Fourth Quatrieme

International symposium
Symposium on international Session 3A, 3B, 5
Automotive sur les procedes
Propulsion de propulsion
Systems des vehicules
a rnoteur

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MASTER
SessiooSa
 J*

CATALYTIC COMBUSTION FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

by David N. Anderson, Robert R. Tacina, and Thadrleus S. Mroz

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44135

TECHNICAL PAPER to be presented at the

Fourth International Symposium on Automotive Propulsion Systems
sponsored by the NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society
Washington, D.C., April 17-22, 1977

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infringe pneately owned rights.

WSTWBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNUMITED

 ABSTRACT

A study of fuel injectors to provide a premixed prevaporized fuel-

air mixture and an evaluation of commercial catalysts were performed as
part of a program leading to the demonstration of a low-emissions com-
bustor for an automotive gas turbine engine. At an inlet temperature
of 800 K. a pressure of 5X10 5 Pa and a velocity of 20 m/s a multiple-
jet injector produced less than ±10 percent variation in Jet-A fuel-
air ratio and 100 percent vaporization with less than 0.5 percent pres-
sure dorp. Fifteen catalytic reactors were tested with propane fuel
at an inlet temperature of 800 K, a pressure of 3X10^ Pa and inlet
velocities of 10 to 25 m/s. Seven of the reactors had less than 2
percent pressure drop while meeting emissions goals of 13.6 gCO/kg
N fuel and 1.64 gHC/kg fuel at the velocities and exit temperatures
jg required for operation :.n an automotive gas turbine engine. W0
of emissions at all conditions were less than 0.5 ppm. All tests were
w performed with steady-state conditions.
 CATALYTIC COMBUSTION FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE
GAS TURBINE ENGINE

by David N. Anderson, Robert R. Tacina,

and Thaddeus S. Mroz

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44135
w
tn
OT SUMMARY
i
Kl
A study of fuel-air premixing-prevaporizing systems and commercial
catalysts was performed as part of a program leading to the demonstration
of a low-emissions combustor for an automotive gas turbine engine. The
goals included a fuel preparation system which would supply a fuel-air
mixture which was uniform to within ±10 percent of the mean fuel-air
ratio, with 90 percent fuel vaporization and with no autoignition. The
catalytic reactor was required to produce emissions which were low
enough to meet the most stringent proposed U.S. automotive standards.
The overall pressure drop for both systems was to be less than 3 per-
cent, with 1 percent allowed in the fuel-air preparation system and
the remainder in the catalytic reactor.
The engine conditions included a combustor inlet temperature range
of 970 K at full speed to 1210 K at idle, a combustor exit temperature
of 1310 K at all speeds, and a pressure range of 1.5X10 Pa at idle to
4.5x10^ Pa at full speed. The maximum available inlet temperature in
the test rig was 800 K,- however, it was possible to duplicate the other
operating parameters.

For the fuel-air preparation studies, a pressure of 5X10 Pa was

considered the most likely to cause autoignition. Four fuel injector
configurations were tested at this pressure, at a temperature of 800 K,
and a reference velocity of 20 m/s with Jet-A fuel. Jet-A is a typical
gas turbine fuel. A multiple-jet injector produced the required x'uel-
air distribution and vaporization with only 0.5 percent pressure drop.
Wo autoignition occurred in a 35-cm length at these conditions^ however,
at the higher inlet temperatures of the regenerative gas turbine engine,
autoignition will probably be the most serious problem to be solved.

For the catalyst evaluation, a pressure of 3X101- Pa was chosen to

represent the regenerative gas turbine engine pressure range, and propane
fuel was used to avoid autoi<j:iition and vaporization problems. Fifteen
catalytic reactors were tested at an inlet temperature of 800 K and with
reference (inlet) velocities of 10 to 25 m/s. Seven reactors met the
Steady-stage emissions goals of 13.6 g CO/kg fuel and 1.S4 g HC/kg fuel
with less than 2 percent pressure drop at the velocities and exit tem-
peratures required for engine operation. Inlet temperatures of 500 to
625 K were required ^efore the catalysts were sufficiently active to

STAR category 45
 combust the propane fuel.

INTRODUCTION

This paper describes studies which are intended to lead to the

demonstration of a catalytic combustor for an automotive gas turbine
engine.

The Lewis Research Center has established an EFDA-supported pro-

gram with the goal of demonstrating an improved automotive gas turbine
engine which operates with the combustor conditions shown in table 1
(ref. 1 ) . With a turbine inlet temperature of 1310 K for all engine
speeds, extensive use of ceramic components should not be required. The
engine conditions of table 1 were defined by a computer analysis which
predicted a combined EPA city-highway driving cycle fuel economy of
26.2 miles/gallon in a compact car (ref. 1 ) . Also included in table 1
are reference velocities computed from the combustor inlet conditions
for several combustor diameters. U. S. automotive emissions standards
are defined for operation over a city driving cycle; for this cycle,
the engine of reference 1 would have a fuel economy of about 22 miles/
gallon. The most stringent standards proposed, by the 1970 Clean-Air
Act are 0.4 g N0x/mile, 3.4 g CO/mile, and 0.41 g HC/mile. The Lewis
program includes the evaluation of the catalytic combustor with the
goal of achieving emissions which are half those of the most stringent
proposed standards.

Catalytic combustion has the principal advantage over gas-phase

combustion that lower combustion temperatures and, therefore, lower
N0 x emissions are possible. The importance of combustion temperature
to N0 x emissions is illustrated by figure 1 which is based on the pre-
diction of e. well-stirred reactor computer program (ref. 2 ) . The
assumptions made in preparing figure 1 included a vehicle fuel con-
sumption of 0.0775 kg/km (about 22 miles/gallon fuel economy), a com-
bustor operating with an inlet temperature of 970 K at a pressure of
5x10^ Pa and no nitrogen bound to the fuel. Thermal NG.^. emissions are
shown as a function of the maximum combustion temperature achieved be-
fore dilution to an exit temperature of 1310 K. It is clearly advan-
tageous to burn at the lowest possible temperature to limit II0x
emissions. The lowest temperature at which combustion can take place
is determir 3d by the lean flammability limit, which for hydrocarbon
faels occurs between flame temperatures of 1600 K (ref. 3) and 1800 K
(ref. 4). Thus, for good stability, peak flame temperature should
probably be maintained near 1900 K. Figure 1 shows that at this tem-
perature, steady-state W 0 x emissions should be only half the 0.4 g/mi
proposed as a standard; lean premixed combustors have in fact been
demonstrated with emissions low enough to meet this standard (ref. 5 ) .

A way to rsact fuel and air at even lower flame temperatures is to

use catalysis to augment the reactions. Catalytic combustion at re-
action temperatures of 1300 to 1400 K has been shown to give good com-
 bustion efficiency and produce thermal N 0 x emissions which were several
orders of magnitude below those of conventional combustors (refs. 6 to 9 ) .

A schematic view of one possible catalytic combustor configuration

is shown in figure 2. Fuel is injected upstream of the reactor to vapo-
rize and mix with the inlet air. Autoignition must be avoided in this
premixing section because the flame would tend to seat on the fuel in-
jector and burn with locally high temperatures- high NO emissions and
possible component damage could result.

