and shear strength.

Although the diameter and spacing of the hoops varies somewhat for different structures

in different countries, insufficient transverse reinforcement and inadequate detailing are

typical of pre-1971 building and other structures all over the world. Structures with such

columns cannot satisfy the high ductility demand and will fail prematurely during a

signifi cant seismic event.

An experimental study at the University of California at Berkeley by Lynn et al.

(1996) on eight full-scale RC columns with typical pre-1971 detailing, which was based

orì a survcy of builclings built from l919-1970, confirmed these observations. Research

outside the US also indicated that most of the existing ground floor columns were

expected to fail under a strong earthquake due to inadequate flexural ductility and brittle

shear failure (Dritsos 1997). Therefore, retrofitting columns, a critical element of


structures, is especially important in the rehabilitation of existing structures.

Three potential failure modes exist in existing RC columns with inadequatc

transverse reinforcement under seismic load (Seible et al. 1997).The first failure mode is

the shear failure as shown in Fig.l.l, where inclined cracking, cover concrete spalling,

rupture or opening of transverse reinforcement, bucking of longitudinal reinforcement,

and disintegration of the concrete core develop sequentially in an earthquake. The second

failure mode is the flexural plastic hinge failure due to large displacements incurred

2
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

where, subsequent to flexural cracking, cover concrete crushing and spalling, buckling of

the longitudinal reinforcement, or compressive failure of the core concrete, initiates

plastic hinge deterioration. Fig.l.2 shows a typical failure case of the flexural failure

mode.

Fig. 1 .I Typical shear failure of columns in an earthquake (Seible eI" al. 1997)

Ftg. I .2 Typical flexural plastic hinge failure of columns (Green, I 987)

3-
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Thirdly, many existing columns have lap splices of the longitudinal reinforcement

at the bottom where both the maximum flexural moment and potential plastic hinge

occur. The lap length of the longitudinal bars in pre-1971 structures was typically

designed as a compressive lap of usually 20 times the longitudinal bar diameter, which

was insufficient for development of the tensile yield strength under load reversal due to

seismic load. Lap splice debonding occurs once vertical cracks develop in the cover

concrete and progresses with increased transverse dilation of the column and cover

concrete spalling, associated with rapid degradation of strength and deformation capacity.

Even lap-splices in a plastic hinge region that satisfl modern design code requirements

invariably break down under cyclic inelastic action in a severe seismic event (Priestley &

Seible, 1995).

One successful and widely implemented technique for retrofitting RC columns

irrvulvcs tlrc usc of sLccl ur FRP (Fiber Reinfolced Polynrer') jackets, which wraps a layer'

of steel or FRP plate on the external face of the column to provide additional external

hoop action in the transverse direction. This technique is effective in enhancing the shear

strength of existing substandard columns by providing additional shear reinforcement

with the jacket. The deformation capacity of plastic hinges can also be increased

dramatically through external confinement to the core concrete by an externaljacket. The

conhnement to a column's external face can prevent cover concrete spalling and buckling

of longitudinal reinforcement, and most importantly, enhance the concrete strength and

deformation capacity, as shown in Fig.l.3, hence improve the ductility performance. The

ultimate compressive strain of unconfined concrete, at about 0.005, is insufficient to

enable displacement ductility factors greater than 2.5 to 3.5 to develop (Priestley and

-4-
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Seible, 1995), and typical ultimate compressive strain in the extreme fìber as high as 0.01

to 0.02 is needed to ensure satisfactory seismic response which can be achieved by

jacketing. For the third failure mode, confinement in the form of jacketing can again be

used to increase the bond of the longitudinal reinforcement by providing an extemal

clamping pressure on the longitudinal bars to prevent them from slipping.

Confined Fìrs f
\U concrete hoop
f
'cc
"')
u)
N
Lo
s f.o
an
conf
(4
s,
a-
E
o
(J
et cc
I
Compressive Slrotn , €c

Fig. I .3 Stress-strain relation for confined and unconfined concrete (Mander et al. 1988a)

Theoretical and experimental studies have already proved that external jacketing

is highly effective in preventing existing columns from failure for all the above three

failure modes in the,case of circular columns. Therefore, this kind of retrofitting work has

already been widely used in engineering (Chai et al. 199l&.1994; Priestley et al.

1994b&c).

In the substructure retrofit program implemented by the California Department of

Transportation (Caltrans) in the late 1980's, bridge columns with pre-1971 details for

1100 state-owned bridges and 1500 city- or county- owned bridges, to which a prime

concern was the lack of adequate confinement, were scheduled for retrofit for the

5
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

estimated cost between US$420 million and $550 million (Chai et al. 1994). Steel
jacketing was used extensively for the retrofitting of these columns. The effectiveness of

steel jacketingwas evident in the field in fhe 1994 Northridge Earthquake. An estimated

sixty retrofitted bridges, many of which had been steel jacketed, were located in the

region of intense ground shaking with peak ground acceleration éxceeding 0.259. None

of the steel-jacketed columns were reported to have sustained any significant damage. In

contrast, two adjacent un-retrofitted bridge structures collapsed due to column failures

during the earthquake (Chai, 1996).

Successful application of column jacketing in the retrofit work of an existing

building was also reported in Los Angeles (Elhassan and Hart, 1995). The building was a

seven-story hotel with 2-story basement located in the City of Los Angeles. During the

Magnitude 7.5 Landers Earthquake of 28 June 1992, centered 175 km away from the

builtling, many of Lhe ground floor columns suflerecl significant diagonal cra<;ks. In the

rehabilitation work, the ground floor story columns were retrofitted with fiberglass/epoxy

composite jackets. This seismic retrofit scheme was completed a few weeks before the

occurrence of the Northridge Earthquake of 1994, and the building suffered no damage

during the earthquake.

However, jacketing with steel or FRP plate is not always as effective for
square/rectangular columns as it is for circular columns. While it is still very effective in

enhancing the shear capacity (Priestley et al. 1994b&.c), the square/rectangular jackets

provide less confinement to the concrete core inside compared to that for circular

columns and so are less effective for the second and third failure modes. The reason is

simple: the lateral dilation of concrete under compression must increase the perimeter

6
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

length of a circular jacket/wrap, as the circular shape encloses the maximum cross-

sectional area for a given perimeter length. The change of perimeter length mobilizes the

hoop resistance of the jacket/wrap to provide an effective confinement to the enclosed

concrete. In contrast, it is theoretically possible for the perimeter length of a rectangular

shaped jacket/wrap not to increase in spite of lateral dilation of the concrete, as a small

change in the shape of the cross-section from the original rectangular shape towards a

circular shape will provide sufficient room for the dilation to occur without hoop action

being mobilized. In practice, even if the perimeter length of the rectangular section does

increase due to the dilation effects, the confinement stresses are concentrated at the

corners of the cross-section rather than being uniformly distributed around the cross-

section, as shown in Fig.l.4, because of the straight-sided cross-section. Therefore, "A

rectangular thin steel jacket would not be so elfective, due to the sides bowing out when

dilation of the concrete occurs during a major earthquake, resulting in confinement

applied mainly in the column corners." (Park 2001).

Rcctanguler J¡ckct

[n¡dequa¡c
Confirxmrnt

Fig. 1.4 Confinement from rectangular jacket (Priestley et al. 1994b)

The poor performance of rectangular jackets in confining the concrete core has

already been experimentally verified (Chai et al. 1990; Mirmiran et al. 1998; Pessiki et al.

2001). However, there were also test results showing that effective confinement could

7
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

still be achievable with rectangular jacketing (Wang and Restrepo 2001; Parvin and

Wang 2001; Chaallal and Shahawy 2000). Nevertheless, the general understanding is that

jacketing for rectangular columns is more effective with smaller columns and thicker

jackets and less effective for larger columns. The corner radius in a cross-section plays an

important role in confining the concrete core (Mirmiran et al. 1998). It was also
concluded that significantly more research work is necessary to investigate the effect of

cross-section shape and size (Rochette and Labossière 2000; Pessiki et al. 2001).

Efforts to improve the confinement effectiveness of rectangular jackets have been

reported in the literature. One technique was to enhance the out-of-plan flexural stiffness

of the jacket by using additional stiffeners in the cross-section. However, test results

showed that the improvement was not satisfactory (Chai et al. 1990). Corrugated steel

jackets were also investigated to improve the out of plan flexural strength of the jacket by

undulating the steel plate (Tomii 1993). The test results by Chobarah et al. (1996;1997)

on beam/column joints strengthened with corrugated steel jackets exhibited increased

shear strength of joints, whereas improved confinement to the concrete was also

expected. Nevertheless, regardless of negative or positive conclusions on these

techniques, it seems that no further research effort in this direction was made and no

application of these techniques in practice has been found in the literature.

Another technique used for rectangular column jacketing employs an elliptical

shaped jacket. Research works has shown that this technique is highly effective, and is

therefore recommended for retrofitting of RC columns with rectangular shaped section

(Priestley et al. 1994b; 1995). Nevertheless, changing square or rectangular shaped

column sections to circular or elliptical sections by circular or elliptical jacketing is not

8
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

always desirable or practical in engineering. The major problem with this technique is

that it changes the size and shape of the original columns significantly. A

square/rectangular shape may still be the most suitable with respect to having the
minimum disturbance to the original design both architecturally and structurally. A good

example was the Bixby Creek Bridge in California, where due to its historic nature, the

overall structure and member geometry had to be maintained for aesthetic purposes,

thereby disallowing the use of circular or elliptical steel shelljacketing (Karbhari 2000).

Tens of thousands of existing large columns were urgently retrofitted by

square/rectangular steel jacket after the 1995 Kobe earthquakes in Japan (Uehan and

Meguro, 2000), regardless of the lack of (or immaturity of) design guidelines. Therefore,

further research on retrofitting of square/rectangular RC columns is still necessary in

order to reduce/prevent loss of human life and properties from future earthquake damage.

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORK

As a new effort to tackle the problem of retrofitting square/rectangular RC columns and

to avoid the difficult task of providing confinement to rectangular RC columns, a new

composite partial-interaction plating system is introduced and studied in this work. A

detailed description of this new retrofitting system and the research framework is given in

Chapter3.

In general, mathematical, numerical and experimental tools are used to study the

behavior of the new retrofitting system in this work. As no existing software is available

for this specific complicated structural system, a numerical model and the corresponding

computer program has been developed in this study to calculate the response of the

9
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

proposed system, which are reported in Chapter 4 and 5. The mathematical study in

Chapter 6 &7 provides a better understanding of the fundamental mechanism of this

structural system. Experimental works have also been conducted to veriff the results and

conclusions drawn from the theoretical studies that are reported in Chapter 9-ll.
Furthermore, a methodology for the design of the composite plating system is developed

for engineering application that is presented in Chapter 8.

-10-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

A general review of the literature for the seismic retrofit of RC columns by jacketing is

undertaken in this chapter to provide an overview of the structural retrofit history and

technologies. More detailed reviews and discussions on related subjects are given

elsewhere in respective chapters in this thesis.

The l97l San Fernando earthquake caused the complete collapse of five, and

serious damage to another 37, modern and apparently well-designed concrete freeway

bridges (Priestley & Park, 1987). The lesson of this earthquake raised serious concerns

over the seismic design philosophy embodied in the then existing design codes. An

upsurge in research interest into the seismic behavior of concrete bridge structures has

since sprung up in U.S., New Zealand, Japan and other countries.

Subsequently, a major funded research program started in the University of


Canterbury, New Zealand headed by Professor R. Park, under the sponsorship of the New

Zealand National Roads Board. As a pioneer work, fundamental problems such as the

compression characteristics of confined concrete, flexural strength, shear strength and

ductility of concrete columns were investigated (Priestley & Park, 19S7). Particular

emphasis and significant achievement was made on quantifying the influence and

effectiveness of lateral confining steel (stirrups) in the plastic hinge region of RC

columns in increasing ductility (Mander et al. 1988a & 1988b; Watson and Park 1994;

Watson et al. 1994). ln the mean time, research work on retrofitting of RC structures

- ll -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

were also conducted (Rodriguez and Park 1994; Hakuto et al. 1995; Liu and Park 2001;

Wang and Restrepo 2001).

In the U.S., research emphasis was primarily directed towards the development of

sophisticated time-history analysis techniques for bridges. The California Department of

Transportation (Caltrans) embarked on an extensive bridge seismic assessment and

retrofit program, which was based on ongoing experimental and analy'tical research being

conducted at several institutes. A major research program was started in 1987 at the

University of California at San Diego to study the various problems related to seismic

response and retrofitting of bridge columns, headed by Professor M.J.N. Priestley.

Substantial experimental and theoretical research on column jacketing with steel plates

and other advanced composite materials has shown that circular or elliptical shaped steel

jacketing was highly effective in enhancing the shear and flexural performance of
existing substandard RC columns.

In the University of Texas at Austin, extensive research work has been conducted

on retrofitting of existing non-ductile reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames

featuring "strong beam-weak column" and non-ductile detailing, headed by Professor

J.O. Jirsa. Research focused on the retrofit of frame joints (Alcocer and Jirsa 1993,
Alcocer 1993) and inadequate lap splice of reinforcement in RC columns (Valluvan et al.

I 993; Aboutaha et al. 1996).


r.,
l,\ún*
In Japan comprehensive experimental and theoretical studies baí been reported

since the 1970's on concrete filled tubular (CFT) columns which were closely related to

steel-jacketed RC columns. Significant progress was made in understanding the effect

and effectiveness of confinement to the core concrete by the external steel tubes (ackets),

-12-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

especially for square tubes, by the research group in Kyushu University headed by

Professor Tomii and Professor Sakino.

In Australia, little work has been reported in the literature on the subject of

retrof,rtting of existing RC columns. However, active research and significant progress

have been made in a related subject - design of new concrete filled tubular columns

(Bridge 1976 Bradford and Gilbert 1990&.1992; Rangan 1991; Bradford l99l; Bridge

and Webb 1992; Rangan and Joyce 1992;Bradford and Nguyen 1994; Bridge etal.1997;

Kilpatrick and Rangan 1997&,1999; Bradford et al. 1999; O'Shea and Bridge

1999&2000; Uy 2000&200 I ).

2.1 EXISTING RETROFITTING METHODS

In engineering practice, there are several traditional ways to retrofit/repair an existing RC

column. These traditional methods usually involve the application of an additional layer

of concrete, steel plate or other material onto the external face of an existing RC column

(Frangou et al. 1995; Ramirez 1996; Dritsos 1997). The retrofitting methods can be

categorized, based on the additional material used, as follows:

I . Concrete jacketing

This retrofithepair method applies an additional layer of concrete together with additional

longitudinal and transverse reinforcement onto the surface of the existing columns, as

shown in Fig.2.l. Concrete jacketing was widely used in Mexico City after the 1985

earthquake. It was the most popular jacketing method all over the world for strengthening

of existing RC building columns. However, this retrofit method was found to be very

- t3 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

labor intensive (Park 2000). In addition, it significantly increases the size as well as
stiffness of the existing columns.

exi stin g rtrinfbrcnmeui

{ jackrt
benddown
b¡¡r¡¡
new reinforcement

Ä A

existing colr¡.nrn

SECÏION A-A PLAN VIËW

Fig.2.l Concrete jacketing (Frangou et al. 1995)

2. Steeljacketing

Steel jacketing is currently the most common retrofit technique (Tamai et al. 2000).

There are many kinds of steel jacketing. It usually involves the use of steel plates, steel

strips or steel bars in the transverse direction, which can be broken down further into two

main approaches: steel encasement or steel caging.

For steel encasement, the RC column is encased or wrapped by a layer of steel

plate around the external face of the column. In construction, two half-circle shells (for

circular columns) or two L-shaped plates (for square/rectangular columns) are placed

around the column and then site welded to provide a continuous jacket. The small gap

between the steel plate and column face is normally pressure grouted with non-shrink

grout subsequently to ensure a firm contact. Another popular method of steel jacketing

involves the use of steel angles placed at the corners of the column. Steel plates are then

-14-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

welded to the angles to form a jacket. Gluing steel plates to the face of the column using

epoxy resin and site welding joints is also a common practice.

Steel caging consists of longitudinal angle sections at each corner of the column

and transverse steel strips or bars. Transverse steel strips are welded onto the angle to

create collars around the concrete column, as shown in Fig.2.2. The tie strips can be

laterally stressed to ensure a tight fit by special wrenches prior to welding or pre-heated

to about 200-400 degree before welding and left to shrink in cooling after welding. The

spaces between the cage and column can be filled with cement or epoxy mortar. A cover

of concrete or shotcrete reinforced with light welded fabric is usually also applied for

corrosion or fire protection. Alternatively, the longitudinal steel angle may be omitted

and thin steel strips or wires can be wrapped in a continuous spiral or in discontinuous

rings around the column. A new technique, which involves pre-tensioning of steel strips

around the column using standard strapping machines found in the packing industry and

subsequently securing them in place by metal clips, has recently been developed for

wrapping steel strips to columns (Dritsos 1997).

Detåil A

50 mm

Dêt8¡IA
existing column

Fig.2.2 Steel caging (Frangou et al. 1995)

The main advantages of steel jacketing are minimal increase in cross-sectional

dimensions, minimal skilled labor required for application and speed of installation. The

- 15 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

cost of structural intervention and interruption of use is also brought to a minimum


(Dritsos 1997).

3. Compositejacket

Advanced composite materials such as fiberglass and carbon fiber jacket/wrapping have

been investigated to replace steel jackets in recent years (Fardis and Khalili l98l;
Katsumata et al. 1988; Saadatmanesh et al. 1994&.1996; Karbhari and Eckel 1994;

Priestley and Seible 1995; Nanni and Bradford 1995; Seible et al. 1997; Xiao and Ma

1995811997; Mirmiran and Shahawy 1997; Hanna and Jones 1997; Xiao et al. 19991'

Saafi et al. 1999; Teng et al.20001. Liu et aI.2000; Pantelides et a|.2000; Machida et al.

2000; Green 2000; Bonacci 2000; Banthia 2000; Karbhari 2000&2001:. Fam and Rizkalla

2000; Thériault and Neale 2000; Yao et al. 2001; Lau and Zhou200l; Pessiki et al. 2001;

Parvin and Wang 2001). As compared to concrete and steel jacketing, composite

jacketing has advantages in speed and ease of installation, reduced maintenance, high

strength and better fatigue performance, as well as light weight and superior durability.

The retrofit of existing structures using fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) has been

adopted for more than a decade in Japan (Arockiasamy 2000) with its first application to

column wrapping in the mid 1980s. There have been many reports on retrofitting of RC

columns using FRP jacketing since then. An increased interest in the research on

composite jacketing has been found in the literature in recent years. It was found that

jacketing with advanced composite materials can be economically competitive to the

widely accepted procedure of steel jacketing, particularly where access was difficult,

since in many cases, hand lay up procedures were used (Priestley and Seible 1995;

Hwang and Wehnes 1997). Successful applications in engineering were also reported in

-16-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

the retrofit of bridge piers (Gergely et al. 1998) and building columns (Elhassan and Hart

1995; Hwang and Wehnes 1997).

Although FRP is expected to become the material of choice for


retrofitting/repairing in the future (Demers and Neale 1999), widespread application is

yet to come mainly due to the high cost of the material (Dritsos 1997) and unfamiliarity

of engineers with composites and the current lack of design guidelines (Karbhari and Gao

1997).

More detailed review on the above retrofitting methods is presented in the

following sections.

2.2 CONCRETE JACKETING


Experimental work on strengthening (before damage) and repair (after damage) of RC

columns and frames by concrete jacketing were conducted in the Middle East Technical

University, Turkey as early as in 1986 (Ersoy et al. 1993). Square RC columns with

concrete jacketing were tested under uniaxial load, axial load combined with monotonic

bending, and axial load combined with reversed cyclic bending. It was found that for

axially loaded columns the repair and strengthening of RC columns were effective when

the jacketing was introduced after unloading. Columns strengthened under load also

behaved well. However, repair under load was not very successful. For transverse load

tests, the repair and strengthening jackets behaved well both under monotonic and

reversed lateral cyclic loadings.

An experimental study on concrete jacketed rectangular RC columns conducted in

the University of Canterbury (Rodriguez and Park 1994) showed that existing columns

-17-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

with major deficiencies of inadequate transverse reinforcement could be retrofitted

(before damage) or repaired (after damage) with this technique, which converted the

original low ductility and fast degradation performance under cyclic load to a ductile

manner with higher strength and much reduced strength degradation. This technique was

found to be successful but labor-intensive. It also required an interruption in use of the

structure while work was carried out and the column size was increased significantly.

Concrete jacketing of rectangular RC columns for a two story waffle-flat-plate

structure at one-third scale was tested by Rodriguez and Santiago (1998). Test results

showed the high flexibility and low measured displacement ductility capacity of the

structural system.

2.3 JACKETING OF CIRCULAR COLUMNS WITH STEEL OR COMPOSITE

JACKETS

The first phase of a Caltrans funded project, conducted at the University of California at

San Diego, investigated the enhancement of the inadequate and undependable flexural

strength and ductility capacity of tall flexure dominated bridge columns by encasing the

plastic hinge region of the columns with steel jackets. Chai et al. (1991) conducted

flexural tests on six 40Yo scale model (diameter D: 610mm, 3.657m high) bridge

columns. The test results indicated that retrofit of pre-1971 columns with cylindrical4.T6

mm thick ASTM A36 (fy:248MPa) hot-rolled steel jackets enabled the column to

develop a dependable ductility factor of p > 7, or a corresponding drift ratio exceeding

5%. Displacement ductility in the range of 4-6 might be anticipated under extreme

seismic response (Priestley et al. 1995). The response of the retrofitted column thus

- t8 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV\/

indicated very satisfactory perforrnance. The jacket was only provided in the potential

plastic hinge region at the bottom of the column with a length of 12l9mm (2xD). An

axial load of 1779KN, corresponding to l7o/o of the design column crush load or
0.17 As .
f ,o, was applied to the test column. Bond failures that might otherwise develop

in 'as-built' circular columns detailed with inadequately lapped longitudinal

reinforcement were also prevented by steel jacketing. As compared to the complete loss

of cover concrete in the lap-splice region and bond failure of longitudinal reinforcement

of the un-retrofitted reference column, failure of the test column was eventually by low-

cycle fatigue of the longitudinal reinforcement, a phenomenon associated with fracture at

a strain lower than that obtained under monotonic load when subjected to large inelastic

displacement cycles.

Figure 2.3 shows the typical hysteretic response of the retrofitted and un-
+i" c.
retrofitted reference columns. It can be seen that bothductility and the energy dissipation

capacity were significantly increased in the retrofitted columns. Design guidelines on the

jacketing details to satisfy the strength and ductility requirements were also developed

from their theoretical and experimental studies (Chai et al 1991).

Taylor and Stone (1994) theoretically studied the required thickness of circular

steel jackets based on time history inelastic analysis of bridge columns and a cumulative

damage index concept. Their study showed that even a very thin steel jacket (2mm jacket

for columns with diameters of 6l0mm, 920mm, l220mm, l520mm) is suffrcient to

maintain the column within acceptable damage limits for important structures.

-19-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

DtiIL R6Lio ò/1, (z) Drilt RoLio ò/I' (z)


6-5-4-3-2-1 0 t 2 3 4 5 6
654-3-210123456
80
80
70 ,=i 5
60 l/=t1.52 3 4
70
vl v"
-l
vt tr,
& È
e
Ë Pùsrr 'É
d
{
o
{o o
ò PúL
F d
ts
d òt= 1 29/' È SUoLa At: 1 O84"
-vr -\ a-u
-V¡ þ= T
Dt
-vD
I I
5

-8 -6 -1 -3 -2 -' -9-B-7-6-5-4 3 2-l


DeÍIeclig¡linI DeJleotion (in)

(a) Reference column (b) Jacketed column

Fig.2.3 Comparison of hysteretic response of circular RC columns (Chai et al. l99l)

After the study of flexure dominated bridge columns, squat and shear dominated

bridge columns were investigated at UC San Diego (Priestley et al. 1994b&)994c).

Theoretically, the jacket was conservatively idealized as a series of independent closely

spaced peripheral hoops. The experimental work showed that properly designed steel

jackets on squat columns subjected to double bending could conveft brittle shear failures

to ductile flexural modes of inelastic deformation with remarkable ductility capacity.

Jacketing of existing RC circular columns was even found to be effective in

improving the survivability of buildings from attacks by explosives (Crawford et al.

1997). Abundant research work has also been reported in the literature on FRP jacketing

of circular columns (Toutanji 1999; Demers and Neale 1999; Thériault and Neale 2000).

Its effectiveness in increasing the strength and ductility of circular RC columns is

indisputable.

-20 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

2.4 JACKETING OF SQUARE/RECTANGULAR COLUMNS WITH STEEL OR

COMPOSITE JACKETS

Rectangular shaped jackets are as effective as circular shaped jackets in enhancing the

shear capacity of RC columns (Priestley et al. 1994b&.c; Aboutaha et al. 1999). Although

rectangular jackets provide full effectiveness for shear retrofit, only limited enhancement

of flexural ductility is provided by rectangular jackets due to its ineffectiveness in

providing confinement, a conclusion that has been well established in the literature.

Tomii et al. (1987 as referred"by Priestley et al. 1994b) investigated the flexural

behavior of steel-jacketed short columns in building structures. To avoid the buckling of

the jacket observed by Sakino and Ishibashi (1985), the jacket was deliberately debonded

from the existing column ensuring that the jacket acted only as hoop reinforcement rather

than also participating in flexure. Satisfactory results were obtained for circular columns.

However it was found that a degradation of the response was inevitable for rectangular

columns conhned by rectangular jackets, even when very thick jackets were used. This

was considered to be due to the inadequate confinement of the concrete and compression

reinforcement in the flexural plastic hinge region rather than due to inadequate shear

strengh.

Three kinds of jacket have been tested for rectangular columns by Chai et al.

(1990). The test columns were a cantilever type fixed at the bottom and free at top with a

cross section of 19.25" by 28.75" (489mm by 730mm). The reinforcement detail was

typical of the mid 1960s construction and lap spliced at the bottom. One jacket was an

elliptical steeljacket made of 3/16 inch (4.8mm) thick steel plates. In this case, the space

-21 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

between the rectangular column and elliptical jacket was filled with normal weight

concrete. The second was 3/16 inch (4.8mm) thick rectangular steel jacket with

orthogonal stiffeners. Thethird was a grouted steel collar made from channel section. All

steel jackets were 48 inches (1219mm) in height and terminated slightly short of the

adjoining footings. Specimens were tested under reversed quasi-static cyclic load at the

top and a compressive axial load equivalent to 0.1As.f". The elliptical retrofitted

column behaved well up to a 3.75Yo drift ratio. The steel channel retrofitted column

showed an acceptable response up to2.75%o drift ratio. However the stiffened rectangular

steel jacket showed rather poor response compared to the other two jackets. This poor

response was attributed to the inability of the jacket to provide adequate confinement due

to the poor out of plane flexural stiffness of the jacket.

Mirmiran et al. (1998 and 2000) systematically studied the square shape effect of

composite jackets experimentally and theoretically. Twelve square section specimens of

l52.Smmxl52.5mmx305mm(tall) were tested under uniaxial compressive load together

with 30 $l52.5mmx305mm(tall) cylindrical specimens. Square section jackets were

shown to be generally less effective in confining concrete than circular ones. It was found

that the confinement effect by a square section can be quantified by a shape factor of

2r/D,whete r is the conrer radius of the square jacket and D is the depth of the concretc

cross-section. Therefore, for a square jacket with a sharp corner (r:0), the confinement

effect is zero or the jacket does not provide any confinement to the concrete inside. When

the shape factor drops below 0.3 (in this case, the_curved corner surface area is less than

34Yo of the flat surface area), a sharp decrease of hoop stress occurs. The same

1a
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

ç)-cu9 "
observation was also made by others (Frangounl995; Rochette and Labossière

1996e2000).

Thériault and Neale (2000) concluded that the confinement effectiveness by FRP

wrap is far less for rectangular columns than it is for circular columns. The gain in
strength provided by FRP rectangular jackets is therefore very small compared to that

attainable by circular jackets.

Pessiki et al. (2001) conducted full scale concentrated load tests on FRP jacketed

columns including four 457mm square by l830mm tall RC columns. The corners of the

columns were rounded to a radius of 38mm. The test results showed that the confinement

effect from the FRP jacket was significantly lower for the square columns compared to

the circular columns.

However, some successful retrofitting of RC columns with rectangular FRP jacket

has been reported in the literature (Xiao and Ma 1995; Katsumataet al. 1988).

The experimental work by Seible et al. (1997) found that for columns with side

dimensions of depth/width:0.75m10.5m, rectangular composite jackets with twice the

theoretical thickness derived with their design guidelines for an equivalent circular

column diameter performed well up to the design target ductìlity levels. However, it was

also suggested that extrapolations beyond the tested side aspect ratios and side

dimensions need to be supported by additional tests or analysis. The suggestion that

additional confinement to square/rectangular columns can possibly be achieved by using


ha:
more wrapping layers to compensate for the shape deficiency wlalso been made by

Rochette and Labossière (2000).

-z)-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

It was observed by Demers and Neale (1999) that FRP wrapped square speclmens

showed increases in ductility comparable with those obtained for circular specimens.

However, the maximum strength levels of these square specimens showed very little

improvement over those of the un-wrapped specimens. However, significant

enhancement on both strength and deformation capacity by square/rectangular FRP

jacketing was reported by Parvin and V/ang (2001); Wang and Restrepo (2001) and

Chaallal and Shahawy (2000).

Due to the large scatter in experimental results and very limited data available in

the literature (Thériault and Neale 2000), it was concluded that significantly more

research is necessary to investigate the effect of cross-sectional shape and size (Rochette

and Labossière 2000; Pessiki et al.200l). It was also suggested that at the present time a

conservative approach be used in considering the effectiveness of confinement provided

by the rectangular jacket (Thériault and Neale 2000).

Different techniques have been reported in the literature to improve the


confinement effect of rectangular columns from steel jacketing. Extensive tests in UC

San Diego established that elliptical jackets could provide excellent enhancement of

flexural performance of inadequately confined columns, since continuous confinement

was provided by hoop membrane action in the jacket in the same way as in circular

jackets. It was therefore recommended that oval shaped jackets or bolsters be used for the

retrofitting of rectangular columns (Priestley etal.l994b; Priestley and Seible 1995).

However, it is easy to imagine that the oval shaped jacket will lose it effectiveness

when the one side of the rectangular cross-section is much longer than the other side.

Experimental work by Tan and Yip (1999) showed that the effectiveness of confinement

-24-
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVÌEV/

by elliptical hoops diminishes as the side aspect ratio, that is the ratio of the major axis to

the minor axis of the cross-section, increases and becomes insignificant when the aspect

ratio is greater than2.6.

Marsh (1992) investigated the use of pretensioned external steel hoops for

strengthening columns with inadequate lap splices in the longitudinal reinforcement. He

concluded that the steel hoop in the splice region dramatically improved the lateral

resistance of concrete columns with inadequate flexural strength and ductility.

Steeljacket retrofitting of building columns was extensively used in Greece after

the 1986 Kalamata Earthquake. Most of the jacketing used steel caging. Experimental

studies of steel caging was conducted in the University of Patras, Greece on ten

l50mmx150mmx750mm tall columns under monotonic axial load (Dritsos, 1997). Test

results showed that the method was successful, provided that pretensioning of the

transverse ties in the external cage is applied. When the method was used with low level

or no pretensioning of the transversal bars, its effectiveness was questionable, regardless

of the number of the transverse bars used.

Similar tests on steel caging were conducted in the Czech Republic (Cirtek 2001).

The test program consisted of 39 specimens of dimension 300mmx300mmxl500mm tall

with concrete strength f":12-17MPa. The cage were heated to 150-200'C prior to

welding in order to provide active confinement (pre-stressing). The eccentrically axial

loaded test results showed a possible maximum increase of 55o/o in load carrying
capacity. This method of strengthening was reported to be successfully used on more than

5000 existing columns.

-25 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Valluvan et al. (1993) used external reinforcement ties to confine the lap splice

region of longitudinal bars. Concrete cover was not removed in the work and the

additional ties were grouted to the columns. Test results for the 72"x12"
(305mmx305mm) columns showed a signifìcantly improved confinement and splice

strength. It was concluded that the external reinforcement must be grouted to the column

to ensure effective confinement.

Anchor bolts were used to enhance the confinement from rectangular steeljacket

by Aboutaha et al. (1996). Focus was placed on RC columns with inadequate lap splice in

the longitudinal reinforcement. Steel plates augmented by adhesive anchor bolts were

used to increase the passive pressure between splice bars to increase the frictional bond.

Anchor bolts were used when the column size was large and the steel jacket itself failed

to provide sufficient confinement to the column. Eleven columns, including four

unretrotitted ref'erence columns, were tested with the test variables of concrete strength,

width of column, number and location of anchor bolts, spacing between anchor bolts, and

height of steel jackets. Results showed that up to 36 inch (914mm) wide (longer side of

the rectangular section) columns were successfully retrofitted with tÁ inch (6.4mm) thick

steeljackets combined with a small number of adhesive anchor bolts. Satisfactory ductile

response under cyclic load to drift ratios in excess of 4o/o and large energy dissipation

capacity were obtained, compared to the very limited energy dissipation and virtually no

ductility of the reference un-retrofitted column. No axial load was applied to the column

in any of the tests because that was considered to be a more critical case for lap splice

problem.

-26 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Recently, design guidelines on retrofitting of RC columns by rectangular steel

jackets were proposed by Japanese researchers based on their extensive research work

(Sakino and Sun 2000). The jacket thickness can be calculated with simple formulae

based on the flexural/shear strength and ductility requirements. However, good seismic

response will be predicted if these design guidelines are applied to the column tested by

Chai et al. (1990) which was observed to behave poorly in the experiment.

2.5 CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBULAR SECTION

Concrete filled steel tubes (CFT) are usually used in new construction. Although the

construction process of CFT is different from that for steel jacketing of RC columns,

there are similarities between their structural behavior in terms of interaction between the

steel plate (tube) and the concrete inside. Therefore, results obtained from CFT studies
l-î

are often referred by research work on steeljacketing.


t\

However, it has been suggested that little interaction exists between the concrete

and the steel tube when both the concrete and the steel tube are loaded longitudinally

(Saafi et al. 1999). The reason was given in two parts. First, prior to minimum volume, )
concrete has a smaller Poisson's ratio than steel, and separates from the latter when both

materials are under the same axial strain. Second, shrinkage of new concrete causes a gap

at the interface between the two materials, even prior to any loading. As a result, such

columns fail by longitudinal yielding of the steel if yield stress is less than 400 MPa,or u, 1,.,-i
=;tt
by concrete crushing if yield stress is higher than 530 MPa. Therefore, the effect of 'l .

composite action is limited to prevention of local steel buckling and, to some extent, an

increase in concrete ductility. For this reason, the steel tube was cut short of the support

-27 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

in many studies of CFT columns in order to avoid activating the longitudinal strength of

the steel tube (Tomii et al. 1987; Aboutaha and Machad'o 1999). In this case, the CFT

columns are similar to steel jacketed RC columns from a confinement point of view.

The use of CFT columns dates back to the early 1900s when a number of bridges

and buildings were built using CFT columns in some countries such as England, Belgium

and Switzerland. Research on CFT columns were repofted since early 1950's (Russell

1953; Kloppel and Goder 1957a&,1957b Furlong 1967&.1968; Gardner and Jacobson

1967; Knowels and Park 1969e.1970). In the early study by Furlong (1967), twenty-two

circular and seventeen square columns were tested under various levels of constant axial

load as moments were increased. Another eight circular and five square columns were

loaded only axially. The interaction of the steel tube and the concrete was studied by

measuring longitudinal and transverse strain at four faces of the specimens. In the test,

the confinement of the concrete core by the steel tube was noticed when a sudden

increase in the ratio of transverse to longitudinal strain was observed.

In Japan extensive studies have been carried out on CFT columns. These

investigations have been focused on the effects of cross-sectional shape, aspect ratio

(diameter to tube thickness), concrete strength and column length (Tomii et al. 1973;

Tomii and Yoshimaro 1977; Tomii and Sakino 1979; Okamato and Maeno 1988; Orito et

al. 1989; Sugano and Nagashima 1992; Nakanishi et al. 1999).

Tomii and Yoshimaro (1977) conducted 286 column tests on CFT columns under

concentric axial load. Six sizes of circular, square, and octagonal steel tubes with

different wall thickness were used in the tests. For short columns, it was found that the

load deformation behavior of CFT columns was remarkably affected by the thickness of

-28 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEV/

steel tube, the cross sectional shape and concrete strength. The load-deformation relation

for circular and octagonal columns showed strain hardening or an elastic-perfectly plastic

behavior with considerable increase in ultimate strength due to confinement, while for all

square columns the load-deformation curves were of a degrading type without an increase

in axial load capacity.

Sakino and Ishibashi (1985) investigated the seismic performance of CFT

columns and found that plastic buckling of the steel tube in the hinge regions tended to

occur when the columns were subjected to large cyclic lateral displacement.

Sugano and Nagashima (1992) conducted cyclic lateral load tests on

250mmx250mm square and 300mm diameter circular CFT columns. Thirty-eight

specimens were tested with the variables of axial force, aspect ratio (diameter to

thickness of tube), strength of constituent materials. Circular columns demonstrated rich

hysteresis response with large ductility and stable loops. Local buckling of the steel tube

occurred when the aspect ratio was greater than 39. The maximum load was determined

by the local buckling in this case. Local buckling was formed in the square columns with

an aspect ratio greater than 33. Square columns with smaller aspect ratios indicated richer

hysteresis response. The circular columns behaved in ductile manner despite the level of

axial force and aspect ratio. It was observed that ductile behavior can be expected only

from those square columns with small aspect ratio and low level of axial load. A similar

conclusion was also drawn by Marino et al. (1992).

Sakino et al. (1996) reported that the degree of confinement by the square steel

tubes decreased as the aspect ratio B/t (sectional breadth/thickness of tube) and/or the

-29 -
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

concrete strength increased. lt was also found that the effects of steel tubes on the flexural

behavior of tubed columns became more significant as the applied axial load was higher.

Stress-strain model for the concrete confined by a steel tube was also studied and

proposed (Tomii, I 991).

Seismic performance of circular CFT columns was also studied by Boyd et al.

(1995). Tests conducted on five 8" (203mm) diameter circular columns with aspect ratios

(D/t) of 73 and 107 gave poor hysteresis responses similar to those for ordinary RC

columns with poor confinement. A constant axial load equal to 0.17 Arf'"" was applied in

the tests. It was concluded that the seismic performance of CFT columns with a large

aspect ratio was questionable. This conclusion contradicted with others such as Chai et al

(1991) where aspect ratios more than 128 were found to be effective for a similar axial

load level of 0. I 77 A
s.f ,,, .

Aboutaha and Machado (1999) tested six full scale 305mm(B)x508mm(D)

columns to investigate the flexural performance of steel-tubed high-strength RC columns.

To maximize the lateral strength of steel for confinement, the steel tube was cut 25mm

short of column-beam joint, so no direct axial load could be applied to the steel tube.

Three levels of constant axial load corresponding to 0.0, 0.l2Ar.'f',,, and 0.76As.f,.,,

were used when the cantilever column was tested under cyclic push and pull at the top. In

contrast to many other researches, significant improvement on ductility was reported for

the steel-tubed columns compared to the normal RC column without steel tube. Outward

bulging of steel tube due to crushing and dilation of concrete was observed in the

potential plastic hinge region, but it was reported to have no detrimental effect on the

-30
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIE''ü

performance of the column. The performance of these CFT columns appears similar to

those steel caged columns with pretension in the hoop reported bv


þritsos/ @n ¡
However, it was not mentioned in the report that any measure such as expansive concrete

was used to apply pretension in the steel tube. Similar test results were reported by the
5
same author in another paper (Aboutaha 2000) with axial load level of 0.25A-.f", and
Às
o.36As. f",,.

-31-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEW RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEW RETROFIT SCHEME OF

COMPOSITE PLATING

In the study of column retrofitting, most attention in the literature was focused on

providing confinement to the core concrete. However, due to the congenital property of

the rectangular shape, it is difficult for a rectangular jacket to achieve a confinement

which is as effective as that from a circular jacket. Therefore, the possibility of using

different retrofitting measures that are not dependent on confinement is explored in this

work. As shear retrofitting is not a problem with rectangular shaped RC columns, the

research focus is placed on columns with defectìve flexural performances that is, plastic

hinge failure modes. The major problern with the plastic hinge failure mode is concrete

crushing under large flexural strain. Therefore, the enhancement of the compressive

resistance will be a prime Target of a retrofitting design. Because of this reason, and also

as an initial attempt towards this direction, a new composite partial-interaction plating

scheme, as introduced in Section 3.1, is investigated in this work.

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF A NEW SCHEME

The new retrofit system is illustrated in Fig.3.l. With this new scheme, steel or FRP

plates are bolted to the opposite faces of a rectangular column as in Fig.3.l(a) and (d). It

is therefore suitable for rectangular columns because of their flat surfaces. The L-shaped

corner of the plate, as shown in Fig.3.l(c), is designed to provide compressive continuity

- -)z -
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

and tensile discontinuity of the plate across the joint as illustrated in Fig.3.l(b). When the

lateral force F is to the left as shown, the restraint at the bottom of the left hand plate acts

as fixed as in Fig.3.l(b). In contrast, the right hand plate can rise as shown in Fig.3.l(c)

with a comparatively small tensile restraint as indicated by the spring in Fig.3.l(b).

Reversal of the force -F, such as occurs under seismic loading, simply reverses the

restraint conditions.

N N
,1,
<J RC column
d
I I
Steelplate

Column bolts

oundation bolts

fixed e
A Tension
(a) Actuat (b) Ioealisea stiffness
+0
Comer of plate
opening up under

!L
I
tension
L=
(c) o"tuil a. (d)c.oss-section I-I

Fig. 3.1 Composite plating system of RC columns

This novel retrofitting system has the following characteristics andlor advantages:

1. It increases the capacity of the compressive resistance of the column. The bearing of

the steel plate at the corner can transmit additional compressive force from the

column to the joint, thereby increase the compressive resistance of the column which

-JJ.
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

is a major defect for RC columns with the potential plastic hinge failure mode. The

increase in the compressive resistance in the column delays the onset of concrete

crushing hence increases the lateral deformation capacity.

2. It provides a minimal increase in the tension capacity of the column. The tensile

resistance of the tension plate is limited as a result of the "flexible" tension

connection of the plate to the joint. The increase in tension capacity of a cross-section

is not desirable from a ductility point of view. The reason is that it will offset the

additional compressive resistance of a cross-section gained from the compression

plate. In addition, the momenl capacity of the column will be significantly increased

if significant tensile resistance is provided in the tension plate. An increase in moment

resistance in a column is not always desirable as it may transmit additional load to the

foundation structures (Priestley et al. 1994b). Of course, if the objective of retrofitting

is to increase the strength (moment resistance) of the column, it can also be achieved

by moving the foundation bolts closer to the face of the column.

3. It provides a flexible partial interaction between the plate and the RC column through

the bolt connections. The stiffness of the additional compressive resistant system, that

helps to stop or delay concrete crushing, depends on the stiffness of the steel plate as

well as the stiffness of the bolts. It will be shown later in this work that proper

handling ofthis system stiffness can be used to achieve different design purposes.

While confinement jacketing makes use of the transverse (circumferential)


strength of plates, composite steel plating makes use of the steel plate strength in the

other direction - longitudinal direction of the column. The longitudinal plate strength was

purposely avoided or minimized by many researchers previously from a concern that it

-34-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

might increase the flexural resistance of the retrofitted column that would in turn apply

additional load to the foundations (Priestley et al. 1994b). However, from this study it has

been observed (see Chapter 5 and 12) that by proper design of the composite plating

system, it is possible to manage the longitudinal strength of steel plates in order to serve

the following two purposes:

L lncrease both the strength and ductility of an RC column; or

2. lncrease only the ductility without affecting the strength of a column.

3.2 COMPOSITE PLATING MECHANISM

The mechanism by which the above plating system improves the deformation

capacity/ductility of the column is illustrated by considering the equilibrium of forces and

compatibility of strains at a cross-section of the column, as shown in Fig.3.2.

N".

ec er

Nplr f[sç N"on"


Nit

I
Coricrete stress distribution

Centroid of RC section

reinforcernent bars

Concrete
Plate

Fig.3.2 Forces on cross-section

-35-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

The tension plate is ignored in this analysis for the reason mentioned in Section

3.1. Bending in the plate is also ignored in Fig.3.2 due to its negligible contribution to the

total flexural moment of the column cross-section ((El)ptut << (EI)nc corumn). From

Fig.3.2, the following relation for axial loads is obtained

N = N pr,lN"on" +¡y'"" -N"/ (3.1)

in which N,,,,, is the axial force applied to the concrete only; Nnt, is the axial force on

the plate; N,,. and N", are the axial forces from the compression and tension

reinforcement bars respectively; and l/ is the total axial force or applied external axial

load of the cross-section. For a special case in which both the compression and tension

reinforcement bars yield before column failure and in which the column is symmetrically

reinforced, the following relation applies

Nr. = Nr, (3.2)

Therefore, Eq.3. 1 becomes

N:Npt,*Nror, (3.3)

The strain distributions at failure are shown in Fig.3.3(b) for the unplated and in

Fig.3.3(c) for the plated column. It is assumed that the column fails when the strain at the

extreme fiber of the compression zone reaches an ultimate value á",, (the strain at

complete crushing or zero strength is chosen, see further discussion in Chapter 7). From

Eq.3.3 and for the case of an RC column without a plate, the total axial load is resisted by

the concrete alone as in Fig.3.3(b). Whereas, and in contrast for the columns with a plate,

part of the axial load is transmitted to the plate as in Fig.3.3(c). Therefore, the axial force

on the concrete is reduced.

-36-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEVY RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

Nplt N"on"

(a)Force in the section

N"nn" : N

Concrete stress profile


Ciu
: f.o Tensile rebar õs1

a
Compressive rebar
strain tsc
Strain profile A
(wilhout plate)

(b)Stress-strain without plate


N"on.: N
Concrete stress profile

Strain profile A
c(rC U (without plate)
f.o

Strain of plate

Concrete strain profile B


(with plate)
Kb> Kâ

(c)Stress-strain with plate

Fig. 3.3 Strain profile and stress block in the cross-section

-37 -
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

Comparing Figs.3.3(b) and 3.3(c), it can be seen that when the axial force in the

concrete or the area of the concrete stress block reduces, the compression zone depth x

reduces, as the height of the concrete stress block l" is the same for both cases. For a

certain ultimate strain ár,, at the compressive face, reduction of the compressive zone

depth x means an increase in the ultimate curvature of the cross section, from ç to rc6

('.'¡r = e,,,lx) as shown. Therefore, the curvature capacity of the cross-section is


increased due to the existence of a plate.

From the above analysis, it can be seen that the reason for steel plating to increase

the deformation capacity of an RC column is because the plate attracts part of the axial

load and, hence, reduces the axial load on the RC column.

Although the above analysis is based on the assumptions associated with 8q.3.2

and the criteria that the column fails when the ultimate compressive strain is achieved in

the compressive face, the conclusion that plating the compression face increases the

deformation capacity of RC columns is general. This is because the steel plate in the

compression face generally reduces the axial load in the RC column, and reducing the

axial load on an RC column will increase the deformation capacity of the column. The

observation that the deformation capacity/ductility decreases rapidly when axial load

increases is well documented in the literature from both experimental and numerical

studies (Berwanger 1975; Sheikh and Khoury 1993; Watson and Park 1994; Watson et al.

1994;Bayrak and Sheikh 1997).

The above analysis provides a fundamental mechanism for the plating system to

enhance the deformation capacity of the plastic hinge in an RC column. Detailed

-38-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

numerical, mathematical and experimental studies will be conducted in the following

chapters to further investigate this system. However, limitations and assumptions apply in

these studies as described in the next section.

3.3 LIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

As the initial step toward retrofitting RC columns by composite plating, the work

reported in this thesìs began from first principles. Considering the given time frame, it is

therefore necessary to apply the following limitations and restrictions to both the
theoretical and experimental work:

1. The study focuses on the plastic hinge failure mode. The shear failure mode has

effectively been resolved previously by jacketing, and the lap splice failure of

longitudinal bars is also beyond the scope of this work.

2. The study is limited to the flexural behavior of the cantilever column shown in

Fig.3.l where the deformation occurs inside the loading plane. Therefore, only single-

axis (one-way) bending about the principal axis is considered. This means that the

conclusions drawn from this work are immediately applicable only to uni-directional

columns and frames that are restricted to move predominately in one direction. This

often occurs in bridge columns or in buildings that are stiffened in the other direction

by strong shear walls. The cantilever model can represent either a cantilever bridge

column or a typical portion of a column in sway frdmes from the point of contra-

flexure near the column mid-height to the point of maximum bending moment. From

this point of view, the cantilever model can represent a typical part of a general

column in a frame.

-39-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEV/ RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

3. Steel plates are only placed on the compression and tension faces. Side plated

columns where the lateral load F is parallel to the plane of the steel plates and

columns that are plated on all four faces are beyond the scope of this study.

4. All the results from this study are based on the following loading sequence. Firstly,

the plates are installed to the unloaded column. Secondly, the axial load is applied to

the centroid of the RC cross-section at the top and held constant thereafter. Finally,

the lateral load that varies subsequently in magnitude and direction throughout the

loading process is applied to the same point on top of the column as the axial load. In

practice, the axial load (even some lateral load) is applied to the column before the

installation of a retrofitting system. However, numerical simulations predicted that

the difference in response between a column that is retrofitted before axial loading

and a column that is axially loaded before retrofitting is minimal. Therefore, no other

loading sequences are considered in this study.

5. The width of the plates is the same as that of the RC column, for convenience of

study.

Further assumptions applicable only to the theoretical studies are:

l) The RC column is prismatic, having the same rectangular concrete cross section,

longitudinal reinforcement layout and material properties along its entire length. The

lateral confinement to the concrete due to variation of stirrup spacing along its length

is allowed.

-40-
CHAPTER 3 STUDY OF A NEW RETROFIT SCHEME OF COMPOSITE PLATING

2) Bernoulli's principle that plain sections remain plain applies to the RC section and the

plate sections, separately. That is, the relative movement, or slip, between the plates

and the RC column is permitted.

3) Perfect bond is assumed to exist between the longitudinal reinforcement and concrete.

4) Shear strain is neglected in the calculation of displacements.

5) No transverse separation occurs between the RC column and the plate on the contact

interface. Therefore, the curvatures for the RC column and the plates are the same at

each cross-section. This assumption is based on the observation that little, if any,

separation occurs when bolts are placed sufficiently close. While in reality some

separation occurs between two adjacent bolts, the overall average deformed shapes of

the plates and the RC column are almost identical.

Detailed studies on this new retrofìt scheme are described in the following
chapters, which include numerical, mathematical and experimental works as mentioned

in Section 1.2.

-41 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

The numerical models developed to simulate the response of the composite plated RC

columns shown in Fig.3.l are presented in this chapter. This numerical model and the

corresponding computer program named "PLTCOL" aÍe specifically developed to

analyze this type of composite structure as no existing software can be used for the

purpose of this study. The computer program is required to have the following functions:

o It is able to simulate the response of a plated cantilever column, loaded as shown in

Fig.4.1, for both ascending and descending (softening) response branches, as well as

under quasi-static cyclic loading.

o Material and geometric (Eqs. 4.41 and 4.42) non-linearities are allowed in the

program.

o P-A effect is catered for.

o It is able to model the formation of a plastic hinge in the column at the large
deformation stage.

o It is able to model the lateral confinement to concrete produced by stirrups.

o It is able to model the partial interaction, or slip, at the interface between the plates

and the RC column.

Based on these requirements, a segmental layered method is used for the

numerical modeling. This method basically discretises the cantilever column into a series

-42-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

of independent cross-sections along its length, as shown in Fig.4.l. Each cross-section is

further divided into many sub-sections as shown in Figs.4.2 and 4.3. The instantaneous

moment-curvature relation of each cross-section is established at each loading step by

integration of all the forces in the sub-sections that retain their individual loading history

throughout the process to allow for full non-linear modeling. The curvature of all sections

along the column length is integrated to obtain the deflection of the column. Details of

this procedure are presented separately in the following sections.

Áe
i
I 1
N
Section 0
rF
tt ÀLr
I Section I
I
t
I
I L¡
t
I A¡
¡
I Section i- l
¡
AL¡

0i ¡ Section i L
¡
t
I
¡
¡
I
n-l
Fixed end
^L
Section n

Fig. 4.1 Numerical model of the cantilever column

The cross-sectional analysis to get the moment-curvature relation of a cross-

section is firstly presented in Section 4.1.k is followed bythe derivation in Section 4.2of

the mathematical formulas for integrating the curvatures to get the deflection. Simple

numerical tests are performed in Sections 4.3 to establish the minimum refinement of

-43-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

meshes for an allowable error margin due to discretisations. The procedures to calculate

the response of an RC cantilever column with full interaction plating, where the slip at

the interface is considered zero, is presented in Section 4.4. Finally, in Section 4.5 the

methodology and procedure to calculate the response of the partial interaction (where

slip*O) plated columns is introduced.

The assumptions and limitations as detailed in Section 3.3 apply in the

development of the numerical model.

4.1 CROSS-SECTIONAL ANALYSIS

4.1.1 Discretisation of Cross-Sections

The typical cross-sectional layout considered in this study is shown inFig.4.2, where all

plate thicknesses are assumed to be the same.

a. t
Reinforcement
a
layer I
Top plate

Concrete
O O

D side plate side plate


Reinforcement
a. o. layer i
t
Anchor bolt
Rebar layer n
, Bottom plate

Fig.4.2 Typical cross section

-44-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

The reinforcement bars are modeled by "n" layers of steel with the positions of

the first and last layer allocatedat'a'distance away from the face of concrete, as shown

in Fi9.4.2. The internal layers of the reinforcement are assumed to be equally spaced in

between the first and last layers. Each reinforcement layer can have a different area of

steel. Plates can be placed on any of the 4 column faces. The top and bottom plates can be

bolted (allowing slip) or glued (preventing slip) to the concrete faces. The side plates can

only be glued to the concrete face q/the current model


'rh
To model non-linear stress distributions, the cross section is discretised into

horizontal layers and vertical slices, as shown in Fig.4.3(a). The strain distribution of the

cross-section is modeled with the discretised distribution shown in Fig.4.3(b).

1 NR slice I slice
ì.
" NLp layers

X
d
Neutral
AXIS
-..-t
NLc layers K (qrvúrc)

' NLo lavers ,'


^r

(a) Discretised section (b) Discretised strain distribution

Fig. 4.3 Discretisation of the cross-section

-45-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

The strain at each layer is calculated at the center of that layer and assumed to be

a constant for the entire layer. The concrete section is equally divided into NLc numbers

of layers as shown in Fig.4.3(a). In order to account for the bending moment in the plate,

the top and bottom plates are also equally divided into NLp numbers of layers with

smaller thickness than that for the concrete layers. To allow for variations of concrete

properties at the same layer due to variations in lateral confinement (confrnement level is

different at different points inside the cross-section), the concrete cross-section is further

divided into NR vertical slices. The vertical slicing is not applicable to the steel plate.

The strain at layer number 'i' is given by

Ê,=(x+a,-ll.o (4.1)

in which ¡cis the curvature of the cross-section;x is the neutral axis depth from the top of

the concrete section; d, is the distance from the center of the layer to the centroid of the

concrete section, as shown in Fig.4.3. The stresses for the concrete, reinforcement and

plate are calculated corresponding to the respective strains and using their respective non-

linear stress-strain models as described in Sections 4.1.2 and 4.1.3.

The axial force of the section, which is assumed to remain constant, is given by

the summation of forces in all the discretised areas (sub-sections) of the concrete,

reinforcing bars and plates

N = Nr,,rr* Nourr N
r,,
NLc NR ,, (NI4),,,,,+(Nl.p)¡,, y!," f¿,.2a)
= Il=l fIi-l A,u .o,¡¡) *2A,,.d,¡ * LAr, .o +lAr.,, .o
p¡ r.,,
¡=t ¡=1 ¡=l

-46-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

B H
where A,, = ¡/À.NLc is the area of one discretised sub-section of concrete and o c¡ lS

the concrete stress at the corresponding sub-section; A-, and o*¡ are the area and stress of

layer 'i' reinforcement, respectively. The 3'd term in F.q.4.2a is for the top and bottom

plates where An, is the sub-area given by Ar,: B'tlNLp and or, is the stress of the

corresponding sub-section. The subscripts 'top' and 'bot.' denote the top and bottom

plate, respectively. The fourth term is for the side plates, where An,, is the sub-area given

by A0,,, =2t' D I NLc (Ap,, = t'D I NLc if one side plated only), and o u,, is the stress at

the corresponding sub-area.

The moment at the cross-section is given by taking moment of the forces in each

sub-section with respect to the centroid of the cross-section

M=M(on( +M,Dor +M, PtI

Nl,c Nll n (NLP )øe+(Nl'p),", NLc

= IfI A,u' o,u)' d, *2A,,' o.,,. d, + ZAr, .o


ni
.di +lAr,, .õ p,i .d,
¡=1 j=1 ¡=t i=l i=l
(4.2b)

4.1.2 Stress-Strain Model for Concrete

Two stress-strain models are used for the concrete in this work. The first model is a

simple triangular model that is mainly used to corelate the numerical results to the

analytical results where the simplif,red stress-strain model is adopted. Another more

complicated model is used for the numerical simulation in order to model the response of

an actual column more accurately.

-47 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

The stress-strain behavior of normal-strength concrete tied columns has been

extensively studied in the literature (Sinha etal. 1964; Karsan and Jirsa 1969; Popovics

1970&.1973; Kent and Park 1971; Park et al. 1972;Desayi et al. 1979; Muguruma et al.

1980; Sheikh and Uzumeri 1980&1982; Ahmad and Shah 1982; Maher and Darwin

1982; Park et al. 1982; Shah et al. 1983; Yankelevsky and Reinhardt 1987; Mander et al.

1988a&b; Fujii et al. 1988; Razvi and Saatcioglu 1989; Saatcioglu. and Razvi 1992;

Madas and Elnashai 1992; Pekau et al. 1992; El-Dash and Ahmad 1994&.1995;

Almusallam and Alsayed 1995; Attard and Setunge 19961. Martinez-Rueda and Elnashi

1997; Hoshikuma ef al. 1997; Bahn and Hsu 1998; Spoelstra and Monti 1999; Sakai and

Kawashima 2000). The non-linear stress-strain model proposed by Mander et al. (1988a)

accounts for lateral confinement effects due to the transverse reinforcement. This model

has been extensively tested against experimental data and appears to be the most widely

accepted and used in the literature for the steel confined concrete (confinement is

provided from steel elements such as stirrups). The advantage of this model is that its

simple and explicit form minimizes the computational effort. As the confinement

considered in this work is only from the lateral reinforcement or stirrups, Mander's model

is considered adequate and hence adopted.

4.1.2.1 Triangular model

The simple triangular model is an idealized stress-strain relationship as shown inFig.4.4,

in which a linear relation is used for both ascending and softening branches of the stress-

strain curve. The tensile strength is ignored. The vertical axis .{, and horizontal axis e.

specify the stress and strain of concrete, respectively. The strength of the concrete is

-48-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

denoted by f",, with the corresponding strain at the maximum strength given by e...,. The

ultimate strain of the concrete is given by t,,, at which the concrete is completely crushed

with zero strength. The elastic modulus of concrete is given by E" used for the slope of

the loading/unloading branches, and E', gives the slope of the post-peak softening branch

as shown in Fig.4.4.

(e*,f")
f" envelope curve

unloading/reloading
branch

(t.,, tc

Fig. 4.4ldealized stress-strain model of the concrete

4.1.2.2 Mander's model

Mander's model is illustrated in Fig.4.5 and is described in detail from Section

4.1.2.2.11o Section 4.1.2.2.5. Minor modifications have been made to the original model

due to some subtle problems in using the original model. These modifications will be

introduced, along with a detailed discussior.r/ of Mander's model, in the following


sections.

-49-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

Confined Ftrsl
\U hoop
14
frc f roct
{4
q,

(/)
q,
fro
l/l
ed
t4
\a-
G,

E r
I
Er cc

Compressive Stroin ,€c

Fig.4.5 Mander's model

4. 1.2.2. I Monotonic compression looding

The monotonic compression loading curve, as shown in Fig.4.5, is given by

-f"
f ,, .x., (4.3)
r-l+x'
where

o^
| = ---)- (4.4)
€""

t"" = €"o .'[ f", _7 (4.s)


[' f,,, )l

.f,, = .f"oet.254 + 2.254 t +7.94f t' _zLt_l (4.6)


f." -f",,'

E"
(4.7)
E, - Er""

n, = 5000th, MPa (4.8)

-50-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

and

-f""
E r.. (4.e)
cc

ln Equations 4.3 to 4.9, f"o and eco represent the unconfined concrete strength and

corresponding strain, respectively, and f", and €," denote the confined concrete strength

and corresponding strain, respectively fì is the effective lateral confining pressure due

to the lateral reinforcement. Mander et al. (1988a) and Watson,Zahn and Park (1994)

proposed a series of formulae to calculate the effective confining pressure for circular and

rectangular cross sections for various arrangements of transverse reinforcement.

By specifying different f,, values at different sub-sections of a cross-section, the

general configuration of confining zones can be accounted for in the cross-sectional

analysis. This will be illustrated in Section 4.4.3.

4.1.2.2.2 Unloading branches of compression loading

The compression branch unloading is modeled as shown in Fig.4.6, which is given by

f": f,,'x'r
f,, r-7+x' (4.r 0)

where

E,
r (4.1l)
E, - Er""

E -fu,
(4.12)

-51-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

c
uc _c urn
-- - (4.13)

r¡ - €r,n

E, = b'c' 8" (4.14)

b=
f"' ,-7 (4.1s)
.f
",,

05
I cc
C= <l (4.16)
a

c-c
upl -uun (4.17)

to=o e .c (4.18)

and

€"" 0.O9s iln


or whichever greqter (4.1e)
tr" I trn 8",

F"l
lEØ,fun)

E€

l+r

Fig. 4.6 Un-loading model

-52-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

in which .fu, and t,,,, are the stress and strain at the onset of unloading branch,

respectively.

4. 1.2.2.3 Compression reloading branches

A linear stress-strain relation, shown inFig.4.7, is adopted to model the reloading branch

between the reloading strain t,o and 8,,n, and is given by

-f, = fru+ E,(t,-t,,,) (4.20)

where

E f ,,, - .f ,"" (4.21)


c _c
ro iln

and

-f ,"u, = 0.92 f,,,, + 0.08t, (4.22)

lfcl

kL!
-7'E
* l""l !-
(€un,lun) A---. C €r" ,1")
leun,f *n)

B (s,n,,fi"*)

Ept It.l

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.7 Re-loading model

-53-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

The parabolic transition curve between the linear reloading branch and the

monotonic stress-strain envelope curve, i.e. curve from point B to C in Fig.4.7(b), is

given by

f" = f,."rU,".x+ A.x2 (4.23)

where

x= Ec - €re Ø.24)

8 r" = tr,,, +
.fu, - f u",, (4.2s)
E,Q+*)

and

E, - 8,"
A (4.26)
- 4l(f ,,",,, - .f ,") - E, (€,,,, - t,)]

in which 8,, is the return point modulus of elasticity on the monotonic stress-strain

curve

The original model by Mander et al (1988a) gives unreasonable results at the

transition curve with two apparent problems. Firstly, the common retum point C

calculated wirh F,q.4.25 is irrational for the following reason. If we extend the linear
reloading path with the same slope E, from point B to point E which is at the same level

as the unloading point D, as shown inFig.4.7(b), it can be seen that the strain at point E is

given by

ttì = trr*Ag = ,,,r+4 Ø.27)


L,

-54-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

{{
rvhere ¡r-Jm Jneu'
Substituting Ae into 8q.4.25 gives
E,

tr"=t,nlLt=Êr,,

': f,, > f,


f
.'.2+"" >3
f"
,
or ar.. < _A,t:
a
J

From the above relation and Fig.4.7(b) it can be seen that F.q.4.25 gives a return strain

Ê,", i.e. the x co-ordinate of the common return point C, within I 13 of DE from point D.

This return point is therefore usually on line DA to the left of point A (A is the
intersection of DC and BE). The purpose of this parabolic transition curve is to account

for the cyclic degradation. When the common return point is to the left of point A, the

stress-strain curve is not degraded, instead it is 'upgraded'. This return point is therefore

unreasonable. Furthermore it gives an unreasonable shape of the transition curve.

This same difficulty has been noted by other researchers in applying this model.

Elnashai andElghazouli (1993) found that the transition curve of Mander's model "gives

occasionally stresses that exceed the envelope curve, a straight line possing through

(e,n,-fn"*), and having a reduced slope was thereþre used (from point B to C in

Fig.4.7(b))". Actually, based on the above analysis, the transition curve of the original

Mander's model gives erroneous result more than "occasionqlly". However, using a

straight line to connect point B to C is acceptable because the transition curve is only a

very small part of the total curve and will only have minor effect y/neoverall behavior.
'ç1

-55-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

Actually a simple solution exists to provide a nice smooth transition curve by

moving á'" from left side of point A to the right side of point A with the following

revision r.o 8q.4.25

6rc=ttn+
.fun - .f n"n, (4.28)
E,
.f"o

This revised reloading branch produces a nice and smooth transition, as will be seen later

from Fig.4.l0.

The second problem with Mander's original model is that the value of 8,." is not

given and the coefficient A given by 8q.4.26 is incomect. The transition curve must

satisfy three conditions based on Mander's original model: (l) it must pass through point
B; (2) it must pass through point C; and (3) it is tangent to the monotonic curve at point

C. These three conditions can used to determine the three coefficients .f,", 8," andAin

8q.4.23, which gives

f", r I cc
-f,o (4.2e)
r-l+
a )'

E r 8."" (4.30)
õ
r-l+ r -1+
c

)' € cc )J,
and

-56-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

(4.3 r )

The coeff,rcient A given by Eq.4.3l is clearly different from Mander's originalEq.4.26

4.1.2.2.4 Tensile stress model

The tensile stress is modeled by Fig.4.8 in Mander's model. For monotonic loading

when "f, <.f,


,., -Jt,'t,
- otherwise
(4.32)
lo

where I is the tensile strength of concrete under monotonic loading. To account for the

deterioration of the tensile strength due to pre-loading in compression, the following

relations are used in Mander's model

lfcl

fcc
--

ft t.l
Er

Fig. 4.8 Mander's tensile stress model

-f,=8,.(c,-trr) (433)

E "f,, (4.34)
8t

-57 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

t f, (4.3s)
E a

Ept
when €ot 3t,,
f,, =-f, c
cc (4.36)
0 when tpt >t",

When the tensile strength is exceeded, cracks open and the tensile strength for all

subsequent loading is assumed to be zero.

This tension model sometimes causes problems in numerical calculations, e.g.

when searching for the neutral axis of a cross section. The sudden drop of the tensile

stress when the tensile strength is reached can cause non-convergence of the searching

algorithm due to this non-continuity. To improve the convergence behavior,

modifications to the above model are made with reference to the tension model by Rots et

al. (CEB report 1996). Rots' model is shown in Fig.4.9(a). The modified model used in

this work is given in Fig.4.9(b).

fc
f"
2tt
%
;_--.-, tc

tc

ft

(a) Tension modelby Rots et al. (b) Modified tensile stress model

Fig. 4.9 Modification to Mander's tension model

-58-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

In the modified model, the values of t,, er, and .f,, in the modified model are the same
as that in Mander's model. Each time the peak of the tensile curve is passed, the

remaining tensile strength drops, e.g. if the previous tension loading goes along the path

A-B-C-D-E, the next tensile loading will go along D-F path.

4.1.2.2.5 Example of the modified Mander's model

A typical stress-strain curve from Mander's model with the modifications to the transition

curve and the tension model is shown in Fig.4.l0. The following parameters were used to

produce this curve: f,,, = 44MPa, t,n = 0.002, .f,, : 48MPa, f, :8.0MPa .

60

50

40

30
Stress
(N)
20

10

2 008-03 4 00E 03 6.00E,03 B00E-03 l00E-02

-10

Strain

Fig.4.l0 Typical stress-strain curve of the modified Mander's model

4.1.3 Stress-Strain Model for Steel

For a similar reason to that for concrete, one simple and one sophisticated non-linear

model is used as the constitutive relation for steel elements which include reinforcing

bars and steel plates.

-59-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.1.3.1 ldealized bi-linear model

The idealized bi-linear model is shown in Fig.4.l1. This model is mainly used for the

steel plates. It is also used for reinforcing bars when verifications between numerical and

mathematical results are made, where the simple stress-strain relation is used for both

numerical and mathematical analyses.

(ev

Es

Fig.4.l I ldealized bi-linear model of steel

4.1.3.2 Menegotto-Pinto model

The Menegotto-Pinto model, with modifications by Filippou et al. (Gomes and Appleton

1997; CEB report 1996), is shown in Fig.4.12 and is given by 8q.4.37.

(4.37)

where

o-o
o (4.38)
õu-4,

+ oc_ c
or
(4.3e)
c
(rr-c

-60-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

and

R=R - *t 5
n -F
(re (4.40)
dz*Ç

in which oand áare stress and strain of the steel respectively; oo and to ate the stress

and strain at the point where the two asymptotes of the branch under consideration meet

(e.g. point A in Fig.4.l2); o, and e, are stress and strain at the point where the last

strain reversal with stress of equal sign took place (e.g. point B in Fig.4.l2); b is the

strain hardening ratio or the ratio between Eo and Ë,,; and rR, given by Eq.4.40, is a

constant taking into account the Baushinger effect. R depends on the absolute value of the

plastic strain of last excursion ( (".g. €, and (, in Fig.4.l2) as well as the material

properties Ro, d, and a, which are experimentally determined parameters.

A b

n(gr)

b ar6
û
ø
F(È) = Âo - az+Ê
o
.tl
.)

D
E
o
.!
t
É
zo
R(ì')

-1 t
ll
l.-
-10 0 t0
Nømalized steel strain €'

Fig.4.l2 Menegotto-Pinto model of steel

-61 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.1.4 Load-Deformation Relation for Bolt Shear Connector

To quantify the interaction between the plates and the RC column, the load deformation

relationship of the connecting agent, i.e. the anchor bolts or shear connectors, has to be

defined. The relation between the lateral load Fo on a bolt and the lateral deformation of

the bolt, or the slip s as shown in Fig.4.l3(a), is actually very complicated. This relation

is not only affected by the geometric and material properties of the bolt, but also related

to the geometric an{ material properties of the concrete and the plate. Because of the

complexities, the load.slip relation is usually determined from experiments. A typical


experimental result by Teh et al. (1999) is shown in Fig.4.13(b).

Similar load-slip tests are conducted in this work (reported in Chapter l0). Based

on the test results, a bi-linear model, similar in shape to that shown in Fig.4.l I , is adopted

in this work. The softening part from point C to D shown in Fig.4.l3(b) is not likely to

occur in a practical column, as the concrete will have crushed long before such a large
slip occurs.

Fu
plate

:-,
RC column
'-
.+ o
)o

30

Slr¡r (mnr)

(a) Slip of bolt (b) Experimental load-slip relation

Fig. 4.13 Typical load-slip relation of an anchor bolt (Teh et al. 1999)

-62-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

4.2 CALCULATION OF DISPLACEMENT

The displacement at the top of the cantilever column can be calculated from the

integration of curvature along its length. In discrete form, the column is divided along its

length into'n' segments as shown in Fig.4.l. The curvatures at section '1' to section 'n'

are then used to calculate the displacement of the cantilever. Different discrete forms of

integration exist in the literature. From numerical tests, some were found to converge

faster (to get certain precision with fewer number of element), others slower. In this

section, equations relating sectional curvatures and deflection are derived which are

found to converge relatively fast.

From fundamental principles (Timoshenko 1955), we know

dv.
0:arctan('dx. ) (4.41)

and

t2
av
1d0 dxt (4.42)
rds
l'..,fr,'l%
in which v is the lateral deflection of the column; dis the rotation of a cross-section;x is

the vertical coordinate; r is the curvature; r is the radius of curvature; and s is the

coordinate along the length. Eqs.4.41 and 4.42 are general equations without
approximation, taking into account large deflections.

-63-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.2.1 Small Deflection

For small deflection, ds*dx, and 0xtan9=dvldx. Eqs.4.4l and 4.42 can then be

simplified to

0--dv (4.43)
dx

de d2v
(4.44)
dx dxt

or

-l

0=0,+[rc dx (4.4s)

v=v,+ l0 dx (4.46)
0

where 0,, and vn aÍe the rotation and deflection at the boundary. For a cantilever without

rotation and deflection at the bottom (fixed end), the top deflection is given by

ao 0 .dx (4.47)
J
0

o= I* -dx
0
(4.48)

In discrete form

0, =tF,. M, =Ë0.t.(rr-, + Kj). LLj= Éo.t .(rc,-ri rc,).LL, (4.4g)


j =t+l

I
I n

Lr=Zd, AT, ã,-M, = )o.s .(0,_,+0,).L,L, (4.50)


¡=l

Substituting 8q.4.49 into Eq.4.50 gives

-64-
CHAPTER 4. NTJMERICAL MODELS

Ao = I0.5 Io.s .(rc.,, +rc,). M, + Io.s . (rc,-, +rc,). LL, ÃT,

-"-
=0.25 Il It",
,.f I ,
, +r,)'LL,l'a.1,+0.25'I ¡-r-Hrc t)' AI AT,
l¡=i i=t j ,=r

(4.51)

Equation 4.51 has double summations that are not convenient to use. It can be

simplified by the following transformation. For the first part of Eq.4.51

L.=0.25' Xtr, +rc) M,

= 0.2 5. k¡ro + K,). N,t + (rc, + rcr)' M,l' N.,


N.+...+ (r,-, +K)' M, +...+ (rc*, +rc,)'

+o.zs.[ (rc,+rcr)-N"+...+(4-r +rc).LL,+...+(r^, +rc!.rc,,1.u,


+...
+o.zs.l (rc,-,+r).Nr+...+(r^, +Ò M,l N,
+...
+0.25. (rc*,+rc).M,1.M,

=0.25-(rco+Kr)-&-LI.+0.25.(a+Kr).N".(M,+N")+...+0.25'(rc,-,+K).&.( h+N"+...+44)
+...+0.25. (rc*, +rc). M,. (N. + N"+...+ +...+ M,)
^4
=0.25.(rco+6).^4.1.+0.25.(rc,+rcr)-N"-1"+...+0.25'(r,r+rc).LL,-Ir+...+0.25-(rc*,+rc)-LL,-L,

=o.zs.f@,-,+K).M,.4

in which L,=ZM¡. Similarly the second part of Eq.4.5l can also be transformed to
j=t

4 =o.zs.Jit *,-,+*¡ u,f u,

n-'l
:0.25.2@, +rc,*r). M,*r. L,

:4, *A¿
"'Ao
n-l
: 0.2 5.2@, _, +rc,). LL, . L, +0.25.1(rc, +rc, u). LL,u L,
.

-65-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

= o.z s. f {c -, +rc,). M, . L, + 0.25.1(rc,


¡=2
-, +rc,). LL,
. L,
-,

let Lo =Q

= 0.25'Ë (rc,-, +rc,) - M, . (L, + L,-r)


^o i=1

I Mi
L,+L,_,
2
(4.s2)

As compared to 8q.4.51,8q.4.52 is simpler and is the form used in this work.

This relation can be illustrated by the geometrical relation as shown in Fig.4.l4, where

6,:fõ0,.L,=f, K¡;+Ki
^o=É 2

Sec. 0

õ02

Sec. I

ô9,

Sec. 2

Sec. 3

Fig.4.l4 Calculation of displacement at top

Equation 4.52 relates the deflection of the column directly to the curvature of

sections instead of relating to rotation of cross-sections that is then related to curvature. lt

-66-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

simplifies the programming procedure and calculations. It is also found to converge


relatively faster as compared to the expression given in Eq.4.53 which is sometime used

by others.

n
a^o =10,.LL, (4.s3)

4.2.2 Large Deflection

Large deflections refer to the largely deformed shapes where it is not accurate to use the

simplifications of ds = dx, and 0 x tan0 : dv / dx. In this case, the exact expressions

of 8q.4.41 and 4.42 must be used. Therefore

,{

0- Irc-ds (4.54a)
0

and

sino = L (4.s4b)
ds

From Eq.4.54b

II
4 = ldv: [sino.ds
r=0 0

In discrete form, the following relations can be derived with reference to Fig.4.l5

which represents a typical segment from section i-1 (point A) to section i (point B).

Ao = É Lu,=f AB,.sint, *f AB,.sino'-,+o' (4.5sa)


i=t r=ì i=r 2

e .-Ê
AB,=2.(R. si¡:-i:1----!-) = 1.sin '
) (+) .sin1LrL-e,) (4.55b)
ltc 2 Ki_t+K, 2

-67 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

Based onEq.4.54a, the discrete form to calculate d, is still given by 8q.4.49. Therefore,

deflections shall be calculated by 8qs.4.49 and 4.55a&b when large deformations are

involved.

ê'

Fig. 4.15 Large deflection

4.2.3 Formation of Plastic Hinge

When the column member is in an elastic deformation stage, the deflection of the

cantilever column can be calculated by the formulae given in the previous 2 sections. In

this case, the calculated deflection result will not be sensitive to the choice of the

segmental length A,L, (i:I-n) as long as enough segments, or a fine enough mesh, is

used. However, this is not the case when a plastic hinge forms. Once the inelastic

deformation stage is reached, only the bottom cross-section can pass the peak (point A of

the moment-curvature curve shown in Fig.4.l6) and proceed onto the descending part of

the curve. All other cross-sections above the bottom section will go along their unloading

-68-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

paths from some point to the left of A as shown in Fig.4.l6 after the bottom section

passes its peak. This is because the reduction of moment in the bottom cross-section

reduces the moment of all the other sections above the base which are linearly related for

the cantilever column. Therefore, further increases in deformation of the cantilever can

only come from the deformation of the column at the bottom part, namely the plastic

hinge region.

Moment

Mt
--ascè-nTing
descending
branch bra¡lch
path

path

Curvature

Fig.4.l6 Typical curvature-moment relation of an RC section

This plastic hinge region must have a certain length, because deformation of a

cross-section with zero longitudinal length will not produce an overall deflection and

hence no further deflection after the peak point can be predicted which is certainly not

true in practice. This analysis is consistent with engineering experience that when large

inelastic deformations occur, the inelastic deformation concentrates in small areas or


plastic hinge zones in the vicinity of peak moment zones (Paulay and Priestley 1992).

The deformation of the plastic hinge is an extremely complicated subject.

However, it can be simply modeled by applying the curvature of the bottom cross-section

-69-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

to a certain length or the plastic hinge length 2,, (Priestley and Park 1987) which might

be calculated for a cantilever column by

Zn =0.08'L+6'do (4.s6a)

where Z is the cantilever length shown in Fig.4.l and dh is the diameter of the
longitudinal bars. Amendment to Eq.4.56a was made by Paulay and Priestley (1992) that

took the form

2,, = 0.08' L + 0.022' .f,,' d n (4.56b)

For convenience of discussion, 8q.4.52 is changed to

o,:|.'+u'*,'t' ')t' =à@,,L*"\l +L


where it can be seen that the curvature of the bottom cross-section is applied to half the

AL,
length of the last segment by F.q.4.52. This half-length of the last segment where the
2

bottom curvature r,, is applied to is essentially the plastic hinge length Ln if 8q.4.52 is

used. In this case, the choice of length for the last segment will directly affect the result

of the deflection, which is certainly undesirable. This problem is solved by a simple

modificationLoEq.4.52 that applies the curvature of the bottom cross-section to a plastic

hinge length that is calculated using either 8q.4.56a or 4.56b. The curvature of the

adjacent section or section r-1 is then applied to an adjusted length of M:'-' +A1.,-L,
"2
M"!M'.
instead to the original length
"2 of For convenience, the bottom curvature is

applied to the plastic hinge length regardless of whether the plastic hinge has formed or

not in this work.

-70-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

4.2.4 Base Rotation

It is assumed in the previous sections that the cantilever column is perfectly fixed at the

bottom, or 0,,:0 in Eq.4.45. However, this is seldom the case. The cantilever column

may have a base rotation fl which is not zero, and which is caused by pulling out of the

tension bars and pushing in of the compression bars relative to the fixed base under

flexural loading, as shown in Fig.4.l7a. This base rotation may have a significant effect

on the calculated displacement of the column. Of course, this base rotation depends on

the anchorage method of the reinforcing bars.

In fact, the base rotation was considered in the calculation of the plastic hinge

length in F.q.4.56a by Priestley and Park (1987). The additional rotation in the plastic

hinge due to the base deformation was allowed for in the second term of Eq.4.56aby 6dn

which was attributed to "yield penetration" into the base. The first term of 0.08.2 in
8q.4.56a was obviously due to the plastic deformation of the column itself. In their

original model, all plastic rotation from both the column and base was considered to be

accounted for by applying the plastic curvature at the bottom section to the plastic hinge

length calculated with Eq.4.56a. This plastic rotation was then concentrated into the

center of the plastic hinge that was above the fixed base. Based on this concept, the

curvature distribution is modeled with Fig.4.l7b in this numerical model.

However, it is found from the numerical simulations in Section 12.2.2 that the
theoretical response curves based on the model (Fig.a.l7b) do not agree well with the

experimental curves. This discrepancy is found to be caused by the shifting up of the base

-71 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

rotation, which actually takes place at the bottom of the column, to the center of the

plastic hinge in Fig. .l7b.

reinforcing
bars
column column
before after
loading loading

0
a

column fixed SE column


base line base
a
a

(a) Base rotation

c
Lo¡
Fixed end base line E
without yield with yield
penetratton penetration

(b) Curvature distribution A (c) curvature distribution B

Fig. 4.17 Calculation of base rotation

If the same plastic hinge length Ln inEq.4.56a and Fig.4.17b is now split into

two parts of L,,,,:0.08¿ which is above the base and L,,r,:6do which is belowthe base,

as shown in Fig.4.l7c, the calculated rotations at point T in Fig.4.l7b and c, as given by

72-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

the shaded areas, will be different. Obviously, the model of Fig.4.l7c gives an extra

rotation at cross-section T that is equal to the area of ABCG. This means these two

different models give different response curves with the same plastic hinge length.

Obviously the model of Fig.4.l7c gives a larger displacement.

When the fixed end rotation is significant, it is found in numerical simulations


that model Fig.4.17b cannot reflect the actual distribution of deformation and will not

give an accurate response curve even if the plastic hinge length is adjusted arbitrarily

(changing plastic hinge length to check it's effect on the response curve). This will be
iv.
,."n tJq¡h" numerical simulations in Section 12.2.2.In contrast, the fixed end rotation is

adequately accounted for by the model of Fig.4.l7c, where the plastic hinge is split into

the two parts of Lrn and Zru which are given by

L
r, = 0.08' L (4.56c)

Lr6 :6'dt, or Lr6 :0.022' fr,'du (4.56d)

where the fixed end rotation is now given by 0,=K,.Ln6 which is the rotation at the

base. The fixed end rotation or yield penetration into the support has also been

experimentally observed in this work as shown by Fig.l I .10.

4.3 NUMERICAL CONVERGENCE TESTS

The following numerical tests are conducted to check the convergence and accuracy of

the proposed numerical models. The tests consist of a

lO0mm(depth)x50mm(breadth)xlOO0mm(length) steel cantilever column with

E,:200000 S\lmm2), f,:250 Q\lmm2 ), and no axial load applied.

-73 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

l. Test No.l - Identifying the number of layers required for discretisation of a cross-

section.

For the cantilever column with a bottom curvature of ¡r: I .5 x l0-s, the maximum

strain in the column is given by á,,u* = r x 50 = 7.5 x 10-a <

sy=2501200000 =1.25x10-3. Therefore the member is in a linear elastic state. In

this case, the moment at the bottom is calculated to be

M = E.I.r = 1.25x10?(Nmm), where EI:8.3333x l0r'.

The numerical results from the program "PLTCOL", using different numbers of

layers to discretise the cross-section, are given in Table 4.1. From these results, it can be

seen that 10-15 layers are usually adequate to give a result with an error less than 1%o.

Table 4.1 Numerical results of the moment

No. of Numerical Moment Error (Yo)


compared to
Layer (Nmm x t07) analytical
result
a
J 1.17187891 6.25

6 1.23047285 1.56

9 |.24132358 0.69

15 1.246879 0.2s

30 1.2492229r 0.06

75 1.249879 0.01

150 1.24997292 0.002

-74 -
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

2. Test No.2 - Identifying the number of segments required


For the same case as test no.l, the theoretical results for the lateral load and the

deflection are

F: M/ L: 12500 (N), and

An=
F.I: =5(mm)
" ^-
3EI

In the numerical calculations, 150 layers were used to discretise the cross-section in

order to minimize the error due to cross-sectional discretisation. Longitudinally, the

column is discretised with different numbers of segments and the numerical results of

the top displacement calculated using both Eq.4.52 and Eq.4.53 are listed in Table

4.2.

Clearly, the results using Eq.4.52 has a much smaller error for the same number of

segments compared to Eq.4.53.

Table 4.2 Numerical results of displacement

No of Equation 4.53 Equation 4.50 or 4.52

segment Top Error Top Error


X displace- (%) displace- (%)

segment ment (mm) ment (mm)

length (mm)

2x500 2.8125 43.75 4.6875 6.25

4 x250 3.9844 20.31 4.9219 t.s6

8x125 4.5117 9.77 4.9805 0.39

16 x 62.5 4.7608 4.78 4.9951 0.098

40x25 4.9055 1.89 4.9992 0.016

-75 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

It can be seen from these results that 4-8 number of segments are usually adequate to

give a result with an error less than lYo using Eq.4.52.

3. Test No.3 - Large deflection calculations

The same test column is discretised into 150 layers in cross-section and longitudinally

with 8 segments of l25mm long each. lt can be seen from Table 4.3 that the

deflection calculated by F,q.4.52 with small deflection assumption is good enough for

most cases unless the inter-storey drift ratio is very large in which case the rigorous

8qs.4.49,4.55a&b shall be used. For all practical purpose, Áa/L<l0olo so thatEq.4.52

can be safely used.

Table 4.3 Large deflection

Curvature at Top Displacement (mm) Storey


By equation By equation
Drift
bottom for small for large
deflection deflection AlL
(1/mm) @q.a.s2) (8q.4.49,4.55)
(%)
l.5E-5 4.980s 4.980s 0.498

6.0E-5 13.5760 13.57 54 1.357

2.48-4 25.1783 25.1750 2.517

9.68-4 67.4447 67.3877 6.739

1.928-3 123.6987 123.3530 12.335

3.84E-3 236.1996 233.8170 23.382

-76-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

4.4 OVERALL NUMERICAL PROCEDURES

The methodology to calculate the force-displacement response of an RC cantilever

column with steel plates glued to its sides is described in this section. When the plates are

glued to the sides of the column, the strain distribution is assumed to be linear and

continuous across the entire cross section including the plates. In this case, no slip occurs

between the concrete and the plates. The numerical analysis is performed using a

deformation control procedure. The curvature at the bottom of the cantilever column,

where the bending moment is a maximum, is used as the control parameter. The

advantage of using this curvature as the control variable is that it can follow both the

ascending and descending parts of the moment versus curvature curve. It can also cater

for cyclic loading by just reversing the increment of the control parameter and can allow

for the formation of a plastic hinge at the bottom of the column.

4.4.1 Procedure

The cantilever column is discretised longitudinally as shown in Fig.4.l and all cross-

sections are discretised with an identical pattern as shown in Fig.4.3. However, the plate

arrangement is allowed to vary from section to section in case different plate

affangements, such as termination of plate, at different sections are made. The following

procedure is used in this work to calculate the response of the column.

L Starting with an initial curvature of the bottom cross-sectioî K,= 0;set curvature

increment Ar,

2. For the new curvature of the bottom cross-section rc,(new) = rc,(old) I A,rc,, assume

a neutral axis position, then calculate the corresponding strain and stress distributions

-77 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

in the section. The axial force of the cross-section is then calculated based on the

stress distribution as described in Section 4.1.1. If the axial force of the cross-section

is not equal to the constant axial load applied, the neutral axis position is adjusted

until the difference between the calculated axial force and the constant axial load is

less than the allowable tolerance. This iterative process is called the search for the

neutral axis. Then the bending moment M,, of the cross-section is calculated based

on the actual stress distribution.

3. The momenT M, for the rest of cross-sections along its length is calculated by

M,= M,,'L¡|L (i: l ton-l) (4.57)

where Z, is the length from the top of the column to section i as shown in Fig.4.l.

4. For section i (i:l-n-l), assuming a curvature K¡, conduct a cross-sectional analysis

to locate the neutral axis position based on K, and the constant axial load. Then

calculate the bending moment of the cross-section. If this trial moment is not equal to

the moment M, calculated in step 3, adjust the trial curvature r, until the difference

between the trial moment and M, is within the allowable tolerance. This process is

called the search for curvature ofthe cross-section.

The curvature search may have multiple values of r, for the same M, value,

as shown in Fig.4.l6. For a non-linear system, the stress of an element is not only

determined by the strain but also depends on the loading history. With different

loading histories, the stress-strain curve goes along different paths. Therefore, the

loading history information must be recorded for all sub-section elements in all cross-

sections separately. For a specific loading history, there is only one identical

-78-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

loading/reloading (go forward) or unloading (go backward) branch. However, even in

one identical branch, normally two different values of K, can be obtained for the

same M,value, e.g. Kr and rc, as shown in Fig.4.16. Fortunately, only the bottom

cross section can pass the peak (point A) of the corresponding moment-curvature

curve. All the other cross-sections will follow the unloading path when the bottom

cross-section passes the peak point A going along the descending branch. In other

words, only one value on the left hand side of the peak on the corresponding curve is

the actual solution of r, for cross-section i.

To keep correct track of loading history, the step length or Ar, must be

sufficiently small. Otherwise incorrect results may be obtained. For example,if Lrn

is so big that the bottom cross-section moves from the current point B to next point F

as shown in Fig.4.l6, a nearby cross-section, say section n-1, should move from point

S to G following the path of S-E-G. However, the program will give an erroneous

result that is from point S to point C which has the same moment value as point C.

This is because the cunent loading history for the element only has the information

that occurs before point S for section n-1. When section /r goes to point F which has

the same moment as point D, the calculation of moment for section n-l in step 3, i.e.

M,_t = M,. L,,_t I L, gives the same moment as point C. Therefore the program will

take point C as the new solution for section n-l.lf the curvature increment of cross-

section n or Ar, is small enough, the computer will be able to trace the loading

history closely and this kind of mistake will not happen.

-79-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

5. After obtaining the curyatures for all the cross-sections along its length from step 4,

calculate the displacement A¡ using formulae given in Section 4.2.The lateral force at

the top is given by r = M,,l L. This gives one new point for the force-displacement

response curve.

6. Record this step of the loading history. The information to be recorded includes the

maximum excursion along the envelope curve, unloading and reloading points

information for Mander's model; similar information for steel in Menegotto-Pinto's

model, current and previous points information, etc. All the discretised sub-sections

of concrete and plates, as well as all reinforcement layers for cross-section 1to cross-

section z must have their separate records. Therefore, when a fine discretisation mesh

is used for the cross-section and along its length, the information to be recorded is

substantial.

7. To calculate the next point of the force-displacement curve, go back to step 2 for
another new K¿. Repeat this process until the required force-displacement response

curve has been generated. When cyclic response is required, simply reverse An,

when the required amplitude of displacement is reached.

4.4.2 P-A Effect

In the calculation of displacement by 8q.4.57, the P-A effect is ignored. For slender

columns, the P-A effect can be substantial. To consider the P-A effect, 8q.4.57 must be

revised as follows with reference to Fig.4.l

M, : F' L, + N'(Ao -4,) (i : 0 - n-1) (4.s8)

F =(M,_ N.L)l L (4.5e)

-80-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

The above equations cannot be solved directly since the moment distribution which is

required to calculated the displacement along the length is not known before the

displacement is given.

4.4.2.1 Rigorous method

To solve Eqs.4.58 and 4.59, the following iterative process is adopted.

1. For a new curvature lc,, at the bottom section, calculate the column displacement

A¡(l = 0- n-l)with the same procedure as in Section 4.4.1 without considering P-Â

effect.

2. Revise bending moments for section I to n-l using Eqs.4.58 and 4.59 with the

displacement distribution obtained from the previous step. Search section curvatures

for section I to n-l based on the revised moment. Then calculate the revised column
displacement A, (i = 0 - n - 1) based on the new set of curvatures.

3. Repeat step 2 with the revised set of A, until the difference between the two

consecutive iterations is within the allowable tolerance, or

n-1

Zl{o,) - (L,) p,",,u,,,| u .

l=0 ",,,,",, =

This iteration process calculates the accurate distribution of displacement and

moment along the column and, therefore, is called the rigorous method. However, it is

numerically intensive and very time consuming. To get each point in a force-
try&-
displacement response curve, about four iterationsþeeded. That is to say four times the

original computation time is required compared to the case where no P-A effect is

considered. This increase in time can be quite substantial

- 8l -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.4.2.2 Simplified method

To reduce the computation time without significant loss of accuracy, a simplified method

has been developed in this work for the P-À effect. From Eq.4.59, it can be seen that

F'=(M,-N.A0) lL= F-Ar.+ @.59a)


L

where F' is the lateral force required to achieve a moment M,, at the base of the

cantilever column considering the P-A effect, and F = M,lL is the lateral force required

to achieve the base moment M,, wiThout considering P-A effect. Based on the above

equation, the lateral force considering the P-A effect, F' , can be obtained from the lateral

force without considering the P-A effect, F, if the deflection A0 at the top which

considers the P-A effect is known.