The catalyst bed, or reactor, may consist of several sections, each

made of a different kind of catalyst; it is desirable to use a catalyst
which is active at low temperatures for the inlet while subsequent sections
need to be selected for good oxidation efficiency. All sections must
be durable at the reactor operating conditions. Downstream of the
catalytic reactor a thermal reaction zone may be provided to permit
catalytically-initiated reactions to continue. Such reactions have been
shown to contribute as much as 20 percent of the total reactor temperature
rise for some conditions (ref, 9 ) . Finally, dilution of the reacted
products to achieve the turbine inlet conditions may be necessary. Some
method of starting the combustor will also be required, although none
is shown in figure 2.

Successful fuel-air premixing systems have been demonstrated in

earlier studies (ref. 10) and t,he potential of catalysis applied to
low-emissions combustion has been shown (ref. 6 to 9 and 11). However,
the development of the technology required to demonstrate a complete
catalytic combustor has yet to be achieved, and an evaluation of both
fuel-air preparation and catalyst performance in terms of particular
engine requirements has not been made. The Lewis catalytic combustion
program includes both fuel-air preparation studies and catalyst testing.
The emissions goals are to be achieved while operating at the conditions
shown in table 1 and with a combustor pressure loss of no more than 3 per-
cent. Arbitrarily, a goal of 90 percent fuel vaporization and a fuel-
air ratio uniform to within ±10 percent with no more than 1 percent
pressure drop across bhe fuel preparation section was chosen.

Steady-state tests were performed in a 12-cm diameter combustion

test rig at inlet temperatures of 450 to 800 K, pressures of 3 and 5X10^
Pa, catalyst inlet velocities of 10, 15, 20, and 25 m/s and fuel-air
ratios from 0.01 to 0.026. Jet-A, a typical gas-turbine fuel, was used
in the fuel-air preparation studies, while vaporized propane fuel was
used in the evaluation of catalysts to avoid the vaporization aid auto-
ignition problems associated with typical gas-turbine fuels.

FUEL PREPARATION STUDIES

Test Configuration

Fuel preparation systems were tested in the rig shown schematically

in figure 3. The inlet airflow race was measured with an ASME standard
 square-edged orifice. The air was heated to temperatures as high as
900 K in a non-vititating preheater. The test section inlet duct was
10 cm in diameter with a 7.6 cm diameter insert to increase the
velocity of the air. j.uis section was followed by a straight-walled
diffuser to increase the diameter to 12 cm. The Jet-A fuel flow was
measured by two turbine flowmeters in series^ the fuel was injected
into the highest velocity region of the inlet duct (see fig, 3) to
provide good atomization.

The fuel-air mixture was sampled 55.6 cm downstream of the fuel

injector. Two probes were traversed along perpendicular diameters to
obtain the spatial fuel distribution by iso-kinetic sampling at several
positions. The sample from each probe was allowed to react in a
catalyst bed maintained at 1030 K in an oven. The reaction products
were then analyzed to determine the concentrations of CO, COg and HC.
These concentrations were used to compute the local fuel-air ratio
at the sampling position. The degree of vaporization was also measured
with these same probes using the spillover technique described in
references 10 and 12.

Eighteen meters of electrically heated (410 to 450 K) 0.5 cm

diameter stainless steel tubing connected the sampling probes with the
exhaust gas analyzers. CO and CO2 concentrations were measured with
Beckman Model 315B nondispersive infared analyzers and unburned hydro-
carbon concentration was measured with a Beckman Model 402 flame
ionization detector. Water vapor was removed with a Hankinson Series E
refrigeration-type dryer before the sample was analyzed for CO or C0 o ,
and corrections were made to obtain the actual, wet-basis, concentration.
The concentrations of unburned hydrocarbons and CO were negligible.

The temperature and static pressure were measured upstream of the

fuel injector and at tj.e sampling station as shown in figure 3. A
single Chromel-Alumel thermocouple was used in both locations.

Downstream of the sampling station, hydrogen was injected into the

fuel-air stream to produce a flammable mixture. The mixture was burned
to avoid discharging fuel into the atmosphere. A water quench cooled
the exhaust before it discharged through a back-pressure valve.

Test Injectors

Four fuel injectors were evaluated: a multiple-jet injector, a

splash-groove injector, a simplex pressure atomizer, and a Sonicore
nozzle. The multiple-jet and splash-groove injectors are air-blast
atomizersj that is, they rely on the relative momentum between fuel
and air for atomization. The simplex pressure atomizer uses fuel pres-
sure for atomization. The Sonicore nozzle is a commercially-avail-
able injector which depends on a high-velocity external air stream for
atoniization.
 The multiple-jet cross-stream injector used 28 orifices of 0.37 mm
diameter injecting into zones of approximately equal duct cross-sectional
areas (see fig. 4(a)). The splash-groove injector (fig. 4(b)) was deve-
loped by Ingebo (ref. 13). Fuel is injected through 21 passages to
impinge upon conical surfaces of the nozzle. Fine droplets-are formed
which are rapidly atomized by the air flow. The simplex nozzle was
a Monarch 70-degree angle spray nozzle with a flow rating of 0.013
m /hour at 6.8x10^ Pa differential pressure. The Sonicore nozzle
(fig. 4(c)), Model 125MA., used an external air supply at 6.5X105 Pa
pressure to provide a high-velocity airstream.. The airstream impinges
on the resonator cap, and fuel injected into the airstream forms a
cone-shaped finely-atomized spray. The fuel-air ratio distribution
provided by the splash-grove injector, the simplex nozzle, and the
Sonicore nozzle were determined both with and without the concentric
air swirler shown in figure 4(d)_ The 30-degree vane angle induced
a swirl in the air flow to improve mixing between the fuel and the
air.

Test Conditions

Tests were performed at inlet temperatures varying from 450 K

to 800 K, a pressure of 5X10 5 Pa, fuel-air ratios of 0.01 and 0.025
and a reference velocity of 20 m/s. The reference velocity is com-
puted from the inlet air temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate
using the 12 cm diameterj thus, this velocity corresponds with that
at the inlet to the catalytic reactor. The pressure and reference
velocity are representative of those in table 7; however, the inlet
temperature was not duplicated due to preheater limitations. The
test pressure was chosen to be slightly higher than that in Table 7
in order to simulate the most severe condition for autoignition.

Eesuits

The spatial fuel distribution, degree of vaporization and

pressure drop were determined for each injector.

The fuel distribution along one diameter of the duct for the
splash-groove injector is given in figure 5. The injector alone
produced a very non-uniform profile; however., when the 30-degree-
vane air swirler was mounted concentric with the injeo£©»,.-the fuel
distribution became nearly uniform. Local v&L'ues of the fuel-air
ratio, calculated from the gas-analysis carbon balance, agreed with-
in 10 percent of the average value determined from the metered fuel
and air flows. Results -btained over the traverse perpendicular to
that shown were essentit J.y the same, and a nearly uniform profile,,
was also obtained with tae simplex and Sonicore nozzles when "tested
with the 30-degree-vane swirler". The multiple-jet injector gave a
uniform pro-file"without the necessity for air swirl. Tests conducted
at inlet air temperatures of 500 and 600 K at both 0.01 and 0.025
fuel-air ratios suggested that these variables had no effect on the
 uniformity of the mixture profile.