Based on the above observation, a simplified method is proposed. Firstly, the

response curve without considering the P-A effect is produced, as shown in Fig.4.l8a by

the curve marked with 'without P-A effect'. Each point in the response curve 'without P-

A effect', e.g. point A, is then transformed to a new point, e.g. point B, in a new curve as

marked with'simplified method' in Fig.4.18a. They coordinate transformation is given

by the following formula

F'= F-{.o'o (4.60)


L

where F' and F are the y coordinates of the new point B and the old point A,
respectively; A'o is the x coordinate of point A, i.e. the calculated top displacement under

the lateral force I' without considering the P-A effect. The ¡ coordinate of a point in the

-82-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

new curve, e.g. A'o of point B, is the same as that of the old point A. The transformed

new curve will be proved to be very close to the actual response curve with the P-A effect

strictly considered, as illustrated in Fig.4.l8a

without A (À',. F)
P-A effect
actual response
P-À effect
Lateral
force at B (A'0, F C
top of
column
simplified
method

Displacement at top of column

(a) Simplified method for P-A effect

À'o
t _t
N
1
{------tü F
ìl
\r
\. 1
I
t
t L

I,

Section i
F'*L¡ N*
I M; F*L¡
¡
\
\
\
Section n

(b) Deflected shape (c) Moment distributions

Fig. 4.18 P-A effect

-83-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

The above transformation can be visualized as dropping the original response

curve by an additional slope of e-N/L, because 8q.4.60 can be rewritten as

F'= F-{'o'o - F-0.L'o= F-LF. This transformation is similar (but not exactly
LU

equivalent) to rotating the original force-displacement curve without considering the P-A

effect clockwise by an additional slope of O:N/L about the origin.

To estimate the error in the response curve produced from the simplified method,

consider the moment distribution of M, - F .L, without the P-A effect, as shown in

Fig.4.l8c, and the corresponding deflected shape of the cantilever column, as shown by

Fig.4. l8b. Introducing the revised lateral force F' which satisfies Eq.4.60 and

substituting into M,= F.Z, gives

¡4, : (F',-t|.Â'o ). L, : F'.L, +(+.


^/r 'L A'o ).N (4.61)
L
Eq.4.6l implies that the moment distribution of M, = F .L, can be considered as

equivalent to a moment F''L, caused by a revised lateral force ,F' plus a moment of

u.li.t
L
0 caused by the axial load with the eccentricity of A, =1.O'o If the

T.
eccentricity I
A'o is the same as that under the deflected shape of Fig.4.l8b which
L

corresponds to the moment distribution of M , : F'.L, * (+.4'o


'L ) .y'/ , then the revised

lateral force ,F' together with the lateral deflection A'o is a precise point in the force-

displacement response curve with the P-A effect strictly considered. In other words, the

moment distribution of M, - F . L, without the P-A effect is caused by a reduced lateral

-84-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

force F' with the exact P-A effect considered if the eccentricitv'Lof lt A'^ is correct

However, the deflected shape under the moment distribution of M, - F 'L, is not a

Li
straight line, hence the eccentricity given by A, = À'o is not accurate except at the top
L

and bottom of the cantilever. Nevertheless, the error due to this linear assumption of

eccentricity is generally not significant and can be estimated as follows.

The actual eccentricity under the deflected shape that is calculated from the

moment distribution of M,-F'.L,.(+ A'o).N is shown as 6i at section i in

Fig.4.l8b, giving an actual moment of

M' ,- F'.L, + N -õ, (4.62)

Subtracting 8q.4.62 by Eq.4.6l gives the error in moment caused by Eq.4.6l

M',-M,=N'(ä, -!'L'o)=N'Err(i) (4.63)

in which Err(i)- õi-!.O', is the error due to the linear assumption of eccentricity as
LU

shown in Fig.4.l8b. This error in moment is insignificant compared to Eq.4.62 for the

following reasons.

o When the deflection of the column is small, P-A effect is small. The error in moment

caused by deflection of column is therefore small. In other words, the error


introduced by Eq.4.60 is negligible.

. When the deflection is large and the plastic hinge forms, the deflection of the column

is mostly due to the plastic hinge rotation at the bottom, and the deflected shape

above the hinge base of the column is relatively straight. ln this case, Err(i) is

-85-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

relatively small compared to the total eccentricity ä, in Fig.4.l8b. Therefore, the

emor introduced by Eq.4.60 is also small.

a For deflections in between the above two cases (between the small deflection and the

large deflection), the relative error can be estimated by dividingEq.4.62 by F;q.4.63,

which gives

M', _ F'.L, + N .õ, F' L,


(4.64)
M',-M, N -Err(i) = N Err(i),a* Err(i)
=ô,.,.
If it can be proved that F.q.4.64 gives a value much greater than l, then the error in

moment by F,q.4.63 due to the linear assumption of eccentricity is relatively small

compared to the total moment of Eq.4.62.lnthefirst part of Eq.4.64, ¡... 4


#õ,
L,>> Ew(i). As the deflection is in between the small and large deflections, F'

cannot be very small. Hence F'l N is usually not very small. Therefore, the term

+¡/ :=
Err(i)
usually gives a very large value. From Fig.4.l8b, ¡t can be seen that the

second part of Flq.4.64, ¡.. --4 , is also a very large value near the bottom of the
Í,ru1t)

column where the moment contributes most to the deflection of the column. At the

middle and top part of the column this second part of is relatively smaller than
Eru(i)

that in the bottom of the column, however, it is still greater than 1.0. In the mean

time, the contribution of a moment in this middle and top part of the column to the

deflection of the whole column is also smallerthan that from the bottom part (as can

be seen from Eq.4.52), which means that an error in moment at this region causes less

-86-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

error in deflection than that caused by the same error in moment at the bottom of the

column. As both the first and the second parts of 8q.4.64 are positive, the summation

of these two parts gives an even bigger value. Therefore, generally


' .-.!["., >> l, or
M"-M,

M',-M, 11 M',.

The above discussion concludes that the linear assumption of eccentricity by

Eq.4.61will only cause a relative small error in moment as compared to the total moment

of a cross-section. For all the cross-sections except the bottom section, the moment-

curvature relation is in the ascending part of the curve to the left of the peak (point A) as

shown in Fig.4.16. A small error in moment will only cause a small error in curvature

value hence a small error to the deflection. Although, a small error in moment may cause

a large error in curvature forthe bottom cross-section in the descending part of the curve

shown in Fig.4.16, the error introduced by Eq.4.60 for the bottom cross-section is zero. In

other words, the error in curvature distribution hence the deflection caused by the

simplified method or 8q.4.60 is generally small.

The error in eccentricity introduced by 8q.4.60 will cause an under-estimation of

the deflection as can be seen from Eq.4.63 which is transformed to

M',- N.Err(i)+ M¡> Mi (:üru(i)>-0)

Therefore, the moment at all cross-sections, except the top and the bottom, is

underestimated slightly. That is to say the actual deflection should be slightly larger than

A'0, as shown by point C in Fig.4.l8a. In other word, the actual deflection under the

lateral force f'' should be Ao at point C instead of A'o at point B. This small increment

-87 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

in displacement from the simplified response curve to the actual response curve where

the P-A effect is strietly considered will be seen from the numerical example in Fig.4.l9.

The conclusion that the error due to the simpliflred method is small has been

verified by numerous numerical simulations. As an example, the force-displacement

relation for a200(B)x200(D) RC cantilever column with an axial load of 360kN is shown

in Fig.4.19. In this numerical example, Mander's model and Menegotto-Pinto's model

are used for the stress-strain relation of the concrete and the longitudinal reinforcement,

respectively. Material properties of the column are summarized below:

Concrete - tco: 0.002, e",, : 0.006,f, : 40 MPa,f,¡: 4 MPa; a: 35.7mm;

Longitudinal reinforcing bars - 4 Y16 with .f,y : 547 MPa, E" : 200 GPa,

E¡,=600MPa, Ro=20, ar=19, ar=0.3;

StirruPs - .fr,,= 690MPa.

-88-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

(
4
4
a
z
o
o
o 2
õ
o 2 no P-D effect I

o method,
J I
" -rigorous method
I 000
-simplified

10 10 30 50 70 90 110 13 0 l5 0

Displacement at column top (mm)

(a) Column without stirrups, L:1115, Lo:200

45000
40000
35000
z 30000
o
o 25000
o
G 20000 no P-D effect
o 15000 plified m ethod
g
10000 i- -' .-- =rigorous method
5000
-sim
0
0 Á 10 15 20 25 30
d isplacem ent at top (m m )

(b) Column with Y6-100 stirrups, L:1218, Zr:100


45000
40000
35000
z 30000
o
o
o 25000
no P-D effect
Ë 20000
o method

J
15000 -simplified
rigorous method
10000
5000
0
0 5 't0 15 20 25 30
Displacem ent at top (m m )

(c) Column with Y6-100 stirrups, L:1218, Lr:200

Fig.4.19 Comparison of simplified P-A method with rigorous method

-89-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.4.3 Numerical Examples

As an example to demonstrate the overall numerical model, an RC column tested by

Watson and Park (1994) is analyzed in this section. The test column, as shown in

Fi9.4.20, has the following material properties:

Concrete: .f = 44MPa , € = 0.002 (assumed), f,, = 5MPa (assumed)


",, "o

Longitudinal bars: 12Y16, .f, = 446MPa , ,8" = 200000MPa (assumed),

Et :600MPa (assumed); Constants for Menegotto-Pinto's model - R,,=20,

4 =19 , d2 = 0.3 (assumed based on Gomes and Appleton 1997)

Stirrups: þ8@78mm, .f,,,, =360MPa

Axial load ratio: N : 0.3. or /y': 2l l2KN


f,,,. A,

In the numerical modeling, the column cross-section is discretised into 25 layers

and 25 slices as shown in Fig.4.2l. Four layers of reinforcement are located exactly at

their design positions in the cross-section with the areas of 804 mm2 (4Y 16),

402mm2 (2Y16), 402mm2 and 804 mm' for the l't to fourth layer, respectively. The

actual double cantilever columns with a stub are modeled with a l.7m long cantilever

column fixed at the bottom. It is longitudinally discretised into 5 segments with lengths

of 400mm, 400mm, 400mm, 27}mm and 230mm from top to bottom, respectively. The

230mm long bottom segment is used to model the plastic hinge length of 230mm as

calculated in the next paragraph.

-90-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

P
bter rBmm
tu
E
Potentiol Ê
E
a
plostic hinge
reg,onS
E
a
o
\
o

E
6lnmn
H
I\t E
o
o
qt
Units z
E tb)
E
I
=h

In
P

40Omm Elevotion
lol

Fig.4.20 Test column by Watson and Park (1994)

25 slices -t
1\

25
layers

Fig. 4.21 Discretised cross-section and confinement zones

Mander's model and Menegotto-Pinto's model are used for the stress-strain

relation of the concrete and the longitudinal reinforcement, respectively. The P-À effect is

considered and the rigorous method (Section 4.4.2.1) is used in this example. The plastic

hinge length is calculated with 8q.4.56a

-91 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

Zn = 0.08 ' L + 6. d h:232 (mm) say 230mm

where Z is the length of the cantilever column and ú is the diameter of the longitudinal

bars. The calculation of lateral confinement is performed manually as follows. The lateral

confinement pressure is given by (Watson,Zahn and Park 1994)

3.41'Au'fr,
""'r/ 3.41x 50.27x360
Í-" =2.16(IlPa\
s.b, 78x (400- l3x 2 -8)

where lo is the area of one leg of transverse reinforcement; s is the spacing of stirrups;

and b, is the height or depth of concrete core of column section enclosed by stirrups

measured from center of stirrups. The effective confinement pressure and the confined

concrete strength are given by (Mander et al. 1988a)

o-Zffitrt- n"-^t
l- p,,
.ft = 0.713x2.16 =1.54(MPa)

f," = .f",,(-1.254 + 2.254 t. .ry -r*, - 53.e * 54(MPa)

where rø, is the ith clear transverse spacing between adjacent longitudinal bars; d"=b,

in this case pcc is the ratio of area of longitudinal reinforcement to the core of section;

and s' is the clear longitudinal spacing between stirrups.

The confinement effect of the concrete is allowed for by assigning the concrete

stren$h às f'" or 54MPa in the confined zone as shaded inFig.4.21. The confined zone

is assumed to be the area within the center-line of the perimeter stirrups in Mander's

model. The unconfined concrete strength .f,.,, oÍ 44 MPa is used for the unconfined

concrete in the non-shaded area in Fig.4.2l.

-92-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

The cycling of the response is controlled by driving the control parameter, i.e. the

curvature of the bottom cross-sectiofl K,.The initial value of r, is set to zero. An

6 r,
increment Lon=4x10 isthenappliedtothepreviouscurvature tocalculateanew

point in the force-displacement curve. The calculation of successive new points continues

until the displacement at the top of the cantilever reaches the specific "target" value,

when An, changes sign so that the column is moved in the opposite direction. The

"target" displacements are chosen to match the cyclic amplitudes of the experimental

results.

The numerical results for the test column are given inFigs.4.22 and 4.23. Figure

4.22 shows the moment-curvature relation of the bottom cross-section. The displacement-

force relation of the cantilever column is given in Fig.4.23. The calculation terminates

and cannot finish all the cycles as the experiment did when the strain in the concrete

reaches a value of more than 0.0614 at which time an error occurs in Mander's model.

This error seems always to occur in Mander's model when the strain is extremely high.

However, such high strains are not of practical significance, as can be seen from Fig.4.23

where the column has actually failed at the last point.

The test results by Watson and Park (1994) are given inFig.4.24. For comparison,

the force H or y coordinates in Fig.4.24 has to be divided by two, because two columns

are loaded simultaneously in the test and the force applied at one cantilever column is

0.5H as shown in Fi9.4.20. The comparison between Fig.4.23 and the test result shows

that the test column is stronger and degrades slower than the numerical one. It suggests

the possibility that the actual materials of the test column were stronger than the material

properties given, and the actual confinement was greater than the calculated one.

-93 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

As mentioned in Section 4.1.2.2.1, the computer program pan also account for

general configurations of confinement such as that shown inFig.4.25, where the confrned

concrete strength is 57.4MPa in the shaded area and the unconfined strength is 44MPa in

the non-shaded area. Basically, the computer program allows for independent confined or

un-confined concrete strengths for every individual sub-section. The response

corresponding to the confinement configuration shown by Fig.4.25 is given by Fig.4.26.

As the response curve is much 'weaker' than Fig.4.23 and the test results, it suggests that

the confinement is not properly modeled by Fig.4.25.

-2.84 -1.oE+r o0E+00 1.0E44 2.84


508+08

2.5E+08
Ê
E
z
0.0E{ü)
tr
o
E
o
= -25E+æ

-5.0E+08

qnatre(1/lrrl

F ig. 4.22 C urvature-moment relation

-94-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

-8.E+01 -6 E+01 -4 E+01 -2 E+01 0.E+00 2.E+01 4.E+01 6 E+01 I E+01


3 E+05

2 E+05

1.E+05

Force
at top 0.E+00
(N)

-1 E+05

-2 E+05

-3.E+05
Displacement at top (mm)

F ig. 4.23 Di splacement-force relati on

DEAL DtÍ'¿rcer4F{l OUCnLtll FACI0R I t\ t


].t .e a,2
rlll
rJ.d
UNIT 2
ì. TûH'I/¡L OISP'JCEHENI DUCIIUII FACßE (VNI
21ûôro
P,Oit¿As
Ar¡ =O55Aa¡1AA
rO,L6AeNf
I
a
q @
o
H
Æ lrrtl
-¡ rtj10
' l.12 Ar¡Cllr,rl !
{
It
L50 H" including
t¡¡ P-A cllecl
È
{{ 3æ

-w tæ
ASN.ACENENT.
Lløml

ol lirst tensrcn
longtludinol bor
,.0
llt\w
-ô-6-.J
J
---
Firsl cycte
Second cycle
lJOflAL OtiPLaiftlfíl (Ncllallf fACltR lltñl
llll
-2-6 -{¿l -t.6 .r 9
fiEAt ottPtÆtvfxl oucliltlr fÆton tw)

Fig. 4.24 Test result compared to Fi9.4.23

-9s -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

L 25 columns -l
-

l I

F ig. 4.25 Complex confi nement zone configuration

4.5 COLUMNS WITH PLATES BOLTED TO TENSION AND COMPRESSION

FACES

When plates are bolted, instead of glued, to the faces of a column, methods developed in

the previous sections cannot be used, because of the relative movement or slip between

-96 -
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

the plates and the RC column. For columns with bolted plates, the slip on the interface

causes discontinuity in the strain profiles in a cross-section. In this case, the strain of the

plate cannot be determined directly from the curvature and neutral axis position of an RC

cross-section.

To simulate the response of the composite plated column shown in Fig.3.1, new

mathematical models that consider slip or partial interaction between the RC column and

the plates that are bolted on the tension and compression faces are developed in this

section. Columns with plates bolted on the other two side faces are not covered in this

study.

To calculate the slip on the two interfaces, the longitudinal segments are divided

in such a way that one segment is taken between two adjacent longitudinal bolts, as

shown in Fig.4.27. The first and last segments are taken from top and bottom of the

column to the first and last bolt, respectively.

t
RC column

Plates

Bolts

Beam or footing

Fig.4.27 Longitudinal discretization of plated column

-97 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.5.1 Existence of Solution

The variables on a typical cross-section considering partial interaction are shown in

Fig.4.28, where the superscripts 'Z' and 'R' represent the left-hand-side (LHS) and the

right-hand-side (RHS) respectively.

plate Concrete section plate


t D t

g""¡

stpt

X
¿å.

Fig. 4.28 Typical strain profrle in a cross section with partial interaction

There are l0 unknowns at a cross-section. Six of them are related to the cross-

sectional analysis for each cross-section i (i:l-n) as follows

a The curvature of the cross-section r,;


O The depth of concrete compressive zone xi;

a The slip strains at the LHS rti,o(i) and RHS t:ir\, respectively;

O The axial forces on the LHS and RHS plates: N';,(i) and N'),,(i), respectively

The other 4 unknowns are related to the movement of the bolts at each cross-section. It is

assumed that the longitudinal slip at the interface between the plate and the RC column is

-98-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

equal to the lateral movement of the bolt (when a gap exists between a bolt and the plate,

it is not equal. See Section 4.5.4) as shown inFig.4.29. The four unknowns are:

. The LHS & RHS slips, s/' and s/ì, respectively; and

o The lateral (shear) forces on the LHS & RHS bolts, Fj'(t) and pl'(¡) , respectively.

Fb p ate

RC column
o.
v) +

Fig.4.29 Slip-shear force relation of a bolt

The 10 conditìons that can be used to solve for the above unknowns are:

a The axial load at any cross-section is a constant, i.e. N =C .

a The bending moment M, must satisfy the overall equilibrium condition given by

8q.4.57 or 4.58.

a The relations between the slip strains and slips are given by

"/'
=
"1,
+ e';,n1i + l)'a¿¡*r Ø.65)

",n
=
"Í,
+ ellrçt+ l).^¿i*r G.66)

a The relation between the shear force applied to the bolt and the amount of slip, as

shown inFig.4.29, is given by a shear force versus deformation model (based on test

data as shown in Fig.4.l3b) which can be expressed mathematically as

-99 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

p| (¡): f ß) Ø.67)

pfØ = _f ('l') (4.68)

o The relation between the shear force of bolt and the axial force on the plate is given

by

N';,,(i) = N';,,(i +l)+ Fl'(i) (4.69)

N';,,(i)= N'ì,,(i+t;+{ìqi¡ (4.70)

where f'a is defìned positive when the bolt is bent downwards.

. The relation between the strain distribution of the plate and axial force in the plate

can be expressed mathematically as

N';,,(i)= ¡çet;.(i),rc,) (4.71)

N';,,(i) = .f (st;.(i),K,) (4.72)

where e';,lt), t'),{i) ur" the strains on the interface for the LHS and RHS plates, as

shown inFig.4.28.

From the above analysis, it can be seen that there are'n' cross-sections, hence n x

l0 unknowns in total for the whole cantilever column. There are also lOn independent

equations available. Therefore, the system is theoretically solvable. However, to solve

these equations directly is not practical when non-linearity is involved. Trial and error

methods, i.e. iterative procedures, are used in this study to solve the problem.

4.5.2 lterative Solution Procedure

If the slip strains or forces of the plate in a cross-section are known, the analysis of the

cross-section will be no different than that given in Section 4.1. By assuming the forces

-100-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

in both the tension and compression plates at the bottom cross-section (control cross-

section), the forces in the plates at other cross-sections can be calculated one by one using

equations 4.65-4.72, ending with the forces in the plates at the top of the column. The

forces in the top of the plates should be zero for both the LHS and RHS plates. If this

"boundary" condition is not satisfied, then the trial forces at the bottom cross-section

were incorrect and another pair of forces is tried until a solution is found. Based on this

idea, the following iterative procedure is developed to solve the problem.

I . Set the initial curvature K,, = L.K, for the bottom cross-section.

2. Guess the axial forces Wt;,,(r)&.N'J,,(n) in the LHS and RHS plates at the bottom

cross-section.

3. Find the strain distributions and et;,(n)Ue')(n) in the LHS and RHS plate based on

N';,,(n), N'),,(n) andthe curvatu te Kn.

4. Calculate the slips s';Us') for both the LHS and RHS plates at the bottom of the

cantilever. The slip-force relation at the bottom is modeled by a spring as shown in

Fig.3.l(b). The slip or displacement of the spring can be calculated from the force on

the spring, i.e.NI;,,(n),N'ì,,@). Assuming the plate cannot penetrate through the

concrete, the slip is set to zero when a downward slip going into the concrete is

calculated.

5. For the given curvature r,, and plate forces N';,,(n),N'),(n), adjust the strain profile
in the RC section as shown by the dotted lines in Fig.4.28 or search for the neutral

axis depth x to satisfy the condition of constant axial force N in the cross-section.

Then calculate et;.(n) U e!i,(n) .

-l0l-
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

6. Calculate the momenf M,, of the bottom cross-section based on the stress and force

distribution obtained in step 5.

7. Calculate the moment M, fot cross-sections 1 to n-l based on M,- Mn*L¡lL,

ignoring the P-A effect. Set the cross-section number i--n for calculations in the
following steps.

8. For both the LHS and RHS plates, calculate slip strain t.,, of the cross-section i
based on E,u(i):e,,,(i)-s.,(i), as illustrated in Fig.4.28. Then calculate the slip at

the adjacent upper cross-section by s,_, = s,*e,,n(i).A1.,.

9. Calculate the shear forces Fu(i - 1) on both the LHS and RHS bolts located at section

i-l based on Eqs.4.67 and 4.68, i.e. Fu(i -l):,f(s,_,). A bi-linear slip versus force

relation as discussed in Section 4.1 .4 is used at the moment in the computer model.

10. The axial forces of the LHS and RHS plates in cross-section i-l are calculated by

N t,t,(i -l) : N n¡,(i) + { (i - l) .

ll. Based on N';,,(i-l)&.Nfi,G-l), the moment M,_, and the total axial force N for

cross-section i-1, search for the curvature rc,_, and neutral axis x,_, .

t;,(i
12. Calculate strain distribution and e -1) & e'i'"{i - 1) in the plates for cross-section i- 1

based on N';,,(i-l)& N';,,(i-l) and r,_,. Calculate E:"(i-l)&ejlli-t¡ from the

strain distribution obtained in step I L

13. i : È1. Repeat steps 8 to l3 until i : l.

-102-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

la. (a) If the axial forces of the plates N';,,(1)&.N';,,() at cross-section I are not zero, the

trial axial forces Nt;,,{n)&N';,@) are not correct. Adjust U';,,{n)&N';,(n). Go back

to step 3. The method used to adjust N';,,(n)*.N'),,(n) is discussed in Section 4.5.3

(b)lf N;;,(l)&,N';,(l) are both zero, the trial forces N';,,(n)&.N';,,(n) are correct.

Calculate the lateral displacement A of the column based on the curvatures along the

column. The force at the top is given by F=Mnl¿. This F&A pair gives a point in

the F-A chart.

15. Record the stress-strain history for all the elements of the concrete, plates, bolts and

springs for the calculation of the next point of the F-A chart.

16. rc, : K n t Lrc,,, go back to step 2 until the required F-A chart is produced.

While the P-A effect is not considered in the above calculations, both the rigorous

and simplified methods as given in Sections 4.4.2.1 and 4.4.2.2 can be incorporated into

the above process to include the P-A effect. However, the rigorous method adds another

loop to the already very intensive numerical calculations. In view of the reasonable

accuracy of the simplifìed method, it is adopted to calculate the P-A effect for a plated

column with partial interaction. This means that the final results from the above process,

i.e. the force-displacement relation at the top of the column, are simply transformed by

F,q.4.60 to get the response curve with the P-A effect.

- 103 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.5.3 lteration Method

An iterative method is used to find the values of w';,,(n)&.N'),,(n) in the procedures

discussed in Section 4.5.2. Mathematically speaking this process is a root finding process

for the following equations.

N'),,{r)) = o
{I w'n,,{t) = .f,(N';,,(n),
,__, -j,, .. - (4.73)
f
rujl,rll = f,(N';,,,(n), Nff,(r)) = o

The target functions are N';,,(1):0, N';,,(1) = 0 . The two variables are N';,,(n) B. Nt;t,@) .

In this work, the Newton's method for non-linear system of equations with 2 variables

are used to find the roots (Kendall, 1978).

4.5.4 Gap between Bolt and Plate

Longitudinal gaps between the bolts and plates, as shown in Fig.4.30, are unavoidable for

apractical column. This gap will affect the interaction between the plate and the bolt and,

hence, the overall behavior of the plated column.

RC column

, gap
width:w*

gap may also


be here

column support or beam

Fig. 4.30 Longitudinal gaps

-104-
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

When gaps exist, the slip s at a cross-section between the plate and the RC

column is no longer equal to the lateral deformation of the bolt. The lateral deformation

s¿ of the bolt has to be modified by the following relation

sl, = s, when ls-s.l<w,


'só ='9-]tg when s-sr > Its (4.74)

'r, = 'i*]4r, when J'- Sr < -1t8

where s,. is the plastic or residual deformation of the bolt which depends on the loading

history; and w, is the gap width. This s¿ is the true lateral deformation of the bolt. The

bolt force can then be obtained with the same model as discussed in Section 4.1.4 using s6

as the horizontal axis.

ln F;q.4.74 when ls-",1< wr, that is before the gap is closed, the bolt force is

always zero as given by the above model. This means that the bolt force is a constant

over a range of slip values. This kind of constant value will usually cause problems in

various searching procedures of the program. In order to avoid this kind of difficulty, the

following equation is used

Fo=KI'(s-s.) when ls-s,l<w* (4.7s)

where Kuo is an arbitrary but very small value. By providing this very small variation of

force in the bolt before the gap is closed up, numerical searching procedures are well

behaved

- 105 -
CHAPTER 4 NUMERICAL MODELS

4.5.5 NumericalExamples

Numerical examples for a plated column are shown in Fig.4.3l. The column studied is a

l2l8mm long cantilever column with a cross-section of 200x200. Longitudinal bars are

4Yl6 with concrete cover 35.7mm from the center of the bar to the face of the column.

Properties used in the numerical analysis are:

Concrete -.f.":40 MPa, ft:4.2MPa, €,o:0.002, e"u:0.006;


Steel plate -t:6mm,f,,r:250MPa, Eo:200 GPa, Epn:600MPa;

Main reinforcement barc-f,r:547 MPa, E,:200 GPa, E¡:600MPa;

Stirrups - -fn, :690 MPa;

Bolt - 4j,: 35kN, Kt : 23 kN/mm, K¿¿:O.7kN/mm; Bolt spacing: l00mm c/c

except l't bolt 200mm from bottom of the column with a total number of 2 x 8 on

each side (2 bolts on one side of a cross-section).

The plastic hinge length is calculated by 8q.4.56a to be Lr=200mm.

Confinement due to the stirrups of R6 at l00mm is considered in the calculations. The

confinement effect is calculated based on the method discussed in Section 4.4.3. The

confined concrete strength is calculated to be f"":47MPa inside the confined core


enclosed by the stirrups. The P-A effect is also included in the calculations to reflect the

realistic response.

The first case indicated with "no plate" in Fig.4.3l is an RC column without

plating. The second case is the plated column without gaps around the bolts. The third

case is the plated column with a l.5mm gap around the bolts. The last case is a full

- 106 -
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL MODELS

interaction plated column where the steel plate is glued to the face of the RC column or

the bolt stiffness is infinity. Detailed discussions on these response curves are given in

Chapter 5.

60

no slip
50

z no ga
5oo
o)
o
L
m
o30

L
O20 nop
o
-J
0

0
10 20 70 80 90
ois'ftaceriÎent aitop 1'åm¡

Fig.4.31 Response of columns with diffbrent plating

4.6 SUMMARY
The numerical models to simulate the response of the plated RC columns are developed

in this chapter. This numerical model can simulate the response of RC columns under

monotonic load both on the ascending part and softening branches, as well as under

quasi-static cyclic loading. Each part of the numerical modeling and computer

programming has been carefully tested and verified and compared to theoretical results

where available. Reasonable responses for RC columns have been obtained by the

computer program "PLTCOL" as compared to test results which will be discussed further

in Chapter 12. This numerical model will be used to analyze the response of plated RC

columns in the next chapter in order to study the behavior of these columns.

-107-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC


COLUMNS

In this chapter, the effect of composite partial-interaction plating is studied through

numerical simulations of column responses. The responses of the plated columns are

calculated using the computer program "PLTCoL" described earlier in Chapter 4.

5.1 EFFECT OF COMPOSITE PLATING

In order to gauge the effects of composite partial-interaction plating, the RC column with

plating on the compression face only, as illustrated in Fig.5.l, is studied.

N:360kN

J' L: 200
200 rypi
rl¡

200
35.7

200
Le :200

!
6mm steel plate
Yl6 bar R6@r00

(a) Etevation (b) Cross-section

Fig. 5.1 Column details

- 108 -
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

Properties used in the numerical simulation are listed below:

Concrete: .f"o:40MPa, f"¡:6 MPa, e"o:0.002, cru:0.006;

Stcel plate: fpy:250 MPa, Er:200 GPa, Epn: 600MPa;

Main reinforcement bars:f,y: 547 MPa, -8, :200 GPa, E¡: 600MPa, ,Ro:20.0,

ar:19.0, ar:O.3;

Stirrups:f,r: 690 MPa (cold pulled mild steel);

Bolts: 4/ :35kN, K¡ : 23 kN/mm, K¿¿:0.7kN/mm.

The confinement to the concrete core due to the stirrups and the P-A effect are not

considered in the present analyses (results from Figs.5.2 to Fig.5.5) in order to isolate the

effect of the composite action. These effects, however, will be incorporated later in
Section 5.2 in the further study.

The responses of columns with different plating details are given in Fig.5.2. The

response curve marked 'original unplated column' is for the RC column without plating,

which is used as a benchmark for direct comparison. The curve indicated 'plate bolted I

side' is for the plated column shown in Fig.5.l. The case with plating on both the tension

and compression sides is also studied, which gives almost identical results to the 'plate

bolted I side'case when the tension spring stiffness shown in Fig.3.l(b) is small. This

both sides plated case verified the assumption that Fig.5.l is equivalent to that in

Fig.3.l(a) when the plate can be easily opened up at the corner. The result for'plates

glued 2 sides' is for the case where both sides are bonded with full interaction plates (no

slip between concrete and plate) and without the uplift facility illustrated in Fig.3.1(c),

which is equivalent to adding extra fully anchored reinforcing bars. The case 'plate bolted

- 109-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

I side plus wrapping' is for the 'plate bolted I side' column plus an assumed lateral

confinement effect due to wrapping. This additional confinement is assumed to be able to

increase the concrete strength from 40MPato a confined concrete strength of f",:48
MPa which can be achieved theoretically with FRP wrapping (Mirmiran et al. 1998).

Legend
plate glued 2 sides
100 À - conc 1ìrst cracks

lateral x - conc reaches cornp strength


force F 69 plate bolted 1 side plus wrapping + - tension reinlì yields
(kN)
X - comp reinf. yields

60 0 - conc ûrst crushes on face

- - conc crushes at comp bar


339
40
plate bolted 'l side

20
original unplated column

0
0 10 20 30 40
lateral displacement at top (mm)
^

Fig.5.2 Lateral responses of columns

Critical points are highlighted in Fig.5.2 by various marks that indicate different

deformation stages as shown in the legend. More detailed definitions of these marks are

given in the Notation. All these critical points or stages refer to the cross-section at the

bottom of the column where the applied moment is a maximum.

It can be seen in Fig.5.2 that adding extra reinforcement, that is the case of 'plate

glued 2 sides', can substantially increase the strength but at a considerable loss of
ductility which may not be beneficial in seismic retrofitting. In contrast, the system

represented by the 'plate bolted 1 side' case in Fig.5.2 substantially increases the ductility

with a relatively small increase in strength as is often required in seismic retrofitting in

order not to increase loads on the foundations. It is also wofth noting that combining

- 1t0-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

wrapping with partial-interaction plating, as in the case of 'plate bolted I side plus

wrapping', further increases the ductility.

Figure 5.3 shows the variation of axial force on the concrete alone at the bottom

cross-section, which excludes the axial forces on the reinforcement bars and the plate. It

can be seen that the axial force on the concrete is reduced for the 'plate bolted I side'
case compared to the 'unplated column', resulting in the increased deformation capacity.

For the case of the'plate glued 2 sides', the plates reduce the axial force on the concrete

when the lateral displacement is small. However, the axial force on the concrete increases

rapidly with curvature because of the increased tensile force in the tension plate. This

additional axial force causes the concrete to crush earlier, as indicated by the mark '0' in

Figs.5.2 and 5.3.

plate glued 2 sides


z 500
5 400
unplated column
o
E
o
g
300
o9
oão plate bolted 1 side
200
ãz 100
o
()
o 0

'i
(ú 0.0 5.0 10 0 '1
5.0 20 0 25 0 30.0 35

(! lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.3 Variation of axial force on concrete

To further demonstrate the effect of applied axial force on the deformation

capacity, the column case with the plate bolted only to the compression face is studied in

Fig.5.4 with different axial loads N, where N, = f"oAr and A, is the gross cross-

sectional area of the RC section. The responses of the plated columns are shown with

dark lines. For comparison, the responses of the original column without plating under

- lll-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

the same axial loads are also shown with light lines. It can be seen that partial-interaction

plating increases the ductility in all cases. In addition, the detrimental effect of increasing

axial load on the ductility/deformation capacity of the columns, which may be reflected

by the point '0' when the concrete crushes on the compression face, is also clearly shown

in Fig.5.4.

70000 N=0.4Nc
60000 l N=0 3Nc
z N=0.225Nc
ll. 50000 N=0.1 SNc
,

o
IJ 40000
o c
(tr
30000 ' N-0.0625Nc
(¡) 20000
N=0.1SNc
-g I 0000
N
N=0.225Nc
N=0.3Nc
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
lateral displacement at top (mm)
^

Fig. 5.4 Response of colulnns with different axial loads

Figure 5.5 gives the curvature distributions along the length of the column at the various

critical points or stages for the case of 'plate bolted I side'. It can be seen that the

curvature increase concentrates in the plastic hinge region from yielding of the tensile

reinforcement, indicated by'+', to crushing of the concrete, indicated by'0', whilst the

curvature above the plastic hinge remains relatively unchanged (in fact it reduces a little

bit). That is to say the plastic deformation of the column can be considered to occur

mostly in the plastic hinge region, which is generally accepted in the literature. This

concept will be used in the development of a displacement based design procedure in

Chapter 8.

-112-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

1.5E-04
conc. crushing
E
E
1.0E-04
o tension reinf. yielding

G
5 0E-05 conc. cracking
È
o=
0 0 E+00
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Distance from top (mm)

Fig. 5.5 Distribution of curvature

5.2 FACTORS AFFECTING RESPONSE

The advantages of partial interaction plating are clearly seen in the previous section.

More numerical simulations for columns with different plating, such as different plate

thickness, bolt stiffness, yield strength, gap etc., are presented in this section to further

study the plating effects. The column details are almost identical to those of the previous

section with only slight changes to match the experimentally tested columns: the column

length is L:l2l8mm; the first bolt is 200mm away from the bottom of the column; the

spacing of the other bolts are l00mm c/c with a total number of 16 bolts at 8 cross-
sections (2 bolts at a cross-section, only plated on the compression face). This bolt

configuration is identical for all the case studies in this section. However, the stiffness of

bolts can be changed for different cases. Confinement due to the stirrups (R6@.100) is

considered. The confinement effect is calculated based on the method discussed in

Chapter 4, which gives the confined concrete strength of f,,:47}l{Pa that applies to the

concrete core enclosed by the centre line of stirrups. The P-A effect (by simplified
method) is also included in these calculations.

-l13-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

Figure 5.6 shows the responses of plated columns with different plate thicknesses

but with a constant bolt stiffness (K¡:23kN/mm). The top curve, indicated by '30mm

plated column with infinite stiffness', is the result for a column plated with a 30mm thick

plate having an elastic modulus and yield strength increased by 1000 times the actual

values. With these values, the plate is essentially a rigid plate that represents an upper

bound.

60 30mm lated col. with infinite stiffness

30mm plated col


50
12mm plated col
2
-- +o
o
o 6mm plated
930

õzo 3mm plated
(E original column
1 0

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Displacement at top (mm)

Legend: A - conc first cracks x - conc reaches comp strength


* - tension reinfl yields X - comp rernf. yields 0 - conc first crushes on col faoe
- conc crushes at comp bar r - one bolt yields o- all bolts yield
- plate fully yields
^

Fig. 5.6 Responses of columns with different plate thickness

Four more development stages are shown in Fig.5.6 by the four new marks that

are defined in legend. The more detailed definitions of all the marks can be found in the

Notation. Not every mark appears on every curve in Fig.5.6, because they do not occur in

some cases. For example, the bolts in the 3mm and 6mm plated columns do not yield

-114-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

because the plate yields first. Similarly, the plate does not fully yield for the cases of

l2mm and thicker plated columns because yielding of all bolts occurs first. Fig.5.7 gives

the results for 6mm plated columns with a range of bolt stiffnesses. For simplicity, only

points '*','L' and 'a' are given in Fig.5.7. The plate does not yield for the case of

K¡:0.75kN/mm in Fig.5.7, as the yielding of all bolts occurs first.

60 Ku: oo

fpv:K u: co
50
2
5¿o
o
o
€30 Ko:5
Ka:46
õ
b20
(! Ka:23 u:0.75

0
K¡:11.5
Kr,:O(kN/
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Displacement at top (mm)

Legend:
+ - tension reinf yields t - pìate tull yields a - comp. reinf yields in tension

Fig.5.7 Responses of columns with different bolt stiffness (t:6mm,frr:25OMPa)

The following observations can be made from Figs.S.6 and 5.7:

The lateral stiffness of a column is increased by an increase in plate thickness and/or

bolt stiffness in the ascending branches before yielding of the tensile reinforcement.

The yield strength of the column (at point '*' where the tension reinforcement first

yields) also increases with increases in either plate thickness andlor bolt stiffness. The

yield points are very closeJhe peak lateral resistance of the columns.
.l o,

- 115 -
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

2. There is a slight reduction in the lateral stiffness for all the cases when the concrete

cracks in the tension zone, as indicated by the point 'A' in the curves.

3. The attainment of the compressive strength at the compressive face, which is

indicated by the point 'x', is delayed relative to the yielding of the tension
reinforcement (point '+') as the plate thickness increases. For example, point 'x'
occurs before point '+' for curves with r0 and 3mm, whilst it occurs after point '*'
for cases with r6mm and above. This indicates that the compressive resistance of the

column increases when the plate thickness increases. Consistently, the increase in

plate thickness also delays the onset of concrete crushing at the compression face as

indicated by the point '0' in Fig.5.6.

4. The plating reduces the steepness of the post-peak softening branch, with thicker

plates giving less steep slopes, as shown in Fig.5.6. Similarly, an increase in bolt

stiffness also reduces the slope of the softening branch up to the point'A'where the

whole plate section yields, as shown in Fig.5.7. However, Fig.5.7 also shows that the

bolt stiffness has no effect on the softening slope once the yielding of the whole plate

occurs. This is logical since the bolt stiffness cannot generate further increases in the

compressive resistance from the plating system if the plate has fully yielded.

Generally, in the post-yield range of response curve between point '*' and the yield

point of the plating system (full yielding point of either plate 'A' or bolts 'o'), the

softening steepness (speed of deterioration) of a column reduces when the plate


thickness and/or the bolt stiffness increases.

5. The plating system improves the integrity (capacity to keep stability) of the column.

As seen from Fig.5.6, the yielding of the compression reinforcement, as marked with

-n6-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

'X', and the crushing of concrete in the vicinity of compression bar, as indicated by

the point '-', do not occur up to the end of the chart for the 6mm and thicker plated

columns. This signifies a better integrity in the compression zone compared to the

original (benchmark) un-plated column. The points of '-' and 'X' for the 3mm-plated

column also occur much later than that for the benchmark column.

6. The plating system improves the displacement ductility of the column. The
displacement ductility factor here is defined as

p = L,,lL, (5.1)

where A, is the yield displacement (the point where the tensile reinforcement first

yields), as indicated by the point '+', and 4,, is the ultimate lateral displacement at

the point where the lateral resistance force on the softening branch equals 80% of the

lateral force at point '+'. The ductility factors for the curves in Figs.5.6 and 5.7 are
calculated and shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Displacement ductility factors of plated columns

Fig.5.6 / (mm) 0 J 6 12 30 30

(Kh-23k frr(MPa) 250 250 250 2s0 250 Rigid plate

N/m) p 1.9 3.1 4.2 6.9 8.1 7.6

Fig.5.7 K¡ (kN/mm) 0.75 5.7 5 1 1.5 23.0 46.0 æ oo

(e6mm)
for(MPa) 250 250 250 250 250 250 250000

p 2.1 3.6 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.7 8.1

From Table 5.1 it can be seen that the plating generally improves the ductility.

Holever, increasing plate thickness or bolt stiffness does not always increase the

-117-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

ductility of the column. Generally, a response curve has a larger ductility factor when it

has a smaller yield strength as well as a larger plateau, or more accurately, a less steep

softening branch. Further discussions are given in Sections 5.2.1-5.2.3.

5.2.1 P-À Effect

The steepness of the softening branch is an important factor affecting ductility. The

softening slope is largely decided by the P-A effect. Without the P-A effect, the response

curve of a column has a less steep softening branch, as shown in Fig.5.8. As discussed in

Section 4.4.2.2, the P-Â effect causes a steepening of the softening slope by an additional

slope that satisfies O:N/L, as shown in Fig.5.8, where N is the axial load and L is the
cantilever length.

60
withoilt P-^ effect
50

strength
e
^40
z
I
stiffened

ã.0 l with P-^ effect


o
820 l
o
jro
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.8 P-A effect

Therefore, columns with a larger axial load N have alarger 0, and hence, a steeper

softening slope. So do columns with a shorter length Z. This latter relationship with

- ll8-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

regard to the length of the column seems illogical according to the engineering common

sense that the P-A effect is more prominent for a longer member. The shorter columns do

have a smaller lateral displacement response than that for longer columns. However, the

value of a response is different from the slope of the response curve. For any given

additional lateral displacement beyond the peak of the curve, the shorter columns have a

larger decrease in lateral strength than the longer columns, leading to a steeper softening

slope as shown in Fig.5.9.

90

BO
original column L=609
70

260 without P-^ effect


5oso
o
b40
r30
L
0.
(¡)
G'
with P-¡ effect
J10 original column L=1218

0
)o 30 40 60 100

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.9. Effect of column length to the softening slope

5.2.2 Strength Stiffening

As seen in Fig.5.8, the softening branch from the point '+' to the point 'a' is less steep

than the curve after the point'a'. This less steep part of the curve, which extends from

yielding of the tension reinforcement (point '+') to yielding of the plating system, as

defined by either full yielding of the plate (point'A') or full yielding of the bolts (point

- il9-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

'o'), is named "strength stiffened region" in this work. It is this part of curve that

produces the most important advantage of plating.

t
For convenience of discussion, Eq.4.59 is reprod uce below
Jt

F=(M,-N.L)lL (s.2)

where,F is the lateral force at the top of the column; M,, is the resistant moment from the

bottom cross-sectioni Ao is the lateral displacement at the top. In the ascending part of

Fig.5.8 before the yielding point'+', the resistant moment M, keeps increasing, leading

to the monotonic increase of tr.. After yielding of the column, if the resistantmoment M,,

remains constant or reduces, F given byEq.5.2 will decrease as and because the column

displacement Ao further increases. Therefore, to maintain F constant or reduce the rate of

decrease after yielding (point'+'), the resistant moment M,, musf continue to increase. If
the increase in the resistant moment M,, is sufficient to counter balance the increase in

the second term N.Ao of F.q.5.2, a constant F can be maintained.

For an unplated RC column, the increase in moment resistance due to the strain

hardening of the tension reinforcing bars is limited. Therefore, adequate increase in M,,

is not possible unless the axial load is very small, in which case the required increase in

M,, to balance N.Ao is also small. However, it is possible to gain an adequate increase

in M ,, for a plated column even with a large axial load, as illustrated by Fig.5.l0

-120-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

7.E 4O7

Ê 6,E 1O7
6mm plated col. lG=13¡¡7tt
zE 5.E 1O7

E
o 4.E tO7
originalcolumn
o 3.E tO7
.Ct

r!
2ErO7
tr
o
1 E1O7
E
o
OEÐO
= 0 20 40 60 B0 100 120

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5. l0 Moment at the bottom section

Based on the force diagram shown inFig.3.2, the resisting moment of the cross-

section is given by

M ="".N",+e,.N.,, (5.3)

where e" and et ate eccentricities of N.. and N,,, respectively, with respect to the

centriod of the cross-section and

N r, : N ror, + Nr. + N ,n =,ðy' + N,,, (5.4)

When the tensile reinforcement yields, N-, can be considered as constant, hence based on

Eq.5.4 N", ir also a constant. Therefore, the only variable that changes in Eq.5.3 is e.,

which means that any increase in the resisting moment M can only come from the

increase in e". This increase in the eccentricity e" of the compressive resultant is due to

the transfer of axial force from the RC column to the plate as shown in Fig.5.l l.

-121 -
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

4.E+05

ate
3.Ë+tls
z
q)
g
o 2.E+05

't

1.E+05
RC

0 E+00
0 20 40 60 B0 100 120

Top displacement (mm)

Fig. 5.11 Distribution of axial forces at bottom section (r6mm, K¿:23kN/mm)

In reality, strain hardening of the tensile reinforcement increases N,, slightly,

which also has an effect in increasing the moment resistance. However, the contribution

from strain hardening of the tension bars is small compared to the effect of the lever arm

increase.

The softening slope of the strength stiffened region, as illustrated in Fig.5.8, is

closely related to the stiffness of the plating system, i.e. the stiffness of the plate and bolt.

Increasing the stiffness of the plating system reduces the softening steepness of the

stren$h-stiffened part, which can be seen from Figs.5.6 and 5.7. This is because the

increase in the resisting moment M, of the cross-section due to the strength stiffening,

i.e. the transfer of axial load from the RC column to the plate, is faster for stiffer plating

systems. lf M, increases as fast as N.Ao does, then M,-N.A', and henceF, remains

constant, leading to a zero softening slope. Therefore, in order to get a small softening

-122-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

steepness, the plating system must be able to increase the moment resistance of the

bottom cross-section at a similar speed as the P-A effect increases the additional moment.

Once tull yielding of either the plate or all bolts occurs, defrned by the points 'a'

and 'o' respectively in Figs.5.6 and 5.7, no further extension of the strength stiffened

region can take place, because no more transfer of axial load happens. Therefore,

increasing the strength of the plate or bolts, by using thicker plates, stronger bolts or

larger numbers of bolts, can extend the strength stiffening part. For example, the plate

yielding point 'a' occurs much later for a 6mm plated column compared to the 3mm

plated column in Fig.5.6. Plate yielding does not occur at all for the l2mm or thicker

plated columns in Fig.5.6, resulting in the yielding of all bolts at point 'o'.

However, the strength stiffening part cannot be extended indef,rnitely by using a

stronger plating system. The reason is given below. For a plating system that is
suffrciently strong so that the plate and bolts will not fully yield under any large

displacement, the strength stiffening starts, as before, with the yielding of the tensile

reinforcement. However, the continuous increase in curvature at the bottom section will

move the neutral axis very close towards the side of the plate if the plating system is

sufficiently strong. When the compression zone is so small that the neutral axis moves to

the region between the compression reinforcement and the plate, the longitudinal

reinforcement at the compression side will actually be loaded in tension. In this case, N-"

becomes a negative value and N.o," becomes very small. This further increases the load

N ,¡¡ oÍr the plate. In this case, Eq.5.3 can be re-written as

M:€"ur,'Nrun,, +er.Nn,,+e,.(N., +N..) (5.5)

-123-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

where e,,,,, and ep are the eccentricities of N.u,. and N¡,, respectively, with respect to

the centroid of the cross-section. If the compression bar yields in tension and the strain

hardening is ignored, the moment terms due to N," and N", cancel each other, as the

reinforcement is assumed to be symmetrical about the centroid, and Eq.5.5 becomes

M =€rurr.Nror"*e,r.Nnt, (5.6)

If the axial force in the concrete is ignored as the compression zone is small, substituting

N ¿, = N + N., - 1y'*, o N + (A.,, * A,"). -f .,, and e, x (D + t) I 2 into Eq.5.6 gives

M * .(A,, + A)f
N e p. N pt,
+ [¡r*¿ (s.7)

At this time, the maximum moment resistance of the cross-section has been achieved. No

further increase in the resistant moment, or strength stiffening, can be made regardless of

how strong the plating system is. This case gives the upper limit for strength stiffening.

An example of this case is shown by the top curve in Fig.5.7, where the resistant moment

of the bottom cross-section from the computer simulation is 82.7 kNm at the point 't'
where the compression bar just yields in tension. This moment value is very close to the

result given by Eq.5.7 that gives 82.4 kNm.

When the neutral axis moves to the compression concrete cover arca, the entire

applied axial load N plus the tensile forces in all the reinforcement, which is sometimes

much bigger than the axial load l/ itself, acts on a very small compression zone. This

highly stressed narrow compression zone raises concern over the stability of this region.

However, experimental work (see Section 11.2) showed that no excessive distress

-124-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

occurred in the test columns in the compression zone and the integrity of the column

remained satisfactory even after all longitudinal reinforcement yielded in tension.

5.2.3 Yield Strength

From Table 5.1, it can be seen that an increase in the plating stiffness, i.e. stiffness of the

bolt and/or the plate, does not always increase the ductility of the column. For example,

the displacement ductility reduces from 4.5 to 4.2 when the bolt stiffness K6 increases

from ll.5kN/mm to 23kN/mm. The reason is that a stiffer plating system will have a

stiffer ascending response branch and greater yield strength, i.e. a greater "y" co-ordinate

value at point '+'. The greater yield strength of the column causes a reduction of the
ductility factor as calculated at a point corresponding to 80% of the yield strength in the

softening branch. A stiffer plating system may also result in an earlier yielding point of

the plating system, i.e. a smallet "x" co-ordinate value at point'O' or'o', as shown in

Figs.5.6&5.7. From these points of view, a plating system, that mobilises the compressive

resistance only after onset of yielding of the tensile reinforcement, produces a larger

ductility factor.

To verify this, a plating system with gaps between the bolts and the plate, as

shown inFig.5.l2, is analysed. The numerical results for the 6mm plated columns with

gaps of varying sizes between the plate and the bolts (bottom gap is set to zero in these

cases) are given in Fig.5.l3. From a ductility point of view, the advantage of the plating

system with gaps is obvious from these numerical results. The ductility factors for the

cases with lmm and 2mm gap are 4.7 and 5.0 respectively, as compared to 4.2 for the

case without gap. It can be seen from Fig.5.l3 that the initial responses of the plated

-125-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

columns with gaps are "exactly" the same as that of the un-plated column before the gap

closes up at the bifurcation point where the response of the plated column splits from the

response curve of the un-plated column.

gap
around
bolt

RC column

bottorn gap

column base or beam

Fig. 5.12 Gap between bolt and plate

50
gap
45

zll 40

35
6)
o 30 2mm gap
o
no plate
õ 20

15
(¡,
IE 10

0
10 20 30 80

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.13 Effect of gap for the 6mm plated column, K¿:23kN/mm

Theoretically, there are both an axial force and a flexural moment in a plate cross-

section. The flexural stiffness of the plate will also contribute to the moment resistance of

the whole plated cross-section even when the axial force in the plate is zero (before the

gap closes up). However, the flexural stiffness of the plate is negligible compared to the

-126-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

RC column. This explains why the plating system has virtually no effect on the RC

column before the gap closes up.

Clearly, the bifurcation point can be designed to occur anywhere by properly

designing the width of the gap. Ideally, a gap would close up when the column just

yields, as shown by the case with the l.5mm gap in Fig,5.l3. The slope of the response

curve after the bifurcation point can also be designed by properly choosing the rigidity of

the plate and/or the stiffness of the bolts as discussed in the previous section, which is

demonstrated by the cases with Kb:23 and 92kN/mm in Fig.5.l4.

45

40 1 5mm gap, K¡=92kN/mm

z^35
.Y
1.smm gap,
^^
o
o".
o
_20
(! no gap
o15
(!
Jro
5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.14 Effect of stiffness of plating system

It has been shown in the previous section that "strength stiffening" terminates
when the plating system yields, i.e. yielding of either the whole plate section or all the

bolts. Increasing the yield strength of the plating system can increase the ductility of the

system. As mentioned earlier in this section, increasing the stiffness of the plating system

may not increase the ductility. However, it has also been shown in Section 5.2.2 and

Fig.5.l4 that a smaller softening steepness in the strength stiffened region can be

-127-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

achieved by a stiffer plating system. Therefore, a proper balance of the strength and

stiffness of the plating system is important. An idealised plating system shall be: (l) weak

or not effective before the onset of column yielding point '+'; (2) adequately stiff after

yielding point to provide a small softening steepness; and (3) sufficiently strong (tough)

to delay the yielding of the plating system in order to achieve the maximum extent of the

strengh stiffened region.

A good example is demonstrated with the 6mm-plated column that combines a

gap with infinite yield strength but normal stiffness for both the plate and bolts, as shown

in Fig.5.15. The example further demonstrates that a higher yield strength for the plate

and bolts can increase the ductility of plated columns. This result suggests that FRP

materials may have advantages over steel for both plate and bolt. The strength stiffening

in Fig.5.l5 stops at tensile yielding of the compression bars shown by the point'.)'.

40
K5-46kN/mm, fpy-æ, For- -
zta
v30
(¡)
o t.5 lnm gap, 3kN/mm, for:250MPa
o
!zo
G no
(¡)
.E
J10

0
0 20 40 60 80 '100 120 140

Displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 5.15 Effect of strength of plating system

Theoretically, the strength stiffening can further be extended if the tensile

resistance in the tension face can be furlher increased so that the resistant moment of the

-128-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

bottom cross-section further increases. Tension plating on the tension face, as shown in

Fig.5.l6, with the tension gap closing just before point '..l' can be used to serve this

purpose. However, this kind of system may not be practical in the sense that the

compressive force may be too high in the compression plate. On the other hand, the

tensile strain of the reinforcement bar may also be too high in the tension side at that

stage, causing fracture of the reinforcement bar. The tensile strains at the end of the chart

for the top curve in Fig.5.l5 are 0.0816 and 0.00387 for the reinforcement bars at the

tension and the compression side, respectively.

Tension
gap

Compression
gap

Fig.5.l6 Tension gap

5.3 SLIP DISTRIBUTIONS

Longitudinal slip between the RC column and the plate is very important in composite

structures as it reflects the degree of composite interaction between elements that are

connected by bolts/shear connectors, which in turn affects the overall stress distributions

in the members. Furthermore, mechanical shear connectors have only a limited slip

capacity. Excessive slip will cause the fracture of the bolts/connectors. Therefore, slip

-t29-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

and its distribution are very important considerations in the study of composite structures

(Johnson and Molenstra 1991; Burnet and Oehlers 2001).

Figure 5.17 gives the slip distributions along the length for the'plate bolted I

side' column studied in Section 5.1 at the three different stages of: concrete cracking at

the stress of f"¡, as shown by the mark 'Â'; yielding of the tension reinforcement shown

by '-|'; and crushing of the concrete at the compressive face indicated by '0'. The slip

distributions at the first and second stages shown by 'A' and '+' are similar to the slip

distribution given by the classic linear theory (Newmark et al. 1951 and 1952) of
composite beams which gives a zero slip at the maximum moment position, a maximum

slip at the zero moment position and a convex shaped distribution. The third distribution

indicated by '0' looks quite different from the classic distribution. The figure shows that

the slip near the bottom part, which is around the plastic hinge region, increases faster

than that of the other parts of the column. It is even possible for the slip of the first bolt to

become larger than that of the remaining bolts. Fig.5.18 gives an example for the case

where the spacing of bolts is half that for the case represented in Fig.5.l7 and K¿ is

increased from 23kN/mm to 30.5 kN/mm.

't4
1.2

1.0 1.042
ç
Ë oo

.g 06
Ø
o4
o2
00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Distance from top (mm)

Fig.5.l7 Distributions of slip

-130-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDIES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

08
u.t
0.6

05
E
E 04
:o o3
U)
o.2

01
00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Distance from top (mm)

Fig. 5.18 Slip distributions when maximum slip occurs at the bottom

It will be shown in Section 8.2.1 that the slip of the first bolt at the top of the

plastic hinge is only determined by the deformation of the plastic hinge (see Eq.8.5)

which is largely determined by the total rotation of the hinge or the overall displacement

of the column. The slips of the other bolts are largely affected by the stiffness and total

number of bolts, i.e. the total longitudinal shear resistance of the bolts, which will be seen

from the linear elastic study in Sections 6.3-6.4. Therefore, for columns with strong shear

connections on the interface, i.e. stiff and/or large number of bolts, and when large

deformations occur in the plastic hinge, it is possible that the largest slip occurs at the

bottom where the maximum moment occurs rather than at the top of the column where

the moment is zero. This conclusion has practical implications for the design of

composite members. In the literature, the classical slip distribution developed from linear

elastic theory, by which the maximum slip is considered to occur at the position where

the bending moment is zero, is generally adopted to guide the design of shear connectors

(Oehlers and Bradford 1995). From the above study, it can be seen that this conclusion

- 131-
CHAPTER 5 NUMERICAL STUDìES OF PLATED RC COLUMNS

may not be applicable for a composite beam/column loaded to the plastic deformation

stage. Further studies on the slip distribution will be conducted in Section 6.4.

From Figs.5.l7 and 5.18 it can be seen that the slip distributions may be

considered to be uniform along the length at the ultimate loading stage. This observation

will be used to simpliff the plating design procedure presented in Section 8.3.

-132-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

The advantage of partial interaction plating for RC columns has been shown in the

numerical studies in Chapter 5. In this chapter, further studies by mathematical analysis

are performed. These analytical studies help to better understand the fundamental
behaviour of plated columns. Some results from these analytical studies will also be

directly used in Chapter 8 where the design of plated columns is discussed.

-),'
The mathematical studies of this section are based on linear elastic theory, which
is applicable to serviceability t,-,, ,ruffiis. In order to exrend the linear theory

from serviceability analysis to ultimate limit state analysis, where large in-elastic

deformation occurs, an elastic analysis plus plastic hinge model is introduced in Section

6.1. In Section 6.2,the linear elastic theory of composite members (including beams and

columns) is developed which extends the classic linear elastic theory of composite
beams. It is shown in Section 6.3 that the response of composite members is governed by

just a few composite parameters regardless of the large number of variables involved,

which is a new concept first introduced from this work. The slip distributions are also

studied in further detail in Section 6.4.

6.1 LINEAR ELASTIC PLUS PLASTIC HINGE MODEL


l,' :
í::;ñ.,",:
Linear elastic theory is only applicable when the load and deflection is ielatively small,

or more correctly, within the linear elastic limit for both material and geometrical

-133-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

conditions. Strictly speaking, it cannot be applied when any part of the structure yields.

However, when plastic deformation occurs, most of the plastic deformation of the
member is concentrated in a zone where maximum moment occurs, namely the plastic

hinge zone as discussed in Section 4.2.3. Therefore, the region of the column above the

plastic hinge zone, as shown in Fig.6.1,may still be considered to be essentially elastic

where linear-elastic theory is applicable.

A" N

\\, F

Elastic Elastic nlember


zone
loading L" a
a
a
a Suppofi of
a
a elastic rnernber
a

t.
before
loading
Plastic hinge
*-' -
A
Plast

(a) Elastic and plastic zone (b) DetailA

Fig. 6. 1 Plastic-elastic model

For the elastic member above the plastic hinge, the slip at the imaginary support

or the interface of the elastic and the plastic part, as shown in Fig.6.l(b), will not be zero.

Therefore a non-zero slip boundary condition, as discussed in Section 6.2.2, must be used

in the linear theory. This boundary slip .çp can be calculated by the plastic hinge analysis

introduced in Section 8.2. Therefore, by using the model shown in Fig.6.l, the difficult

-134-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

problem of a partial interaction non-linear analysis is transformed into a relatively simple

linear-elastic analysis of the member with a shofter length L" and a given boundary slip

sn at the support of the elastic member, plus a plastic hinge analysis

6.2 LINEAR ELASTIC ANALYSIS

Classic linear elastic partial-interaction theory for composite steel and concrete beams

was f,rrst developed by Newmark et al (1951, 1952) and more recently extended to allow

for non-linearity by Johnson and Molenstra (1991) and Burnet and Oehlers (2001). In this

study, Newmark's classic linear-elastic theory for composite beams is extended to

include axial load so that it can be applied to plated columns as well as prestressed RC

composite beams. Furthermore, a non-zero slip boundary condition at the fixed end

support is introduced to allow Newmark's linear elastic serviceability analysis to be

extended to encompass beams and columns at the ultimate limit state where large
deformations occur at the plastic hinge, using the model of Section 6.1 .

6.2.1 Generic Mathematical Model

The basic geometric model underconsideration is shown in Fig.6.2. The origin of the co-

ordinate system is located at the geometric centroid of the cross-section of element 1 at

the top of the member. The x-axis is in the longitudinal direction of the column. A typical

portion from the top of the column to a cross-section that is x distance away from the

origin is isolated as a free body as shown in Fig.6.2(a).

A constant axial load N is applied at the centroid of the cross-section of element

L For generality, a constant moment Mo at the origin and a distributed load p(x) along

-135-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

the length are applied. ln the free body diagram of Fig.6.2(a), the normal (y direction)

stress on the interface is not shown as it has no effect in the following derivations.

p(x)

centroid of element

Element 2 \
s'tp Je2-
F Element I \c'
interface
Mo
X
A
N 1-
centroid of element I

(a) Free body diagram (b) Strain profile in the section

Fig. 6.2 Anal¡ical model

The theory developed in this section is based on the assumptions specified in

Section 3.3 plus linear assumption. For convenience of reference, they are listed as

follows:

(l) All the constitutive materials behave linearly;

(2) The cross-section is uniform along the length;

(3) Bernoulli's principle that plane sections remain plane applies to individual elements,

as shown by the strain profile in Fig.6.2(b);

(4) The shear connectors between the two elements are continuous and uniformly

distributed longitudinally; and

(5) No transverse separation occurs on the contact interface, therefore the curvature is the

same for both elements at the same cross-section.

-136-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

6.2.1.1 Equilibrium and compatibility

Force equilibrium for the individual elements inFig.6.2 requires

Nr-F,0,=0 (6.1)

N - F,n, -Nr =0 (6.2)

Taking moments about point A gives

M, + M, t N r. (h, + h,) - Uçx¡ = g (6.3)

where Mþc) is the applied moment in the cross-section given by

M(x) : Mo t F' x - [r{Ð' (x - Ðd€. Hence from Eq.6.l and Eq.6.3


0

M, + M, r F,n, -(h, + hr) - Mlx¡ = g (6.4)

The strain in the x-direction at the interface of element I in Fig.6.2(b) is given by

Mt.ht Nl
c-
çl- (6.s)
(Er), (EA),

and that at the interface of element 2 is

o)
M..h. N"
(6.6)
-
(Er), (EA),

Assumption 5 requires that

M.t_z M"
(6.7)
(Er), (Er),

Applying Assumption 4, the longitudinal slip s is given by

Fh q'L,
r)- (6.8)
Kb Kh

-137-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

where Fo is the shear force applied to the shear connectors at a given cross-section that

has a stiffncss of Kr1' L, is thc longitudinal spacing of thc shcar conncctors; and 4 is thc

longitudinal shear force per unit length, or shear flow, which is given by

(6.e)

Hence

L- dF,,,
Jt=- (6.10)
Kb dx

The slip strain in Fig.6.2(b) is given by

ds
tun I t2 (6.r r)
dx

Differentiating Eq.6. I 0 gives

ds _ L, .d2F"o, (6.12)
dx Kb dx2

By refening to Eqs.6. l, 6.2, 6.4-6.7 , the slip strain in Eq.6.l I can be transformed to

(6. r 3)

in which

tlt
_=__L_ (6.14)
EA (EA), (EA),

Zu =(Er)t+(Er), (6.15)

and

EI =LEI + EA.(4 +hr)', (6.r 6)

-r38-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

where EI is (can be proved to be ) the flexural rigidity of the composite member with

full interaction. However, EA is not the axial rigidity of the composite member.

6.2.1 .2 Governing differential equation

From Eqs.6.1 l, 6. 12 and 6.13, the following differential equation is obtained

L" d'F,o, EI D , (h, + hr). M(x) -, N (6.17)


-ã¿Er'r'shrl-=El 0
1 dr, t*,
Letting

L
ao (6. r 8)

EI (6.1e)
ar
EA.>EI

a2 _(h+hr) (6.20)
Znt
and

a- (6.21)
(EA)'

Eq.6.l7 simplifies to

d'F"r,
"r-t#-at.F,n,+ar.M(x)rar'N =0
(6.22)

This differential equation can be solved for a given applied moment distribution of M(x).

The slip then can be obtained from Eq.6.10. To obtain the deflection of the member, the

following relation is used

d2v M,
(6.23)
dx2
-,' -
-t-
(EI),

-139-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

Combining Eqs.6.4, 6.7 and 6.17 gives

Mt _ M(x) (h, + hr). EA L- d'F,o, (h, + hr)- EA- N


(6.24)
(EI), Er EI Kb ax
t)
Er.(EA)I

Substituting F,q.6.24 into 8q.6.23 gives

ootþ _ r!)
+
dx'
=oo.
dx- EI
* ao. a,. N (6.2s)

where

(6.26)

6.2.2 Solution for the Case of A Cantilever Column

The solution for the cantilever column shown in Fig.6.3 is just a special case of Section

6.2.1.

L
X

Fig. 6.3 Model of the cantilever column

- 140-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

In this case, M (x) = F ' x and the general solution of 8q.6.22 is given by

F,n, c e +c2-e +a^.F a-.N


' ..x+ ' (6.27)
at al

where the constants ct and c2 can be determined from the following boundary

conditions

{'r,l.=o = o (6.28)

L dF,n,
=sn (6.2e)
"1,=,. ,ç dx x=t.

For a fixed end support as shown in Fig.6.3, the boundary slip s, :0 atx:L.For

generality, a non-zero value sn is adopted. This non-zero boundary slip condition is

useful as discussed in Section 6.1 where the linear theory is extended to a non-linear

analysis. From 8qs.6.28 and 6.29,the constants are calculated to be

ar.N.e-o +ar.F
sn ^F
lo,
c1 (6.30)
a ao.at.cosh(a) 2ar'cosh(a)

a^'N
L2 - -çl (6.31)
al

in which

Kb-EI
a=L -L (6.32)
L-.EA Znt
where

cll
a5= (6.33)
ao

Substituting c, and c, intoF,q.6.27 and re-arranging gives

-141-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

sinh(ø'f) sinh(a.f)
F"h, =
s
+-
ao .a, .cosh(a) al [,..t'u
-e-d'Ë -*.Ð"
*, )+a,'F-E,.r.t- cosh(ø)
)

=FÍrF,+F,, (6.34)

where F,., Fn and F,, are the longitudinal shear forces induced by the lateral force F, the

axial load i/ and the boundary slip so , respectively. They are given by

Fr=F'1.(4+r,,#lt #{ffi] (6.3s)

F,
NEA EI , -a.t 2sinh(a.(\
l-e'---_=:- (6.36)
(EA), EI g'" +l

Kn.sinh(a'Ç) (6.37)
F,,, =sp L
L" a.cosh(ø)
where f is the normalized coordinate x, or

x
5 0<€<l (6.38)
L

The slip is obtained from Eq.6.l0

,=5.0':r,=srrs,*s,o (6.3e)
Khdxr

where s¡t s, and s,o are the slip terms due to F, N and sp, respectively, and are given

by

EA
st:F'(h+4)
EI

=F.9
as
(6.40)

-142-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

¡/ .4.,
K.EIU nt.lL" ", -
L,
,s
(84'
l
J

=-F: þ-"
r" - 2coshe - .,[ a, .
€) f t""''
tr' * r¡l (6.41)

s/, .cosh(a'f) .9 coshØ.Jas 'Ð


S.p = (6.42)
cosh(a) cosh@, ar)

To solve for the deflection, 8q.6.25 is integrated twice to give

.a.. N
v = v'1,,, + ao'ao'F,r, +a." ' .x"+c3.x+c4 (6.43)
2

where

: I* F.x
vl1arr =Jdx (
I -Y)*
EI) EI

F.E
6EI
ç63 -t6 +z¡ (6.44)

which is the deflection due to the lateral force F with full interaction, i.e. no slip between

elements I and2. The constants c, and c4 are determined from the boundary conditions

''rl - 0 (6.4s)

0 (6.46)

which gives

Ku
ct -- -a+. ar. L. N - ao. ao .t n' (6.47)
L"

: r+ - . sinntø ) + L:!. (t - e-" ). t- rï"]


"^
aq ao.
[2", T
(6.48)

-143-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

Substituting c, and c. into 8q.6.43 and re-arrangement gives

v -- vli,rr * vli,rr + F' s,G) + N' gr(É) + s t,' &(6) (6.4e)

where

(h+hr) EA Ê .N-(6
vJirll -1)'
2Er.(EA)I

=].,nr.e+.oz.t].G-t)t
2
(6.50)

which is the deflection caused by a constant moment due to the eccentricity of the axial

load about the centroid of the combined composite cross-section of elements I and 2 with

full interaction.

The three additional terms in 8q.6.49, F ' S,G) , N . gr(O and s


o-&(6), reflect

the partial interaction effects for the lateral force, axial force and boundary slip,

respectively, where

s,(6) = Q,, + r,,)' (#)' + t[r - ffi3 -t+1.ønh(a)


d

:aÎ 'ao'L ,' _ sinh(a. €) _ t +1. tanh(a) (6.51)


a. cosh(ø) d

9r(6)=(h,+hr)
EA
EI
ZII
(EA),
L Kb
c-ot- 2sinh(a-O.
-
I

,n *1 *rh(o)
-l
,, _2sinh(a .6)
- % l-""
_a3.a4 .l _
- *-*rh(")l
' (6.s2)
,\t
h,) 4' Isinh(ø'6)-sinh(a) +t-
c,(6) \"t+ "2/
Òr\?,= (h U "l 6
".*rnø¡

-144-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

:a4.L (6.s3)

The functions gr $) and gr(€) approach zero when the stiffness of shear connectors

approaches infrnity, which leads to the result given by full interaction theory.

6.3 COMPOSITE PARAMETERS

For a composite member, there are many member properties that affect the response.

Furthermore, the effect of each variable is not obvious. Some of the variables are inter-

related, fufther complicating matters. For example, in Eq.6.40 the slip appears to be in

direct proportion to (\thr), however, EI and EA are also related to (h+hr).

Furthermore, ø also depends on l\ and hr. However, careful study of the variables

reveals that the response of a composite member is determined by only a few composite

parameters that are combinations of basic material and geometric properties as described

in the following sections.

6.3.1 Fundamental Parameters Governing Longitudinal Slip

ln order to establish which factors affect the slip distribution in a composite member with

arbitrary loading and boundary conditions, Eq.6.l3 is rewritten with reference to

Eqs.6.l9-6.21 as

t"tp = -at' F,¡, * ar' M (x) + ar' N (6.54)

For a linear system, the superposition law applies. Therefore, the total slip strain of

F,q.6.54 can be considered to be the algebraic sum of the following 3 components

(e.,¡r)t : -Ïl!d.s. =.-at' F,n, (6.55)


' clx

-145-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

(s,tp)z = -* = ar. M(x) (6.s6)

ds,,
(e,,0), ar.N (6.s7)
dx

where (Ê.,,0)r, (e,,0), and (e,,0), are the slip strain terms caused by (l) longitudinal shear

force F,t,,, (2) bending moment M(x) and (3) axial load N, respectively. The

corresponding slip terms are indicated by s, , s, and s,, respectively. Therefore

t ,tp = (t ,tp) t + (e -,r), * (e ,,n). (6.s8)

,ç = .çt +.t2 +,t3 (6.se)

Integrating 8q.6.56 and 6.57 gives

sz = -o2. I, ft) - dx : oz. Fr(r) (6.60)

s3: -al lw .a, = a3. F3(x) (6.6 r )

where Fr(x)=-lrfO.dx and 4(r)= -lX.a*. By referring to Eq.6.10, Eq.6.55 can

be rewritten as

ds. I
dx (6.62)
dx'on J"

Taking derivative of both sides and referring to Eqs.6.33, 6.59-6.61 gives

- ", ' st - as.far. Fr(x) + a, ' Fr(flf= g (6.63)


#
The factors affecting the slip can now be clearly seen from Eqs.6.59-6.61 and

6.63. Apart from the loading conditions which determine Fr(x) and Fr(x) , there are only

three composite parameters that affect the slip: a, , a, and ar. These three composite

parameters are functions of geometric and material properties of the member.

-146-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

Furthermore, these parameters have clear physical meanings as discussed below. To

discuss the parameter ss) the parameters ao and a, are also analyzed

1 . The unil longitudinal flexibility of shear connectors ao

As given by Eq.6.18, it can be seen that lf ao is the shear connector lateral stiffness

over a unit longitudinal length. In other words, ao is the flexibility coefficient of

shear connection. Therefore, alarger value of ao indicates a smaller resistance to slip

from the shear connectors, tending to give alarger value of slip in the interface.

2. The active slip strain cofficient a,

Letting F,t,=0, N:0 and M-l in Eq.6.54 gives e",o =ar where a, is given by

8q.6.20. This means that the coefficient a, is the slip strain caused by a unit external

bending moment at the cross-section when no interaction exists at the interface (no

shear connectors). A larger value of a2 means that, for a given external bending

moment, a larger slip strain will occur. In other words, a member with a larger a,

value is prone to have larger slips under flexural loading. From 8q.6.20, it can be

seen that a, is a cross-sectional property of the individual elements 1 and2.

3. The passive slip strain coefficient a,

Let M: N--0 and F,n,:7 in Eq.6.54, then e,,o = -at, in which a, is also a function of

the cross-sectional properties as given by 8q.6.19. Therefore, the coefficient a, is the

slip strain of the cross-section caused by a unit longitudinal shear force. For a cross-

section with a larger al, a given longitudinal shear force will cause larger

longitudinal slip strains and hence slip. As the longitudinal shear force always tries to

-147-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

stop the slip caused by the external forces (hence the name possive slip strain

coe/.ficient as opposed to the aclive slip strain coefficient a"), ã larger a, indicates

that the longitudinal shear is more effective in stopping the slip or resisting the slip

strain caused by external forces. In other word, for composite members of the same

length but with a larger cross-sectional property a,,lhe same shear connection (same

bolt and same number) will result in a smaller slip at the interface under the same

loading conditions.

4. The axial.flexibility a,

Letting F,n,=0, N:l and M:0, then Eq.6.54 gives tin=ar, where a, is given by

F.q.6.21. That is to say, a, is the slip strarn a unit axial force applied at the

centriod of element l. When the axial flexibility a, of element I is greater, a given

axial load will cause a larger axial shortening of element I which in turn causes a

larger slip between elements I and2.

5. The slip resistance ability coef/icient a,

AsgivenbyEq.6.33,thiscoefficientisthecombinationof aoand a,i.e. ar=a,f ar.

It reflects the overall ability of the composite member in restraining the slip at the

interface, which can be observed by considering the physical meanings of ao and a,.

As mentioned in 3, composite members with a larger passive slip straín coefficienl a,,

and the same shear connection will have a smaller slip at the interface under the same

loading conditions. When the shear connector stiffness l/ao is larger, there is a

stronger shear connection in the interface, providing greater slip resistance, which

further reduces the slip. Therefore, for composite members with larger ar,The ability

- 148 -
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

of the member to restrain the slip is greater, and the slip caused by a given loading

condition will be smaller.

The above relations can be verified by the slip results from the example of Section

6.2.2 where the slip terms are given by Eqs.6.40-6.42. In all three terms, which

respectively are caused by the external moment or lateral force at the top (Eq.6.40), the

axial load (Eq.6.al) and the boundary slip (8q.6.42),the slip resistance ability coefficient

a, plays a key role in resisting the amount of slip. In other word, all three slip terms

given by 8q.6.40-6.42 reduce monotonically when a, increases, which will be discussed

further in Sections 6.4.1-6.4.3.

6.3.2 Parameters Affecting Deformations

Similar to slip, the deflection of a composite member is also governed by just a few key

parameters regardless of the many variables involved. With reference to Eqs.6.1l and

6.12,8q.6.24 canbe rewritten as:

M(x) (h, + hr).EA


K:---J4' ¡/
EI EI

:'!:) +a4.t.rp-ao.ar.N (6.64)


EI

where ao is given by 8q.6.26. The first term in the above equation is the curvature

caused by the external moment with full interaction (no slip). The second is the additional

curvature of the cross-section caused by a given slip strain e,,r. And the third term is the

curvature caused by the axial load due to the eccentricity between the centriod of element

1 and the centriod of the composite section with full interaction.

-149-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

From Eq.6.64, the factors affecting the curvature and hence deformation of the

member are clearly seen. Apart from the external member forces N and M(x) as well as

the full interaction flexural rigidity EI , the only other composite parameters that affect

the deformations are a2) 03, cts and ao, as the slip strain á",o is determined by 02, e3,

a, and the loadings as discussed in Section 6.3.1. This observation is verified by the

deflection results given by Eqs.6.49-6.53 and 6.44.

Similar to a2t a3, and a,there is also a clear physical meaning for coefficient

ao. To visualise this physical meaning,let M(x):0 and N:0 inEq.6.64 and consider

8q.6.54 to get

K = a4. t,rp = -ao'ar. Frn, (6.65)

For convenience, the corresponding free body diagram and strain profile in this

case is shown in Fig.6.4.

Focal point 2

Element 2

F.hr Rs
hl
X

tslp
Element 1

Fig. 6.4 Strain profile due to longitudinal shear force

-150-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

The strain distribution of element I is given by e :+. - K .y. Considering Eq.6.65


(EA\,

and N, = -F"h, leads to

e= !l'- + al'I a4'


- (EA), +
F,n,. ! = F,h,.(ar. ao. / - at) (6.66)

It is noted that at the point where at'aq'!-at:0 in 8q.6.66, a:0 for any

value of F"r,.They co-ordinate of this point is given by

cl1
Yt - (6.67)
at'a+

In other words, the additional strain caused by longitudinal shear (or slip) is always zero

at this point no matter how the longitudinal shear force or slip changes. This means that

all the strain profiles, for any combination or distribution of shear connections, pass

through this point or are "focused at this point".

The strain profile 'focal point' is an impoftant new concept in the study of

composite structures that was first discovered and introduced by Seracino, Oehlers and

Yeo (2001). It was found initially from their numerical simulations. They later verified

this finding using linear elastic analysis to show that all strain profiles calculated from the

elastic theory, with different shear connections, intersected at a common point. However,

the physical reason as to why the focal point exists was still not clear from their study.

From the above discussion, it can now be seen clearly that the longitudinal shear

force Fn, causes an addìtional axial force Nt=-F,t, and an additional moment

Mt=-aq.a,.F"o,.(EI), in the cross-section of element 1. This additional force and

moment lead to the additional strain of -F"h,f(EA)t and ao.at-F,¡,.!, respectively, in

- l5l -
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

the cross-section, which cancel each other at the focal point regardless of the value of

F",,, that is affected by the shear connection details.

This investigation also reveals that the 'focal point' concept is, strictly speaking,

the characteristic of linear systems. The linear strain distribution given by F,q.6.66 is not

applicable to a general non-linear system which cannot have a single y value for s:0 as

was used to get 8q.6.67 in the above derivation.

For the same reason, element 2 also has a focal point. The y co-ordinate of focal

point2 can be easily calculated as

I
V. =------------=-- - hr-lt, (6.68)
ot.oq.(EA),

The distance between these two focal points, R, as shown in Fig.6.4, is given by

R,=yr-/z: .e,t-@A),+ at .a¿.(EA), +h+h2


at

(6.6e)
o,4

From Eq.6.65, it can be seen that ao is the curvature when the slip strain caused by the

longitudinal shear t,,o: l. Because of this reason, ao is named as the unit slip curvature.

Therefore, according to 8q.6.69, R. is named the slip radius as oppose to the unit slip

curvature ao. It is noted that the slip radius (and unit slip curvature) is also function of

cross-sectional properties.

From Fig.6.4, it can also be seen that the slip strain can be expressed as the slip

radius times the curvature caused by the longitudinal shear force, or

-152-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

t,tp = R,'ç : Í- 1ff,-70)


a4

Comparing 8q.6.70 with Eq.6.65, it can be seen that they are the same which further

supports the concept of 'focal points'. Interestingly, the first and third terms inEq.6.64

can also be obtained with the concept of slip radius or unit slip curvature. For a

composite member without interaction, the curvature due to an external moment is given

by r = M@l>EI .The slip strain at the interface is simply

M(x)
á"ø =#.(hr+hr) (6.71)
L"'
For a composite member with full interaction, this slip strain must be resisted by the

longitudinal shear force so that e.,,, = 0 , or the slip strain due to the longitudinal shear

force is

(6.72)

From 8q.6.70, the additional curvature due to longitudinal shear is given by

aq . t"tp - -a4 + hr) (6.73)


#.(h
The final curvature, assuming full interaction, is therefore the summation of the two

parts, or

"=y*-'r y* Ø+h)=# ."74)

which is the same as the first term in 8q.6.64. The third term of 8q.6.64 can also be

obtained with the same concept.

- 153 -
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

6.4 SLIP DISTRIBUTION OF THE CANTILEVER COLUMN

Due to the irnportance of tlie longitudinal slip, ¡ts distl'ibutions ale furthel discussed in

this section based on the results from linear elastic theory. Typical slip distributions for

the cantilever column obtained from Section 6.2.2, as given by Eqs.6.40-6.42, are shown

in Fig.6.5.

Total (by F

È
J sp
o bys

Support of
elastic colurnn
by- E

hyN

Plastic
Top of column Elastic column

LENGTH FROM TOP

Fig. 6.5 Typical slip distributions

The slip term due to flexural deformation given by 8q.6.40 is shown by the curve

marked with "by F" in Fig.6.5. The slip term caused by the axial load N given by Eq.6.4l
li,. -,,'
is marked with "by N" in the figure. 'When the load and deflection is--small, no plastic

hinge forms and the total slip is given by the curve marked with "by F+N". The other

term given by 8q.6.42 is induced by the boundary slip s, at the elastic-zone/plastic-

hinge interface when the plastic hinge forms at large deformations, as marked with "by

sn" in Fig.6.5. Summation of the above three terms depicts the total slip when large

plastic deformation occurs, as shown by the thick line indicated with "Total" in Fig.6.5.

-154-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

After the formation of the plastic hinge, the slip on top of the plastic hinge, s, in

Fig.6.5, continues to increase when the deflection of the column is further increased. The

slip s, depends on the deformation of the plastic hinge that will be shown in Section

8.2.1 (see Eq.8.5). However, the slip term due to N does not change. The slip term due to

F is actually determined by the moment distribution along the column that will not

increase significantly, instead it may decrease significantly after formation of the plastic

hinge. Therefore, this F term may continue to increase slightly after yielding of the

column, but this increase will be limited as compared to the fast increase in slip s,

caused by the fast increase in plastic deformation in the hinge. It is, therefore, possible

that when the plastic hinge deformation of the column is sufficiently large, which is

directly related to the slip sn, the slip term 'by sn ' is more prominent than the other two

terms. In this case, the position of maximum slip will occur atthe top of the plastic hinge

instead at the top of the column. An example that compares the analytical results to the

numerical results, produced by the computer program "PLTCOL", is given in Fig.6.6.

0.8

o.7

06

E
0.5 -*-ultimate stage num. result

E 0.4 stage analy result

CL
-- -À- - -elastic stage num result
0.3
-ultimate c stage analy. result

0.2

0.1 r

0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
longitudinal distance from end (mm)
Fig. 6.6 Slip distributions compared with the numerical results

- 155 -
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

The numerical slip distribution just before the concrete cracks at the tension face,

as indicated by 'A' in Fig.6.6, agrees very well with the analytical results. This means

that the deformation of the column can be reasonably modeled as linear elastic before the

concrete cracks on the tension face. At large deformations, however, the numerical
results are generally greater than the analltical results, as shown by the curve marked

with '0' which indicates the stage just before the concrete crushes (compressive

strength:O) on the compression face. This difference is mainly due to the assumption

made in Section 6.1 that the column is still linear elastic above the plastic hinge at large

deformations. The small non-linearity in the part of the column above the plastic hinge

causes the numerical, or "ac|ûa!", column to deform slightly more than predicted by

elastic theory. The slight increase in column deformation corresponds to an extra amount

of slip. This is the reason that the analytical slip distribution at the large deformation

stage underestimates the amount of slip. However, the numerical results may slightly

overestimate the true slip due to the neglect of tension stiffening. If tension stiffening
were considered, the column would be slightly stiffer hence experiencing less deflection,

which would lead to a smaller slip. That is to say there would be a closer agreement

between the analytical and the numerical results if tension stiffening were considered in

the numerical calculations. As the difference in Fig.6.6 is not substantial, this comparison

verifies the legitimacy of the linear assumption outside the plastic hinge region.

6.4.1 Slip Due to Flexural Moment

From the slip term caused by the flexural moment as given by Eq.6.40, the slip s,

- 156-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

o decreases monotonìcally when the slip resìstance ability coefficient a, increases. This

relation is shown in Fig.6.7(a) by the function ,=+ [-cosh(Z


.^[+.Ðf
"orh(L..[ù]

which is part of the slip term. There are two asymptotes for the curve in Fig.6.7(a).

Mathematically it can be proved that lim v =-. '2 t].0-6\. In this case, Eq.6.40

glves s/. F.or.L'.(l-5'?;. ttris is the case of zero interaction where no shear
2

connection exists on the interface. In another extreme case of full interaction when a,

approaches infinity, y approaches zero giving s/ : 0;

a5

(a). Function,
=* [r-.osh1z./ãl.f)/co*1r ./ãl¡]

1.0 gE

€:o.s
E:o.e
v

0.0

ct

lb). Function .. , cosh(a.f)


'- '- .o.l(o)

Fig.6.7 Functions of Eq.6.40

-157-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

a is directly proportional to the active slip strain coefficient a, ;

a is directly proportional to the lateral force F;

o increases monotonically with increase in L This relation is shown in Fig.6.7(b) in

which a=L J% When Z increases, cr increases hence s, (s,' =F.U'y with y


cls

shown in Fig.6.7(b)) increases. However, it approaches an asymptote when Z

approaches infinity;

o is a maximum at the top of the column (€ = 0 ), where the moment is zero. The

maximum slip is given by

a2
S,n*:F (6.7s)
a5

and;

a decreases monotonically in a convex shape to zero at the support where the bending

moment is a maximum.

6.4.2 Slip Due to Axial Load

From Eq.6.4l it can be seen that the slip caused by the axial load s,,

a decreases monotonically when the slip resistance ability coefficient a, increases, as

shown in Fig.6.8(a) by the functìon u' l *> t


,= þ - 2 cosh(I. "l a s . E) f 1""'''E' + r;] which
l"'
is part of the slip term. Similarto ,s/, there are also two asymptotes forthis function:

= L'(1 -6) which gives s,, : N' crz' L' (l- O ; and jgi"v = 0 gives s, : 0.
)i\y

-158-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

a5

@) v =È u' l"t r *t1]


þ -2cosh(I. "P,. Ð f {"'úln'

(b) y=e-6' -2coshQfar.*¡f 1r'('lø +¡

0 L

(c) y=n-(tG)6-2coshø J-o, Cl(r'(''6) +t)

Fig. 6.8 Functions of Eq.6.4l

-t59-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

o is in direct proportion to the axial flexibility of element 7 ar;

a is in direct proportion to axial force N;

o increases monotonically with increase in L at a point that keeps a fixed distance away

from the top (Z increases but x =ö'L =constant), as shown in Fig.6.8(b), with an

asymptote when Z approaches infinity, i.e. lims,=


y+.e-''^[4 where x is the
t'@
"lot

distance from the top of the column to the point considered. However, at a point that

has a relative position fixed (i.e. ftconstant but(+0, for example the point at the

middle of the column where ç0.5), the slip initially increases with increase in Z,

when Z is less than a certain length L, . After this point L" , the slip will reduce when

the length of the member is further increased, as shown in Fig.6.8(c);

a is a maximum at the top. The maximum slip is given by

N.o,
S,r* _ (6.76)
fi-zf çu"''tÈ'*t¡f
l%

and;

o decreases monotonically to zero at the fixed end

6.4.3 Slip Due to Boundary Slip

Equation 6.42 shows that the slip along the column induced by the boundary slip s,

decreases when the slip resistance ability coefficient a, increases. For the case of no

interaction i.e. or:0, the slip is a constant value s, along the length. For the case of

- 160-
CHAPTER 6 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES

approaching full interaction when a, approaches infinity, the slip approaches zero

except at the vicinity of the support where the slip is equal to so at the support;

a is in direct proportion to boundary slip s, ; and

a reduces monotonically with the increase in length Z. Mathematically, it can be shown

from Eq.6.42 that the slip at a point that has a certain distance away to the bottom of

the column approaches an asymptote value when Z approaches infinity; and

a monotonically increases from the top to the bottom of the column in a concave shape.

The maximum slip value at the support when (:1 is so, and the minimum slip at the

top is given by ,,, =å


cosh(Z J;,¡

-16l-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

In Chapter 8, a methodology will be developed to design the plating system where the

plated column is designed to an "adequate strength" when the ultimate displacement of

the column is reached. Therefore, the ultimate displacement of an RC column must be

firstly defined and studied. In order to study the ultimate displacement, the flexural

behavior of RC cross-sections is analysed with some very simple models in this chapter.

This analytical study also provides a clearer insight into the various factors that affect the

deformation capacity of an RC column. To startwith, an idealised plain concrete column

section is first studied. Then, the effect of reinforcement is investigated.

7.1 MONOTONIC MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONS OF PLAIN

CONCRETE SECTIONS

The model to be studied first is a plain concrete column with a typical cross-section of

breadth B and a depth D as shown in Fig.7.l. For simplicity, the stress-strain relationship

of the concrete is idealised with the bì-linear model of Fig.4.4 in this section.

For convenience of study, the strain in every fibre of the cross-section is assumed

to increase monotonically under the monotonic increase in the cross-sectional curvature.

This assumption means that the stress in any fibre always goes along the envelope curve

without going into the unloading/reloading branch shown in Fig.4.4. Strictly speaking,

this assumption is not correct, as some areas in the cross-section do load and unload in

-162-
ì

CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

the course of the monotonic curvature increase in the section. However, most of this
iw9 i'¡ L
unload/reload^takes place within the ascending branch of the envelope curve, or in the
Ai\
linear elastic range, where the unloading/reloading does not affect the loading history at

all. Therefore, the monotonic assumption is still reasonable. Nevertheless, the

conclusions drawn from this part of the analytical study are verified by the numerical
X:""v/
study in Sections 7.1.4 and 7.3 wherelull non-linear loading/unloading history in every

fibre is followed by the computer program.

Nt (corßhnt)

+ I
F
(Ydv)

D D

B
Ser[A

Sec,AA

Fig.7.l Plain concrete column and section

The variation of the stress profiles of the typical cross-section with monotonic

increase in the curvature of the section is shown in Fig.7.2. As the column is initially

loaded with the axial load N only without lateral force or moment, the initial stress profile

is an unifom stress distribution shown by stress distribution A. With the curvature

increasing in the cross-section, the stress distribution changes from distribution A to

distribution A', B, C, D and E successively, as shown in Fig.7.2. In all these cases, the

-163-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

F
area of the stress blocks keeps unchanged due,(he condition of constant axial load. These

different stages of stress distribution are studied in detail in the following sections.