The effect of inlet air temperature on the degree of vaporization

at the center of the duct is given in figure 6 for all four nozzles
tested. None of the vaporization data were obtained with swirler-
assisted nozzles. At any temperature, the best performance results
were obtained with the multiple-jet and splash-grove injectors, al-
though for the inlet temperatures of interest for this application,
vaporization should approach 100 percent for all injector configu-
rations.

The multiple-jet cross-stream injector, which used no air swirler,

achieved the required fuel-air mixture uniformity and vaporization
with only 0,5 percent pressure drop. The pressure loss for each of
the other injectors was also about 0.5 percent when no air swirler
was used, but was about 1 percent when the 30° air swirler was added.

CATALYST EVALUATION

Test Configuration

Catalysts were evaluated in the same 12 cm diameter combustion

test facility used to best fuel-air preparation systems. Commercial
grade propane fuel (91 percent pure by volume) was introduced as a
vap&r into the airstream through a single-orifice injector (ref. 9)
150 cm upstream of the test section. The resulting fuel-air ratio
profile at the test s&cticn inlet was found to be uniform within ±10
percent of the mean.

Inlet and exit pressures were measured at wall static taps lo-
cated 9 cm upstream and 12 em downstream of the test section, res-
pectively. For the test conditions of these experiments, total pres-
sures are only about .2 percent higher than the static so no total
pressure measurements were made. The pressure drops across the test
section was measured with a differential pressure transducer between
the inlet and exit static location.

A description of the catalyst evaluation test section is given

in figure 7. The inlet temperature to the test section was taken as
the average reading of the thermocouples in the 8- thermocouple array
labelled number 1 in figure 7. Individual catalyst eIemo:L.3 were
located between pairs of the thermocouple arrays labelled 4-8 as
shown in figure 7. The housing containing the catalyst elements was
uncooled to limit heat loss; a downstream section containing a gas
sampling probe and an additional 12-thermocouple array was water
cooled, however.

The gas-sampling probe was also water cooler1 and had five 1.5 mm-
diameter sampling orifices located in the center of equal cross-sectional
area" as shown in figure 7. The use of small orifices along with copious
 water cooling was found in previous testing to be necessary to insure
that the CO concentration in the probe and sampling line is frozen
at the sampling-station value.-

In addition to the gas analysis instruments described in the

Fuel-Air Preparation Section, these, experiments also used a Thermo-
Electron Model 10A Chemiluminescent analyzer to measure total N 0 x
erais sions s

Test Catalysts
Twelve catalysts from rour manufacturers were evaluated either
singly or in combination to form a total of fifteen reactors. A
description of the reactors is given in table 2 and specifications
of the individual catalyst elements appear in table 3, Typical
catalyst elements are pictured in figure 8. The two Johnson Matthey
catalysts were 7,6 cm long and used a corrugated metal substrate
wound into a cylinder as shown in figure 8; the remaining elements
were all 2.5 cm long and had ceramic substrates. All catalysts were
either platinum, palladium, or a mixture of zhe two.

Tests Performed
Two series of tests were made on the reactors: (l) a determination
of the catalyst activation temperaturr (i. e., the inlet temperature
at which the catalyst became sufficiently active to react most of the
fuel), and (2) measurement of reactor emissions and pressure dropt

The catalyst activation temperature was found by increasing the

inlet-air temperature in increments of 25 K, starting at 500 K, with
a pressure of 2X10° Pa and a catalyst inlet velocity of 10 m/s. This
pressure a.:?d velocity correspond approximately to those existing when
the engine is being cranked during start-up. At each temperature,
propane was introduced at an equivalence ratio of 0.3 while the reactor
thermocouples were monitored. For inlet temperatures below the catalyst
activation temperature, a small temperature rise across the bed (of
as much as 15-20 K) was generally observed; however, when the inlet
temperature was increased to the catalyst activation temperature, the
bed and exit temperatures began to increase steadily for a period of
about 2 or 3 minutes until a temperature rise of several hundred
degrees across the bed was achieved.

To evaluate catalyst performance, exhaust ^missions and pressure

drop were measured with an inlet propane-air mixture temperature of
800 K, a pressure of 3X10-5 Pa and a range of inlet velocities of 10 to
25 m/s. It was not possible to simulate the combustor inlet tempera-
ture shown in table 1; however, the pressure and velocities are fairly
representative of those at ail engine speed settings.
 Results

The catalyst activation temperatures are given in table 2, The

and G24D reactors were not available for this part of the testing.
Testing was discontinued at 625 K with the 0C16 and OCDS reactors when
they produced only 15-20 K temperature rise. Activation tests per-
formed on reactors which had only one Kind of element showed that
activation occurred at relatively low temperatures (500-550 K) with
Pt catalysts ( E H and JMI reactors) or when the catalyst was a mix-
ture of equal amounts of Pt and Pd (G24 reactor). Higher tempera-
tures were required for activation when the catalyst was either Pd
(reactors E14, G17, and JM2) or a mixture with more Pd than Pt
(reactors 0C16 and OCDS). Reactors El, E2, E3, E4 and Gl had low-
activation temperature elements at the front of the reactor and high-
aciivation-temperature elements following. Table 2 shows that these
combinations had the low activation temperatures characteristic of
their leading elements. Because propane was used for these tests,
the activation temperatures which were determined may be higher
than would result if Diesel, gasoline, or Jet-A had been used.

When the reactor performance and emissions were determined at

800 K inlet temperature, N0 x emissions were found to be less than
0,5 ppm for all test conditions. Actual values were difficult to
measure accurately because the lovest range of the analyzer was
2.5 ppm full scale, while it was necessary to use a 100 pym. cali-
bration gas. NO emissions should be well below levels required to
meet the 0.4 g Wox/mile standard, at least for propane fuel which
has no fuel-bound nitrogen. OiJ.y the conditions for which the HC
and CO emissions met the standards remained to be found.

Each reactor can be characterized by a minimum operating exit

temperature. This temperature is the adiabatic reaction temperature
(established by the fuel-air ratio and :".nlet temperature) at which
the reacoor must be operated to achieve the CO and HC emissions
goals. Rea.ction temperatures higher than this minimum result in
lower emissions of CO and HC. Although the automotive exhaust
emissions standards are established for operation over a specific
cycle which includes start-up and transient operation, conditions
not duplicated in these tests, referen emission indexes can be
computed from the standards to provide guide in determining the
minimum operating temperature. ASSUHL J, a vehicle fuel consumption
of 0.0775 kg/km (about 22 miles/gallon fuel economy), 3.i g CO/mile
translates to 27.3 g CO/kg fuel and 0.41 g "HC/mile becomes 3.2S g
HC/kg fuel. The emissions goals for the program were half of these
reference values, or 13.6 g CO/kg fuel aid 1.64 g HC/kg fuel. A
combustion efficiency of about 99.5 percent is required to achieve
these goals.