M^= o
N=G
Stress distribution A

M^.
2o,. N:G
Stress distribution A'

MB
x N:C
Stress distribution B

Mc
N:C
Stress distribution C

MD
N:G
Stress distribution D

ME
fco
N:C
Stress distribution E

Fig.7 .2 Variation of stress blocks in section A-A

-164-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

7.1.1 Elastic Stage

From distribution A to distribution B in Fig.7.2 is a linear elastic deformation stage.

'When the curvature increases monotonically, the stress on the left-hand side of the

section is increased while the stress on the right-hand side is decreased. When the stress

at the top extreme fibre on the left-hand side reaches the compressive strength f,o, ãs

shown by the stress profile B, a non-linear or plastic deformation starts to occur when the

curvature further increases. From distribution A to B, the centroid of stress block is

moving from the center of the cross-section towards the left-hand side monotonically.

Therefore the lever arm and hence the moment of the section is also increasing
monotonically.

From stress distribution B, the following equation is obtained assuming the

neutral axis depth x is less than the depth of the cross-section D which is an adequate

assumption and will be discussed further in the end of Section 7.1.

N : B.f,".x l2
= B . .f,o.!oo tz (7 .1)
Kro

B ' f,u'€,u
2rc

or

K co -f "o I co B t"o
(7.2)
2N 2D.(N lN,)

where B is the breadth of the section; €"o and f,,, are the strain and stress at the peak of

the stress-strain curve as shown in Fig.4.4; N" is the crush load given by

- 165 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

N,=.f,u.Ar= f,u'B.D; and Kc(, is the curvature of the section when the compress¡ve

strcngth /, is just achicvcd at the extreme fiber.

7.1.2 Deteriorating Stage

This stage starts from distribution B and ends with distribution D inFig.7.2. The stress at

the face of the left-hand side starts to decrease with further increase in curvature, as

shown by distribution C, until it reaches zero as shown by distribution D The


tr-Õ à-a.'\ €-,ti,;tì I
o"ls
concrete in the extreme compression fiber starts with distribution B
/'
and completely crushes at distribution D. In this process, the centroid of the stress block

moves further left then starts to move back towards right-hand side. In other words, the

moment increases further then begins to drop.

From distribution D inFig.7.2, the following relations are obtained

x=Ê (ilI lrc cil

N = B. f"".x l2
B't",,' f"o (7.3)
- 2rcLU

or

K cu
fro't"r'B c
(7.4)
2N 2D.(N1N
")

where a,,, is the ultimate concrete strain at zero strength as shown inFig.4.4; K.,, denotes

the curvature of the section at which the strain of the extreme compressive fibre just

reaches e.,,

-166-
CHAPTER 7 ULT1MATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

It is noted that distributions B and D must have the same neutral axis depth x in

order to satisfy the constant N condition. In the centroid of the stress block .y
^ruryfti^",the
- ..-2
--
D is on the left to that of distribution B. In other words, there must be a drop in moment

resistance from distribution B to distribution D. The magnitude of the drop in moment

resistance depends on the depth of the compression zone x or axial load level.

The moment corresponding to a given curvature r can be calculated at this stage.

The fof lowing relation is derived using the stress distribution C as shown inFig.7.2

i : t,,14#þ.';Pr-o o -! o* *-Tr,? - o,i.+ 4 -

(7.s)

in which Misthe moment of the section underthe curvature 6 andx is the compression
zone depth given by

*=''n *å['
K ü.Kl -(r+a-2rc'a'N ,)r11 (7.6)
J,,.t,,,.8' l

and

d !.
E"
(7.7)
t"u
p
c
=l+la.

where E" and E" are the elastic modulus of the ascending branch and slope of the

softening branch of the concrete model, respectively, as shown inFig.4.4.

-167-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

7 .1.3 Crushing of Section

Any further increase in curvature from distribution D inFig.7.2 will move thc zcro strcss

point in the cross-section towards the right-hand side as shown by distribution E.

However, the axial load level cannot be sustained in this case. The reason is given below.

The stress distribution E in Fig.7.2 gives

x,=t,,fK" (7.8)

N"= B.fr,,.x"l2
B'Ê""' (7.e)
- 2rc"
'f"o

Comparing F,q.7.3 with 8q.7.9

K K ct

.'N, <N (7.1 0)

in which r" is the curvature of the section under distribution E, and x" is the distance

from neutral axis to the point where the compressive strain equals to r",,, as shown in

Fig.7.2; and N, is the axial load under stress distribution E.

The physical reason behind Eq.7.l0 is that the horizontal length of the triangle

stress block reduces when the curvature further increases after distribution D. While the
tt'
{ 1"1t "'
1 t''
'
maximum stress" maia6'ÌË-constant ãi .f",,, the area of the stress block must reduce. If the

axial load remains constant at this time, the whole concrete section will crush suddenly

-168-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

7 .1.4 Case Study

To further illustrate the results of Section 7.1.1 to Section 7.1.3, an example of the

curvature moment relation for a plain concrete section is shown in Fig.7.3. Details of the
V\
column section is give below:

Cross-section size 400mmx400 mm, -f,.:44N lmmz, e,u:0.002. e.,,:0.006 and

1/: 0.3 - .f,,,. B . D :2112KN.

+Analytical
3 008+08
M.o * Numerical
2 50E+08

E 2 00E+08 distribution B cu
Ê 'yield'point
z
1.50E+08 l

o distribution D
Ê
o 1.00E+08
=
5.00E+07
K"o Kcu
0.00E+00
0.00E+00 5.00E-06 1.00E-05 1.50E-05 2.00E-05 2.50E-05 3.00E-05

Curvature (1/mm)

Fig.7 .3 Moment curvature relation of a plain concrete section

The analytical result in Fig.7.3 is given by Eq.7.5. The numerical result is

obtained by the computer program PLTCOL that considers full loading/unloading

history. The same stress-strain relation as shown by Fig.4.4 is used in the numerical

calculation. The agreement of these two results verifies the monotonic strain assumption

given in the beginning of Section 7 .1 .

-169-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

7 .1.5 Displacement Ductility of Plain Concrete Sections

From thc abovc discussion it can bc sccn that thc concrctc scction complctcly crushcs

when the compressive strain at the extreme fibre reaches t,,,. Therefore, the ultimate

deformation of a plain concrete column is reached when the curvature of a cross-section

reaches a value that satisfies Eq.7.4. This curvature is defined as the ultimate curvature of

a section in this work.

In the literature, the ultimate curvature is usually defined as the curvature at a

point where the resistant moment of the section drops to a certain percentage of the

maximum strength (Watson, Zahn and Park 1994). Different values for this drop, such as

lÙyo, 20yo or 30o/o, have been used. This defrnition of ultimate deformation is based on

the strength concern and it is not the true ultimate deformation.

In fact, the strength drop at the true ultimate curvature given by 8q.7.4 can be

calculated from 8q.7.5. SubstitutingEq.T.4oÍ Kc,t=.f,n.e,,,.8f2N into Eq.7.5 gives

M", = * (+_ 4B-2.


3p
N
) (7.1 1)
f",.8

where M,,, is the moment of a cross-section when the ultimate strain á.,, is reached at the

extreme fibre. The'yield'moment M,,, of the cross-section is obtained by substituting

Eq.7 .2 or K",, = f,o.e,,- B f 2N into Eq.7.5, giving

.-
M(o N.(2-?. * (7.12)
'2 3 f",,'B'
¡

From Eq.7.l I and F,q.7.12, the following relation is obtained

-170-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

N
M"o- Mrr, 2(B -1) N,
- . (7.13)
M", 3P

where N I N gives the axial load level. It can be seen from Eq.7 .13 that the moment drop
"
at the true ultimate deformation as relative to the yield point is only determined by the

material property pand the axial load level. Typical curyes given by 8q.7.13 are shown

in Fig.7.4. However, the moment drop given by Eq.7.l3 is relative to the yield point not

the maximum strength point as can be seen in FigJ.3. This modification simplifies the

discussion.

80o/o
70o/o
o
o 600/o
=5 50To
o 40Yo
=o 30o/o
(,
20%o
=
10o/o

0o/o

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4


axial load level (N/Nc)

Fig.7 .4 Moment drop-axial load relation

In engineering, the maximum axial load level is usually limited by design codes.

453600-2001: Concrete structures (Australian Standard) specifies the maximum axial

load for short columns with insignificant bending moment to be

N =0.75.ú.N,,,,=0.382f",,.4, (7.14)

- 171 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

Therefore, Fig.7 .4 covers the whole practical range of the axial load level.

As sccn from Fig.7.4, thc moment drop from the 'yield' point to thc true ultimate

displacement ranges from l0% to20%o of the'yield'moment for axial load levels of 0.1

to 0.2. Therefore, the traditional ultimate displacement defined at a llYo of moment drop

will be equivalent to the true ultimate displacement for a column with axial load level of

0.1(10% of the crush load). For other axial load levels, the traditional ultimate
displacement cannot reflect the true deformation capacity of a column.

From Fig.7.3, it can be seen that the curve from the yield point to the ultimate

point may be defined as a yield plateau. In this case, the maximum curvature ductility of

the concrete section may be defìned as

LK=K,,,-K.,,=!fO. -t,,,)=ffi (7.15)

In terms of the curvature ductility factor

K" lK",=t",,/t,,, (7.16)

Of course, this definition of curvature ductility is different from the traditional

definition where a certain percentage drop of the peak moment value is used to locate the

point of the ultimate curvature, regardless of the axial load level. In the current literature,

it is well established that the behaviour of a concrete column is closely related to its axial

load level. From this point of view, the traditional definition of ultimate curvature cannot

reflect the true extent of physical deterioration in the column. The above definition given

by Eq.7.l5 adequately reflects the degree of damage to the concrete of the column based

on the specific axial load level. The yield plateau starts at the very first point at which the

-172-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

extreme compressive fibre just starts to yield and ends at the true ultimate curvature

where any further curvature increase will cause the complete crushing of the whole

concrete section. Therefore, distributions B and D in Fig.7.2 have very clear physical

meanings: the qualitative turning points of the concrete material in the cross-section from

complete elastic to yielding and from yielding to complete$ crushine, respectively.

Equation 7.15 tells us that the curvature ductility of a plain concrete section is

(a) in direct proportion to the material plastic deformation capacity t"u - t,,, ,

(b) in reverse proportion to the axial load level N/i/.. This relation was observed by

many researchers from experimental works (Berwanger 1975; Sheikh and Khoury

1993; Watson and Park 19941' Bayrak and Sheikh 1997); and

(c) in reverse proportion to the section depth. It is consistent with the common sense that

a deeper column is stiffer and more brittle than a shallower column.

The ductility factor given by F.q.7.16 is only affected by strain properties t",,t,o of the

concrete material.

The above conclusions are based on the simplified stress-strain model of Fig.4.4.

Another assumption made in this study is that the neutral axis is within the depth of the

cross-section from distribution B to D. 'When the axial load level is very high
(N > 0.5f,.Ar), the neutral axis will fall outside the right hand side of the section at

stress distribution B. However, it is outside the practical range of axial load level as

mentioned above.

-173-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

7.2 EFFECT OF LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

From Eqs.7.4 and 7.15,it can be seen that the deformation capacity of a plain concrete

section is determined by three factors: the material property or stress-strain relationship

of the concrete (e ,, and e.,,), the geometry of the cross-section (D), and the axial load

level (N/N.). For RC columns, there exist two constitutive materials of concrete and

reinforcing bars. ln this section, the transverse reinforcement or stirrups are ignored and

only the longitudinal bars are considered. If an RC column is treated as a concrete

column and the longitudinal reinforcing bars as external members that apply additional

load to the concrete, then the effect of the longitudinal reinforcing bars is clear. Since the

presence of the longitudinal reinforcement will not change the material and geometric

property of a concrete section, the only way it affects the deformation capacity of the

concrete section is through changing the axial load level applied onto the concrete

section.

The axial load produced from the longitudinal reinforcement varies with the

change of cross-sectional curvature. However, the ultimate curvature of the section is

only affected by the instantaneous axial load when the strain of the extreme compressive

fibre just reaches e.,,. Therefore, the effect of the longitudinal reinforcement on the

ultimate curvature of a concrete section can be studied with the ultimate strain profiles as

shown in Fig.7.5. For convenience of study, the reinforcement is assumed to be

symmetrical in Fig.7.5.

- t74 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

Compression bars strain

tsc
Case A
t"u
Case C
C ase B

.16

ì
xa:0.5D

Tension bars
D

Fig.7 .5 Ultimate strain prof,rles in an RC section

7.2.1 At Critical Axial Load

Firstly let us look at the strain profile case A shown in Fig.7.5, where the depth of the

compression zoîe is exactly half of the section depth. In this case, the strain of the

compression bars á". is exactly the same as that of the tension bars á",. If the same

stress-strain relationship is assumed for both compression and tension, the net additional

axial load produced by the longitudinal reinforcement is zero. In other words, the

existence of the longitudinal reinforcement will not affect the axial load level, hence it

will not affect the ultimate deformation of the RC section. In this case, the axial load

satisfies

N = 0.25D. B . .f (7.17)
",,

-175-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE, CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

which indicates that the axial load level is 25Yoof crush load. Therefore, this is a critical

axial load level at which no matter how much longitudinal reinforcement is used the

deformation capacity of the section remains the same. This phenomenon will be seen in

the full non-linear numerical simulations in Section 7.3.

Equation 7.17 is applicable only when the bi-linear triangular concrete model is

used. When a different stress-strain model is used, this critical load level will be different

due to the difference in the area of the stress-blocks under different models. When

Mander's model is used, the critical axial load is given by (see Section 8.2.2)

N = þ.f",,.t1).8 =0.5þ.N, (7.rs)

where Bis a function of the concrete strength given in Fig.8.4.

7.2.2 For Axial Load Level Lower Than Critical Load

When the axial load level is lower than the critical load (approximately 25olo of crush

load as given by Eq.7.l7), the compression zone depth will be smaller than half the

section depth at the ultimate curvature K.,,, âS shown by the strain distribution B in

Fig.7.5. In this case, the tensile strain in the tensile reinforcement will be greater than that

in the compression reinforcement, and therefore there will be a compression force applied

to the concrete in addition to the external axial load N. In other words, the presence of the

longitudinal reinforcement will cause an increase in the axìal load level to the concrete

section. Based on Eqs.7.4 and7.l5, the deformation capacity of the concrete section will

be reduced by the longitudinal reinforcement. The more longitudinal reinforcement, the

greater the reduction of the deformation capacity of the concrete section. This

-176-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

observation is consistent with the conclusion that the ductility of an RC beam (where the

axial load is zero) reduces with the increase in the longitudinal reinforcement ratio

(V/arner et al. 1998). This phenomenon will also be seen in the full non-linear numerical

simulations in Section 7.3.

Unlike the plain concrete section, which crushes suddenly if the curvature is

further increased after the extreme compression fibre reaches r"u, the RC section will not

crush immediately. Further increase in curvature will cause some concrete to crush on the

top of the compression zone and the maximum axial load that can be carried by the

concrete will be reduced for the reason given in Section 7.1.3.\n this process, the neutral

axis moves toward the right hand (tensile) side so that the compression force in the

reinforcement is increasing and tension force is reducing. As a result, the additional axial

load due to the steel bars is reducing hence the total axial load applied to the concrete is

reducing. Therefore, the axial load balance of the section can still be sustained regardless

of the continuous crushing of concrete and diminishing size of the concrete stress block.

The change in axial load on the concrete and variation of the stress block will be

illustrated by the numerical studies in Section 7.3.

7.2.3 For Axial Load Level Higher Than Critical Load

The compression zone depth wìll be more than half D at the ultimate curvature when the

axial load level is higher than the critical load. Therefore, the compression force in the

reinforcement will be larger than that in the tension reinforcement, as shown by the case

C in Fig.7.5. The resultant force in the longitudinal reinforcement will be such that it

reduces the axial load level applied to the concrete section. Based on the conclusion in

-t77-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

Section 7.1 (see Eqs.7.4 and7.l5), the ultimate curvature of the concrete section will be

increased due to the presence of the longitudinal reinforcement. However, the increase in

the ultimate curvature due to the longitudinal bars is limited due to the high axial load

level and this will be seen in the numerical study in Section 7.3.

7.2.4 Ultimate Curvature of RC Columns with Few Stirrups

It has been shown in Section 7.1 that the true ultimate curvature of a plain concrete

column is achieved at the onset of the ultimate concrete strain á.,,, at the complession

face of the column. This criterion may still be applicable to RC columns with little
confinement such as old columns with inadequately designed and detailed stirrups. The

reason is that (for old RC columns) the ultimate curvaÍure thqÍ can be developedwithin

the potential plastic hinge region is limited by the sîrain at u,hich the cover concrete

begins to spall, which is typically around 5'% strain. The hoop steel unravels when the

longiÍudinal strain is higher than 5'%, resulting in the loss of small confinement and

shear strengÍh (Chai et al. 1991). As a result, buckling of longitudinal reinforcement or

shear failure may occur at any time. Although the RC columns may not crush

immediately after the attainment of the ultimate concrete strain r.,, (spall strain) on the

compression face, the concrete resistance in the cross-section staús to drop significantly

after this point which will be seen in the numerical example of next section.

As the target of this study is on RC columns with potential concrete failure

problems in the plastic hinge zone which were usually designed and constructed with

inadequate stirrups, the ultimate curvature of RC columns is therefore defined in this

- t78 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTÌONS

work as the curvature at which the extreme compressive fibre of concrete reaches the

ultimate strain á,,, .

This definition is not applicable to columns with adequately designed and detailed

stirrups. For columns well confined by stirrups, the spalling of the concrete cover does

not impair the column significantly, as the well confined core concrete is strong and

ductile enough to further take additional load and displacement. In this case, the final

failure may be caused by fracturing of the stirrups, or longitudinal reinforcing bars, or

crushing of the core concrete. Therefore, the attainment of t,,, or spalling of cover

concrete cannot be used as a criterion to determine the ultimate curvature of these RC

columns.

7.3 NUMERICAL CASE STUDIES

Numerical case studies are conducted in this section to visualise and further understand

the conclusions of Sections 7.1 and7.2. Analytical studies in the previous sections of this
I

'À *.." burfrn simplified


chapter models and assumptions. To enable general conclusions

to be made, the numerical simulations in this section will be based on full non-linear

models, such as Mander's model for concrete and Menegoto-Pinto model for steel bars as

described in Chapter 4.

The RC column cross-section studied is 400mmx400mm with 12 numbers of

reinforcing bars (4 bars each face), which is the same as the case of Fig.4.20 studied by

Watson and Park (1994). No stirrups and confinement is considered in this study in order

to investigate the net effect due to the longitudinal bars only. The following material

properties are used:

-179-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

Concrete - .f,,,:44 N I mm', e.,,:0.002. e.,,, :0.006, .f,,:5 N I mm2 ;

Longitudinal bars -.f,, :446 MPa,.E,:200000 N I mm2 , Et :600N/ HH2 ,

Ro:20.0, ar:19.0, ar:0.3.

To vary the reinforcement ratio, different bar diameters are used: l6mm,20mm,25mm

and 32mm corresponding to reinforcement ratios of 7.5o/o,2.36yo,3.68% and 6.03Yo,

respectively. Concrete cover thickness (to the centre of reinforcing bar) is calculated to be

29mm from Fig.4.20 for the case of Yl6 bars (:13+8+8). To provide a uniform

benchmark for comparison, this cover thickness is adopted for all the other reinforcement

arrangements regardless of bar diameter; as changing cover thickness effectively changes

the lever arm of the longitudinal bars which is not desirable for comparison. A plain

concrete section without any reinforcement is also included in this study.

Several axial loads are used in the study. They are 352KN,704KN, l408KN,

2l I 2KN, 281 6KN, and 3520KN corresponding to 5Yo, 10yo, 20yo, 30yo, 40Yo, and 50%o

of column crush load N. , respectively. The concrete cross-section is discretised into 25

number of layers. As no confinement is considered in this study, vertical division of

cross-section into different slices is not necessary.

The results for the case of N:5% of crush load are given in Figs.7.6-7.8 . Fig.7.6

shows the moment curvature relations for sections with various reinforcement ratios.

Fig.7.7 shows one case of Fig.7.6 with 3.68% steel and in which the moment
contributions from the concrete and the steel bars are split out. The splitting of the axial

force in the cross-section for the same case is given in Fig.7.8. The definitions of the

symbols "x","Q", "*" and "*" ate given in the Notation. The corresponding curvatures

- t80-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

forthe above four stages are named K",,, K,,,, K"ry and Krcr,, respectively. The locations

of points "x","0", "+" and "{<" on the curves may not be exact as the numerical outputs

are not continuous. They are plotted at the nearest numerical points. Fluctuations or

wobbling are seen in these figures atlarge deformation. It was later found to be caused by

the discretisation of the cross-section. When a higher layer number or finer layers are

used, the fluctuations diminish.

From Fig.7 .6, it can be seen the difference on the horizontal coordinate between

point + (onset of yielding of tension bars) and point 0 (onset of complete crushing of

concrete on the compression face) gives a good indication of the ductility of the cross-

section. Although considerable strength and a large plateau remains after points 0 as seen

from the chart, this remaining strength is only theoretical and not reliable. The reason is

that the concrete deteriorates (strength drops) significantly after point 0 as seen from

Figs.7.7 and 7.8. To further illustrate the extent of damage to the concrete, a concrete

stress block (at rc = 7.5x10-5 limm) after point 0 is shown inFig.7.9, where it can be

seen that a significant area in the compression zone has completely crushed. After

crushing of the cover concrete, the longitudinal bars will lose support and hence may

buckle at any time. Therefore, the remaining strength in Fig.7.6 after point 0, which

comes mainly from the reinforcement bars as can be seen in Fig.7.7, is not reliable and

hence is only a theoretical strength. Figure 7.8 confirms the theoretical conclusion given

in Section 7.2.2 that the presence of longitudinal bars increases the axial load on the

concrete section in this case.

- l8l -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

The numerical results for other axial load levels are shown in Fig.7.l0 to Fig.7.l4.

From the appearance of these figures. it also looks reasonable to define points 0 as the

ultimate displacement of the RC columns. The key point curvatures K,,, (onset of peak

concrete strain e.o at compression face), r",, (onset of ultimate concrete strain t",, at

compression face), r,u, (yielding of tension bars) and r,.,, (yielding of compression bars)

versus axial load for different reinforcement ratios are depicted from Fig.7.l5 to Fig.7.l8.

More cases with higher axial load levels are calculated and included in Figs.7.15 to 7.18

for comparison, although these axial load levels are not practical.

From Figs.7.l5,7.16 and 7.18, it can be seen clearly that K',,> K"u, and K,"r,

reduce when the axial load increases. For the same axial load level and when the axial

load level is lower than 30%o, Fig. 7.15 shows that K,,, reduces when steel content

increases. It is the other way round for axial load levels higher than 309/o in Fig.7.l-5.

Similar observations can also be made for K.,, and K,,., in Figs.7.16 and 7.18. It was

concluded theoretically in Section 7.2that the ultimate curvature K..,, reduces when the

steel content increases for axial loads less than the critical axial load and vice versa for

axial loads higher than the critical load. This critical axial load is given by Eq.7.18 to be

N =0.5þ 'N. =0.5x0.59N,=0.295N,, or 29.5o/o of crush load, where ft0.59 from

Fig.8.4 when the concrete strength is 44MPa. These theoretical conclusions are

confirmed by the numerical results of Fig.7.15 where it can be seen that the

reinforcement content does not affect the ultimate curvature at the axial load level of

about 30% of the crush load. In other words, the numerical calculated critical axial load is

abouT 30o/o.

-182-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

Actually, the discussions on the effects of the longitudinal reinforcement in

Sections 7.2.1-7.2.3 are still applicable if e",, and K,,, in Fig.7.5 are changed to t,,, and

K",,, which explains the same trends in Fig.7.l6 as seen in Fig.7.15. For K,,4, nS shown in

Fig.7.l7, it increases when axial load increases and the steel content apparently has no

effect on its values. When axial load level is more than 40o/o, the tensile reinforcement

will not yield at all.

Another observation that can be made from the moment-curvature charts is that

the yield plateau can be well reflected between point + (first yield of tension bars) and

point 0 (spalling of concrete cover) for axial load levels lower than 30Yo of crush load, as

seen in Figs. 7.6, 7.10 and 7.1l. However, for higher axial load levels as shown in

Figs.7.12,7 .13 and 7 .14, it is apparently more reasonable to define the yield plateau from

point x (onset of maximum concrete strength on the column face) to point 0. In fact, point

+ or yielding of tension bars does not occur for any of the columns represented in

Fig.7 .14 where N:50% N.. No matter which definition is used for the yield plateau, it is

clear from these moment-curvature charts that the yield plateau decreases when the

reinforcement ratio increases for axial loads lower than the critical load, as shown by

Figs.7.6,7.10 and 7.11. For axial loads higher than the critical load as shown by

Figs.7.l2,7.l3 and 7.14, the yield plateau increases when the reinforcement ratio

increases. This observation further verifies the theoretical conclusions in Section 7.2.

- 183 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

8.00E+08

7 00E+08

6.03% of steel
6.00E+08

Ê 5.00E+08
E

=Ê 4.00E+08 3:68Yrof steel


o
E
o 3.00E+08 2.36% of steel
= 2.00E+08

1 00E+08

0 00E+00
0.00E+00 5.00E-05 1 00E-04 1.50E-04 2.00E-04 2.50E-04 3.00E-04

Gurvature (l/mm)

Legend: x - conc. reaches comp. strength X - comp. reinf. yields

Ì - tension reinf yields 0 - conc. first crushes on col. face

Fig.7.6 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:57oÀt

6 00E+08

5.00E+08

Total (=by concrete+by steel)


E 4.00E+08
t
by steel
=c 3.00E+08
o
E
o 2.00E+08
=
1.00E+08
concrete
0.00E+00
0 00E+00 5.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.50E-04 2.00E-04 2 50E-04 3.00E-04

Curvature (1/mm)

Fig.7 .7 Moment-curvature chart for section with 3.68% steel and N:SYoN"

- 184-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

1.50E+06

1 00E+06
N on concrete

z
5 00E+05
E(E Total on RC section
o
J
G
'* 0 00E+00
5.00E-05 1 2.008-04 2508-04 3.00E-04

-5.00E+05 N on steel

-1.00E+06
Gurvature (1/mm)

Fig. 7.8 Axial force-curvature chart for section with 3.68% steel and N:So/oN"

4.5E+01

4.0E+01

3.5E+01
I

st I
É 3.0E+01
E
2.5E+01
I
z
o
an
2.0E+01
o
(t, 1 5E+01
1.0E+01 I I
5.0E+00
----s
0.0E+00
0 5 10 15 20 25
\ compression face Layer Number

Fig.7.9 Concretestressblockatacurvatureof 7.5x10-5 (1/mm)forsectionwith 3.68%

steeland N:íYIN.

-185-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

8.00E+08

7 00E+08
6 03% of steel
6.00E+08
E
E 5.00E+08
z 3.68% of steel
4.00E+08
o
tr 3 00E+08
o 2.36% of steel
= 2.00E+08
plain concrete
1.SYo
1.00E+08

0.00E+00
0.00E+00 2.00E-05 4.00E-05 6.00E-05 8.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.208-04 1.408-04
Curvature (1/mm)

Fig. 7.10 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:lÙyoN"

9 00E+08

8.00E+08

7 00E+08
of steel
E 6.00E+08
E
5.00E+08
=c 3.68% of steel
o 4.00E+08
E
o 3.00E+08
n concrete
= 2 00E+08

1.00E+08

0 00E+00
0.00E+0 1.00E-05 2.00E-05 3.00E-05 4.00E-05 5.00E-05 6.00E-05 7.00E-05 8.00E-05
0

Curvature (l/mm)

Fig. 7.1 I Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:2Ùo/oN"

- 186-
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

I 0E+08
I 0E+08
7 0E+08
6.03% of steel
E 6 0E+08
E
5 0E+08
=c 3.68% of steel
o 4 0E+08
E
o 3 0E+08

= 2 0E+08 nf stccl

1.0E+08
steel
0.0E+00
0 0E+00 1 0E-05 2 0E-05 3 0E-05 4 0E-05 5.0E-05 6.0E-05 7.0E-05 8.0E-05

Curvature (1/mm)

Fig.7.12 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:30%oÀI"

I 0E+08

8 0E+08

7.0E+08
6 03% of steel
E 6.0E+08
zE 5.0E+08
3.68% of
o 4.08+08
E
o 3 0E+08
E plain concrete
2 0E+08
'1.0E+08
of steel

0.0E+00
0.0E+00 I 0E-05 2.0E-05 3.0E-05 40E-05 5.0E-05 6.0E-05 7 0E-05 8.0E-05

Curvature (1/mm)

Fig.7.13 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:4ïo/oN"

-187-
CHAPTER 7 ULTìMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

9.0E+08

8.0E+08

7 0E+08
3 68% of steel
E 6.0E+08
c
z . 2.36o/o of steel
5.0E+08
c
o 4.0E+08
E
o 3.0E+08
= 2.0E+08

1.0E+08

0.0E+00
0.0E+00 1.0E-05 2.0E-05 3.0E-05 4.0E-05 5.0E-05

Curvature (l/mm)

Fig.7 .14 Moment-curvature chart of RC sections with N:50%oN.

2.0F-04

--.-0% steel
1.5E-04 -r-1.50%
E -+2.36%
E
3.68%
J
'1.0E-04 +6 03%
o
Y

5.0E-05

0.0E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Axial Load (% Nc)

Fig. 7.15 Axial load-r",, relations

- 188 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

1.2E-04
*0% steel
1.0E-04 I ú- 1.50%
-+--2.36%
8.0E-05
r 368%
E -à+-6.03%
ts
6.0E-05
o
o
Y 4.0E-05

2.0E-05

0.0E+00
01020 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Axial Load (% Nc)

Fig.7 .16 Axial load- rc"o relations

'1.90E-05

1.80E-05

1 70E-05

I 60E-05
Ê
E 1.50E-05 6.03%
*-F3.680/o
1.40E-05 **--2.36%
th
Y
1.30E-05
-* 1.5% steel

1.208-05

1.10E-05

1.00E-05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Axial Load (% Nc)

Fig.7 .17 Axial load- r.," relations

- r89 -
CHAPTER 7 ULTIMATE CURVATURE OF RC SECTIONS

1.0E-04

9.0E-05

8.0E-05

7.0E-05
tr * 1 5% steel
6 0E-05
E *-]*2.360/o
5.0E-05 **-3.68%
(J
o 4.0E-05 6.03%
Y
3.0E-05

2 0E-05

1.0E-05

0.0E+00
01020 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Axial Load (% Nc)

Fig.7 .18 Axial load- r"", relations

- 190 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

A design methodology or procedure for the retrofitting system is developed in this

chapter. For a column, the ability to sustain a certain level of lateral resistance after

yielding until the required maximum lateral drift is important. Therefore, this concept is

adopted as a guideline to the retrofit design in this study. The design procedure developed

in this section is based on a specified target maximum lateral displacement, or drift, at

which the retrofitting system is required to work in its 'strength stiffened' region of the

response curve as discussed in Section 5.2.2. In this way, the lateral resistance capacity

and the integrity of the column can be assured at the target displacement. To achieve this,

the target displacement is designed to occur simultaneously with the onset of the ultimate

curvature, as defined in Chapter 7, of the cross-section in the plastic hinge zone of the

column. With this condition, the ultimate curvature of the RC column will not be
exceeded for drifts less than or equal to the target displacement, this ensures no excessive

deterioration of the concrete. This design procedure is fundamentally consistent with, and

can be easily adapted for use with, the modern displacement-based seismic design

philosophy (Calvi and Kingsley, 1995; Moehle, 1996; Priestley, 1997 and I 998).

To develop the design procedure, several fundamental relations are needed which

are firstly derived in Sections 8.1 and 8.2. The design procedures are then presented in

Section 8.3, followed by a design example in Section 8.4 to illustrate the procedure.

-191 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

8.1 GENERIC DEFORMATION - SLIP RELATION

Thc dcsign proccdurc in Scction 8.3 rcquircs thc slip on top of thc plastic hingc. To

calculate this slip, a general relation between slip and deformation of a column is derived

in this section. With reference to Fig.8.1, the strains in the plate and the RC column at the

interface can be expressed as

tt=K.h,+t," (8.1)

t2 = t2,,- K 'h, (8.2)

where á,. and €r" are the strains at the cross-sectional centroids of element I (RC

column) and element2 (plate), respectively.

t D

Nz+ Nr: N
._- Shair prulilc uf plate
Concrete stre SS block

Tensile strain
tz"
!
lve strain
tt.
Concrete strain profile

Centroid of RC column
Centroid of plate

Fig. 8.1 Strains and forces in the cross-section

Substituting Eqs.8.l and 8.2 into Eq.6.l 1 and integrating with respect to x gives

s= -(h, + hr). !rc .dx + !er, .dx - !e,, .dx + C (8.3)

-192-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

.' d0 : -K'dx
dL2 = -€2,'dx
d\t - -4".dx

where s is the slip; d is the rotation of the cross-section; and A, and A, are the

longitudinal displacements at the cross-sectional centroids of element I and 2

respectively.

Therefore, 8q.8.3 is re-written as

s(x): (4+hr).0(x)+ A,(")- Lr(x)+C


'.'"1,-r_ =0; 01,=,.:0; Arl"=r:0; A,l.=,.:0

.'.C=0

which gives

s : (ht + hr)-0 + Ar - A2 (8.4)

The above relation shows that the slip at any cross-section is given by the rotation

of that cross-section times the distance between centroids of element 7 and 2, plus the

difference of axial shortening between element I and 2. This relation is general, because

it is derived from the geometric relations with the only assumption being that plane
sections remain plane for element9 I and 2 separately. Therefore, it is applicable for
t\
general non-linear analyses.

8.2 ULTIMATE PLASTIC HINGE ANALYSIS

The formulae related to the plastic hinge calculations that will be used in Section 8.3 are

derived in this section. It must be noted that the derivations in this section are only
applicable for monotonic loading because the stress of both the concrete and steel cannot

be determined by strain only under cyclic loading, as it is also dependent on the loading

- 193 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

history. Therefore, all the anal¡ical results that are related to stresses or forces are only

applicable to monotonic loading conditions.

8.2.1 Slip in Plastic Hinge Region

The slip at the top of the plastic hinge can be calculated using Eq.8.4

tr=(4+h)'0p+Lt"-L2" (8.5)

where do is the rotation of the cross-section on top of the plastic hinge, i.e. the total

pf astic hinge rotation; and 4," and L,r, are the respective axial shortening of the plastic

hinge at the centroids of element I and element 2.The three terms in Eq.8.5 are discussed

separately in the following paragraphs.

As discussed in Sections 4.2.3 and 6.1 (also see Fig.5.5), the plastic deformation

concentrates in the plastic hinge zone. Furthermore, the total elastic deformation is

relatively small compared to the plastic deformation in the ultimate deformation stage, as

illustrated in Fig.6.l(a). Therefore, the total lateral displacement can be approximated by

the plastic deformation, or A=Ai, as shown in Fig.6.l(a). When the ultimate

displacement is achieved in the column, the displacement at the top of the column due to

the plastic hinge is given by

Ln=0r'(¿-0.5'Lr)=K,u'Lr'(L-0.5'L) (8.6)

where the ultimate curvature rc.,, is assumed to be constant within the plastic hinge. The

plastic hinge length of the cantilever column Lo can be estimated by Eq.4.56. Eq.8.6 was

given by Priestley and Park (1987) assuming that the plastic rotation dn is concentrated

at the centre of the plastic hinge. In fact, this relation can be derived mathematically

-194-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

without this assumption by double integration of the curvature along the length, or more

easily, by the geometrical relation shown in Fig.8.2.

oe *ø-0.5*Lr)

oP*(L-Lp) 0.s0,

0.50,

Fig. 8.2 Top displacement due to hinge rotation

From Eq.8.6, the ultimate curvature is given by

Lp
K"u = (8.7)
(¿-0.5. Lp). Lp (¿-0.s.^L). LP

Therefore, 0o inlhe first term of Eq.8.5 can be calculated by

0o=K",'L, ^ (8.8)
(L-0.5.Lp)

The second and third terms in 8q.8.5 are given by

L'r" : tr"'Lo (8.e)

Lr" = t2" LP (8. l 0)

where q" is given by (see Fig.8.l)

- 195 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

tl" : Êr, - Kr, .h, (8,I 1)

in which t.,, is the ultimate concrete strain on the compression face at which the RC

member is considered failed. The strain of concrete when it is completely crushed


(spalling strain) is considered as 4,, in this work. This assumption sets the scene in which

the ultimate limit state occurs: when the column achieves the required maximum drift, the

concrete strain on the compression face reaches the ultimate strain 4,,. The legitimacy of

identifying the ultimate displacement by this concept was fully discussed in Chapter 7.

To calculate t2,, first the axial load N, on the plate section is calculated, which

is derived in Section 8.2.2. With the axial force N, known and the curvature of the plate

given by 8q.8.7, E2c can then be calculated. One of the ways to calculate er" is shown in

Section 8.2.3.

8.2.2 Cross-Sectional Forces

When the concrete strain at the ultimate stage is tc, on the compression face with zero

strength, the stress block is shown in Fig.8.3. If this stress profile is assumed to be

triangular as shown by the shaded area, the axial force on the concrete is given by

N =!'r .t"
rrttttt:-
^ Jttt 'B (8.1 2)
I K.u

where B is the width of the column and the remainder of the function of the right

hand side.f,ot"u/2K,, is the area of the triangular stress block. When the stress block is not

triangular, it can generally be written as

(8. r 3)

-196-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

stress block
o d
q.
+
comp. face Centroid
ofRC t
section q
x:t"u/K",, tension stre SS
ignored

Fig. 8.3 Concrete stress block

The above equation is similar to Eq.8.l2 with the constant coefficient lzreplaced by a

general coefficient B. For a given stress-strain model, the shape of the stress block is

defined from which pcanbe calculated by

(8.1 4)

where .Oq is the stress block area in which f is the distance of a point in the cross-
It
0

section from the compression face, ois the concrete stress at the corresponding point, and

x is the depth of compression zone shown in Fig.8.3. If Mander's stress-strain model (see

Section 4.1.2.2) for concrete is adopted, the value Bis found to be only a function of the

concrete strength. Thus, p can then be calculated through numerical integration of the

stress block. The results from the numerical integration of Eq.8.14 are given in Fig.8.4

for concrete strength between 20MPa to 50 MPa.

The centroid of the stress block, which is needed to calculate the moment of the

cross-section, is also a function of the concrete strength with Mander's model. lts

position, as shown in Fig.8.3, can be related to a parameter áby

-197-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

^d
ò-- (8.1 s)
)c

where d is the position of centroid from the compression tàce shown in Fig.8.3 that is

given by

-f

J
o.€ .d6
0
d (8.16)

[o'ot
0

The numerical integration of Eq.8.l6 gives the value of é'as shown in Fig.8.5.

070
068
066
064
p 062
060
058
05ô
054
20 25 30 35 40 45 50

G o n c re-te-sTreñ gtllF"o{N[Paf -

Fig. 8.4 Area coefficient B

0.455

0.450 'ê+-^ ^

o.445

ô o.440 -*r-
0.435

0.430

o.425
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Goncrete strength f"" (MPa)

Fig. 8.5 Centroid coefficient ä

-198-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATìNG SYSTEMS

For longitudinal reinforcing bars, the strains at the compression and tension sides are

respectively

€rr=trr,-Kr, a (8. r 7)

Ert=trr,-Kr,,.(D-A) (8. 1 8)

where ø is the'concrete cover'distance from the face of the column to the centre of the

reinforcing bars. Forces on the tension and compression reinforcement are respectively

t,t.E,-A,,t (when la,,l<eo)


N", fr,. A,, (when tr, )- trr) (8.r e)

- f,r' A,, (when en 3 -e ,r)

t.r"' 8., 4,, (when la,.l<er)


N.*, = f,r' A,, (when e,r" ) t r) (8.20)

- f"r' A,, (when t.," S -trr)

where e, is the yield strain of the reinforcing bars.

As the total force on the RC cross-section is

N, = Nrur, +¡y'". + N", (8.21)

Then the axial force on the plate can be calculated from

N, = N-Nt (8.22)

8.2.3 Calculation of Plate Strain

With the axial load on the steel plate given by F.q.8.22 and the curvature of the plate at

the column base given by Eq.8.7, the strain at the cross-sectional centroid of the plate

er., which is required in Eq.8.10, can be easily calculated. For convenience, the explicit

form of tr, is derived in this section, assuming an elastic-plastic stress-strain model for

-199-
CHAPTER 8 DESICN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

the plate material. Based on different yielding conditions on the faces, it is derived for the

following 3 cases.

(l) Full elastic condition

When a compression axial load (N, >0) is applied and when the compression face is

linear elastic, the tension face must also be linear elastic. Therefore, the strain at the

sectional centroid of the plate is simply given by

N2
t2, (8.23)
B.t.E,

where En is the elastic modulus of the plate.

(2) Compression face yielded and tension face elastic

Figure 8.6 shows the stress and strain profiles of the plate under the elastic-plastic stress-

strain relation.

82"

Qzc 6pv tpt


K l
',',e z" -r* t 12

€2c
tpv Strain profile

Stress profile
fot

lon
tl2

Fig. 8.6 Strain at centroid of plate

-200 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

The axial force in the plate can be calculated as

Nz: B
f ,
-T)-f
E- -E I s-., *:'(er,
I t t u2c

L,;.
,,* ^'o'
2 tc -¡')
,,
2 -' - -' J
2
K )'En'(
2rc ) (8.24)

Substituting f ,, = " nr' E n into 8q.8.24 and re-arranging gives

tl, - 12er, + K.t). tz, t


+ Q<. r - t rn). t r, *T# =o (8.2s)
P

Equation 8.25 has two solutions

2en,+rc.t- (2e,,n.r K . t)' - - G .t -


t2"
^l+ e
n,). e
o,

-uPy *L.o .t - A,e (8.26)


2

and

2err,+rc-t+ (2e
o, + K. t)' - - @. t - e,,). t,,
€2" =
^ l+
2

=tw *L.*.t + Le (8.27)


2

where As is a positive term given by

(2e,n + rc. t)' - 4l+ @. t - e,n). e


o,.++]
At= (8.28)
2

One of the two solutions above is false and can be found through the following

calculation. The strain at the tensile face is given by

I
€,=t2"-r.o., (8.2e)

-201 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

Substituting 8q.8.27 into Eq.8.29 gives

t, = tpt,* A,e) eor, (8.30)

Equation 8.30 means that with the solution of 8q.8.27 the whole cross-section yields for

any given axial load and curvature. Obviously it is not the corect solution and should be

discarded. Therefore, only Eq.8.26 is the correct solution.

The solution given by 8q.8.26 includes two special cases:

(a) The first one is when the tension face just yields in compression or the whole cross-

section just yields in compression. The conditions for this to occur can be derived as

follows.

When Ae = 0, from 8q.8.30, the strain at the tensile face is t, = rn, or just yields.

Based on Eq.8.28, Ae = 0 necessitates

l-t<-' 't- 2rc.N^f


(2e
,,, + K
.r)2
- +.1 - Q< .t - t,,)'tn,rñ
, (8'31)
| 4 )=o
Therefore, Eq.8.3l gives the condition (relation between rand Nr) at which the whole

cross-section just yields in compression.

'When the left-hand side of Eq.8.31 gives a negative solution, i.e.

rc' 't' 2rc.N^1


(2er,+rc.t\2-4 -(K.t - s,ì.t n,*EÉ (8.32)
4
).,
Equation 8.28 and hence 8q.8.25 has no solution. Physically, this case occurs when the

balance of axial forces in the cross-section cannot be achieved even after the whole cross-

section yields. In this case, the plate thickness is too small to sustain the axial force and

must be increased.

-202 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

(b) The second special case occurs when the tension face just yields in tension. The

condition for this to occur is

tr,:t I K't-tpy (8.33)

because substituting 8q.8.33 into Eq.8.29 gives €,:-Ery. This means the tension face

just yields in tension.

If Eq.8.33 becomes ,r".ï.rc-t-eor,8g.8.29 gives t, 1-tpy. In other words,

the tension face has already yielded in tension. In this case, the stress distribution shown

by Fig.8.6, which is used to drive F,q.8.26, is incorrect and therefore a third case must be

considered as discussed below.

(3) Compression face yielded and tension face yielded in tension

In this case, the stress distribution is changed to that shown in Fig.8.7.

opy tPt
K K K
/i

tpv ez" -r* t 12

Ez. Strain profile

Tension
/i

fot
v

Stress prolile
fot

Compression

., tlL tl2

Fig. 8.7 Profiles when tension side yielded in tension

-203 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

The axial force on the cross-section is given by

N,:BlrL.r?) rn -r|.-""I"*r r,) (8.34)

which gives the solution

Nr-K
€2" = (8.35)
f
28. JPY

8.3 DISPLACEMENT BASED PLATING DESIGN PROCEDURE

With all the necessary formulae derived in Sections 8.1 and 8.2, the design of the plating

system is straightforward. It is outlined by the following 7 steps.

L Calculate the ultimate curvature at the plastic hinge based on the target maximum

displacement A, or drift ratio e: A/L.

The design displacement or inter-storey drift A is given. Assume that the plastic

deformation is concentrated in the plastic hinge and the elastic deformation is

relatively small compared to the plastic deformation, hence Eq.8.7 is used to calculate

the ultimate curvature K,,, in the plastic hinge zone of the column.

2. For the cross-section at the plastic hinge location, calculate the following when the

ultimate curvature is reached:

i) The axialforce on the concrete using Eq.8.l3 and Fig.8.4;

ii) The axial forces in the reinforcement using Eqs.8.l7-8.20:. and

iii) The axial force in the plate N, by Eqs.8.2l and 8.22

3. Estimate steelplate thickness l.

-204-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

The estimation can be based on the full yield thickness t,,,¡n=N2l(fr'B) taking into

account an allowance (e.g. a factor of 1.2) for non-uniform stress distribution in the

cross-section of the plate; e.g.

N'
t =1.2. (8.36)
B.fJPY
This is only a frrst approximation and can be adjusted following the calculations in

step 4.

4. Assuming the first bolt is immediately above the plastic hinge, calculate the slip sn

of this bolt by Eq.8.5. The three terms in 8q.8.5 are calculated using 8q.8.8, Eqs.8.9

and 8.11, and 8q.8.10, respectively, in which the plastic hinge length is calculated by

8q.4.5.6. Formulae derived in Section 8.2.3 are needed to calculate the strain term

t2, in Eq.8.10. The calculation of er, will indicate whether the plate thickness

assumed in step 3 is adequate or not. Adjust t if it is not adequate, and repeat this step,

otherwise go to step 5.

5. Calculate the force on the hrst bolt.


Based on the slip s, calculated in step 4 and the load-slip relation as shown by the

typical curve of Fig.4.13, the force at the first bolt can be calculated.

ìWhen sn is less than the elastic limit (from point A to B in Fig.a.l3(b)), a simple

linear relation between slip and shear load on the bolt can be assumed, i.e.

Ft, = s
o.K, . The bolt is usually working in the elastic range, because the limit in the

ultimate compressive concrete strain 4,, does not allow large slips to occur. If the

bolt is working outside its elastic range of deformation, another type of bolt should be

-20s -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

used since yielding of (all) bolts will result in a plated column working outside its

"strength stiffening" range of response curve resulting in excessive degradation.

6. Estimate the required number of bolts.

As a first approximation, assume the slip is uniformly distributed along its length.

This assumption is usually a good approximation at the ultimate limit stage, as was

seen from Figs.5.17,5.18 and 6.6. Therefore, the shear forces can be assumed to be

the same in all the bolts. Based on Eq.6.l, the number of bolts required is then given

by

n=-N., (8.37)
Fh

This estimation can be sufficient for design purpose. If higher precision is required or

the distribution of slip cannot be reasonably considered uniform at the ultimate limit

stage, the result from this step can be further modified by step 7.

7. Adjust bolts number.

First, calculate the bolt spacing based on the previously estimated number of bolts.

Second, calculate the moment of the bottom cross-section based on the forces

calculated in step 2, which determines the lateral force applied on top of the column.

Eq.8.l5 and Fig.8.5 are needed to calculate the moment due to the concrete. The slip

distribution is then calculated from linear elastic theory using Eqs.6.39-6.42 based on

the lateral force, axial load, bolt spacing and slip s, calculated previously. The slip at

each bolt position can then be calculated to get the shear force on each bolt. The

summation of all the bolt forces gives the axial force in the steel plate at the plastic

hinge. If this plate force is close enough to the value of N, that was calculated in step

-206-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

2, The bolt design is adequate. Otherwise, adjust the number of bolts and spacing and

repeat step 7 until the required precision is achieved.

8.4 EXAMPLE

The column in Fig.5.l is to be designed for an axial load of 360 kN and a maximum drift

ratio of e : A/L :2.5Yo or /:30mm. The geometric and material properties are the same

as those given in Section 5.1.

From Eq.4.56(a), Lo:0.08L+6do: 192 (mm), say 200mm.

8q.8.7 gives r.,, I .36x10-a 1mm-r¡


" Oi:4)
+:
From Fig.8.4, p:0.61, and by Eq.8.l3

t"u :
N"u,, = p. f,.. K,, . B 215 (kN).

By Eqs.8.17 and 8.18, a.. = t,,,-K,,,.a:0.00 I 15 <e .r,

t,t = t,, - K,u .(D - a): -0.016 1-t"n, yielded in tension,

.'.1/"" = 4,,.8,-e,":92.5 (kN), N", = A,,-f,y: -219.9 (kN).

From Eqs.8 .21 and 8.22, N2 - N - N"u," - N- - N", : 272 (kN).

The minimum steel plate thickness is N2l(B.fp) :5.4 (mm), so a plate

thickness of 6 mm is chosen.

The first bolt is placed 200 mm (Lo:200mm) above the bottom of the column. To

calculate the slip of the first bolt, the following are calculated:

By Eq.8.8, 0, = K"u-Lr:0.0272;

-207 -
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

From Eqs.8.9 and 8.1l, Ar" =(tn,-K",,-4).Ln: -1.52 (mm);

Usirrg Eq.8.26 to calculate er",

2tnr+K"u.t- (2e
n, + K,,.t)' - (rc"u. t - e r,) - e r,,
82"
^l+
2

:0.00124, checking with Eq.8.3l and Eq.8.33 indicates that the tension side of

the plate is neither yielded in tension nor yielded in compression. This confirms that the

condition to use 8q.8.26 is satisfied. It also suggests that the selected plate thickness is

adequate.

By Eq.8.10, 42. = 82,. Lp: 0.25 (mm);

From Eq.8.5, so = (h,+hr).0n+L,,"-Lr":1.03 (mm).

Assuming the same slip in the remaining bolts, the force at each bolt is

F¡ = s p. Kh: 23.7 (kN), and therefore the number of bolts required from Eq.8.37

IS

n=
N' : 12, o16 rows of two.
Fh

The above design results can be compared to the column in Fig.5.l analysed by

the non-linear numerical computer program. The numerical results in Fig.5.2 gives the

lateral displacement A: 33.9 mm when the strain at the extreme compressive fibre of the

concrete is equal to the ultimate strain of 0.006. This displacement of 33.9mm includes

the elastic deformation above the plastic hinge which is calculated to be 4.4 mm.

Therefore the lateral displacement due to the plastic hinge rotation only is 29.5 mm

which is very close to the specified design displacement of 30 mm. The slip at the first

-208-
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF PLATING SYSTEMS

bolt is calculated to be 1.034 mm in the above design that is also very close to the result

of l.042mm given by the non-linear computer program, which is shown in Fig.5.l7.

In summary, a methodology for the design of the plating system is developed in

this Chapter. With this design procedure, engineers can calculate the required thickness

of the steel plate as well as number of bolts in order to achieve a given target

displacement drift ratio.

-209 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Laboratory tests were conducted in this work for the following purposes:

l) To verify the effectiveness of the new retrofitting system in improving the ductility

and strength of RC columns.

2) To evaluate the accuracy of the numerical simulations by the computer program

..PLTCOL".

3) To demonstrate the practicality of the new retrofitting system.

Six half-scale columns of size 200mm(B)x200mm(D)x12l8mm(L) were

designed, manufactured and tested to ,"ru"$,n. above purposes.

9.1 TEST PLAN

Many different methods are described in the literature for cantilever column tests. The

method used depends on the purpose of the tests and laboratory capabilities. Two of the

most commonly used test methods may be categorized as (l ) the single cantilever test and

(2) the double cantilever test. The single cantilever column test is schematically shown by

the test setup of Fig.9.l (Chai et al l99l; Priestley and Seible 1995; Xiao andMa 1997;

Bayrak and Sheikh 1998). In this scheme, one cantilever column, which is cast together

with a footing that is then anchored to a strong floor, is tested under a variable lateral

force and a constant axial load on top of the column. The double column test is illustrated

in Fig.9.2 (Park et al 1982 Priestley and Park 1987; Rodriguezand Park 1994; Watson

-210-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

and Park 1994), where two cantilever columns on both sides of a beam stub are tested

simultaneously.

Axial load

Actuator

Column
speclmen

Footing

Strong floor

Fig. 9.1 Single column test

Axial load N

1l2F

Column speciman

Lateral load F
Beam stub

Column speciman

U2F

Fig. 9.2 Double columns test

Both of the above schemes were studied and designed in detail for consideration

in this work. After comparing the two schemes, the double-column test method was

- 2',ll -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

adopted for this project due to the laboratory conditions, convenience of testing and cost.

However, details of the test sehrp and the method of testing used here are quite different

from others. One major difference is that the specimens were tested horizontally instead

of vertically, as shown in the schematic sketch of Fig.9.3. Lateral restraints, as shown in


d
Fig.9.3(b), were also provided to prevent the undesirable out-of-plan, movement of the
/l
specimen.

variable lateral load F

I 1218

roller support r
axial ilever column B stub cantilever column A
load N pin
support
ê

(a) Elevation

4
n Lateral support

4
(b) Section A-A

Fig. 9.3 Schematic testing system

Another special feature of this testing system is that each specimen \ryas used for

two tests. In the first test, one half of the specimen was strengthened by steel members so

that the deformations (and member failure) occurred only on one side of the specimen, as

shown in Fig.9.4. On completion of testing on one end of the double-column specimen,

the strengthening was moved to the tested side and the undamaged side (that was

-212 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

protected by strengthening in the first test) was tested in the second test. In this way, the

cost of the tests was signif,rcantly reduced. To further minimize the stress on the

strengthened side, the vertical load was applied 100mm away from the center of the

specimen as shown in Figure 9.4a.

l00mm

a
¡4
:r-. -

aa aa
aa a a a . . ol a
a

(a) Strengthening scheme

(b) A strengthened specimen

Fig. 9.4 Strengthening of specimen

-213 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

The main test variables were chosen to be load type, stiffness of plating system

and gap (as discussed in Section 9.2.3). Two load types were used in these tests:

monotonic static loading and quasi-static cyclic loading with full load-displacement
reversal. The stiffness of the plating system depends on the stiffness of steel plate as well

as the bolt stiffness. The plate stiffness was varied by using different plate thicknesses as

well as different grades of steel. The same type of bolt was used for all the tests.

However, the overall shear connection stiffness was varied by employing full interaction

plating, which consists of plates both glued and bolted to the column, and partial
interaction plating which used only bolts to fix the plate to the column. One specimen

was tested with a bottom gap under the base plate to study the gap effect, as discussed in

Section 5.2.3.

Six tests were planned to achieve the stated aims for the tests. In the following

sections of this thesis. each test is referenced using a code reflectingthe characteristics of

the test as indicated below.


fi. l
l. IAMR - Monotonic loadçfl test of the benchmark RC column without plating.

2. 2AMFl2 - Monotonic loadéd ìest of the full interaction plated column with l2mm

thick mild steel plate.

3. IBMP6 - Monotonic loadg{-test of the partial interaction plated column with 6mm

thick mild steel plate.

4. 3ACR - Cyclic loaded test of the benchmark column without plating.

5. 4ACP6 - Cyclic t"1ø{ test of the partial interaction plated column with 6mm thick

mild steel plates.

-214-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

6. 2BCP6G - Cyclic loaded tes of the partial interaction plated column with 6mm thick

high tensile strength steel plates and gaps.

The first character of the code name identifies the specimen number, i.e. specimen l,

2,3 and 4, respectively. The second letter specifies the first (by letter'A') or second (by

letter 'B') test on a specific specimen, e.g.2A is the first test on specimen 2 and 2B is the

second test on specimen 2 but on the previously strengthened side of the first test. The

third letter shows the loading type with 'M' for monotonic loading and 'C' for cyclic
loading. The fourth letter gives the type of plating; the letter 'P' is used for partial

interaction plating and 'F' for full interaction plating. The number following 'P' or 'F'
specifies the thickness of the plate. The last letter'G'is used when gaps are set on the

specimen.

9.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TEST SPECIMENS

9.2.1 RC Specimens

The design details of the RC specimens are shown in Fig.9.5. Four numbers of

$14mm PVC sleeves were cast into the side of the beam stub that was used to anchor the

steel plates. The other four $2lmm PVC sleeves provided holes for the installation of the

strengthening steel frame which can be seen from Fig.9.4. The reinforcement details of

each bar are given below.

a) Yl6 straight bars - 2.6mlong main longitudinal reinforcement of the test column.

b) Y20U shaped bars - the main reinforcement of the beam stub with dimensions shown

in Fig.9.5(c).

-215 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

c) $6 stirrups - the transverse reinforcement of the RC column with dimensions shown

in Fig.9.5(d).

d) Q10 stirrups - the transverse reinforcement of the beam stub with dimensions shown

in Fig.9.5(e).

e) Top steel plates - the capping plate of the cantilever column welded to the ends of the

Yl6 bars. Dimension: l2mm (thick) x 200mm (Breadth) x 200 mm (Depth) as shown

in Fig.9.5a.

I 100 400 I 100

4Y 1 6
ö6@r00
stirrups 4Y20
:r 72mm steelplate
welded to the end
of Yl6 bars I
1
U bars cl
)i
C.l
\4

$21 sleeves ,
ôr 0@r 00 -
2 additiona stirrups stirrups aî
AI
+J
(a) Elevation

4Y16
$l4mm (internal) e..l
sleeves _ t50
-300-
t60 aa

ll0
O O
d
r 703
\o
2001
"
(b) Section A-A (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 9.5 Details of RC specimen

-216-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

The design concrete cover from column surface to the outermost side of the

stirrups was 20mm. The design effective cover from column surface to the center of the

Yl6 bars was therefore a-20+6+ 16/2:34mm. The measured average value of a from the

completed reinforcement cages was about 35.7mm. This mean value will be used in the

numerical simulations in Chapter 12. Figures 9.6 and 9.7 show the completed

reinforcement cage and the formwork ready for casting.

Fig. 9.6 Reinforcement cage

-217 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

Fig. 9.7 Specimen ready for casting

9.2.2 Steel Plating

Based on the testing plan, four kinds of plating were manufactured.

(a) For the 12mm thick full-interaction plating on one side -the 12mm thick mild steel

plate was glued as well as bolted to the compression face of the column. Details of

this plating system are shown in Fig.9.8. All bolts were Ql2mmthreaded rod bolts

with an embedment length of 70mm, which is described in fufther detail in Section

10.4. The holes in the steel plate for bolting were l2.2mm.

-218-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

I 100 400

950

No

FPBW
A ñ l2mm steel plate

10

ö l2 threaded rod bolts


100 100 t00 t00 100 100 150

l2mm steel plate

a a a a a o 200

a a a a a o

A.A
Note: FPBW - Full Penetration Butt V/eld

Fig. 9.8 Plating details

(b) For the 6mm thick partial-interaction plating on one side - the 6mm mild steel plate

was bolted to the compression face of the column. Bolting details are the same as that

shown in Fig.9.8 except that no gluing was used.

(c) For the 6mm thick partial-interaction plating on two sides - the bolting details are the

same as for case (b) above, except that both compression and tension faces were

plated.

(d) For the 6mm thick high-strength plating - the bolting details are the same as for case

(c) except that high yield strength steel plate (see Section 10.3) was used and gaps

were set at the bottom of the plate (see Section 9.2.3).

-219 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL \ryORKS

When plating the concrete columns, the following procedures were used for partial-

interaction plating. V/hile this plating procedure was more complicated than what might

be done on a real construction site due to the very small clearance between the bolt and

the hole in the plate, the minimal gap between the bolt and the hole in the plate was

designed to more accurately quantify the 'gap effect'.

L Making of anchor bolts - the bolts were cut from Ql2mm high tensile strength
threaded steel rod with each bolt having a length of I l0mm.

2. Making of steel plates - Longitudinal and base plates were cut separately into the

dimensions shown in Fig.9.8. Holes were driven at all bolting positions by a

þl22mm drill. Then the two perpendicular pieces of longitudinal and base plate steel

were full penetration butt welded (FPBW) at the corner.

3. The plate was then fitted to the RC specimen and clamped in position, as shown in

Fig.9.9. The RC specimen rvas then drilled to a depth of 8Omm through holes in the

plate using a Ql2mm drill.

4. Remove clamps and plate. Re-drill the holes in the RC specimen with a $l4mm drill

to enlarge the holes in the concrete, as shown in Fig.9.10. This was necessary to leave

enough clearance between the bolts and concrete for the glue.

5. Clear concrete dust in the holes of the RC specimens with compressed air and inject
Hilti HIT-HY 150 adhesive into the holes, as shown in Fig.9.1 I .

6. Re-fit the plate to the specimen with 20mm thick packers to leave a space for excess

adhesive to be squeezed out from the holes, as shown in Fig.9.l2.

7. Push bolts into RC specimens ensuring a 70mm deep embedment, as shown in

Fig.9.l3. Allow adhesive to fully cure.

-220 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

8. Remove nuts, plate and packers. Remove hardened excess adhesive squeezed out

from holes with a sharp chisel. This finished the bolt installation as shown in

Fig.9.l4.

9. Refit the plate and fix it with washers and nuts. All nuts were tightened with a 25Nm

torque using atorque wrench. The finished specimen is shown in Fig.9.l5.

For the full-interaction plating of case (a), i.e. gluing plus bolting l2mm thick

plate, the procedures are similar to that of partial interaction plating with the addition of

gluing. Before installation of the steel plate, the interface of the concrete was roughened

with a needle gun. The interface of the steel plate was roughened by sand blasting. After

applying glue, the plate was installed and clamped to the RC column until the glue had

fully cured, as shown in Fig.9.l6. The brand of glue used was Ciba Performance
Polymers Araldite LC 340 with Hardener LC340.

Fig. 9.9 Drilling of holes in RC specimen through holes in steel plate

-221 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

Fig. 9.10 Enlarged holes in concrete

Fig. 9.1I Injection of adhesive

a1a
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Fig. 9.12 Re-fit of plate with packers

Fig. 9. I 3 lnstallation of bolts

-223-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

Fig.9.l4 Completion of bolts installation

Fig. 9.15 The plated specimen

- 224
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

Fig. 9.16 Gluing of plate

9.2.3 Gaps

For case (d) (bolted plates with gaps), the construction procedures were the same

as for partial-interaction plating. The bottom gap was set by installing a steel sheet

between the face of the stub and the base steel plate, as shown in Fig.9.17. The thickness

of the steel sheet was 1.2mm.

Steel sheet

Gap

Fig.9.17 Gap setting

-225 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

However, it was difficult to achieve a uniformly wide gap. The reason is that the

concrete face of the stub was not flat and smooth. In practice, it may even not be exactly

parallel to the face of the bottom steel plate. Therefore, the actual gap width is difficult to

quantifo by the construction method used in these tests. Attention must be paid in future

tests to this issue. One potentially better way to control the gap width more accurately,

for example, involves installing the steel plate with dental paste between the bottom steel

plate and the stub, and then lifting the steel plate up to leave the design gap width.

Furthermore, there are other gaps around the bolts, as the hole size in the steel

plate is 0.2mm larger than the diameter of the bolts. However, this average 0.lmm gap

around the bolts has a much smaller effect than the much larger gap at the bottom.

The uncertainty in the gap width caused a problem when comparing the test

results to the numerical simulations results. However, it should not affect the qualitative

observations.

9.3 DESIGN OF TEST RIG

A schematic of the test set up is shown in Fig.9.l8. The supporting steel frame is shown

behind the specimen. There is another identical steel frame in front of the specimen but is

not shown for clarity. A steel member spanning transversely between these two frames

supports the vertical load jack as shown. The completed test set up is shown in Fig.9.19.

There is another horizontal steel member, which is not shown in Fig.9.l8, in both the

front and rear steel frames at the same level as the test specimen. These two steel

members provided lateral restraint against out-oÊnlañ'¡novement of the test specimens,

which can be seen in Fig 9.1 9 and in more detail in Fig.9.20.

-226 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Steeì I 500
Verticaì
ìoad jack

conctete
reactron
Specimen
Axial load 400
actuator to
300

1200 1200 2400 I 200 I 200

LC : Load Cell

Fig. 9.1 8 Test set up

S.iRÉSSII'IC
n'l l>RÕcRllSS

Fig. 9.19 Completed test rig

-227 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V\/ORKS

,1Ì

-¿

stra ining

k
\

Fig. 9.20 Details of lateral movement restraining system

The hinge support on the right hand side of the specimen that kept the test

specimen in position is shown in Fig.9.21 The hinge has two angle brackets that were

used to clamp the end of the test specimen. These angle brackets were bolted to the end

plate of the hinge that was mounted to the concrete reaction block as shown inFig.9.2l.

Fig.9.22 shows the left-hand side roller support. The supporting bracket was similar to

that of the right-hand side but narrower in order to avoid contact with the strengthening

frames installed on both sides of test specimen, as shown by Figs.9.22 and 9.23. The

-228 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

bracket was connected to a vertical load cell through a vertical frn. The load cell was then

mounted to another hinge that was fixed to the ground as shown inFig.9.22.

rl

Fig.9.2l Right hand side pin support

t(
I

\
Fig. 9.22 Left hand side pin support

-229 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Fig.9.23 Details of left hinge

However, the roller support was not mounted directlyto the top of the axial load

actuator. The actuator was not designed to take large transverse f'orces. To prevent

possible transverse loading to the actuator, a gap was maintained between the end plate of

the hinge and the end plate of the actuator as shown inFig.9.23. The gap was filled with

high strength low friction plastic membranes (TEFLON sheets) that were greased to

further reduce the friction. Therefore, the hinge support and the end of the actuator could

move relatively and freely in the transverse direction without affecting the application of

the horizontal axial force to the column.

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CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

The vertical load was applied to a test specimen through the vertical load jack

shown in Fig.9.l8. The connection details are shown in Fig.9.24. The downward load

was applied through the compression roller, as shown inFig.9.24,which satontop of the

beam stub. The upward direction load was applied through two tension rods, one in front

and the other behind the test specimen, that were anchored to the strengthening frames on

both sides of RC specimen as shown inFig.9.24.

This relatively simple test set up proved to work very well in the experiments.

TENSION
ROD

I
I

Fig.9.24 Vertical load application system

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CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

9.4 INSTRUMENTATION

A combination of clcctronic and manual instrumcntation lvas uscd to mcasurc thc vcrtical

loads, the displacements of the test specimens, strains at key locations in

the column reinforcement bars and steel plates, the slip of bolts, as well as shear

detbrmations in the plastic hinge zone of the column.

The loads were measured using three load cells as shown in Fig.9.l8. Load cell I

(LCl) measured the horizontal load from the axial load actuator. Load cell 2(LC2) gave

the vertical load on the left-hand hinge support, and load cell 3 (LC3) provided the

vertical load from the vertical load jack.

The displacements were measured at the five points shown in Fig.9.25. Point A

was used to measure the horizontal movement of the left-hand support. This horizontal

movement was monitored during each test. As excessive movement of point A, which

rcflccts thc axial shortcning of a spccimcn, signalcd thc loss of intcgrity of thc tcst

column and alefted the technicians to stop the test to avoid a drastic failure mode. It was

also used to convert the LC2 reading, which did not remain in a vertical direction when

point A moved, into vertical and horizontal components. A Linear Voltage Digital

Transducer (LVDT) was used to record the horizontal displacement at point A.

The deflection at point E is a direct measurement of the lateral displacement at the

top of a cantilever column (i.e. Ao shown in Fig.4.1). The steel arm, as shown, was fixed

to the stub of each test specimen that acted as the base of the cantilever column.

Therefore, the stub and the steel arm together were considered as the reference ground of

the cantilever column and any relative movement to the steel arm at point E was the

lateral displacement of the cantilever column relative to the reference ground. A string

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CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

pot was used at point E, as the maximum travel distance of the available LVDTs was not

sufficient for this large movement.

00mm
C
A oao O¡
':-+ :r'-- o <>
<> -o4
r OO O¡
aa aa o
E

D
Steel
B l00mm

Fig. 9.25 Displacement measurement points

Points C and D together were used to calculate the rotation of the beam stub. The

beam stub rotation was needed in order to convert the vertical and horizontal forces into

the axial and lateral (shear) forces of the column. Details of these conversions are given

in Section 9.6. LVDTs were used at these two points (C & D), as shown in Fig.9.26.

Point B measured the movement of a point at the bottom of the stub with respect to the

ground. A string pot was again used at point B. The displacements measured at points B,

C and D, as shown in Fig.9.25, were used to calculate the displacement of a cantilever

column, which is derived in Section 9.6. lt was found from tests that the calculated

displacement by displacement measurements at points B, C and D was very close to the

directly measured displacement at point E. This test methodology provides redundancy in

the acquisition of data and as there was no direct measurement at point E in the first few

tests, it provided confirmation that the specimen deformations calculated using the

measurements at points B, C and D were reliable.

-ZJJ-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Fig.9.26. LVDTs and Strain gauges

The strains in the reinforcing bars were measured at three key locations as shown

inFig.9.27(a). One strain gauge was installed on both upper and lower longitudinal bars,

approximatcly 50mm away from the face of the beam stub. The third strain gauge was

installed on the first stirrup that was located 100mm way from the face of the stub. The

accuracy of the strains measured by this method is limited as only one strain gauge was

provided on the face of the reinforcing bar. When the strain inside a reinforcing bar is not

uniform, as occurs under bending of the bar, significant differences in strain reading may

be expected between the strain gauge attached on the internal face of the bar and on the

external face of the bar (difference between compression face and tension face of the

bar). However, the strain measurement was not a prime target in this work and the strain

data was collected only for reference purposes.

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CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

Two strain gauges were installed on each steel plate, one on the external face and

the other on the internal face, as shown inFig.9.26 andFig.9.27(b). Their position was

also about 50mm away from the face of the beam stub.

Strain gauge on upper bar


Stub

c ''l'l"L

Strain gauge on stirrup


Strain gauge on lower bar

(a) Strain gauges on reinforcing bars

extemal strain gauge

pper gauge
Lower internal strain

Lower extemal strain gauge

(b) Strain gauges on steel plates

Fig. 9.27 Installation of strain gauges

The shear deformation of the column was measured in two of the tests to find out

the significance of this deformation. The measuring system, as shown in Fig.9.26,

employed three LVDTs installed in the bottom 300mm segment (expected plastic hinge

zone) of the cantilever column. This set up could only measure the shear deformation

within the 300mm long segment. As the shear deformation is mainly due to shear cracks

instead of elastic shear deformation, the shear deformation was considered to be

insignificant in the rest of the column. Observations from the tests confirmed that no

visible shear crack occurred outside the bottom 300mm segment. Detailed calculations of

-235 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

the shear deformation from these measurements are given in Section 9.6. As the shear

deformation was found to be insignificant, even in the highly stressed and deformed

plastic hinge region, no other specimen was measured for shear deformation, thereby

simplif,ing the instrumentation setup slightly in the subsequent tests.

The slip of the steel plate (relative movement between the plate and the column)

was measured in one (specimen IBMP6) of the tests at three points along the length of

the cantilever column. One slip measurement point was at the top of the plate, one at the

middle of the plate and the other at the bottom of the plate. Three LVDTs, were mounted

on the face of the steel plate to measure the relative movements between these 3 points on

the steel plate and the corresponding side face of the RC column as shown in Fig.9.28.

These relative movements were considered to give a good indication of the amount of

slip between the steel plate and the face of the RC column. However, strictly speaking

slip is dehned as the relative movement at the same point on the interface.

-236-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

I,VDT 2

I,VI}T I

(a) Slip measurement points

(b) Method of slip measurement

Fig. 9.28 Slip measurements

-237 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

9.5 LOADING

Thc axial and latcral loads wcrc applied to each test specimen using a 50 tonne lnstron

hydraulic actuator (Model No Al01l5E) and a 50 tonne hand operated double acting
c
hydraulic ram, respectively. The centernof the two hinges at the ends of a test specimen,

as shown in Fig.9.3(a), were located at the centroid of the corresponding RC cross-

section. This ensured that the axial Ioad was applied at the centroid of the RC section at

the top of the column.

Strictly speaking, the method of loading, i.e. loading path and rate, will affect test

results for non-lìnear structures. However, the possible influence of the loading procedure

was not significant in this work for the purpose of assessing the effect of plating, as long

as the relevant specimens, that were used for comparison, were loaded in the same way.

The following methods of loading were used in this work.

9.5.1 Monotonic Loading

A requirement for this project was that the axial load was to be maintained constant

throughout each test. However, in order to obtain the softening branch of a lateral force

(y-axis) versus displacement (x-axis) response curve for a column, tests must be
conducted under ¡-axis (displacement) control mode, i.e. to change the x co-ordinate

value and measure the corresponding y co-ordinate values. Therefore in these tests, the

constant axial load was first applied to each specimen under load control mode, i.e. the

horizontal movement of the axial load actuator shown in Fig.9.l8 was automatically

adjusted to maintain (within a tolerance of +0.2kN) a constant axial load of 360kN. Next,

the vertical loading jack shown in Fig.9.l8 was pumped manually to impose a specific

-238-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

upward/downward movement (i.e. lateral displacement) to the column. At each specific

displacement, readings from all instruments were taken. This process produced one point

in each response curve. The 2nd and 3'd steps were repeated until the whole response

curve was obtained.

However, due to inexperience with such tests as well as safety concerns that the

very large axial load (360kN or 22.5Yo of actual concrete squash load) could cause

instability of the specimen andlor the test rig, the axial load actuator was actually

operated under a displacement control mode in the initial monotonic loading tests. In a

test where the displacement of the axial load actuator is fixed, drastic failure is not likely

to occur, as the axial force will be released immediately should instability occur. Thus,

for the initial monotonic test the loading procedure was, first, the axial load was applied

and the corresponding axial displacement was fixed. Second, the specified lateral

displacement was applied and then instrumentation readings were taken. With the change

in lateral displacement, small changes in axial load occurred. Hence in the third step, the

axial load was re-adjusted, through additional movement of the axial load actuator, to

restore it to the desired axial load value. The readings were then recorded which gave the

correct point in the response curve corresponding to the correct axial load. The process of

applying lateral deflection and adjusting axial load continued until the whole response

curve was obtained.

The process of displacement control on axial load, or adjustment of axial load,

was considered to have a minor effect on the column response because small loading

steps were used for the lateral deflection and so the adjustment of axial load was small

(generally within tl0kN) in each step.

-239 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Furthermore, from the monotonic tests, it was found that the testing system was

actually quite robust. With increased confidence in the safety and the test procedure, it

was decided to use load control for the axial load in the remainder of the tests.

9.5.2 Loading Rate

It is well known that loading rate can influence experimental results. Abrams (1996)

observed that damage was much more prominent at a slower loading rate because of

increased crack propagation. It is also established in the literature that while fast-rate
loaded specimens tend to have larger ultimate loads (strengths) than slow-rate loaded

specimens, fast-rate loaded specimens tend to lose strength at lower ductility ratios.

In the monotonic tests of this work, several seconds (5-30 seconds) were allowed

between each load step to wait for the specimen to set and cracks to develop. However, as

the load steps were controlled manually, the time intervals were not constant, especially

when the specimen was inspected and photos were taken. However, it is believed that a

few seconds is sufficient for specimens to set.

For cyclic loading tests, which were conducted as quasi-static loading, the loading

rate was similar but slightly faster (about 5 seconds between loading increment). A
marginally faster loading rate was used to save time due to the large number of points to

be tested. In fact, one of the cyclic tests lasted for 3 days. When a test could not be

finished in one day, the test was stopped at a zero displacement position. The axial load

actuator and vertical jack were then un-loaded to zero force, and the specimen was left

overnight. The test resumed the next day by first applying the axial load and then

applying the lateral displacement as before.

-240 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

9.5.3 Cyclic Loading

The purpose of the quasi-static cyclic loading tests was to simulate the response of a

structure under an earthquake type loading. Therefore, it was important to select a

method of load cycling in order for the test results to be useful for inferring the likely

seismic behavior for the specimens. Many different cycling loading procedures have been

used. Comprehensive studies have been conducted at the University of Auckland

(Liddell, D.P. et al. 2001; Liddell 2000) to study the influence of applied loading history

on the performance and failure characteristics of reinforced concrete structures. Twelve

loading histories, including conventional procedures employed in the United States,

Japan and New Zealand, and artificially generated histories derived from recorded

earthquake ground motions were considered. The following conclusions were made from

their research:

o There is little agreement between research institutions throughout the world regarding

the applied loading history.

. The New Zealand loading history replicates the earthquake demand of a reinforced

concrete member more closely than loading histories from other research institutions.

Because of the above reasons, the New Zealand loading history, which is shown

in Fig.9.29, was adopted in this project. The ductility factor in Fig.9.29 was defined as

the ratio of the displacement to the yield displacement. There were different definitions in

the literature for yield displacement. In this work, the yield displacement is defined as the

point where the longitudinal tension bar first yields.

-241 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

Step number

Fig.9.29 New Zealand loading history

From the monotonic test of the un-plated column, it was found that the yield

displacement was 26mm, which is exactly the peak point of the response curve as shown

in Fig.1l.l. The column axial instability (difficult to maintain axial load) occurred at a

displacement of l20mm. Following Fig.9.29, the following displacement history should

be applied: -l26mm, -26mm, +52mm, -52mm, -l52mm, -52mm, +l04mm, -l04mm,

*l04mm, -l04mm. This will give only three displacement steps of 26mm, 52mm and

l04mm, which raised the concern that not enough load steps would be tested. To give

more load steps, the New Zealand loading history was modified in this work to give a

loading history shown in Fig.9.30. This loading was used for all cyclic loading tests

regardless of the difference in their yield displacement, which provided a good

benchmark for comparison. However, not all specimens were able to withstand all the

loading steps as indicated in Figure 9.30.

-242 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

91 35
7B 3.0
?65 2.5
2.0
->39 15 o
=26 10 o
b13 05

Eo
O
o::-1a.
(E -zÞ -1.0 =
-o. -39 -1 5
o
.2 -s2 -2.0 o=
o -65 -25
-78 -3.0
-91 -3.5

Step number

Fig. 9.30 Cyclic loading history adopted

9.5.4 lnitial Load and lnitial Reading

As the double-column test specimens were tested horizontally, the gravity load of the test

specimen including the strengthening frames was expected to cause a small initial
deflection in the column. For convenience of data acquisition, all instrumentation

readings were set to zero after the specimen had been placed in position but before the

application of any axial and lateral loads. In other words, the effect of initial gravitational

loading was recorded as zero in the test. The self-weight can be corrected in the response

curve as discussed in Chapter 12.

The first data point reported in the test results is the point when the axial load was

increased to the specified load and before any movement of the vertical load jack. At this

point, the response of the cantilever column, in terms of both lateral force and

displacement on top of the column, may not be zero due to flexure, especially for the

plated columns. This is because the axial load, which was applied to the centriod of the

RC cross-section, produced an initial flexural moment to the composite member.

-243 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

9.6 CONVERSION OF MEASUREMENTS

As notcd carlicr in Scction 9.4, not all of thc kcy column rcsponscs could bc mcasurcd

directly. The conversions of the measurements are derived in this section for data that had

to be combined, or geometrically adjusted, to give the desired column responses.

9.6.1 Column Lateral Force

The column lateral force F is the force component at joint B that is parallel to the long
\-
side of the stu{, as shown in Fig.9.31. It can be calculated from the readings given by

load cell{, 2 and 3, as indicated by Ft, Fz and F3 in Fig.9.3l. The rotation angle g of the
¡'
beam stub is calculated from displacement measurements at points C and D as shown in

Fi9.9.25.


Lt Lz
l. N
Fr) a a B
-^-_ -44 aF---
J.

a
aa aa . . rl F horizontal
F a
a force F1,
force Fu

Fig. 9.31 Conversion of lateral force

From Fig.9.3l, the following relations are obtained

F,=F'Ltl(L,+Lr) (e.l)

Fr: 4* Fr, = 4 (e.2)

Therefore,

F = F,. cos(d) - Fo - sin(0) (e.3)

-244-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

The axial load of the column is given by

N = Fn'cos(9)+{.sin(á) (e.4)

9.6.2 Deflection of Column

The deflection of a cantilever column can be measured directly through the steel arm

shown in Fig.9.25. However as noted earlier, this steel arm was not installed in the first

few tests. Therefore, it had to be calculated from other measurements. As the top of the

column is supported by a hinge, the deflection of the column, which is the relative

displacement of the hinge to the base of the cantilever column, was determined by the

movement of the central stub which was measured at points B, C and D shown in

Fig.9.25. The central stub was assumed to be a rigid body in these calculations.

The measurement at point B was a string pot with one end fixed to a point B on

the ground and the other to a point P at the bottom of the stub, as shown in Fig.9.32. The

movement of point P, from P to P' as shown, was measured by the change in length of

the string, from LBs to LB. The measurements at points C and D were given by two

LVDTs that were mounted to the supporting frame which was considered to be fixed with

respect to ground. These two LVDTs give the horizontal movements of the stub atthese

two frxed positions, as shown by AC and AD in the figure.

In the following derivation, the horizontal movement DX, vertical movement DI


and rotation á of point O, an intersection point of the stub with the center line of the RC

column, were first derived in terms of LB, AC and AD. The lateral displacement of the

column was then calculated with DX, DY and 0 .

-245-
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

d'

I
o
-l
DY

I
d'
I

e d'
d,

cl D

/f
MN a
Fig. 9.32 Calculation of lateral displacement

From Fig.9.32,the following two relations are obtained

LC = O'T .tanfl - DX = (4+ DY).tan? - DX (e.5)

LD = (4- DY).tanQ + DX (e.6)

Adding Eq.9.5 to Eq.9.6 gives

LC + A,D =24-tan9

or

0 = arc¡rrnl(LC + LD) l2d,l (e.7)

Subtracting Eq.9.6 from Eq.9.5 gives

-246 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

LC - LD:2DY .tan? -2DX


or

DX =DY.Ian?+(LD-LC)/2 (e.8)

Similarly, another three relations can be obtained

JL = IO'= AO'-AI = DY I cos9 - dr.tan? (e.e)

P' M =JM - JL - LP' = JK I cos9 - JL - LP'


_ (d, + LB) _ (e.10)
cosd 'cosd e+
_ d,. ïan o) _ d,

and

MB = MN + NB = P' M.siná+ P'G - BQ


= P' M. sin I + O' P'.sin(a + e) - @3 - DX)

= P' M.sin d + dl + dl .sin(ø + e) + DX - d3 (e.r l)

From the Law of Cosines

LB2 : P, M2 + MB2 -2P, M . MB.cos B


(e.12)
= P' M2 + MB2 -2P' M . MB.sin?

Substituting Eqs.9.l0 and 9. I I into 8q.9.12 and re-arranging gives

LB2 : 2L +2. (b. tan0 - a). Dy + a' + b2 (e.l3)


cos'0

where

a : LBo+d, .sin 0 + dr. (l -cosd) (e.14)

and

AD- AC
b- dl + dl .sin(ø + 0) - d3 + (e.1s)
2

Solving Eq.9.13 gives

-247 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

DY = cos9'la' cos9 - b - sin9 + LB2 - (a .sin 0 +b.cosá)2 I (9.16)

One of the two solutions given by Eq.9.l6 is false. It can be found by letting

0 : A,D = A,C :0 in Eqs.9.14-9.16, which gives

DY = LBo+ LB (9.17)

Obviously, the correct answer is DY - LBo - LB . Therefore, the only reasonable solution

of Eq.9.l6 is

DY = cos0 .fa .cos0 - b .sin 0 - LB2 -(a.sin0+b.cos0)2I (9.1s)

From Fig.9.33, the lateral displacement at top of the cantilever column can be

calculated as

Lo = DY I cos9 + L.tan 0 (9. 19)

aoo O¡ r-:--_ ¡-a, -I- -.-'


DY/cose
aa aa aa
aa aa tt, 0
. L*tanO
a
L

Fig. 9.33 Deflection of cantilever column

9.6.3 Shear Deformation

The shear deformation measurement system shown in Fig.9.26 is schematically

reproduced in Fig.9.34. Lines AB, CD and BC in Fig.9.34 represent the positions of the

top, bottom and diagonal LVDTs, respectively. Deformation within the rectangle ABCD

-248 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL WORKS

is measured by these three LVDTs. In this section, the shear deformation of the measured

rectangle is derived in terms of the readings of the three LVDTs.

0.5 0.5

A A' B

before deformation
h

after deformation

C'C ED D'

(a) Pure flexural deformation

Bt'

C D
W

(b) Pure shear deformation

Fig.9.34 Deformations of the measured rectangle

Under pure flexural deformation without shear, the deformation of the measured

rectangle is shown by Fig.9.34(a), where the un-deformed shape is given by ABCD and

the deformed shape is shown by A'B'C'D'. The flexural deformation changes the length

of the top and bottom sides as well as the diagonal line, causing a change of readings in

all three LVDTs. Under pure shear deformation, as shown by Fig.9.34(b), the un-

-249 -
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTAL V/ORKS

deformed rectangle ABCD is skewed to the deformed shape AB"CD". In this case, the

side length of the deformed shape is still equal to its original length, i.e. AB":AB and

CD":CD. In other words, the readings from the top and bottom LVDTs measure only the

flexural deformation. However, readings of the diagonal LVDT include both flexural and

shear deformation.

From Fig.9.34(a), the diagonal length after deformation is given by

dt= C'82+h2 = (õ, - õ,) +h2 (e.20)


2 l'
where â and $are readings from the top and bottom L Vof.".p"ctively.
¡1

From Fig.9.34(b), the deformed diagonal length is

d (õ +h)2 +l(2 (e.2r)

where ô is the shear deformation.

Assuming small deformations, the superposition law applies. Therefore, the

diagonal LVDT reading { is equal to the summation of diagonal length change due to

flexure and shear, or

õr=(dr-d)+(dr-do)= d,+dr-2do e.22)

Substituting Eq.9.2l intoEq.9.22 and re-aranging gives the shear deformation

õ =-h+ (õr +2do - d,)' -¡4r' (e.23)

-250 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

CHAPTER 10 MATERIAL TESTS

Tests were conducted to obtain the actual (average, or mean, values as opposed to the

characteristic, or design, values) material properties for the concrete, reinforcing bars,

steel plates, anchor bolts and for the full interaction gluing used in the fabrication of the

test specimens. These properties were needed for the analysis of the test results,

especially in the numerical simulations of the test columns. The methodology and results

are presented in this section for each of the material tests.

10.1 CONCRETE

All four double-column test specimens were cast on 7th July 2000 from a single batch of

concrete supplied by CSR Readymix. The required design concrete strength was

specified to be 25N/mm2 with the expectation that the actual strength would be higher.

Concrete samples of cylinders (þl00mm x 200mm high) were taken from the same batch

of concrete. To estimate the actual compressive strength, tensile strength and Young's

modulus of the concrete for each column specimen as accurately as possible, cylinders

were tested around (but not exactly on) the test date of each column test.

Typically, two tests were conducted on each cylinder: (l) a Young's Modulus test

and (2) a compressive strength test. The Young's Modulus tests were performed first,

which involved application of a compression load to a cylinder in the elastic stress range

to establish the stress vs. strain properties of the concrete. The maximum stress applied in

the Young's Modulus test was approximately 40%o of the compressive strength of the

-251 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

concrete. The slope of a linear trend line that gave the best fit to the stress-strain curve

was considered as the Young's Modulus. The results of the Young's Modulus tests are

given in column 9 of Table l0.l and plots of the tests are shown in Figs.Al to 417 in

Appendix A. After each Young's Modulus test, the cylinder was loaded in compression

until failure in order to determine the compressive strength of the concrete. The results of

these tests are given in column 8 of Table 10.1.

Table I 0.1 Compression test results of concrete

Brand Test date Age Diameter Height Weight Ultimate f"o Ec


(dtmty) (days) (mm) (mm) (g) load (kN) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
CYLOl 2t8to0 23 100.5 200 3500.4 205.6 25.9 22671
CYL02 2t8t00 23 100.5 201 3522 201.2 25.4 22300
CYLO3 2t8to0 23 100.5 201 3492.1 194.4 24.5 23491
CYLO4 11t8t0o 32 100.5 201.5 351 I 260.4 32.8 24457
CLYOs 11t8tOO 32 100.5 201 3553 204.8 258 28790
CLYO6 11t8t00 32 1 00.1 200 3546 220.6 28.0 27468
CYLOT 10111100 123 101 201 3602.2 31 1.8 38.9 31764
CYLOS 10t11t00 123 100.7 200 3547.7 306.6 38.5 30168
CYLO9 1011'llo0 123 100.6 200 3561 315.6 39.7 29640
CYLlO 28t2tO1 233 'r00.5 200 3552.2 318.5 40.2 27941
CYLI 1 28t2t01 233 100.3 200 3547.9 290.5 36.8 29407
CYL12 28t2tO1 233 100.7 200 3511.6 280.4 35.2 26462
CYL14 18t5t01 312 100 200.5 3555.8 299 38.1
CYLI 5 18t5t01 312 101 201 3618.6 290.2 36.2 32263
CYL16 18t5t01 312 100.5 200.5 3590.8 284 35.8 32343
CYLI 8 3t7t01 358 100.5 199 3557.7 323 40.7 32029
CYL19 3t7t01 358 100.3 200 3645.8 357 45.2 34833
CYL2O 3t7t01 358 100.4 200 3585.7 288.5 36.4 32912

To estimate the tensile strength of the concrete, Brazilian tests, or indirect tensile

tests, were conducted. As the tensile strength was not a major concern in this work, only

two such tests were performed. The test results are given in Table 10.2, in which the

tensilestrengthwascalculatetlbyr,=ffiandislistedincolumn8.

-252 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

Table I 0.2 Tensile test results of concrete

Brand Test date Age Diameter Height Weight Ultimate f, (N/mm2)


(d/m/y) (days) (mm) (mm) (g) load (kN)
CYL13 2812101 233 100.3 201 3552 133 4.2
CYL17 18t5101 312 100.5 201 3624.1 116.2 3.7

10.2 REINFORCING BARS

Three tensile tests were conducted to determine the tensile strength for both the Yl6 and
R6 reinforcing bars. The detailed results are given in Table 10.3.

Iable 10.3 Tensile test results of reinforcing bars

Brand Diameter Yield force Yield Peak force Peak


(mm) (kN) strength (kN) strength
(MPa) (MPa)
Yl6a 16 1 10.6 550.1 127.5 634.1
Y16b 16 1 10.0 547.1 126.6 629.7
Y16c l6 110.4 549.1 126.8 630.7
R6a 6 19.53 690.7
R6b 6 19 5 689.7
R6c 6 19.54 691.1

Typical machine displacement vs. tensile force plots for the Y16 and R6 bars are

shown in Figs.l0.l and 10.2, respectively. The "yield force" in Table 10.3 is the y
(vertical) co-ordinate of the yield plateau in the displacement vs. tensile force chart. The

maximumy co-ordinate of the chart is referred as "peak force" in Table 10.3.

The above tensile tests give the yield and maximum strength of the reinforcing

bars, as listed in Table 10.3. However, it was not possible to determine the stress-strain

relation, or the Young's modulus and strain hardening stiffness, from this data, as the

displacement or horizontal co-ordinate of Figs.10.1 and 10.2 did not give the true

-2s3 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

elongation of the bar due to slip of the bars in the end grips. To determine the stress-strain

relation, another three specimens of the Yl6 bars were tested with strain gauges installed

on the surface of the bars. The results of these tests are given in Figs.l0.3-10.5.

Force (kN)

¡1(,3
kâ(

I 00.

50

Di

Fig. I 0.1 Tensile test result of Y I 6 bar

20

Displacement (mm) 1

Fig. 10.2 Tensile test result of R6 bar

-254-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

600

500
N
tr
Ë 4oo

ã soo
.n
o
õ 2oo
100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Strain

(a) Whole curve

600
534.3
500

N
E 400
E
z first yield strain 0.0026
300
o
tt,
o
200
Ø
y= 190004x+ 0.3531
100

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Strain

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equation

Fig. 10.3 Stress-Strain curyes of Yl6 bar sample Yl6d

-255 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

600

500
À-_-
N
E 400
E
ào soo
U,

Ë
U'
zoo

100

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Strain

(a) Whole curve

600

500

E 400
E first yield strain 0.0025
z 300
o
aD
o /
200
U'
y= 190290x- 0.184
100

0
/
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Strain

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equation

Fig. 10.4 Stress-Strain curve of Yl6 bar sample Y16e

-256-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

600

500

E 400
E
ào .oo
o
o
.b
U'
200

100

0
0 o.o2 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Strain

(a) Whole curve

600
532.8
500
N
E 400
E first yield strain 0.0026
z 300
o
o
o
200 ,/
a y = 191182x+ 1.2371
100
,/

0
,/
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Stra in

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equation

Fig. 10.5 Stress-strain curve of Yl6 bar sample Yl6f

-257 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

From the stress-strain tests, the yield strength of the three Y16 specimens were

found to be 534.3 , 521.4 and 532.8 MPa, respectively, giving an average value of 529.5

MPa. The Young's Modulus is the gradient of the linear part, as shown by the coefficient

of x in the linear equation of the trend lines. The average value of the Young's Modulus

is (190004+ 190290+ 191182)/3:190492 MPa.