Both pressure d.1 op and minimum exit temperature are functions

of the inlet velocity^ therefore, the tradeoff between pressure drop
and minimum exit temperature can be illustrated by plotting the re-
 suits for each reactor as shown la figure 9 The pressure drop in
figure 9 is that which was measured at a reaction temperature of
1400 Ko The lines representing each inlat velocity were drawn
arbitrarily through the results for the bulk of the best performing
reactors tested. For inlet velocities of 10 and 15 m/s, the per-
formance variation among all except the Ell and G24D reactors sug-
gested only the effects of the tradeoff between pressure drops and
minimum operating temperature. At higher velocities greater dif-
ferences appeared. At 25 m/s the minimum exit temperature for
reactors Ell, E4, Gl, 0C16 and OCDS was in excess of 1550 K and
was not determined..

One of the functions of a plot like that of figure 9 is to

help in determining if the reactor can be operated at conditions
which are consistent with both the program goals and the engine
requirements. For example, a combustor with no dilution air flow
and a 16 cm diameter reactor has catal./st inlet velocities of
15-17 m/s (table 1 ) . The reactor exit temperature is required to
be 1310 K with no dilution flow.- Figure 9 shows that none of the
reactors tested have minimum exit temperatures as low as 1310 K
at 15 m/s and with less than 2 percent pressure drop.. However,
if 25 percent of the combustion air is used to dilute the products
from the reactor, the reactor exit temperature increases and the
inlet velocity decreases to the values shown in table 4.. From
figure 9 it can be determined that seven of the reactors tested
would meet the program goals for both pressure drop and emissions
while operating at the reactor conditions of table 4t

The results for reactor Ell (which used a Pt catalyst) il-

lustrates that a reactor which activates at a low temperature
(table 2) will not necessarily have good performance at higher
temperatures (see fig.. 9 ) . In contrast, 'reactor E14 (which used
a Pd catalyst) required a relatively high temperature to become
active but performed well at higher temperatures. The best
attributes of both reactors were obtained when elements from each
reactor were combined to form reactor El,

DISCUSSION

This study has successfully demonstrated both fuel-air prepa-

ratirn systems and catalytic reactors capable of operating within
the pressure drop and emissions restraints of an improved automotive
gas turbine engine. However, the results obtained cannot be applied
directly to engine operation because of a number of considerations.

The inlet temperature at which the tests were conducted was

limited by preheat capabilities to 800 K while the engine combustor
inlet temperature varies from 970 to 1210 K This higher temperature
can be expected to affect the performance of the combustor in at
 10

least two ways. The first effect ic- the increased tendency for
autoignition of the fuel upstream of the catalyst,. Although the
fuel-air ratios of interest are well bslow the lean flammability
limit and thus should not be susceptible to autoignition, locally
richer mixtures exist near the fuel injector before complete mixing
has taken place. Thus, mixing will have to bs achieved in less
than the ignition delay time* The autoign.ition delay time de-
creases exponentially with incrsasir.g inlet temperature and
linearly with pressure (:raf\ 14). For the combustor conditions of
table 1, the maximum inlet temperature occurs at the minimum pressure;
as a result, the predicted range of ignition delay times is only
10.8 ms at 100 percent speed to 12.2 ms at idle. To keep the
residence time with a .flammacie mixture below these values at the
velocities shown in table 4, iI is necessary that the mixing dis-
tance be less than 13.8 cnu

The second effect of operating at higher inlet temperatures should

be a reduction in the reactor pressure loss. The pressure drop through
the reactor is primarily due to frictional losses which are proportional
to the product of mass flowrate and average'reactor velocity. As the in-
let temperature increases, the mass flowrate decreases with constant ref-
erence velocity, and the average reactor velocity decreases because the
reactor temperature rise is less for the same exit temperature. This
effect of inlet air temperature may be offset by the losses incurred by
the mixing of dilution air with products downstream of the reactor, however,

None of the catalytic reactors used in this study were sub-

jected to durability tests,. Each reactor was tested for 2 to 3
hours, a:id orJLy tie G12P reactor showed loss of activity after
that time,, Final selection cf catalysts will have to be made on
the basis of both jerformance and durability, however,,

An evaluation c.f catalyst durability involving catalytic

combustion at 1500 K exit; temperature for a period of 1000 hours
has been performed by Engelhard Indus cries under contract to Lewis
(ref. 15). Parametric tesbs were performed with propane fuel at
the start of durability testing artd with both propane and Diesel
fuel at the completion of 1000 hours of operation. The tests showed
that after a period of high-temperature operation combustion of
Diesel fuel may re.nain very efficient, at conditions for which pro-
pane combustion efficiency has decreased drastically. The com-
bustor exit temperatures shown ir: table 1 are lower than those
tested by Engelhard, no loss of activity may not be as severe as
that suggested by the Engelhard results. Tests of selected catalysts
at the required reactor conditions for the desired lifetime will be
needed before final ca.ta3.yst selection can be made.

The Engelhard results suggest that Diesel fuel may be easier

to combust than propane fuel. An additional advantage of Diesel
fuel over propane is that its catalyst activation temperature is
lower (ref. 16). On the other hand, N0 x emissions with Diesel fuel
 11

may be higher as a result of fuel-bound r.itrogen (rei\ 17). Clearly,

catalyst evaluation will have to be performed v/ith typical gas
turbine fuels like Jet-A or Diesel.

No transient tests were made in t;:ese studies. The ability

of catalytic reactors to respond f,o changes in inlst conditions
will be crucial to the success of the concept^ It is likely that
catalytic substrate materials which r.»,ve high thermal conductivities
and low thermal capacities such as initial or silicone carbide will
be required to insure both rapid warm-up and quick response. Tests
will also have to be made to determine if engine transients will
induce conditions favorable to autoignition in the fuel-air mixing
section.

The emissions produced dui-irig start,-up and transient operation

may be considerably higher than these produced at the steady-state
conditions described in this paper. Because the emissions standards
are based on operation over a cy;le involving both start-up and
transient conditions, a fjll evaluation of catalytic combustor
feasibility cannot be mads w ;,il t,ep;s car be performed at these
conditions.

The practical operation of a catalytic combustor in an engine

will require a method of heating the catalyst to its activation
temperature for cold-engine-start conditions. Possible approaches
include the use of a preburner or upstream torch with a spark
igniter, an electrical heater to raise the catalyst substrate temp-
erature directly, a downstream burner with a spark igniter, and
possibly even the use of hydrogen fuel for starting. Whatever
system is chosen would operate or\ly until the combustor inlet temp-
erature reached the catalyst activation temperature.