It is noted that the yield strength values from the stress-strain tests are consistently

lowerthan those given in Table 10.3 that have an average value of 548.8MPa. The reason

is that the cross-sectional area of the reinforcing bar was slightly reduced by grinding the

surface of the bar to make a smooth surface for strain gauge installation. The reduction in

the cross-sectional area was difficult to measure. Therefore, the nominal cross-section

area of 201.06 mm2 without reduction was used to calculate the yield strength and

Young's Modulus in Figs.l0.3-10.5. The average reduced cross-sectional area can be

estimated using the average yield strength from the stress-strain tests, 529.SMPa, and the

average yield strength from the normal tensile tests, 548.8Mpa. If 548.8MPa is

considered as the actual yield strength of the Y16 bar, then the reduced cross-sectional

area in the stress-strain tests is given by A,:529.5*201.06/548.8:194 **t. With this

more "accurate" cross-sectional area, the Young's Modulus from the stress-strain tests

was also revised to E,:190492*201.06/194:197424 MPa. Of course, this kind of

"accurate" adjustment is insignificant and unnecessary in practice.

The strain hardening stiffness of the Yl6 bar was estimated from the three stress-

strain curves, as shown in Fig.l0.6. The simplified strain hardening line was drawn

between a point in the yield plateau and a point near the peak of the curve as shown in

Figure 10.6, which gave a strain hardening stiffness of 798.4 MPa. For consistency, it

-258-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

was also revised using the more "accurate )) cross-sectional area to give

E n:7 9 8.4* 20 I .06 I I 9 4:827 .5 MP a.

600 y= 798 4x + 530


500
N
E
E 400
z
aO 300
0,
E
U' 200

100

0
0 o.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Strain

Fig. 10.6 Strength hardening stiffness of Yl6 bar

In summary, the average yield strength from the Yl6 bar tensile tests without a

strain gauge was used as the yield strength of the Yl6 bars. The Young's Modulus and

strain hardening stiffness values were obtained from the average stress-strain test results,

which were modifred with the "accurate" cross-sectional area. For the R6 bar material,

the average yield strength given in Table 10.3 was used. The final test results are

summarized in Table 10.4.

fable 10.4 Summary of reinforcing bar properties

Brand Diameter Yield Young's Strain hardening First yield


(mm) strength Modulus stiffness (MPa) strain
(MPa) (MPa)
Y16 16 548.8 197424 827.5 0.00255
R6 6 690.5

-259 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

10.3 STEEL PLATES

Three types of steel plates were used for plating the columns in the experimental work.

To obtain the steel plate properties, tensile tests, similar to those performed on the

reinforcing bars, were conducted to obtain representative stress-strain relations. The

results for the 12mm thick mild steel plate (MSl2), 6mm thick mild steel plate (MS6) and

6mm thick high tensile steel plate (HT6) are given in Figs.10.7, 10.8 and 10.9,

respectively. Three specimens were tested for each type of steel plate, corresponding to

the three curves in each figure.

For the mild steel plates, i.e. MS12 and MS6, the yield strength was taken as the

averagey co-ordinate of the yield plateau from Figs.l0.7 and 10.8, respectively. For the

high strength plate HT6, the yield strength was taken at the first yielding point shown by

"A" in Figl0.9. The Young's modulus was taken as the gradient of the linear segment, as

shown by the x coefficient for the linear trend lines. The average values of the three

specimens were used for the steel plate properties and are summarized in Table 10.5. The

strain hardening stiffness depends on the position of the last point on the stress-strain

curve. As this value may not critical in this study, an arbitrary value of 600MPa was

used.

Table 10.5 Summary of steel plate properties

Brand Thickness Yield Young's Strain hardening


(mm) strength Modulus stiffness (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa)
MS12 12 306.9 I 98679 600
M56 6 307.3 200031 600
HT6 6 734.4 1 96798 600

-260-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

400
ôt
tr
300
È
z
u,
Ø
200
o
L
ö 100

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 008

Strain

(a) 'Whole curve

300
N
E
E
> 200
y = 198056x - 0.5291
o
(t, y = 198246x+ 0.8171
Ë loo
U'
y = 199734x+ 0.771

0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002

Strain

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equations

Fig. 10.7 Stress-strain test results of MSl2 steel plate

-261 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

400
N
tr
300
Ë
=o
o
200
o
¡-
õ 100

0
0 o.Qz 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Strain

(a) Whole curve

400

Ç soo


3o zoo
o
o = 198714x + 0.5602
1oo
ã y=200111x+1.0084
y=201269x+0.9476
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003

Strain

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equations

Fig. 10.8 Stress-strain test results of MS6 steel plate

-262 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

800

N
E 600
E
z 400
o
U'
o
L
tt 200
Ø

0
0 o.o2 0.04 0.06 0.08

Strain

(a) Whole curve

800

ôt
E 600
E
z ,/
-Ø 400
Ø
o v = 198909x + 0.7471
L v = 195924x + 2.0889
õ 200
y=195561x+0.7625

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006

Strain

(b) Enlarged linear part with trend line equations

Fig. 10.9 Stress-strain test results of HT6 steel plate

-263 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

10.4 ANCHOR BOLTS

The shear force vs. deflection (slip) relation is needed to define the properties of the shear

connectors on the interface of the plated columns. The shear connector properties are not

only affected by the properties of the bolt but also by the properties of the concrete and

steel plate. Therefore, bolt shear tests, as illustrated by Fig.10.10, were conducted to

determine the shear connection properties. The actual test set up is shown in Fig.l0.1l.

The concrete blocks were cast from the same batch of concrete that was used to fabricate

the column specimens. Hence, the material properties were considered to be the same.

displacement
steel transducer
slip s
force 2Fo
,-
\

concrete block

Fig. I 0.10 Bolt shear test

Fig. l0.l I Bolt shear test set up

-264-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

To identify a suitable bolt for bolting plates to the test columns, three types of bolt

were tested. These are shown in Fig.10.12. Two of the bolts are common Hilti bolts: the

Hilti HSL $12 bolt and the Hilti HIS Ql2 bolt. The Hilti HSL 012 bolt is a mechanical

bolt that relies on mechanical interlocking from the end expansion to provide the anchor

force. The Hilti HIS 0l2bolt is a chemical bolt. It relies on chemical bond to provide the

anchor force. Hilti HIT HY 150 adhesive is used as the bonding agent for this bolt.

The third type of bolt considered was a threaded rod bolt. It was cut from Q12
\
threaded rod of high tensile steel. The internal diameter of the threaded rod was 9.853mm

with an effective diameter of 10.863mm. Tensile tests similar to those conducted on the

reinforcing bars without strain gauges were conducted to determine the yield strength of

the threaded rod, which is given in Fig.l0.l3. This bolt was anchored by chemical bond

using Hilti Hit HY 150 as the bonding agent.

'-.1,j A,.
/'(

H¡Iti HSL HiIt¡ HIS Thrcaded rod


bolt bolt bolt

Fig. 10.12 Types of bolts

-265 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

900
800
700
o
o- 600
= 500
o
o 400
o
at,
300
200
100
0
05'10 1520
Displacement (mm)

Fig. 10.13 Tensile test result of the threaded rod

The installation procedure for the two Hilti bolts followed the standard procedure

as per specifications. The installation procedure for the threaded rod bolt was described in

Section 9.2.2. All types of bolt were tightened with 25 Nm torque using atorque wrench.

The embedment length of all the bolts was 70mm from the face of the concrete to the end

of bolts.

In the testing as shown in Fig.lO.ll, a pull force was applied by the hydraulic

actuator to the steel plate in a displacement control manner. The displacement was

applied at a (slow) rate of about l-3mm/per minute. The applied force and the movement

of the steel plate (slip) were then recorded using a load cell and displacement transducer,

respectively. This data was then used to produce the load vs. slip plots.

The Hilti HSL bolt was tested on the 2nd November 2000 when the concrete age

was 116 days. The Hilti HIS bolt was tested on the 1Oth November 2000 at a concrete age

of 124 days. The threaded rod bolt test was conducted on 7th November 2000 at a

concrete age of l2l days. Figures 10.14, 10.15 and 10.16 show the bolt slip test results

for the Hilti HSL bolt, Hilti HIS bolt and threaded rod bolt, respectively.

-266-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

80.0

? 600 conc. block failu re


80
..þ E ooo
þor
OL
-c -o
V
ct, 20.0

00
0.0 5.0 10 0 15.0 20.o 25.0

Slip (mm)

Fig. 10.14 Hilti HSL 012 bolt test

50

40
z-Yõ
ËË'
€o¡
LL')A
ooLv
Ês
U'
10

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.O

Slip (mm)

Fig. 10.15 Hilti HIS 012 bolt test

-267 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

80.0

?o^ 600

f) tt
.¡f o 4o.o
\
.ct
L
.! ñl
OL
fi $ zoo

0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0

Slip (mm)

Fig. I 0.16 Threaded rod bolt test

In all the three tests, the bolt on the far side of the loading arm was slightly pulled

up in the final stage of loading, as shown in Fig.l0.l7 where the Hilti HSL bolt was

pulled up about 5mm prior to failure. The Hilti HSL bolt test ended with the breaking of

the concrete block, as shown in Fig.l0.l8 and Fig.l0.l9. Since most of the important

curve for this bolt had already been obtained, this test was not repeated. However,

additional measures were taken to prevent concrete block failures in the remainder of

these tests. Two strong steel rods were added between the two corner anchor points that

changed the point supports to uniformly distributed supports, as shown in Fig.10.20.

The Hilti HIS bolt test failed with the shearing off of the bolts below the plate in

the concrete layer as shown in Fig. 10.21. From Fig.10.l 5, it can be seen that the two bolts

did not fail simultaneously as suggested by the two drops on the curve. It seems that the

268 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

first bolt (closer to the load cell) snapped first and the second bolt broke about a minute

later. The failure mode of the threaded rod bolt was similar, as shown in Fig.10.22.

Fig. I 0. I 7 Lifting up of second bolt

Fig. 10. I 8 Failure mode of Hilti HSL Q l2 bolt test

269 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

Fig. 10.19 Hilti HSL bolt and concrete block after test

Aclditional steel

+
concrete block

Fig. 10.20 Uniform distributed supports to prevent concrete block failure

-270-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

Fig. 10.21 Failure mode of Hilti HIS bolts

Fig.10.22 Failure mode of threaded rod bolts

-271 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

From the bolt test results of Figs.10.l4-10.16, it can be seen that the threaded rod

bolt is the strongest and stiffest. From a ductility point of view, the Hilti HSL $12 bolt is

the best. From the theoretical studies in this thesis, it has been shown that the stiffness

and strength of bolts are more important to plated columns than the ductility which is not

critical since columns fail (concrete crushes) before excessive slip takes place. Therefore,

it was decided to use the threaded rod bolts for column plating. Furthermore, the threaded

rod bolts are also much cheaper than Hilti bolts.

As discussed in Section 4.1.4, the load vs. slip relation is represented by a bi-

linear model in the numerical simulations. The bi-linear "best fit" curve for the original

test data of the threaded rod bolts is shown in Fig.10.23, from which the properties of the

bolt shear connector were obtained and which are summarized in Table 10.6.

40

g30 K¡n= 0.7kN/mm


o
gq
e€ 20
o-
OL
-C O ,tt\
U'Y IU
K¡= 23kN/mm
0.0
0.0 2.o 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 12
Slip (mm)
Fig. 10.23 Load-slip model of threaded rod bolt

Table 10.6 Summary of bolt properties

Brand Diameter Yield Elastic Strain hardening


(mm) strength Fo, stiffness stiffness
(kN) Ko(kN/mm) K6¡(kN/mm)
Threaded rod bolt 12 30.0 23 0.7

-272-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

10.5 GLUING AND BOLTING

As one test column was retrofitted by gluing and bolting a plate to the face of the column,

this connection was also tested. The same setup as described in Section 10.4 for the bolt

connector tests was used for this test. The actual test specimen is shown in Fig.10.24

where the cross-hatched area indicates the section of the plate (200mm x l00mm) that

was glued. The brand of glue used was Ciba Performance Polymers Araldite LC 340 with

Hardener LC340. Before gluing, the face of the steel plate was sand blasted to provide a

better bond. The concrete face was roughened with a needle gun. Threaded rod bolts,

applied as described in Section 10.4, were used for bolting. The glued area and the two

bolts were equivalent to one row of bolting in the actual plated column at a same cross-

section.

Fig.l0.24 Test specimen of gluing plus bolting

-273 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

The test was conducted on 9'h November 2000 at a concrete age of 123 days. To

get the softening branch of the load vs. slip response curve, a displacement control

procedure was adopted for loading. Because there is essentially no slip with a glued plate

before the bond breaks down on the interface, the movement of the loading arm of the

hydraulic actuator had to be very slow. A loading rate of 3mm/per hour (in contrast to l-
3mm/minute for the unglued bolting tests) was tried initially but this was eventually

increased to 8mm/per hour.

The movement of the actuator actually did not produce any slip on the interface

before the bond break down. Instead, itproduced an elongation of the steel plate and the

lateral deformation of the supporting frame that fixed the concrete block to the ground.

Actually, it is the increase in deformation of the test set up that gives a continuous

increase in the test load. As the external force from the hydraulic actuator must be

balanced by the reaction force from the supporting frame, the more the suppofting frame

deforms, the more reaction load is applied. The test result is shown in Fig. 10.25.

120.O

100.0

80.0
zJ
!ttú 60.0
o
J 40.0

20.0

0.0
00 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

Slip (mm)

Fig. 10.25 Gluing plus bolting test

-274-
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

In the test, the bond broke down suddenly at a load of l08kN. Up to this point

negligible slip had been measured at the interface. The test then continued at an increased

loading rate of 3mm/per minute until the bolts failed in shear as observed previously.

After the glue bond broke, the system behaved similarly to the threaded rod bolting

system giving a similar result as can be seen by comparing Fig.l 0.25 with Fig.10.16.

The failed specimen is shown in Fig.10.26 and 10.27. The failure plane shows that the

gluing on the front area near the loading side is partly debonded, as indicated in

Fig.10.27. The rest of the plane failed due to concrete peeling off.

Fig. 10.26 Failed specimen of gluing plus bolting

-275 -
CHAPTER IO MATERIAL TESTS

Fig. 10.27 Failure plane

The conclusion from this test was that the average bond stress by this type of

gluing may be estimated by

a¡ =108000(200x 100) = 5.4 (MPa)

This is a very rough but simple estimation. However, it is sufficient for estimating the

minimum glue length (or area) for full interaction plating. At full yielding of the steel

plate, the minimum glue length for the 12mm thick steel plate can be estimated by

I = 306.9 x12 I 5.4:682 (mm).

As the full glue lengh is 950mm as shown in Fig.9.8, this bond length is considered

adequate. The column test result that will be presented in Section ll.2 confirmed this

bond length, as no debonding was observed in the test.

-276-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

CHAPTER 11 COLUMN TESTS

Six column tests, consisting of three monotonic static tests and three quasi-static cyclic

tests, were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of the new retrofitting scheme as

well as to verify the results of numerical simulations. The details of the testing
procedures are given in Chapter 9. The test process, observations and test results are

reported in this chapter. The discussion of the test results will be presented in Chapter 12.

The notation used to identify each of the six test specimens in the following sections is

defined in Section 9.1. The test data, such as displacements and strains, were collected at

specific locations that are indicated in Section 9.4 where it is also noted that the strain

reading shall be treated as a reference only and may not be accurate. A constant axial

load of 360kN was applied to all the specimens.

11.1 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN IAMR

The first test consisted of a monotonically loaded test of the "benchmark" reinforced

concrete column without any plating. It was tested on22"d February 2001 at a concrete

age of 228 days. The applied load versus deflection response of the column is given in

Fìg.11.1, where it can be seen that the maximum load (peak point) was 36kN that

occurred at a lateral displacement of 25.7mm (2.1% drift). The measured strain values of

the longitudinal reinforcing bars and stirrups are shown in Fig.l1.2, where it can be seen

that the yield point of the tension reinforcement coincided with the peak point of

-277 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

Fig.ll.l. The compression reinforcement yielded at the lateral displacement of about

38.5mm. The stirrups did not yield in Fig.l 1.2(a).

The progressive damage recorded during testing of the specimen is indicated by

Fig.B.l to Fig.B.6 in Appendix B. The number marked on the small black board and on

the cracks of the specimen in the photos, e.g.4mm in Fig.B.l, is the string pot reading at

the bottom of the stub that was not the actual lateral deflection of the column at top. (As

noted in Section 9.4,the actual column deformations were calculated using the data from

three separate displacement measurements at pol,tfn, C and D.) The actual lateral
V

deflections are given in the title of the corresponding figures.

During the test, fine tension cracks in the concrete were noticed at about 5mm of

lateral displacement (0.4%o drift). First signs of significant distress (early signs of

crushing and spalling) of the concrete in the compression side occurred at about 20mm of

lateral displacement (1.6%o drift). The specimen failed due to concrete crushing at a

displacement of approximately l20mm (10% of drift), when the axial load could no

longer be maintained. The test stopped at this point.

Front and rear views of the failed specimen are shown in Figs.l1.3 and 11.4,

respectively. The final crack pattern and extent of concrete crushing are highlighted in

Fig.l 1.3 where it can be seen that the tension crack opening \¡/as concentrated in the first

crack about l00mm away from the face of the stub, and the extent of concrete crushing

was about l40mm at the bottom of the column.

Table I l.l Test results of specimen IAMR

Peak point Failure point Failure mode Softenins slope


Lateral force (kN) 35.9 t.0 Concrete 0.36 KN/mm
Displacement (mm) 25.7 122.4 crushing
Tensile bar strain 0.0027 0.0037

-278-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

240
-v
CL
o30
/
/A*
t!
8zo /
o
E10 {
o
o
Jo
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Lateral displacement at top (mm)


Fig. l1.l Response of column specimen IAMR

0.o2

0.016

.E 0.012 bar

0.008 stirups
o -compression
bar
IE 0.004
^ct
o
É. 0 -tension
-0.004
6ô 80 100 1

-0.008

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(a) Whole curve

0.003

0.002
T
.=
t!
0.001
t
Èo
g -o.oo1
o
É. 4.002 bar
stinups vieldin
-0.003
-compression
þ¿¡
-0.004

-fs¡sie¡
Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(b) Enlarged linear part


Fig. I 1.2 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen IAMR

-279 -
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

Fig. I I .3 Front view at displacement of I 23mm for specimen IAMR

__r_v
'a
71 a<,

Fig. I I .4 Rear view at displacement of 123mm for specimen IAMR

-280-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

11.2 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 2AMF12

This was a monotonically loaded test of the column with a l2mm thick mild steel plate

glued and bolted on the compression face (full-interaction plated column). It was tested

on 13th March 2001 ata concrete age of 247 days. The load versus deflection response for

the column is given in Fig.l 1.5 where the maximum load (peak point) reached 55.3kN at

a lateral displacement of 20.7mm (1.7% drift). It is noted that the initial displacement of

the column was a negative value. As mentioned in Section9.5.4, the first data point was

recorded after the application of the axial load and before any movement of the vertical

load jack. Therefore, the negative displacement of the first data point was caused by the

rotation of the stub due to flexure in the member. The flexural moment was caused by the

eccentricity of the axial load that was applied at the centroid of the RC cross-section

instead at the centroid of the overall composite cross-section.

The measured strain values of the longitudinal reinforcing bars and stirrups are

shown in Fig.l1.6, where the tension reinforcement yielded (a.r:0.0026) at about 3Omm

of lateral displacement which occurred after the peak point of Fig.l1.5. The possible

reasons for this delay in yielding will be discussed in Section l2.l.l. It can also be seen
in Fìg.l 1.6 that the compression reinforcement was loaded into tension at about 22mm of

lateral displacement, which was predicted for columns with a strong plating system by

the theoretical study in Section 5.2.2. The compression bars yielded in tension after the

lateral displacement exceeded l00mm. The stirrups yielded at a displacement of about

76mm (a,r:0.0035).

-281 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

Figure I 1.7 shows the strains that were recorded in the steel plate on the external

face and internal face (interface between concrete and plate) near the base of the column.

The steel plate started yielding on the external face at a lateral displacement of about

65mm, after which the strain on the external face increased quickly. The internal face of

the steel plate remained elastic before the strain gauge broke at about 56mm of lateral

displacement. The shear deformation measured from the bottom 300mm long segment

(plastic hinge region) is depicted in lig.ll.8.'l'his shear def-ormation increased nearly in

direct proportion to the lateral displacement and reached a maximum value of about

8.5mm at the end of the test that was equal to about 6.8% of the total lateral displacement

of the column.

The progressive damage to the specimen is indicated by Figures 8.7 to 8.12 in

Appendix B. As noted earlier, the numbers marked on the small black board and on the

cracks of the specimen in the photos were the string pot readings at the bottom of the

stub. The actual lateral deflections are given in the respective title of figures. The overall

crack pattern (rear view) at the completion of testing is shown in Fig.ll.9. A close-up
\'+/
view of the major cracks (front view) fi{shown in Fig.l 1.10.

During the test, fine tension cracks in the concrete were first noticed at about

2mm of lateral displacement. Early signs of shear cracking were observed at about lOmm

displacement. Signs of plate debonding at the top of the column occurred at about 50mm

displacement, as shown in Fig.B.l0. However, no further debonding developed

throughout the remainder of this test. Testing was stopped when the maximum travel

distance that the setup allowed was reached at the displacement of l25mm. No excessive

-282 -
CHAPTERII COLUMNTESTS

sign of distress in terms of instability was observed at any stage during this test except for

one major tension crack of more than 5mm width, as shown in Fig.B.l2.

Extension of tension cracks into the stub, or column base, was evident, as shown

in Fig.ll.l0. This observation indicates that yield penetration into the support and

rotation of the bottom cross-section as relative to the stub occurred in the test. Minor fìne

cracks between the steel plate and concrete were found at the bottom of the column (see

enlarged corner view in Fig.l l.ll) which indicated possible slip at that region, but no
\Àlð-'å
sign of concrete crushing wøEnoticed.

Therefore, it was concluded that the ultimate displacement of this test specimen

was not reached during the test. The specimen was still intact in the end of the test.

Table 1 1.2 Test results of specimen 2AMF12

Peak point Failure point Failure mode Softening slope


Lateral force (kN) 5 5.3 N.A. N.A 0.21 KN/mm
Displacement (mm) 20.7
Tensile bar strain 0.0021

-283-
CHAPTER I I COLUMNTESTS

zlÉ
CL
o
G
o 30
o
o 20
E
o

-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 1L5 Response of column specimen 2AMF12

.s -0
30 "". 50 90 110 1

(!
ID
-0
bar
o
.c¡ stirrups
o -0
É. -***lension bar
-compression
-0

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(a) Whole curve

.s
(!
at,

t! compresston
¡¡ stirrups
o
É,
----- -- tension bar

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(b) Enlarged linear part


Fig. I I .6 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen 2AMF 12

-284-
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

0. side

-external
----_ internal side
.s
ag

tt, slra¡n gauge break down


o

0
CL

6py

-10
.10
30 50 70 90 110 130

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(a) Whole curve

.E
(!
o
o
IU
side
CL
-external
----internal side

-50 5 10 '15 20 25 30 35 40

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

(b) Enlarged linear part


Fig. I 1.7 Measured strains in steel plate for specimen 2AMF12

E
E
c
o
(E

E
o
o
E

o
at,
0 10 30 50 70 90 1 10 130

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. I 1.8 Measured shear deformation for specimen2ltMF12

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CHAPTER II COLUMN TESTS

Fig. I 1.9 Rear view after test for specimen ZAMFI2

Fig. I I .10 Front view after test showing major cracks for specimen 2AMF12

-286-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

f
.2
r2
Fig. I l.l I Enlarged view of corner for specimen2AMFI2

11.3 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 1BMP6

This was a monotonically loaded test of the column with a 6mm thick mild steel plate

bolted on the compression face (partial-interaction plated column). It was tested on 27th

March 2001 at a concrete age of 261 days. The load versus deflection response of the

column is given in Fig.ll.l2 where it can be seen that its peak strength was 39.3kN

which occurred at a lateral displacement of about 26.3mm (2.2% drift).

The measured strain values of the longitudinal reinforcing bars and stirrups are

shown in Fig.ll.l3. Figure 11.14 gives the strains recorded on both sides of the steel
plate near the bottom of the column. From Fig.ll.l3, it can be seen that the tension

reinforcement yielded at the same lateral displacement as the peak load was achieved in

Fig.l1.12 (39.3kN,26.3mm). In contrast to the full interaction plated column 2AMF12

- 287
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

where the compression reinforcement changed from compression strain to tension strain

when the lateral displacement increased, the strain of the compression reinforcement in

this test stayed in compression and monotonically increased with the lateral displacement.

The compression bar yielded at a lateral displacement of about 26mm. The stirrup did not

yield in Fig. I I . l3(a). Figure I I .l 4 shows that the external face of the steel plate yielded

at a lateral displacement of about 46mm, and the internal face of the steel plate remained

linear elastic up to the end of the test which meant that full yielding of the steel plate did

not occur before failure which was buckling of the plate.

The shear deformation within the bottom 300mm long segment is depicted in

Fig.ll.15 but it is incomplete due to failure of the instrumentation in the middle of the

test. One of the fixing points for the instrumentation broke due to debonding of the glue

caused by cracks in the concrete, as can be seen in Fig.l 1.19.

The slip between the steel plate and the RC column, which was also measured for

this specimen, is given by Fig.ll.l6. The slip measurement positions are detailed in

Section 9.4. This was the only test in which the slips were measured. The maximum

measured slip was about 2mm as shown in Fig.ll.l6. This slip was just over the linear

elastic limit and much less than the breaking slip of about lOmm, as can be seen from

Fig.10.23. The slip distribution was such that it increased from the bottom of the column

toward the top of the column. The slips at the measurement points monotonically

increased with the lateral displacement except at the bottom point that showed a negative

slip at the beginning of the test caused by the initial moment from the axial load

eccentricity.

-288-
CHAPTERII COLUMNTESTS

The progressive damage to the specimen is illustrated by Figures B.l3 to B.l9 in

Appendix B. The numbers marked on the small black board and on the cracks of the
q
specimen in the photos were readinlOof the response "E" (refer Fig.9.25) from the steel

arm as described in Section 9.4. This reading was intended to give a direct recording of

the actual top displacement of the cantilever column. However, the steel arm was

mistakenly fixed to the strengthening frames instead of to the stub of the column in this

test. It was found during the test that there was substantial relative movement between the

stub and the strengthening frames. Therefore, this reading did not reflect the actual

column deflection. In fact, significant discrepancy was found between this direct

measurement and the true displacement calculated from readings B, C and D (refer to

Fig.9.25 and Section 9.6.2), which is shown in Fig.l 1.17. This problem was subsequently

resolved in the remaining tests by attaching the steel arm directly to the concrete of the

stub instead to the strengthening frames. The difference between the directly measured

displacement (response "E") in subsequent tests and the calculated displacement (using

responses B, C and D) was found to be negligible. The actual lateral deflections


(calculated) for this test, therefore, are given in the respective title of figures.

As shown in Fig.B.13, two G-clamps were used at the bottom of the column to

prevent sudden buckling of the plate in the early stages of the test. The G-clamps were

provided due to safety concerns. They were removed at the column displacement of

93mm, however, when it was felt that sudden instability would not occur even if the plate

buckled. Another concern, and reason for the removal of the G-clamps, was that they

might strengthen the plating system and possibly affect the test results. Luckily, these

clamps were not effective at the time of removal, as the contact between the legs of the

-289 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

clamps with the plate was still loose, and buckling of steel plate did not occur until a

displacement of 106mm was reached. The G clamps were not used in the rest of tests.

The test column failed due to buckling of the steel plate, as shown by Figs.ll.lS and

11.19. The test was stopped immediately after the plate buckled and the column was

unloaded.

Cracks in the concrete at the corner where the steel plate was bearing down were

first noticed at a displacement of 6mm, as marked in Fig.B.l3. This damage developed

continuously through out the test. However, the concrete was able to provide sufhcient

support to the plate until the end of the test when the plate buckled and the maximum

damage to concrete occurred, as shown in Fig.ll.l8. Sign of concrete crushing in the

compression zone of the plastic hinge was noticed at a displacement of about 40mm.

Significant concrete crushing in the plastic hinge region occurred after buckling of the

steel plate, as shown in Figs.ll.lS and ll.l9. Cracking was concentrated in 3 major

cracks as shown in Fig.l I .l 9.

Table I I .3 Test results of specimen l BMP6

Peak point Failure point Failure mode Softening slope


Lateral force (kN) 39.3 24.2 Steel plate 0.19 KN/mm
Displacement (mm) 26.3 105.6 buckling
Tensile bar strain 0.0025 0.0038

-290-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

z.Y 40
CL
o
l!
o
o
o
õ
o
t!

-10 10 30 50 70 90 110

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. I I .12 Response of column specimen I BMP6

.Ê,

L
fl
o
G
.c¡
o 30 0
É.
sYl- - -

Lateraldisplacement at top (mm)

(a) Whole curve

bar
'õ stinups
--.-
- -tension bar
an -compression
IE 't5
.c¡ 5 10
o
É.

Lateral displacement attop (mm)

(b) Enlarged linear part


Fig. I I .13 Measured strains in reinforcing bars for specimen I BMP6

-291 -
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

0.
face

-external
internal face
.=o
ll,
-
at
o
s-o

,|
0 0 30 50 70 90 0
-0

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. I l.l4 Measured strains in steel plate for specimen IBMP6

E
E

o
t!
É
o
o instrumentation break
tt
G
o
E
U'
-5 5 15 25 35

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 11.15 Measured shear deformation for specimen IBMP6

of plate
------ middleof plate
-lep þelle¡ of plate

-
E
CL

30 50 70 90 0

Lateral d isplacement at top (mm)

Fig. I l.l6 Measured slips for specimen I BMP6

-292 -
CHAPTERII COLUMNTESTS

!rE
OE
J
a=

çE
lio o
õ.8
o.9
Ït

-10 l0 30 50 70 90 110

Calculated top displacement (mm)

Fig. I I .1 7 Direct measured displacement for specimen I BMP6

T "1
U,

^'"-*-*r. >
¡c
551
11,1

2:n O

Fig. I I .18 Enlarged rear view at displacement of 106mm for specimen I BMP6

-293 -
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

Fig. I l.l9 Front view at displacement of 106mm for specimen IBMP6

11.4 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 3ACR

This test involved applying quasi-static cyclic loading (as described in Section 9.5.3) to

the benchmark column without plating. lt was tested from the l6th to lTth of May 2001 at

a concrete age of 3l I days. The load versus deflection response for the column is given

in Fig.ll.20, where the lateral load varied from -38.7KN to +32.5KN (as compared to

35.9kN for the monotonic specimen lAMR). A positive displacement shown in the figure

indicates pushing down toward the ground from the initial position and a negative

displacement shows a pulling up.

The measured strain values of the longitudinal reinforcing bars and stirrups are

shown in Figs.11.21-11.23.The defìnition (location) of upper and lower bars is given in

Fig.9.27 . Figure 1 L21 shows that the upper reinforcement bar reached a tensile straìn of

-294-
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

0.0025 at the negative peak response point (-38.7kN, -26.4mm) of Fig.ll.20. The strain

at this point was close to the monotonic yield strain of 0.0025-0.0026. However, it needs

to be noted that these strain values do not generally indicate yielding status or stress level,

as yielding depends on the strain history under cyclic load conditions (as seen in

Fig.4.12). A tensile strain of 0.00135 was recorded in the lower bars in Fig.ll.22 atthe

positive peak point (32.5kN, 23.9mm) of Fig.11.20. The reason was not exactly clear for

the tensile strain difference between the positive and negative peaks apart from the

possible variation in the strain gauge positions as noted in Section 9.4. The stirrups

apparently yielded (the monotonic yield strain was about 0.0035) in the last two cycles as

can be seen from Fig.ll.23.

The progressive damage to the specimen is depicted by Figures 8.20 to 823 in

Appendix B and Figs.l1.24-11.26. The numbers marked on the small black board in

these photos were the actual lateral deflection of the column measured from the steel arm

E (see Fig.9.25). However, the "*" and "-" signs in the pictures were opposite to the sign

convention of Fig.11.20. The correct sign is given in the respective titles of the figures.

It was noticed that there are a few sudden, but small, drops in the response curve

of Fig.11.20. These drops were attributed to the frictional force exerted on the side of the

specimen from the lateral restraints shown in Fig.9.20, which were provided to prevent

the specimen from swaying out-of-plane. The sway of the specimen can be seen in a

photograph of the specimen in Fig.1l.26 which was taken after failure. This frictional

force from the lateral restraint blocks was reduced in the subsequent tests by greasing the

contact faces.

-295 -
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

During testing, concrete crushing was observed at about +20mm of lateral

displacement, as shown in Fig.B.2O in Appendix B. The specimen failed due to concrete

crushing at a displacement of -56.3mm (compared to l20mm in the monotonic specimen

IAMR), when the axial load could no longer be maintained at which point the test was

stopped. The extent of concrete crushing at failure was more than 200mm as shown in

Figs.ll.24 and 11.25. Obviously, the damage to concrete was more severe under cyclic

loading compared to the monotonic test as shown Figs.1 1 .3 and I I .4.

-60 40 -20 0 20 40 60
40
z! 30
CL 20
o
10
o
o 0
o
o -10
-20
E
o -30
G
-40

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. I 1.20 Response of column specimen 3ACR

-296-
CHAPTERIlCOLUMNTESTS

,60 40 -20 20 40 60

0.004
.=

-¿ / 0.002
U'
t!

f
o
o
CL
CL
ø æ
_¿

7
v 0

-0.002

U -0.004

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I I .21 Measured strains in upper reinforcing bar for specimen 3ACR

€0 40 -20 0 20 40 60
0.003

'Ë 0.002

t,
l-=-- 0.001
l! ñ >---
¡t
E
o
ìo
N \------è
\\\\ -\--\
0

-0 001

-0.002

-0.003

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.22 Measured strains in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 3ACR

-60 40 -20 0 20 40 60
0
: -0 0005

tr -0.001
(E \---\ -0 0015
\ -\.-
o
CL
-\..\ -0 002
-0.0025
-0 003
|t, \-, -0 0035
\ -0.004
\_]
-0.0045

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.23 Measured strains in stirrups for specimen 3ACR

-297 -
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

Fig. I I .24Rear view at -56.3mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 3ACR

F)'..ìLURt"

Fig. I L25 Front view at -56.3mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 3ACR

-298-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

Fig. I I .26Top view at failure for specimen 3ACR

11.5 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 4ACP6

This test involved applying quasi-static cyclic loading to a partial-interaction plated

column with 6mm thick mild steel plates bolted on both the tension and compression

faces. This column was tested from the 6th to 8'h of June 2001 at a concrete age of 332

days. The load-deflection response of the column is given in Fig.ll.27,where the lateral

load varied from -45.9kN to 47.4kN.

The measured strains of the reinforcing bars and steel plates are shown in

Figs.l1.28-11.36. Figure 11.28 shows that the upper reinforcing bars reached a tensile

strain of 0.0042 at the negative peak point (-45.9kN, -32.3mm) of Fig.11.27. At the
positive peak point (47.4kN, 26.lmm) of Fig.l1.27, the tensile strain of the lower
reinforcing bars was 0.0023 as shown in Fig.ll.29. Although the monotonic yield strain

-299 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

0.0025-0.0026 of the reinforcing bar cannot be used to identify the yielding of the

reinforcement directly in the cyclic test, the range of the strain variation in Fig.1l.28 and

Fig.l I .29 clearly shows that both the upper and lower reinforcement experienced

alternative tension and compression yielding. The stirrups were apparently yielded when

the push amplitude exceeded about 60mm of displacement (a,r:0.00345), as shown in

Fig.ll.30. The range of strain variation in Figs ll.3l to 11.36 also apparently suggests

that both faces of both plates experienced alternative tension and compression yielding

(the monotonic yield strain was 0.0015). The steel plate was completely yielded at the

end of the test as can be seen from Fig.l I .3 I and Fig. I I .33.

The progressive damage to the specimen is depicted in Figures 8.24 T.o B.48 in

Appendix B. As noted above, the "+" and "-" signs of the displacement on the small

black board were opposite to the sign convention of Fig.l I .27 . The correct sign is given

in the respective titles of the figures.

In testing, the first sign of concrete crushing was noticed at about +39mm of

lateral displacement (see Figs.B.28 and 8.29). The crushing of the concrete continued to

develop with further increases in displacement. However, the steel plate seemed to

provide adequate compressive resistance (strength) to replace the crushed concrete, as no

excessive axial shortening of the specimen was noticed in the test. The integrity of the

specimen was also evident from the response curve where no excessive degradation was

shown up to the end of the test.

The maximum upward travel distance of the vertical jack was reached at a

displacement of -82mm. Therefore, the last 2 cycles went from -82mm to +9lmm

instead of from the intended -9lmm to +9lmm, as shown in Figs.B.44 1"o8.47. Fig.ll.37

-300-
CHAPTERII COLUMNTESTS

illustrates damage to the concrete in the plastic hinge zone and the opening of the steel

plate at the corner on the tension face in the final cycle.

The test was concluded at this point with monotonic downward pushing of the

specimen until the maximum downward travel distance was reached. Fig.ll.38 depicts

the compression zone of the plastic hinge at the final displacement of about +150mm,

from which it can be seen that significant damage to the concrete occurred and signs of

buckling of the steel plate was evident. However, because the buckling was toward the

concrete side, no instability of the steel plate was observed. Theoretically, the steel plate

should always buckle toward the concrete side because the curvature of the plate makes it

bends toward the concrete.

The test was then stopped at +150mm of displacement. The extent of the final

damage to the specimen is depicted in Figs.ll.39 and 11.40. These two photos were

taken after the specimen was removed from the test rig and the loose concrete was

brushed away. Buckling of reinforcing bars can also be clearly seen in these figures.

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


50

z! 25
o
o
o 0

o -25
IE
J
-50

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I L27 Response of column specimen 4ACP6

-301 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-90 60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


0.0125

'õ 0.01

0 0075
tt,
(g 0 005
.c¡
o
o
CL
4- .>
0.0025

0
CL =7 I

-0.0025
f
-0.005

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. 1 1.28 Measured strains in upper reinforcing bar for specimen 4ACP6

-90 €0 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


0.005


0.0025
an


.ct 0
o
o
ì
o
-0 0025
J
-0 005

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. 1 1.29 Measured strains in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 4ACP6

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60


0.001

0
.E
\* -0.001
ø
o -0.002
CL
J
-0.003
(t,
\
-0.004
strain oauge brqak
-0.005

Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. I L30 Measured strains in stirrups for specimen 4ACP6

-302-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


c 0.02

0.0175
ø
0 015
po 0.0125
U'
E 0.01
0.0075
o
x 0.005
o 0.0025
o =zF'
CL
CL
l
-4 T 0
-0 0025

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I I .31 Measured strain in steel plate on upper external side for specimen 4ACP6

-90 €0 -30 0 30 60 90
.= 0.003

0.0025
o
o 0.002
p 0.0015
at,

õc
o
x
o
4 0.001
0.0005
0
-0.0005
o -0.001
CL
CL
f -0.0015

Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. I I .32Enlarged part of Fig.l l.3l

-90 s0 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


.E
g 0.0285
o
0.0235
pc,
tn 0.0185
(E
c I 0.0135
o,
.= 0.0085

o / 0.0035
CL
CL
f -0.0015

Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. I1.33 Measured strain in steel plate on upper internal side for specimen 4ACP6

-303-
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90


0.0025
.E
0.002
Ø
0.001 5
po)
an 0 001
E 0 0005
o 0

-0.0005
o -0.001
CL
CL
f, -0.0015

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I I .34 Enlarged part of Fig.l 1 .33

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


.= 0 0035
g 0.003
ø 0.0025
po \ 0.002
o 0 0015
E 0 001
o 0 0005
x 0
o
-0.0005
o)
-0 001
o
= -0 0015

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.35 Measured strain in steel plate on lower external side for specimen 4ACP6

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150


0.0015

0.001
o
po 0.0005

o 0
G -0.0005
c
o -0.001
.; -0.0015
o -0 002
o
J= -0.0025

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.36 Measured strain in steel plate on lower internal side for specimen 4^CP6

-304-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

Fig. 1 I .37 Open up of steel plate at -82mm of 2"d cycle for specimen 4ACP6

{¡:
Fig. I 1.38 Rear view at +l50mm displacement for specimen 4ACP6

-305-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-\ ri
" '*lå .,
Èeo

I
é

Fig. I 1.39 Rear view of plastic hinge zone after testing for specimen 4ACP6

\
j

Fig. I 1.40 Front view of plastic hinge zone after testing for specinren 4ACP6

-306-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

11.6 TEST RESULTS OF SPECIMEN 2BCP6G

This test consisted of applying quasi-static cyclic loading to the column with 6mm thick

high tensile strength steel plates bolted on both the tension and compression sides (partial

interaction plating). Bottom gaps between the steel plate and the beam stub were also set

in this test on both plates as per Fig.9.l7. The design gap width was l.2mm on both sides.

However, the maximum gap width measured immediately before the test when the test

specimen was placed in its test position was about 2mm for both plates, and was
apparently not equal for the two sides. The reason was discussed in Section9.2.3.lt also

seemed that part of the base plate touched the concrete face of the stub.

This test was conducted from 27'h to29th of June 2001 at a concrete age of 353

days. The load versus deflection response for the column is given in Fig.ll.41. The

lateral load varied from a range of -5l.4kN to 32.8kN.

The measured strains in the reinforcing bars and steel plates are shown in

Figs.l1.42-11.47. Figure 11.42 shows that the upper reinforcing bars reached a tensile

strain of 0.003 at the negative peak point (-51.4kN, -32.3mm) of Fig.ll.4l. At the

positive peak point (32.8kN, 26.1mm) of Fig.ll.4l, the tensile strain of the lower
reinforcing bars was 0.0009 as shown in Fig.11.43. The range of the strain variations in

Fig.ll.42 and Fig.l 1.43 suggests that both the upper and lower reinforcement

experienced alternative tension and compression yielding. The stirrup strain was very

small and did not yield throughout the test (e,r:0.00345) which varied in a range of

- 0.0006 to +0.0006. The stirrup strain was much smaller and very different from the

other five specimens that experienced only tensile strain, as seen from Fig.ll.44. The

compression strain in the stirrups started to occur in cycles with amplitudes greater than

-307 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

52mm and when the displacement decreased from these peak values. The reason for a

smaller stirrup strain may be due to the much higher yield strain of the plate that

prevented the concrete from excessive crushing and dilation. However, the reason for the

compression strain to occur was not clear. A possible explanation is that the stirrup

experienced flexural bending under expansion of concrete and the strain gauge was on

the compression face of the stirrup bar. Under an amplitude (peak) displacement, the

concrete dilation was maximum and the stirrups experienced a large axial elongation

which gave a tensile strain. 'When the column moved back from its amplitude (peak)

position, the concrete dilation was relieved but the bending in the stirrups remained

which gave a compressive strain in the strain gauge. The variation range of plate strains

in Figs I1.45 to 11.47 apparently suggests that the steel plates did not yield on both faces

at any displacement (the monotonic yield strain was about 0.004). The strain gauge for

the internal side of the lower plate was not working in the test.

A problem occurred in this test when the steel plate on the tension side lifted up,

as shown in Fig.11.48. This lifting up of the steel plate invalidated the displacement

measurement at point C, as it could no longer reflect the true rotation of the beam stub.

This problem was not discovered until the very late stages of the test. It had never been a

problem in other tests where two bolts on the side of the stub were used to anchor the

plate, as shown in Figs.9.l5 and 9.16, and the LVDT point C (or D) never moved closer

to the column face than the lower bolt. However, only one bolt on the far side of the stub

was installed in this test, as shown in Fig.9.l7 and Fig.l1.48. The inside bolt was

removed because of concerns that the tension resistance from the tension steel plate may

be too high for this type of high strength steel plate if the inside bolt was used. As

-308-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

mentioned in Chapter 5, this increased tension resistance was not desirable from a

ductility point of view.

To calculate the lateral force for the response curve of Fig.l I .4l,it is necessary to

know the rotation of the stub (as discussed in Section 9.6.1). To solve this problem, the

formula discussed in Section 9.6.2, where measurement points B, C and D were used to

calculate the measurement at point E, as shown in Fig.9.25, were used to calculate the

stub rotation. In this case, measurement points E, B and D were used to calculate the

measurement at point C, when it was pulled up. When it was pushed down, points E, B

and C were used to calculate the displacement of point D. When both displacements at

points C and D are known, the stub rotation can then be calculated. The whole response

curve of Fig.I I .41 was produced using this calculated stub rotation.

On the third day (for the last cycle) of the test, measurement points C and D were

moved to the opposite face of the stub to avoid the problem of plate lifting. The specimen

was pushed and then pulled to the maximum allowable displacement of the test setup in

this last cycle. The result is shown in Fig.l1.49 with the solid lines. The previous cycles

obtained from the calculated stub rotation are shown in the figure by dotted lines. It can

be seen that the transmission from the previous cycles to the last cycle, which was

produced with direct measurement at points C and D, is considered to be acceptable. This

confirmed, indirectly, that the calculation of the stub rotation mentioned in the previous

paragraph was acceptable.

The progressive damage to the specimen is shown in Figures 8.49 to 8.72 in

Appendix B. The "+" and "-" signs of displacement on the small black board were

-309-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

oppos¡te to the sign convention of Fig.1l.4l. The correct sign is given in the respective

titles of the figures.

During the test, the gaps for the upper and lower plates seemed to close at alaterul

displacement of about +l0mm. Signs of concrete crushing were first noticed at about

*39mm of lateral displacement. The crushing of the concrete continued to develop with

further increase in displacement. However, the steel plates were able to provide adequate

compressive resistance to replace the strength lost from the crushed concrete. In the

maximum pull position (-l00mrn displacement) of the last cycle, the positions of the

horizontal actuator and the verticaljack were held for about l0 minutes. No significant

drop of loading was observed in this period, which was taken to reflect the stability of the

specimen at the final position. The integrity of the specimen was also evident from the

response curve (Fig.ll.4l) where no excessive degradation was indicated up to the end of

the test.

Figuresll.50 and ll.5l show the damage in the specimen at the conclusion of

testing when loosened concrete was removed. It is clearly seen that significant concrete

crushing occurred in the plastic hinge zone. However, the degree of concrete crushing

was lower compared to the other two cyclic tests. The steel plates were still flat and

showed no sign of yielding or buckling in Figs.l1.50 and 11.51. Buckling of the


reinforcing bars is clearly evident in these figures. The condition of the bolts is shown by

Figs.l 1.52 and 11.53 after removal of the steel plate. It can be seen that no excessive slip

had occurred in the bolts, as no sign of concrete crushing around the bolts is visible.

- 310 -
CHAPTER II COLUMN TESTS

-80 €0 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
40
30
zJ 20
10
o
o 0
o -10
õ -20
o -30
(E
J -40
-50
€0
Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.41 Response of column specimen 2BCP6G

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80

0 006
.=
(! -.-'
_-..- 0 004

.n
t!
: 0.002
¡t
o,
0
o
CL
CL -0.002
f
-0 004

Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.42 Measured strain in upper reinforcing bar for specimen 2BCP6G

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80


0.01

'õ 0 008

o 0.006
a!
¡r 0.004
o
o o 002
ìo ¿#
e-æ1
0
J
-0 002

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.43 Measured strain in lower reinforcing bar for specimen 2BCP6G

- 3l I -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-80 €0 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
0 0006

0 0004

(ú 0 0002
tt 0
an
CL -0 0002
J

-0.0004
at,
-0.0006

0 0008

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.44 Measured strain in stirrups for specimen 2BCP6G

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80


.E
g 0 002
o
o
p 0.001

r
U'
0

o -0 001
x
o
-0 002
o
CL
CL
-0.003
f
Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.45 Measured strain of steel plate on upper external side for specimen 2BCP6G

-80 ^â0 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80


.= 0 0025

th
0.002

po 0.0015
tt,
0.001
õ
0 0005
o
'; 0
o -0 0005
CL
CL
f -0 001

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I 1.46 Measured strain of steel plate on upper internal side for specimen 2BCP6G

-312-
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80


.=
ß
0.002
|t'
po
tt,
õc
\
S S- 0.001

6) -0.001
xo
-0.002
o
ì
o -0.003
J
Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. 1 1.47 Measured strain of steel plate on lower external side for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. I 1.48 Error in measure point C due to plate lifting up

- 313 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

-120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120 160


40
30
z.¡< 20
o
a 10
o 0
o -10
E -20
o -30
IU
J -40
-+/:
-50
-60
Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. I I .49 Last cycle of test for specimen 2BCP6G after changing instrumentation

Fig. I 1.50 Front view after testing for specimen 2BCP6G

-314-
CHAPTER II COLUMNTESTS

Fig. I l.5l Rear view after testing for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. I I .52 Bolts after testing for specimen 2BCP6G

- 315 -
CHAPTERIICOLUMNTESTS

t¡iiì ii ;,',iì,i;. i:_,It

Fig. I I .53 Enlarged view of Fig.I I .52

In summary, three monotonically and three cyclically loaded columns were tested

to investigate the plating effect. The test setup and procedures were considered to be

simple but successful and the target of the tests was achieved. Another feature of the

experimental work was that the cost was relatively low. The total cost for the materials

and labor (for lab technicians) was about AUD$15,000.

-316-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

CHAPTER 12 COMPARSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF


TEST RESULTS

The test results are analyzed and discussed in this chapter. ln Section 12.1, compansons

are made between columns with different plating details to see the effects of plating. The

test results are compared to the numerical results in Section 12.2 to verify and evaluate

the accuracy of the numerical program.

12.1 COMPARSION BETWEEN TEST RESULTS

The test results discussed in this section are the original test results without modification

to account for the self-weight of the test specimen and strengthening frames. It is
intended to keep the test results as original as possible in this part of discussion.

However, the self-weight, that affects the peak force by about 5-7yo, will be included in

Section 12.2 where the test results are compared to the numerical results.

12.1.1 Monotonic Tests

To compare the test results, the three monotonic response curves are plotted together in

Fig.l2.l. The peak points and post-peak softening slopes of the response curves are

summarized in Table 12.1. From numerical simulations in Chapter 5, it was found that

the first yielding of the tension reinforcing bars usually occurs at the peak point of a

response curve (see Figs.5.6 and 5.7). This is the case for columns IAMR and lBMP6,

where it can be seen from column 4 of Table l2.l tha| the strains of the tensile bars at the

peak points were very close to the yield strain of the reinforcing bar, i.e. 0.0025-0.0026 as

-317 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

obtained from the reinforcing bar tests in Chapter 10. However, the peak point strain for

2AMF12 is smaller than the yield strain. This measured strain may not be accurate for the

reason given in Section 9.4, because the strain difference between the strain on the top

face and bottom face of a bar due to the curyature is estimated to be as big as 0.0003 at

that peak point.

^60
z 2AMF12
5so
CL
940
o 1BMP6
e30
P
e20
rú R
o10
o
Jo
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.1 Comparison of monotonic test results

Table 12.1 Summary of test results

Peak point Post-peak Ductility Ultimate Failure


Displace Lateral Tensile Softening factor displace- mode
-ment force bar slope ment
(mm) (kN) strain (kN/mm) (mm)
IAMR 25.7 3s.9 0.0027 0.36 1.6 41 Concrete
crushing
IBMP6 26.3 39.3 0.0025 0.19 2.7 71 Plate
buckling
2AMF12 20.7 55.3 0.002 t 0.21 3.8 79 Not
applicable

- 318 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

The ductility factors in Table 12.1 is defrned by Eq.5.1 in Section 5.2 as

lt: L,,lLr, where Ar. is the yield displacement (same as the displacement at the peak

point) of a response curve, and À,, is the ultimate lateral displacement at a point on the

softening branch where the lateral resistance force equals 80% of thícorresponding peak

force, as given in the seventh column of Table 12.1. The tested specimens are depicted in

Fig.12.2, where Ä is the final displacement at which the test stopped. It is clearly seen in

Ftg.l2.2 that the damage to the test specimens reduced with the increase in strength of the

plating systern.

\*"-

(a) IAMR (A:120mm) (b) IBMP6 (A:l06mm) (c) 2AMF12 (L-t25mm)


Lost of axial capacity steel plate buckled No failure

Fig.12.2 Conditions of monotonically tested specimens

-319 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

From the test results, the following observations can be made:

l. Plating increases column strength. This strength enhancement is clearly seen in the

third column of Table l2.l. lt was also evident from the cyclic tests. The strength

enhancement was largely caused by the transferring of compression force from the

RC section to the steel plate, which increased the lever arm of the compression

resultant and hence the resistant moment of the column cross-sections.

2. Plating reduces the post-peak softening slope. The post-peak slopes for the plated

columns IBMP6 and 2AMF12 are less steep than that for the un-plated column

IAMR, as shown in the fifth column of Table 12.1. This reduction of slope is also

caused by the transmission of the axial force from the RC column to the steel plate,

which is referred to as "strength stiffening" in Chapter 5.

3. The displacement ductility factor is increased by plating, as shown in Table 12.1. The

reason for this increase in ductility is that the plating reduces the axial load on the RC

column. The fact that increasing the axial load on the RC column reduces the ductility

of the RC columns is well documented in the literature (Watson. 1994; Watson and

Park 1994). From this point of view, tension plating is not beneficial as it increases

the total compression force on the RC column and hence reduces the ductility.

4. Plating can increase the deformation capacity. The displacement capacity of structural

members is critical for structures to survive a severe seismic attack. The ultimate

displacement of the test columns was clearly increased by platìng, as shown in the

seventh column of Table 12.1.

-320-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

5. The amount of strength increase due to plating can be managed and, where necessary,

minimised. The strength increment of IBMP6 is much smaller than that of 2AMF12.

As discussed in Chapter 5, it is possible to design the plating so as to not increase the

peak strength of the column but only reduce the degradation slope in the softening

branch and thereby improve ductility of the column.

12.1.2 Cyclic Tests

For comparison, the cyclic test results are superimposed in Fig.12.3.The purpose of the

cyclic tests was to identify the toughness and suitability of the proposed plating system

under cyclic or dynamic loading. However, the same observations as previously made for

the monotonic tests can also be made from the cyclic test results. In addition, the

following cyclic behavior can be observed from the test results:

l. Cyclic degradation between cycles reduces by plating. It can be seen by comparing

Fig.11.20, Fig.l1.27 and Fig.ll.4l that the strength reduction between cycles at the

same amplitude of displacement was reduced by plating. This is another indication of

improvement on structural robustness and integrity.

2. Plating increases the energy absorption capacity of the members. This is evident by
comparing the enclosed area of the response curves.

The conditions of the tested specimens are depicted inFig.l2.4, in which "failure"

means the final loss of axial load carrying capacity where the test could not continue any

further. The damage to column 4ACP6 which was plated by 6mm thick mild steel plates

was less severe as compared to column 3ACR which lost the axial load carrying capacity

under a much smaller displacement excursion than that for column 4ACP6. The damage

to column 2BCP6G which was plated by 6mm thick high yield steel plates was further

-321 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

reduced as compared to 4ACP6 under a similar displacement excursion, as shown in

Fig.l2.4.

It is noted in Fig.l2.3 that column 2BCP6G that was plated with high strength

steel plates has a smaller positive peak strength than the normal steel plated column

4ACP6. Furthermore, the negative peak strength is much greater than the positive peak

strength for 2BCP6G itself. The reason for this will be further discussed in Section

12.2.7.

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90


50
z.Y , 4AQP_O 40
30
CL
o
+, 20
(ú 10
o 0
o
-10
o -AGR
I
-20

-30
I
L
o
È,
.{
o . rl,¡.;;i -40
J BCP6G
-50

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.3 Comparison of cyclic test results

-322-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

(a) 3ACR (À--56-65mm) (b) 4ACP6 (A:-82-l50mm) (c) 2BCP6G (^--100-l50tnm)


Loss of axial capacity Plate buckled, no failure No plate buckle, no failure

Fig. 12.4 Conditions of the cyclically tested specimens

12.2 COI\APARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH NUMERICAL RESULTS

The numerical response of the test columns was determined usingthe numerical program

"PLTCOL" described in Chapter 4 and compared to the test results. This comparison can

verify the accuracy of the numerical analysis. It can also give a deeper insight into the

various factors that affect the response.

In the numerical simulations, the input data are based on average geometrical

dimensions measured from the test specimens and average material properties obtained

from Chapter 10. The compressive strength and Young's modulus of the concrete are

-)zJ-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

based on cylinder CLYI0 as summartzedin Table 10.1 (Chapter 10). The reason for not

using other cylinders is that some of the cylinder test results were considered as
unreasonable because of their lower strength compared with other cylinders tested earlier.

It was also found after these cylinder tests that there was excessive honeycombing inside

that downgraded the strength. After comparing all the test results in Table 10.1, CLYl0 is

considered to be the most representative of all the concrete at an age of 200 days and

above.

As mentioned before, the test results excluded the self-weight of the test specimen

and the attached strengthening frames. This gravity load was about 5-7%o of the peak

resistance of the test columns. In order to make the comparisons as reasonable as

possible, the test results are adjusted to include this gravity load. Details of the

adjustment are discussed in the following section.

12.2.l Adjustment of Test Results to lnclude Self-Weight

As indicated in Section 9.5.4,the readings of the initial test point were set to zeros for all

instrumentation when no vertical and horizontal loads were applied. However, the self-

weight of the specimen and the attached strengthening frames had already applied an

initial lateral force and, hence, an initial lateral displacement to the test column. This self-

weight for an unplated column with the strengthening frames attached was measured to

be 6kN, which was estimated to give a 2.5kN additional lateral force to the test column.

For plated columns, this additional lateral force was estimated to be approximately

2.7kN.

-324-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

Consequently, an initial lateral displacement due to the gravity load was also

applied to the test column before the start of loading. The displacement of an elastic

cantilever column can be calculated by

F.T:
l\
-
(l 2. l)
3EI
-

However, the initial displacement cannot be estimated using Eq.l2.l, although the system

is linear elastic atthat stage. The reason is that 8q.12.1 is only applicable to a fixed end

column, while the test column is not fixed at its base but is more like spring connected at

the end. The rotational stiffness of the bottom cross-section relative to the imaginary rigid

beam stub, which is considered as the fixed ground of the cantilever column, cannot be

estimated by a given formula. This rotational stiffness at the base cannot be ignored

either, as will be seen in the next section from the test and numerical results.

Nevertheless, this initial displacement can be easily estimated using the initial

stiffness of the response curve. For example, the initial lateral response stiffness is found

to be 4.8kN/mm for column IAMR, which is the slope of the straight line connecting the

first two test points. It is signif,rcantly different from the elastic stiffness of K = Y:r.t
L

kN/mm given by Eq.l2.l. Using the stiffness of 4.8kN/mm, the initial displacement by

the gravity load is simply given by 2.514.8:0.52mm. In this way, all the initial

displacements can be calculated using the initial force and initial stiffness of the

correspondin g response curyes.

The adjustment to the test results is made, therefore, by shifting the original

response curve horizontally to an initial displacement and vertically to an initial force.

The adjusted response curves for the monotonic tests are shown by solid lines in Fig.l2.5

-325-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

in comparison with the original results shown with dotted lines. The cyclic test results are

similarly adjusted. All the comparisons between the test results and numerical results in

the next 6 sections are made to the adjusted test results.

60
z.Y 2AMF12
50
CL
o
40
1BMP6
o
o 30
o
o
20
t! lAMR
o 10
o
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.5 Adjusted test results to include self-weight of specimens

12.2.2 Column lAMR

The input data for the specimen used in the numerical simulation are summarized below.

The definitions of the parameters are given in previous chapters and are summarized in

the Notation.

o Geometry

L:1218mm, BxD:200mmx200mm, a:35.7mm.

o Material

f,,,:40.2MPa, e"u:0.002(assumed), E,:27947 MPa, f,,:3.95MPa.


f r,, :548.8MPa, E :197 424MP a, 8,,:827 .SMPa,
"
R,,:20, dr:79, ar:0.3 (assumed based on Gomes and Appleton 1997)
.fn,,:690.5MPa.

-326-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

The applied axial load is N: 360kN. The confined concrete strength inside the

centerline of the stirrups is 45.5MPq, which is calculated from the confinement by

stirrups of þ6@l00mm (refer to Section 4.4.3 for calculation). In the numerical

simulation, the RC cross-section is discretised into 24 horizontal layers by 24 vertical

slices. Longitudinally, it is discretised into 9 segments with lengths of 3l8mm, l00mm,

l00mm, l00mm, l00mm, l00mm, l00mm, l00mm, and 200mm from the top to the

bottom of the column. Mander's model and Menegotto-Pinto's model are used for the

stress-strain relations of the concrete and longitudinal reinforcing bars, respectively.

Curve A in Fig.12.6is produced assuming a fixed base and aplastic hinge length

of 200mm which is calculated from 8q.4.56a, i.e. Lr:0.08.L+6-d-193.4=200mm.

Curve B is calculated using Eq.4.56b, i.e. L, = 0.08 ' L +0.022' f,r'do:291¡300mm. It is

obvious from curves A and B that increasing the plastic hinge length decreases the
descending slope of the column in the post peak softening part. However, it has little

effect before the column yields.

Curve C is produced considering the base rotation, as described in Section 4.2.4,

which is caused by the yield penetration of reinforcing bars into the beam stub and the

subsequent pull out of the bars from the face of the stub. The plastic hinge lengths above

the base Ln, and below the base Lrt are calculated using 8q.4.56c and Eq.4.56d,

respectively:

L
r, = 0.08. ¿ :0.08* 121 8:97 .4mm*1 00mm

f
Lru = 0.022' ,r'du:0.022*548.8* l6:193.2x200mm

-327 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

2¿o
5
3¡o Test result
G
o20
o
o
õ10
o
-50 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig.12.6 Numerical results for specimen IAMR

Curve D is calculated with the same plastic hinge arrangement as curve C.


However, a stronger confinement is considered in this case. In previous calculations, the

first stirrup at the base of the column was ignored. However, this first stirrup also takes

part in confining the concrete in practice. From the damage extent of the tested specimen

in Fig.ll.3, it can be seen that the concrete crushing zone is about l50mm long. There

were2 stirrups in this crushed zone including the first stirrup. If these two stirrups were

considered to be fully effective in confining the concrete during the test, then the

effective spacing of the stirrups should be adjusted to 75mm. Using a stirrup spacing of

75mm, the confined concrete strength inside the centerline of stirrups is 48.\MPa.

From Figl2.6, curve D gives the best fit to the test results. This part of the

numerical exercise supports the discussion in Section 4.2.4that the base rotation should

be considered properly in order to get a more accurate displacement. ln fact, without

modcling thc basc rotation propcrly, the numerical model cannot represent the initial

elastic stiffness correctly. Theoretically, the displacement of an elastic cantilever column

-328-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

is given by Eq.12.1, which leads to the elastic column stiffness of K = *:l.l kN/mm.
t
Using the first two points of the numerical and test results, the initial elastic stiffnesses

are calculated from the slope of the line connecting the two points tobe 6.7,6.4,4.6,4.6

and 4.8 (kN/mm) respectively for curves A, B, C, D and the test curve. Obviously, the

initial stiffness of curves A and B, which assumes a fixed base without rotation, is close

to the theoretical value of 7.lkN/mm. The initial stiffness for curves C and D, which

consider a base rotation by allowing the bottom curvature to be extended into the base an

additional length of Lor,, is much closer to the experimental initial stiffness of 4.8kN/mm.

This analysis further justifies the base rotation model in Section 4.2.4.
Þå
For simplicity, only the numerical results¡urve D are compared to the test results

in Fig.l2.7 . lt should also be noted that the shear deformation is not consìdered in the

numerical models. The shear deformation due to shear cracking (not the elastic shear

deformation) was measured for specimen 2AMF12 in Fig.1 I .8 and found to be almost in

direct proportion to lateral displacement. This shear deformation was about 7mm at a

displacement of l00mm for specimen 2AMF|2. lf a similar shear deformation is

assumed for specimen lAMR, it will bring the numerical result closer to the test result.

-329-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

^40
z
5q30 test result
o
(E

820
o
E10
o
(!
Jo
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig.l2.7 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen IAMR

12.2.3 Column ZAMF12

All the input data of this specimen are the same as for specimen IAMR with the

following additional data for the steel plate:

:306.9MP a,
f ,,,,
E
n: 198 67 9MP a, and E rn:600MPa.

The cross-section of the steel plate is discretised into l5 layers in the numerical model.

The confined concrete strength inside the centerline of stirrups is 48.\MPs, the same as

that for curve D of Fig.l2.6.The plastic hinge arrangement is also the same as for curve

D of Fig.12.6,i.e. Zno:100mm and Lnr,:200mm.

The numerical result is given in Fig.l2.8 and compared with the test result. The

initial stiffnesses for the numerical result and for the test result are 9.OkN/mm and

9.4kN/mm, respectively. The numerical column seems stiffer than the test column near

the top of the ascending branch in Fig.l2.8. The difference may be caused by the full-

-330-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

interaction assumption in the numerical model. In the test column, some minor cracks

were noticed on the interface at the bottom of the steel plate that signified some slip in

that small region. When slip occurs in a column, the plating system and hence the plated

column is less stiff as compared to the full-interaction column.

60

z.Y 50

o
o 40
test result
o
o 30
o
o 20
E
o 1U
a!

-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.8 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen 2AMF12

12.2.4Column 1BMP6
-l'"ugf
The input data for this column are the same as {þf given in Section 12.2.3 but with the

steel plate properties changed to

fn :307.3MPa, E r:20003 lMPa, E no:600MPa

The bolt properties are

Fu, :30kN, Kó :23kN/mm, Kor:0.7kN/mm.

The numerical result is shown in Fig.l2.9 (marked with "numerical l") together with the

test result. Obviously alarge difference exists between the numerical and test result even

in the elastic deformation stage.

- 331 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

The reason can be found by comparing the three monotonic test results shown in

Fig.l2.l. lt can be seen that this plated test column IBMP6 is even "softer" than the un-

plated benchmark specimen IAMR in the initial stage of loading. ln fact, the initial

lateral deformation stiffness of column IBMP6 is about 3.3kN/mm, which is lowerthan

that of the un-plated column IAMR of 4.8kN/mm. Apparently, the test result of IBMP6

is "unreasonable" as the plated column should be stiffer than the un-plated one.

nu rical 1

zT numerical2
CL
40
o
(ú 30
o
o test result
o 0

ro +0
o
J
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110

Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.9 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen IBMP6

Actually, the problem comes from the letter "8" in the name of the specimen
"IBMP6", as "lB" denotes that this was the second test on specimen "l" and it was

tested on the previously strengthened side of column IAMR. In the first test of a virgin

specimen, the un-tested column on the other side experiences some sort of unavoidable

damage under deformation, although the deformation is largely reduced by the very

strong strengthening frames. More importantly, the anchorage of the longitudinal


reinforcing bars is undermined due to slippage of the bars, as shown in Fig.l2.l0.

-JJ¿-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

Therefore, in the second test of the same specimen, the bond condition of the reinforcing

bars inside the beam stub has been deteriorated. In other word, more slippage inside the

stub will be incurred for a same force in a reinforcing bar. This is the reason why the

plated specimen IBMP6 behaved "softer" than the unplated specimen IAMR.

strengthened side testing side


e\
+)
tension rebar slip

Fig.12.l0 Slippage of reinforcing bars

Based on the above analysis, specimen IBMP6 would have a larger base rotation

than the virgin column for the same applied base moment due to the poorer base

anchorage condition of the longitudinal reinforcing bars, as discussed in Section 4.2.4.\n

this case, the deteriorated base anchorage of the bars can be simulated in the numerical

analysis by using a larger plastic hinge length below the base, which means a deeper

strain penetration into the column base. Another numerical analysis is conducted using

Lor,:450mm instead of the original 200mm (the length of L6 is not the yield penetration

length, it is a scale used to quantifu the base rotation). The result is shown in Fig.12.9 and

is marked with "numerical 2". As expected, it gives a much closer agreement to the test

result.

Specimen 2BCP6G had the same problem that will be discussed in Section 12.2.7,

which further supports the above analysis.

-JJJ-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DÌSCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

12.2.5 Column 3ACR

All the input data for this column is the same as for column IAMR. The confined

concrete strength inside the centerline of the stirrups is the same as that for curve D of

Fig.l2.6, i.e. 48.\MPa. The plastic hinge arrangement is also the same, i.e. Lr,:l00mm

and L,,r,:200mm. The numerical result is given in Fig.l2. I I and compared with the test

result. This numerical result is considered as very close to the test result, which further
i,ø9
veri\the accuracy of the computer program "PLTCOL".

-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70


z.Y 40
30
CL
o 20
o 10
o 0
o
o -10
test result -20

o -30
IE
J 40
Lateral displacement at top (mm)

Fig. 12.l I Comparison of test result with theory for specimen 3ACR

12.2.6 Column 4ACP6

The input data for this column is the same as that used to get the result of "numerical l"
for column lBMP6. The numerical result is given inFig.l2.12 and is compared with the

test result.

The agreement between the test and the numerical results is not as good as in the

previous 4 columns, especially near the end of the unloading branch where all the

-334-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

unloading branches of the numerical results seem to be pinched toward the origin of the

chart.

-100 -80 €0 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100


50

zlt 25
o
o
o 0
G
o
t! -25

-50

Lateral d isplacement (mm)

Fig. 12.12 Comparison of test result with theory for specimen 4ACP6

12.2.7 Column 2BCP6G

Column 2BCP6G also presented some complications for the numerical modeling as it

was the second test on specimen 2 and base gaps were provided. For a second test on a

specimen, the bond condition of the longitudinal bars in the beam stub region has

deteriorated from the first test (as discussed in Section 12.2.4) so that the specimen

behaves softer than that of a first test. The test result reproduced in Fig.12.l3 shows that

column 2BCP6G exhibited a very un-symmetrical response with a positive peak

resistance of 35.5kN and a negative peak resistance of 48.7kN. Compared with the result

of the plated column 4ACP6 in Fig.12.12, the positive peak of this column is
significantly smaller.

-335-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

-80 €0 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
40
30
ztt 20

o 10
o 0
o
-10
E
o -20
o -30
J
-40
-50

Lateral displacement (mm)

Fig. 12.13 Test result of column 2BCP6G

There could be two reasons for this peak reduction. One is due to the gap effect as

discussed in Chapter 5. A numerical simulation is given in Fig.12.14in comparison with

the test result, where a 1.2mm base gap for the upper plate (compression plate at positive

response) and no gap for the lower plate are assumed. The input data for this numerical

analysis is the same as that used to get the result of "numerical l" for specimen IBMP6

(no bond deterioration assumed at base), except that the steel plate properties are changed

¡s .f,:734.4MPa, En:196798MPa. The un-symmetrical gap widths on the two sides are

assumed without experimental justification. As discussed in Section I 1.6, the design gap

width was l.2mm on both sides. However, the actual gap width was difficult to measure

as it varied from 0-2mm.

-336-
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

-80 -60 40 -20 0 20 40 60 80


40
30
20
zv erical
10
o
o 0
o ."f-F:,ñ
ro -10
-20

-30

t 40
-50

Latera I displacement (mm )

Fig. 12.14 Numerical simulation with un-symmetrical base gaps on two sides

While the respective positive and negative peak strengths of the numerical results

are closer to the test results by including the un-symmetrical base gap, the slope of the

test curves in the elastic response part on the positive side is still much smaller than that

of the numerical ones in Fig.l2.l4. This suggests a second possible reason for the

reduction of the positive peak. As discussed in Section 12.2.4, the deterioration of bond

for the tension bars caused by the previous test of column 2AMF12 on specimen 2 caused

the softening of the support condition. Careful inspection of specimen 2 revealed that the

tension side of column 2AMF12 was also the tension side of the positive response in

Fig.l2.l3. This is the most likely explanation for the un-symmetrical response: the

deterioration of bond in the tension bars from the previous test was more severe than that

in the compression bars. The tension bars of the monotonically loaded column 2AMFI2

slipped significantly under a maximum strain excursion up to 0.9%o (see Fig.l1.6), while

the deformation in the compression bars was much smaller (0.3% of strain in Fig.ll.6).

-337 -
CHAPTER I2 COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST RESULTS

Strengthened by the steel plate on the compression face, it can be imagined and can be

seen in Fig.ll.l0 that the slip of the compression bars inside the stub would be much

smaller than that of the tension bars. Because the bond deterioration to the tension bars of

the negative response in Fig.l2.l3 is much smaller, the negative peak is therefore much

bigger than the positive peak. However, this un-symmetrical support condition cannot be

modeled by the present computer program. Therefore, no further numerical simulations

can be carried out to verify this result.

12.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS OF THE COMPARISON

In summary, comparisons between the test results confirmed the theoretical predictions

that the proposed new plating system can be used to increase both the strength and

ductility, or ductility without significant strength enhancement of RC columns. The

comparisons between the tests and the numerical simulations showed that the computer

program "PLTCOL" is reasonably accurate. It also showed that the base rotation at the

support due to yield penetration and bond breakdown of reinforcement must be modeled

adequately to get a reasonable response.

-338-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CHAPTER 13 CONGLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

13.1 SUMMARY

This work investigated the seismic retrofitting of square/rectangular shaped RC columns.

Due to the deficiency of the rectangular shape in providing confinement, existing retrofit

techniques of jacketing/wrapping rectangular columns with steel or FRP materials do not

provide a good solution to the problem. A new concept of retrofitting rectangular

columns that have a potential concrete crushing failure mode in the plastic hinge zone, by

composite partial interaction plating, was proposed and studied in this work. Numerical,

mathematical and experimental research was conducted to study the effectiveness of this

new technique. The results from these studies show that it is possible to use this
technique to achieve the following purposes of:

f . increasing both the strength and ductility of RC columns; or

2. increasing ductility without significant increase in strength.

A practical design methodology that is suitable for engineer to use with a hand

calculator was developed to design the plating system to achieve the design requirement

of a target displacement or inter-story drift ratio.

Several theoretical breakthroughs, discoveries or improvements were made in the

course of this PhD work that includel:


t
-339 -
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

a The discovery of key composite parameters that govern the degree of interaction

between the two elements connected by shear connectors. This result was obtained

through mathematical transformation. It gives engineers clear indications as to what

to do if they want to increase or reduce the composite interaction in the member. lt

also provides a theoretical background for related design guidelines. This part of the

work was regarded by both reviewers of an international journal as an important

paper.

O The derivation of a general (universal) relation between the overall deformations of a

composite member and the slip on its interface.

a Development of a simple method to calculate the P-A effect. 'With this method, the

column response curve is first calculated without considering the P-À effect and then

converted to a new response curve by a very simply formula. The converted response

curve was proved theoretically to be very close to the actual response curve with the

P-A effect strictly considered.

a Discovery of typical forms (shapes) of slip distributions in a full non-linear member,

which can be very different from the classic slip distribution that has been previously

used as design guides. The typical forms were mathematically derived, numerically

verified and physically explained.

o Formation of an elastic-plastic model and introduction of a non-zero boundary

condition in the linear elastic analysis that effectively extended the linear theory to

non-linear analysis and ultimate limit state design.

-340-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

o Introduction and substantiation of a new but very simple method of identifying the

ultimate displacement of an old (pre-1971) RC member using the ultimate strain of

the concrete.

o Proof and explanation of the existence of the "focal point" which was discovered by

Seracino et al. (2001) and regarded as a new concept in composite structure design.

o Development of a numerical procedure to calculate the response of a partial


interaction composite member.

There were several other interesting but minor findings, such as minor modification to the

Priestley and Park (1987) model of the plastic hinge which substantially improved the

accuracy of numerical simulation results; and the identification and correction of a minor

problem in the famous Mander, Priestley and Park concrete stress-strain model.

13.2 CONCLUDING REMARKS

13.2.1 Numerical Models

The numerical models to calculate the response of a reinforced concrete cantilever

column with steel or FRP plates attached by gluing or bolting to the faces of the column

were developed. The model is based on the moment-curvature analysis of cross-sections

using a segmental layered method. The deflection of the column is obtained by

integration of curvatures of cross-sections along the length. A deformation control


procedure is used in the analysis that can follow the ascending and descending

(softening) parts of the response curve as well as cyclic loading without diffrculty. Non-

linearity in materials is catered for through proper stress-strain models, as is the

-341 -
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

geometric non-linearity. The P-A effect can be considered either through a rigorous

method, which is based on iteration procedures, or a simplified method developed in this

work which gives no additional computation load other than that for the response without

considering the P-A effect. An iterative procedure is developed to account for partial

interaction, i.e. slip, at the interface between the plates and the RC column. The compuLer

program can also model general variations in lateral confinement to the concrete as well

as the formation of plastic hinges at the large deformation stage.

13.2.2 N umerical Simulations

From the study of Chapter 5, the following conclusions on the ductility of plated columns

can be drawn:

l. The ductility factor of the column is largely affected by the axial load and the length

of the column. Columns with larger axial loads and/or smaller lengths will have

smaller ductil ity factors.

2. Partial interaction plating increases the ductility factor due to the "strength stiffening"

effect caused by transfening the compressive axial load from the RC column to the

plate on the compression face of the column.

3. A good plating system is less stiff, or with minimal stiffness, before yielding of the
column, but the stiffness of the system (plate and bolts) shall be sufficient to get

adequate strength stiffening after yielding of the column in order to minimise the

steepness of (i.e. flatten) the post-peak softening slope of load-displacement curve.

-342-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4. Yielding of the plating system (plate and bolt) stops further strength stiffening and

causes the load-displacement curve to descend faster. To extend the strength

stiffening part, the yielding of the plating system should be deferued as late as

possible by using a stronger plating system. However, the maximum extent of

strength stiffening is achieved when the reinforcement at the compression face yields

in tension, after which no further strength stiffening is possible.

Another important conclusion is that the classic slip distribution is applicable only

at the serviceability limit state. The slip distribution may be very different from the

classic one at the ultimate limit state where the maximum slip may occur in the plastic

hinge rather than at the point of zero-moment.

13.2.3 Linear Elastic Analysis

The analytical work of Chapter 6 extended the classical linear theory of composite

beams. The unique features of this work were that it included an axial load to extend the

original theory from beams to columns and prestressed beams. By introducing the non-

zero boundary conditions associated with the plastic hinge and an elastic zone plus a

plastic hinge model, the theory was further extended from linear elastic (serviceability

limit state) analysis to encompass analyses at the non-linear deformation stage (ultimate

limit state). It was found that the response of composite members is governed by only a

few key composite parameters derived and introduced in this study, regardless of the

large number of variables involved. This finding revealed the fundamentals of composite

interaction and improved composite theory that can be used for the eventual formation of

design guidelines and procedures. This work also revealed a clearer insight into the

-343-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

distributions of slip along the member and theoretically explained that the classic slip

distribution is only one of the general forms of slip distributions. The conditions at which

the largest slip occurs at the maximum moment position instead of at the zero moment

position as suggested by the classic linear theory were specified.

13.2.4 Ultimate Displacement of Old RC Columns

It was concluded from the study in Chapter 7 thatthe onset of the ultimate concrete strain

on the extreme compressive fibre can be used to identify the ultimate curvature of an RC

section with little confinement, such as in old RC columns with inadequately designed

and detailed stirrups. Other conclusions include:

l) Complete failure of a plain concrete section occurs when the ultimate curvature is

exceeded in a cross-section. The ultimate curvature of a plain concrete section

depends on the concrete material property t,,,, axial load level as well as cross-

section depth.

2) The longitudinal reinforcement reduces the deformation capacity of an RC section

when the axial load level is lower than the critical load. However, it is vice versa for

an RC section with axial load levels higher than the critical load. The critical axial

load is typically 30% of the crush load.

13.2.5 Design of Plating System

A displacement based design procedure was developed in Chapter 8 to design the details

of the plating system. This design procedure makes sure that full yielding of the plating

system including the steel plates and the bolts does not occur at the design target

- 344
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

displacement (ultimate displacement). In the mean time, the concrete strain in the

extreme compressive fibre of the plastic hinge just reaches its ultimate strain (spalling

strain) at this target displacement. This design philosophy guarantees the plated RC

column to work in the "strength stiffening" range of its response curve, that was shown to

be a stable deformation stage in Section 5.2.2. The integrity of the concrete is also

guaranteed by equating the ultimate displacement of the RC column to the design target

displacement so that significant deterioration in the concrete will not occur.

This design procedure is simple and suitable for engineers to use with the help of

a hand calculator.

1 3.2.6 Experimental Works

Six half-scale columns were designed, manufactured and tested. The results of these tests

confirmed the theoretical conclusions on the effectiveness of the new retrofitting system,

and verified the accuracy of the numerical simulations by the computer program

..PLTCOL".

The overall test design including the test set up, which is different from the test

rigs reported in the literature, was very successful in term of simplicity, low cost, stability

and safety.

13.3 RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTHER WORK

From the study of this work, the effectiveness of the new retrofit system is beyond doubt,

at least for those circumstances considered in this research. However, the completed

study was only an initial step towards the new concept of using composite plating to

-345-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

retrofit RC columns. Many issues and practical problems are yet to be addressed and

solved. For example, more experimental tests are needed on larger scale columns to

obtain sufficient experimental evidence before it can be finally accepted in engineering.

As this work concentrates on the concrete failure mode in a plastic hinge zone, other

failure modes, i.e. shear failure and lap slice failure, areyet to be studied. On the other

hand, only compression and tension face plating shown in Fig.13.1(a) was considered in

this study. Theref'ore, this technique in its cunent t'orm would be applicable primarily tbr

columns subject to one-way bending. It is applicable mainly for RC buildings that are

stiffened in one direction by strong shear walls or bridge columns that are restricted to

move in one direction.

Further research is needed to investigate a plating scheme that can take load from

any direction or under two way bending. To do so, the other two cases shown in

Figs.13.l(b) and (c) must be studied.

,1, -l

+ <-
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 13.1 Plating schemes

Actually the retrofit scheme studied in this work as shown in Fig.3.l is only one

way to make use of composite action to retrofit RC columns. Other schemes of composite

plating may also be investigated in the future. For example, the plating system shown in

-346-
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Fig.l3.2 is also a partial interaction plating system. This system is almost exactly the

same as the traditional steel jacketing, except that the plate bears on the cap beam/footing

(or with a much smaller gap than that provided for jacketing). However, it is theoretically

a composite plating system instead of a jacketing system. The reason is that the

longitudinal force in the plate reduces the compression force in the concrete of the RC

column that inhibits the concrete from excessive crushing and dilating in the transverse

direction. Without significant dilation of concrete, no significant passive confinement in

the hoop direction will be mobilised. Therefore, it does not rely on confinement to stop

concrete crushing, instead it relies on the composite action to increase the compressive

resistance of the column to stop the concrete from crushing.

With the scheme of Fig.l3.2, The plate is in full interaction (no slip) with the

column in the bonded region as indicated, but it has no interaction with the column in the

un-bonded region. Therefore, overall it is a partial interaction system. Bonding of the


plate can be achieved by injection of cement grout or glue into the gap between the plate

and the column. As there is a large bonding area, the bond strength is expected to be

sufficient. If not, measures, such as stud shear connectors, can be used to provide a

sufficient interaction between the plate and the column. In the un-bonded region, the face

of the column could be painted with a coat of de-bonding agent before grouting. The

system shown in Fig.l3.2 works with the same mechanism as that in Fig.3.1. However, it

has the following additional advantages as compared to Fig.3.l :

o It is applicable to columns under two way bending. The lateral load can be applied in

any direction.

-347 -
CHAPTER I3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

a It is effective for shear defective columns as the enclosed steel plate can be
considered as additional stir ups.

a No bolt is used, hence it avoids drilling of holes in existing working columns.

o Because the retrofit system is almost exactly the same as the traditional jacketing

system which has been widely used in engineering, it can be readily accepted by

engineers and contractors.

N
F

RC plate bonded
column region

steel plate

plate un-bonded
re

column base
base gap
(a) Elevation (b) Cross-section

Fig.13.2 An improved plating system

-348-
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162. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R., and Li, M. W. (1994). "Strength and ductility of

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163. Saafi, M., Toutanji, H.A. and Li, Z. (1999). "Behavior of concrete columns
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164. Saatcioglu, M. and Razvi, S.R. (1992). "strength and ductility of confined

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169. Sakino, K. and Ishibashi, H. (1985). "Experimental studies on concrete f,tlled

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170. Samaan, M., Mirmiran, A. and Shahawy, M. (1998). "Model of concrete confined

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-374-
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

14

12
N
E 10
E
z 8
o 6
tt
o y=22671x+0.5755
4
al,
2

0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006
Strain

Fig. A.l Young's Modulus test of CYL0I

12

10
N
E 8
E
z 6
U'
ø
o 4
.D y=22300x+0.6688
2

0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.2 Young's Modulus test of CYL02

-375-
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

"t2

10
E
E
I
z 6
o
,t
o
L 4 y=2%9"lx+0.6691
tt,
2
ì
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. 4.3 Young's Modulus test of CYL03

14

12

E 10
E
z I
U'
t, 6
atl
L
(r, 4 y=24457x+0.9355
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006
Stain

Fig. 4.4 Young's Modulus test of CYL04

14

12

E l0
E
2 I
o 6
o
o
L
4 y=28790x+0.3811
v,
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Sbain

Fig. 4.5 Young's Modulus test of CYL05

-376-
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

14

12
N
Ê 10
E
z 8
ao
at
6
E
(t, 4
y=27468x+0.8611
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0 0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.6 Young's Modulus test of CYL06

14

12
N
E 10

z I
E

tt 6
o
o
L
4 y=31764x+0.9139
o
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004
Stra i n

Fig. 4.7 Young's Modulus test of CYL07

14
12
N
10
E
z I
o 6
o
o
4
U' y=30168x+0.9785
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. 4.8 Young's Modulus test of CYL08

-377 -
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

14

12

E 10
E
z I
at,
th
6
o
L
(r, 4
y=29&l0x+0.8197
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. 4.9 Young's Modulus test of CYL09

25

20
N
E
E 15
z
U'
U' 10
o
L

aD
y=27941x+0.9475
5

0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008
Strain

Fig. A.l0 Young's Modulus test of CYLI0

25

20
E
E 5
z
o
U' 0
o
Þ
(t,
5 y=29407x+1.1562

0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007
Strain

Fig. A.l I Young's Modulus test of CYLI I

-378-
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

25

20
N
E
tr 5
z
t,
o
(¡)
10
È
(r, y=26462x+0.9791
5

0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008

Strain

Fig. A.l2 Young's Modulus test of CYLI2

18
16
N 14
E 12
E
z 10
tt, 8
o
E 6
(r, 4 y=32263x+0.7616
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0 0004 0.0005

Strain

Fig.4.13 Young's Modulus test of CYLl5

18
16
.î 14
\12
E

¿10
t¡,
at,
8
E6 y=32343x+0.662
U'4
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.l4 Young's Modulus test of CYLI6

-379-
APPENDIX A YOUNG'S MODULUS TEST CHARTS

18
16
c14
Ftz
tr
¿10
o8
tt
E6
(t, 4 y=32029x+0.6482
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.l5 Young's Modulus test of CYLIS

18
16
,c 14
ltz
t
¿10
.o8
g6
att

y=34833x+0.6826
U'4
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.l6 Young's Modulus test of CYLI9

18
16
14
"í^
En
tr
>10
o8
Ø
0,A y=32912x+0.7517
U'4
2
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0 0003 0 0004 0.0005
Strain

Fig. A.l7 Young's Modulus test of CYL20

-380-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

s
STUB

RC COLTIMN

Fig. B.l Front view at displacement of 7mm for specimen I AMR

T'
\4
,l

Fig.8.2 Front view at displacement of 12mm for specimen IAMR

-381 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

RÉ. F' . 11-'3û?/Yì

Fig. 8.3 Top view at displacement of 28mm for specimen lAMR

!'
-')
I
(

a'}
+
,a+
6 +F"'

Fig. 8.4 Rear view at displacement of 4lmm for specimen IAMR

-382-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

6
+

Fig. 8.5 Front view at displacement of 57mm for specimen lAMR

Fig. 8.6 Rear view at displacement of 89mm for specimen lAMR

-383-
APPENDìX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

(,.7

Fig. 8.7 Rear view at displacement of lOmm for specimen2AMFL2

Fig. 8.8 Rear view at displacement of l6mm for specimen2AMF|2

-384-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

r\1,
?.J

Fig. 8.9 Rear view at displacement of 42mm for specimenZAMFI2

!.,¿'.r--t
1L'\

t7
ila-

Fig. 8.10 Rear view at displacement of 52mm for specimenZAMFI2

-385-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

rt)
SO.+ 33ì, ?..r

Fig. B.l I Rear view at displacement of 82mm for specimen2AMF|2

S.Z

Fig. B.l2 Rear view at displacement of l24mm for specimen2AMF12

-386-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.l3 Rear view at displacement of 6.5mm for specimen IBMP6

Fig. 8.14 Rear view at displacement of l9mm for specimen IBMP6

-387 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

r):

Fig. 8.15 Rear view at displacement of 46mm for specimen IBMP6

Fig. B.l6 Enlarged view of Fig.B.15

-388-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.l7 Rear view at displacement of 93mm for specimen I BMP6

Fig. B.l8 Enlarged view of Fig.B.l7

-389-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.l9 Rear view at displacement of l06mm for specimen IBMP6

Fig. 8.20 Rear view at+24.5mm displacement of 2''d cycle for specimen 3ACR

-390-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

.Eä

CL "25.Õ u,*

Fig. 8.21 Front view at -25.8mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 3ACR

Fig.B.22 Rear view at -39mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 3ACR

-391 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOCRAPHS

Fig.B.23 Rear view at +39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 3ACR

Fig.8.24 Rear view at +26mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACp6

-392-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.25 Rear view at-26mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig.8.26 Rear view aT +26rnm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-393-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.27 Rear view at -26mm displaceme nt of 2"d cycle for specimen 4ACp6

Fig. 8.28 Rear view at +39mm displacement of l't cycle for spccimcn 4ACp6

-394-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig.B.29 Rear view at -39mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig. B.30 Rear view at +39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-395 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.3l Rear view at -39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACp6

Fig. 8.32 Rear view at +52mm displacement of I't cyclc for specimen 4ACp6

-396-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.33 Rear view at -52mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig. 8.34 Rear view at +52mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-397 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.35 Rear view at -52mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACp6

Fig. 8.36 Rear view at -65mm displacement of l't cycle for specimcn 4ACp6

-398-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.37 Rear view at +65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig. 8.38 Rear view at -65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-399-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.39 Rear view at +78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4ACp6

Fig. 8.40 Rear view at -78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 4^cp6

-400-
APPEND]X B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.4l Rear view at +78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig.B.42Rear view at -78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-401 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.43 Front view after 2 cycles of +78mm displacement for specimen 4ACp6

Fig. 8.44 Rear view at +91mm displacement of I't cycle for specime n 4ACp6

-402-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

l
l

Fig. 8.45 Rear view at -83mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 4ACP6

Fig. 8.46 Rear view at +9lmm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACP6

-403-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. B.47 Rear view at -82mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 4ACp6

() ;¡,t,t l.l Ii i
":
*q rz-r -v?j'.!-
/l-û R l$,7c
L"'Vl),{ r-r"l
t'
I

-,

Fig. 8.48 Front view after 2 cycles of -82mm to +9lmm for specimen 4ACp6

-404-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

t .'lc )-
:-lf ¡f6 -{'Ì6rnr*

Fig. 8.49 Rear view at -26mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.50 Rear view aT +26mm displacement of 2"d cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-40s-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOCRAPHS

Fig. B.5l Rear view at -26mm displacement of 2''d cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.52 Rear view at +39mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 2BCp6G

406 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.53 Rear view at -39mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.54 Rear view at +39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-407 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.55 Rear view at -39mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. B.56 Rear view at+52mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-408-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.57 Rear view af -52mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.58 Rear view at+S2mmdisplacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G

-409-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

-- \ -:--

Fig. 8.59 Rear view at -52mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.60 Rear view at +65mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-410-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.6l Rear view at -65mm displacement of l't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig.B.62 Rear view at +65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 28CP6G

- 411 -
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.63 Rear view at -65mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.64 Rear view at +78mm displacement of 1't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-412-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.65 Rear view at -78mm displacement of I't cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.66 Rear view at +78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

-413-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.67 Rear view at -78mm displacement of 2nd cycle for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.68 Rear view at +91mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G

-414-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.69 Rear view at +l54mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig. 8.70 Front view at +l54mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G

-415-
APPENDIX B TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 8.71 Rear view at -l00mm displacement for specimen 2BCP6G

Fig.8.72 Front view at -l00nrm displacenrent for specinren 2BCP6G

-416-

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