While this s',udy has shown that catalytic combustion may be

feasible for steady-state operation, final evaluation of the con-
cept will depend 0:1 engine demonstration. For a full engine
demonstration to take place considerably more technology develop-
ment will be required, and.engine demonstration with start-up
and transient operation may well reveal additional problem areas
requiring attention,

REFERENCES

1, Klann, J. L , and Tew, R C , Jr., "Analysis of Regenerated Single-

Shaft Ceramic Gas Turbine Ergi.-.js a.-.d Res.Cting Fuel Economy in
a Compact Car." proposed NASA 7eohr.icul Memorandum,

2. Boccio, J. L., We.ilerstein, G., ana Edelman, P. B., "A Mathematical

Model for Jet Engine Combusf.or Pollutant Emissions," GASL-TR-
781, General Applied Science Labs., Ire., Westbury, MY, March
1973 (also NASA CR-121?08).
 12

3. Wade, W. A.; et al., "Low Emissions Combustion for the Regenerative

Gas Turbine. Part I - Theoretical and Design Considerations,"
ASME Paper 73-GT-ll Apr. 1973.

4. Anderson, D. N., "Effect of Hydrogen Injection on Stability and

Emissions of an Experimental Premixed Prevaporized Propane Burner;,"
NASA TM X-3301, Oct. 1975.

5. Azelborn, N. A.; et al., "Low Emissions Combustion for the Re-

generative Gas Turbine. Part II - Experimental Techniques,
Results and Assessment," ASME Paper 73-GT-12, Apr. 1973.

6. Blazowski, W. R., and Bresowar, G. E., "Preliminary Study of the

Catalytic Combustion Concept as Applied to Aircraft Gas Turbines,"
AFAPL-TR-74-32, Feb. 1974.

7. DeCorso, S. M., et al., "Catalysts for Gas Turbine Combustors-

Experimental Test Results," ASME Paper 76-GT-4, Mar. 1976.

8. Wampler, F. B., Clark, D. W., and Gaines, F.A., "Catalytic Com-

bustion of C 3 H Q on PT-Coated Monolith," Paper 74-36, Western
States Section of the Combustion Institute, 1974.

9. Anderson, D. N., "Preliminary Results form Screening Tests of

Commercial Catalysis with Potential Use in Gas Turbine Combustors.
Part II - Combustion Tent Rig Evaluation," NASA TM X-73412,
May 1976.

10. Tacina, R., "Experimental Evaluation of Two Premixing-Prevaporizing

Fuel Injection Concepts for a Gas Turbine Catalytic Combustor,"
NASA TM X-73422, May 1976.

11. Siminski, V. J., "Development of a Catalytic CoiuLmstor for Aircraft

Gas Turbine Engines," AFAPL-TR-76-80, 1976.

12. Foster, H. H., and Ingebo, R. D., "Evaporation of JP-5 Fuel Sprays
in Air Streams," NACA RME55K02, Feb. 1956.

13. Ingebo, R. D., and Norgren. C. T., "Combustor Exhaust Emissions

with Air-Atomizing Splash-Groove Fuel Injectors Burning Jet-A
and Diesel Number 2 Fuels," M S A TM X-3255, July 1975.

14. MareK, C. J., "Preliminary Studies of Autoignition and Flashback

in a Lean, Premixed Flame Tube Using Jet-A Fuel," proposed NASA
Technical Memorandum.

15. Heck, R. M., "Final Report Part I. Durability Testing at 1 atm

of Advanced Catalysts and Catalyst Supports for Automotive Gas
Turbine Engine Combustors," NASA CR-135132, 1977.
 13

16. Carrubba, R. V., et al.9 "Catalytically-Supported Thermal Com-

bustion for Emission Control," paper Presented at the Electric
Power Research Institute W0_x Control Technology Seminar,
San Francisco, Calif., Feb." 6, 1976.

17. Pfefferle, W. C , et al., "Catathermal Combustion: A New Process

for Low-Emissions Fuel Conversion," ASME Paper 75-WA/Fu-l.
Nov. - Dec. 1975.
 TABLE 1. - AUTOMOTIVE REGENERATIVE GAS TURBINE ENGINE:

HYPOTHETICAL COMBUSTOR INLET CONDITIONS FOR AN IMPROVED ENGINE (Ref. l)

Speed, Airflow, Fuel flow, Pressure, Combustor Combustor Reference velocity ' (m/s) for
$ Of full kg/s 10"3kg/s 105Pa inlet exit. • possible combust oi- diameter
temperature, temperature,
K K 14 cm 16 cm 18 cm
50 (idle) 0.127 0.455 1.43 1210 1310 19.8 15.1 12.0
60 .204 1.135 1.91 1140 1310 22.4 17.2 13.6
70 .254 1.705 2.28 1100 1310 22.6 17.3 13.6 '
80 .336 2.77 2.92 1045 1310 22.1 16.9 13.4
90 .409 3.84 3.56 1005 1310 21.2 16.3 3-2.8
100 .517 5.41 4.50 970 1310 20.5 15.7 1?..4
 15

Table 2. - CATALYTIC REACTOB DESCRIPTION

Note: The JMPt and JMPd elements are 7.6 cm long. All other
elements are 2.5 cm long. A complete description of each
element is given in TapjLe 3.

| Reactor Catalyst elements Catalyst

assignation
1 2 3 4 tempera-
ture,
K
Eli E1128 E1128 E1128 E1128 500
E14 E l 412 E1412 E1412 E1412 580
El E1128 El 412 E1412 E1412 540
E1128 JMPd 530
E3 E1128 G512:3.2 G524:290 G524:290 530
E4 E1128 0C3.6:N 001.8:1.6 001.8:1.6 550
G12P G512:P G512:P G512:P G512:P NA
G17 G517:290 G517:29O G517:290 G517;290 600
G24 G524;290 G524:290 G524:200 G524;290 530
G24D G524D:200 G524D:200 G524D:200 G524D:200 NA
Gl rfRi ? • ^ ? CZAf\

JM1 TWPI-
JM2 TMPrl cor\
0C16 0C1.8:1.6 0C1.8:1.6 001.8:1.6 001.8:1.6 >625
OCDS 0C3.6:S OC3.6:S 003.6:3 0C3.6:S >625

N.A.: Not available for these tests.

 TABLE 3. - DESCRIPTION OF CATALYST ELEMENTS

All elements are 12 cm diameter

Element Catalyst Manufacturers Catalyst Catalyst Substrate Substrate Cell Cell Element
designation manufacturer designation loading, manufacturer composition density, shape length,
kg/m3 cells, em
cm2

EU.28 Engelhard EVD 1128 Ft * Corning Cordierit.- 35 Sine Wave 2.5

E1412 Engelhard EVD 1412 Pd Corning Cordierite 35 Sine Wave 2.5
GS12:3.2 W. R. Grace Davex S12A Pt/Pd:l/1 2.0 General Refaetories Mullite 10 Circular 2.5
G512:P W. R. Grace Davex 512A Pt/Pd;l/1 5.3 Pure Carbon Silicon Carbide 30 Sine Wave 2.5
G517:Z9O W. R. Grace Davex 517 Pd 2.5 W. R. Grace Cordierite 45 Square 2.5
G524;200 W. R. Grace Davex 524A Pt/Pd:l/1 3.b W. R. Grace Cordierite 31 Rectangular 2.5
0524:290 W. R. Grace Davex 524A Pt/Pd:l/1 3.5 W. R. Grace Cordierite 45 Square 2.5
G524D:200 W. R. Grace Davex 524A Pt/Pd:l/1 6.5 W. R. Grace Cordierite 31 Rectangular 2.S
JMPt Johnson Matthey Pt 5.3 Johnson Matthey Metal 62 Sine Wa«e 7.6
JHPd Johnson Matthey Pd 5.3 Johnson Matthey Metal 62 Sine Wave 7.6
0C1.8:1.6 Oxy-Catalyst Pt/Pd;l/2 1.8 General Refactories Mulllte 34 Circular 2.5
0C3.6:S Oxy-Catalyst Pt/Pd : l/2 3.6 Norton Silicon Carbide 11 Circular 2.5

•Proprietary
 TABLE 4. - CATALYTIC REACTOR INLET CONDITIONS FOR IMPROVED ENGINE

DOWNSTREAM DILUTION, 25$ OF TOTAL. C0MBU3T0R AIRFLOW

REACTOR DIAMETER, 16 cm
("•OMBUSTOR EXIT TEMPERATURE, 1310 K

Speed Total Total Reactor Reactor Reactor Reactor Pressure, Reactor

% fiJ-1 a i r flow, fuel flow, air flow, f/a inlet exit 10b Pa inlet
kg/s 10~3 kg/s kg/s temperature, temperature, velocity,
K K m/s
50 (idle') 0.12 7 0.455 0.0952 0.00478 1210 1350 1.43 11.4
60 .204 1.135 .153 .00742 1140 1375 1.91 12.9
70 .254 1.705 .190 .00895 1100 1385 2,28 12.9
80 .336 2.77 .252 .0110 1045 1400 2.92 12.7
90 ,409 3.84 .307 .0125 1005 1405 3.56 12.2
100 .517 5.41 .388 .0140 970 1425 4.50 11.8
 0.4g NO x /miie
PROPOSED STANDARD

10 -1

LEAN FLAMMABIUTY
LIMIT FOR HYDRO-
CARBON FUELS
10"

10 -4
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
MAXIMUM COMBUSTION ZONE TEMPERATURE, K

Figure 1. - Predicted thermal NOX emissions from a well-stirred

reactor (ref. 21. Combustor inlet temperature, 970K ; com-
bustor exit temperature, 1310 K; combustor pressure, 5xlO 5 Pa ;
vehicle fuel consumption, 0.0775 kg/km.

FROM
REGEIY .ATOR
DILUTION
AIR
TO
FUEL-
TURBINE

FUEL-AIR CATALYTIC THERMAL DILUTION

PREPARATION REACTOR REACTOR AND MIXING

Figure 2. - Schematic representation of a catalytic reactor.

 CONTROL
VALVE
FILTER

TO GAS ANALYSIS

CATALYST - -ORIFICE
-STEAM JACKETED QUENCH
OVEN - . .
WATER

-PREHEATED AIR

Figure 3. - Rig schematic. (Dimensions in cm.)

 FT 9052

TWENTY-EIGHT
0.37 mm
ORIFICES
0.11 DIA. 8 HOLES

"v -- RESONATOR
CUP
WIRE
SUPPORT
(a) Multiple-jet cross-stream injector.
1,0 4^-0.54-

(c) Sonicore injector.

FUEL 21 HOLES,
. 25 MM
DIAMETER

c
o
V \
C
\
-'1
\
M -
-1.27
L
"•.32 .476 d) Swirler used optionally with splash-groove injector,
1.91
sonicore injector, and simplex pressure-atomizinr
nozzle.
SECTION AA Figure 4. - Concluded.
(b) Splash-groove injector.
Figure 4. - Test injectors. (Dimensions in cm.)
 \ WITH 30-DEGREE VANE
\ AIR SWIRLER (FIG. 4(cl))

£5
LU WITHOUT AIR
5? 1 WIRLER

§ 0
LLJ

i— 2

5 3
14
0 . 2 . 4 . 6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
LOCAL FUEL-AIR RATIO/MEAN FUEL-AIR RATIO

Figure 5. - Spatial fuel distribution. Inlet temperature,

800 K; pressure, 5x10' Pa; reference velocity, 20 m/s;
mean (metered) fuel-air ratio, 0.C1; splash-groove
fuel injector.

100r

90

80

2 70
MULTIPLE-JET CROSS-
STREAM INJECTOR
60- D SPLASH-GROOVE
INJECTOR
^ SONICORE NOZZLE
50
^ S I M P L E X PRESSURE-
ATOMIZING NOZZLE
40
400 450 500 55^ 600 650 700
INLET AIR TEMPERATURE, K

Figure 6. - Effect of inlet air temperature on degree of

vaporization. Pressure, 5xlO5 Pa; reference veloc-
ity, 20 m/s; fuel-air ratio, 0.010.
 GAS SAMPLING PROBE H. 3 j
SAMPLING POSITIONS
5.4-

SPAREBED
THERMOCOUPLE GAS SAMPLE
POSITIONS TO ANALYZERS
(NOT USED
THESE TESTS)
PEXHAUST TO
r PREMIXED PROPANE WATER QUENCH?
\AND AIR
\
\

IT.
O

THERMOCOUPLE
ARRAYS—""

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
TYPICAL BED EXIT THERMOCOUPLE
THERMOCOUPLE ARRAY ARRAY

Figure 7. - Catalyst evaluation test section. (Dimensions in cm.)

 NASA
C-76-1718

OC1.8:1.6
C-76-4748
"JMPo
Fiaure 8. - Typical catalyst elements.
 REACTOR INLET
VELOCITY, INLET
VELOCITY,
m/s
m/s
EACTOR 10 15 20 25
Ell o »9f
E14 D
El
E2
o
A
E3 D>
E4
G12P a
G17 o
G24
G24D 0
Gl (\
JM1 o
CO JM2 0
1/1
o 0C16 o
o OCDS £3
1
W

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550

MINIMUM EXIT TEMPERATURE, K
Figure 9. - Tradeoff between pressure drop at 1400 K and minimum
required exit temperature. Inlet mixture temperature, 800 K;
pressure, 3xl0 5 Pa; propane fuel.

NASA-Lewis
 THE ERDA/CHRYSLER UPGRADED AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE ENGINE -

EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM

*THOMAS D. NOGLE*
ASSOCIATE RESEARCH ENGINEER
RESEARCH OFFICE
CHRYSLER CORPORATION

PRESENTED AT:

NATO/CCMS FOURTH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

ON AUTOMOTIVE PROPULSION SYSTEMS
WASHINGTON, D.C.
APRIL 17-22, 1977

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the compart, low-cost, fixed-geometry combustor
and the related engine/fuel control system parameters which should
enable the ERDA/Chrysler Upgraded Engine to meet emission goals of
.26 HC, 2A CO, and .25 NOx (gr/km).
Low emissions are achieved by combustion control in a system which
does not sacrifice economy or driveabi1ity. Torch ignition of a
very lean premixed charge is utilized at steady speeds with rich
operation during compressor stage acceleration transients. Un-
leaded gasoline has been the principal development fuel, but
emission control has been demonstrated with several potential
alternate fuels. This combustion system should be applicable
to advanced, more efficient, higher cycle temperature gas turbine
engines which will be candidates for future production.
The Upgraded Engine design has a pressure ratio of 4.1:1, 1050°C
turbine inlet temperature, 0.69 kg/s airflow, and power of 92 kW
with use of variable inlet guide vanes and inlet water injection.
 INTRODUCTION

Chrysler began a combustor development program in January,

1971, aimed specifically at reducing NOx emissions of its sixth-
generation, 112kW (15OHP), regenerative gas turbine engine from
approximately 3.1 gr/km (5 gr/mi) to less than .25 gr/km (O.k gr/mi)
Previous work, without regard to NOx control, had shown that HC
and CO could be held to near-zero levels.
A combustor producing less than 1.8 gr/km of NOx had been
developed by November, 1972, when Chrysler was awarded Contract
68-01-0^59 through the AAPS Division of EPA. The sixth-generation
engine with this improved combustor was released as the "Baseline
Engine" for performance of the contract, while proprietary combustor
development efforts continued. Periodic demonstrations [_]] [2) of
improved technology have been made during the contract, which in
January, 1975, was transferred to ERDA and designated E( 11-1 )-27**9.
The contract includes the design, development, and demonstra-
tion of a new engine (Upgraded Engine) using improved technology
to minimize emissions, fuel consumption, and cost. As the engine
was being designed, Baseline Vehicle demonstrations were conducted
using a fixed geometry combustor which showed promise of meeting
the Upgraded Vehicle emission goals without performance or economy
penalties, and with only nominal penalties in size and cost.

Emission control philosophy at Chrysler has always given

priority to prevention of formation rather than aftertreatment
clean-up. Due consideration is also required for production
feasibility, durability, size, cost, and performance effects.

*N0TE: [ ^numbers in brackets designate references at end of paper.

-1-
 Lean, premixed combustion is the only known means to prevent
formation of undesireable pollutants. The regenerative, auto-
motive gas turbine must, however, operate with a wide range
of fuel/air ratios. The most often suggested means of achieving
this wide range of low-emissions operation has been the use of
' variable-geomet.-y combustors. But sucn combustors don't meet the
requirements of production feasibility, durability, size, or cost.

Many other combustor concepts have been dependent on relatively

high (5-7%) pressure loss across the combustor. Because of its
strong influence on fuel economy, Chrysler has established a 3%
limit on combustor pressure loss, with 2% as a goal.
Since all combustor development at Chrysler is done on engines,
the first requirement of any concept is the ability to stare a
cold engine. And since cold start emissions are included in the
Federal Test Procedure, it must be done cleanly. This is an area
often overlooked when combustor concepts are being suggested.
The background of the combustion system now released for the
Upgraded Engine is summarized in Reference I 31 and the engine design
is described in Reference f^j. This paper provides additional
combustor and control detail. However, because most of the develop-
ment has taken pl_ce on the Baseline Engine, much of the data re-
ported herein is identified with that engine.
 COMBUSTOR ASSEMBLY

The combustor utilizes a single, fixed-geometry, premixer

tangentially entering a fixed reaction chamber (burner tube). A
torch ignitor enters through the dome of the reaction chamber
at a right angle to the premixer discharge. A conventional dilution
zone cools the combustion products to the desired turbine inlet
temperature. See Figure. 1. (Reference [5] provides a discussion
of combustion processes and presents alternate design concepts).

Premixer/lnjector
The premixer is a short section of carefully placed swirl,
counterswir)t and wall-sweep openings with a fuel injector at
the upstream end. The injector includes eight small fuel tubes
in line with the first row of premixer air slots. These tubes
merely place the fuel in the proper location in the premixer;
doing nothing in themselves to atomize the fuel. The maximum
fuel pressure drop across the injector is only 70 kPa (10 psi).
The incoming airflow atomizes the fuel off the tips of the injector
tubes. During cold starting, the fuel starts burning in a droplet-
diffusion flame within the premixer. As burner inlet temperature
rises (regenerative engine), the fuel droplets begin vaporizing
in the premixer while engine fuel requirements diminish. Careful
development of premixer and injector detail has resulted in a
burner which converts itself from droplet-diffusion flame to
premixed reaction within a few seconds after first reaching idle
speed.
 During normal running, the premixer provides a uniform charge
into the reaction chamber and is generally immune to flashback.
This premixer accomplishes these tasks using approximately kS% of
the total Upgraded Engine airflow. Since no mechanical flame-
holders are used, it will tolerate a flashback condition, should
it occur, without damage.

Torch
The torch provides a continuous jet of flame to ignite the
premixed main charge in the reaction chamber. It consists of
a small chamber with its outlet tube at right angles to the pre-
mixer flow. A pressure atomizing, 1^0 kPa (20 psid), fuel nozzle
sprays into the chamber where compressor discharge air enters
tangentially, forming a strong swirl action. About 2% of total
airflow is used in the torch,, Combustion is initiated by a single
automotive spark plug firing continuously at 160-180 cps from a
transistor-triggered induction coil.

Torch combustion is a droplet-diffusion process at an equiva-

lence ratio near unity. Emission of NOx is low due both to the
non-regenerated inlet airflow and the low mass flow (high di-
lution ratio). CO and HC are consumed in the main reaction process
except during "flame-out" conditions when they are minimized by
the overall dilution ratio.

Reaction Chamber
The reaction chamber, or burner tube, is convection cooled
and provides sufficient recirculation and residence time to com-
plete the combustion process. By introducing the premixed charge
tangentially, strong vortex recirculation is established, per-
mitting stable operation at prerrrixed fuel air ratios as lean as
.010 F/A. Because the cooler chamber walls tend to quench the
reaction, leaving locally high CO levels, a secondary wall con-
striction is provided to turn the surface flow into the main
vortex where reaction will be completed. The conventional di-
lution zone admits the remaining airflow which was not introduced
through either the premixer or torch.
The chamber is located and retained by the premixer and torch
tubes which in turn are rigidly mounted to the insulated burner
cover. The outlet end is a slip fit into the vortex chamber,
permitting assembly misalignment and thermal expansion. It is
fabricated from 1.5 mm thick RA 333 material which will provide
satisfactory service at 1150°C.
 CONTROL SYSTEM

The Upgraded Engine utilizes an integrated electronic

control system [6j for fuel, variable powor turbine nozzles,
inlet guide vanes, and water injection. The fuel system
schematic is shown on Figure 2 and the fuel schedule on Figure
3.

Fuel Schematic
The electrically driven pump at the fuel tank provides a
constant 80 kg/h (180 Ib/hr) flow at up to 550 kPa (80 psi).
The electrohydraulic fuel metering valve has a built-in pressure-
drop regulator to maintain a constant differential pressure of 1^0
kPa (20 psid) across the metering orifice. This, in effect, also
maintains a constant differential pressure across the torch nozzle.

The entire pump flow passes the torch nozzle and all except
torch flow passes through the metering valve body, where excess is
returned to the fuel tank through the regulator. This provides
cooling to these areas where vapor formation would affect the
fuel metering, essential when using volatile fuels, such as
gasoline, in a low pressure system.
The built-in fuel flowmeter aids in bench calibrating each
system and is a sensor providing feed-back to the control unit
for closed-loop scheduling of start-up and acceleration fuel flow.
It does not indicate engine fuel consumption because torch flow
is not included and injector bleed flow is included.
The bleed orifice provided at the fuel injector returns fuel
to the tank. This permits excess fuel to flow to the injector,
provide cooling, and thus minimize prevaporization within the
 injector. I t also avoids the need for a fuel metering valve

capable of accurately metering low flows. In addition, in

combination with the normally open solenoid, i t provides a con-

venient means to control transient acceleration NOx emissions.

During decelerations engine air backflushes fuel from the i n -

jector t i p s through t h i s o r i f i c e , along with metering valve

leakage, to help minimize emissions of unburned hydrocarbons.

The check valve in parallel with the fuel metering valve

combines with the 3-way solenoid valve to purge fuel from the i n -

jector and lines at chut-down. Engine air pressure during

compressor coast-down enters the injector tubes and flushes the

fuel back to the tank.

Fuel Schedule
Refer to Figure 3. The control is programmed for a start
and acceleration schedule which represents the maximum allowable
fueling level. During these modes, the metering valve opens with
increasing speed (airflow) such that maximum acceleration is
maintained without exceeding turbine stage temperature limits. Note
that the metering valve does not open until a significant (5-10%)
speed signal has been obtained. The injector bleed solenoid is
closed for maximum fueling.
During steady-speed, road load operation .the metering valve
acts as a governor, adjusting fuel flow to correct deviations
from demanded speed. However, the injector bleed is open, so the
metering valve is flowing a much hig'ior fuel flow as indicated
by the dashed line near the acceleration schedule line.
 8

During moderate driving with gradual changes of accelerator

position, the bleed solenoid remains open, thereby greatly
reducing the maximum fuel actually available to the burner.
Thus, combustion remains lean and NOx formation remains low.
This is sufficient for most accelerations in the Federal Emission
Test Cycle. But some accelerations require a more rapid engine
response, and the bleed solenoid is closed when there is a
significant demand for acceleration (demanded speed more than
five percentage' points above actual speed). This causes the
burner to receive its richest mixture and the gas generator to
accelerate at its maximum rate. By avoiding governor modulation
of fuel flow in the range of combustion mixtures from .030 to
.060 F/A, N O X formation is greatly reduced. Although high NOx
concentrations are still encountered during maximum fueling, the
mass contribution is low because of very short time durations.

Torch fuel is not regulated by the integrated control. It

is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop across the
nozzle. This pressure drop consists of the regulated drop across
the metering valve plus flow losses in the system. Thus, torch
fuel flow rises only slightly through the speed range. Since
torch air flow is approximately proportional to engine speed,
the resulting mixture is quite rich for good cold light-off and
is lean at maximum speed. It runs slightly rich at idle to pro-
vide the necessary flame intensity for good ignition of the pre-
mixed charge and stability at low combustion levels.
For engine decelerations, the metering valve closes, shutting
off premixer fuel„ The torch continues to burn, ready to relight
 the reactor.

Variable Power Turbine Nozzles

The power turbine nozzles are modulated by an electrohydraulic
actuator to maintain a constant turbine outlet (regenerator inlet)
temperature as engine speed changes However, when significant
gas generator accelerations are demanded, these nozzles are opened
a few degrees more. This causes the compressor turbine to absorb
a greater proportion of the pressure ratio available and increases
the engine airflow, which in turn permits a higher fuel rate to be
used for the same maximum transient turbine inlet temperature. Con-
sequently, the gas generator accelerates much more quickly. Mass
emissions of NOx are reduced because the increased airflow rate is
more than offset by the decreased time at maximum fuel rate.

Variable Inlet Guide Vanes

The influence of variable compressor inlet guide vanes on
engine emissions has not yet been fully determined. They can be
used either to throttle or augment airflow and may be useful in
controlling engine cycle temperature at part throttle or during
engine braking.

Water Injection
Water injection is used only at wide open throttle (less than
1% of normal operation) to augment maximum power. On the Baseline
Engine, with its droplet-diffusion combustor, NOx was reduced
with increasing water injection while no effect was evident on
HC or CO.
 10

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sixth-Generation Engine - Baseline Vehicle

The combustor/control concept has been developed on the
sixth-generation Baseline Engine, having much higher airflow and
a lower cycle temperature than the Upgraded Engine. Steady-
speed emissions from idle to 80% Ngg are very low. Above that
speed, NOx emissions rise rather sharply as mixture strength
exceeds .030 F/'A. However, driving the Federal Emission Cycle
at 1814 kg (4000 lb) inertia load requires speeds in excess of
80% for only a few seconds of the total cycle. This system has
resulted in 1975 "3-bag weighted" cold cycle Baseline Vehicle
emissions of 1.59 HC, 5»31 CO, and 0.28 NOx (gm/km). While almost
meeting the NOx goal established for the Upgraded Vehicle, the
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide levels significantly
exceed their goals.

Furthermore, very low emissions are obtained during operation

at other normal driving conditions. Typical steady, road-load
operation at all speeds from 50 to 100 km/hr (30 to 60 mph) pro-
duces lower exhaust hydrocarbons than the intake air contains,
carbon monoxide less than 0.7 gm/km, and NOx less than 0.1 gm/km.
Over the Federal Highway Fuel Economy Cycle this system produced
Baseline Vehicle emissions of virtually zero HC, 0.8 CO, and 0.08
NOx (gm/km). Obviously, the higher values on thr. emission test
cycle are a result of the very transient operation over that speci-
fied driving pattern. Approximately 150 gas generator accel^. ation-
deceleration cycles are encountered in each test.
 11

Gas generator accelerations produce NOx spikes due to

momentary operation at near stoichiometric mixtures. As described
above, these spikes are minimized by the fuel and power turbine
nozzle control systems. The cycle results show satisfactory
achievement of NOx control.
Almost half of the carbon monoxide is generated during
engine braking periods. With the power turbine nozzle vanes
reversed, the power turbine wheel is putting work (heat) into
the engine. This heat is recovered by way of the regenerators
resulting in much less fuel needed to maintain the gas generator
at idle speed. Thus, the burner is operating much leaner (cooler)
than at curb idle, with the subsequent higher CO. (Engine braking
is stronger than typical gasoline engines)* Much of the remaining
CO is produced at curb idle conditions which total 30% of the
emission cycle tirne0 Some CO is also generated at the flame-out
and re-light points for each significant compressor deceleration.
Most of the unburned hydrocarbons accumulate from fuel passed
just after a flame-out and just before a re-light. Each gas
generator deceleration thus produces two spikes. While main-
taining a minimum fuel schedule to keep the burner lit during
decelerations has been shown to eliminate these spikes, it entails
unacceptable penalties in fuel consumption and driveabi1ity.
Limited test cell efforts have shown potential for ^le.an flame-
outs and re-lights by careful attention to torch details and
mixture strength. Some additional hydrocarbons are also passed
during the engine braking periods due to marginal combustion
stability at the very lean mixture involved.
 12

Fuel s
This concept has been developed on today's fuel ...
unleaded gasoline. But to be an acceptable emission control
system, it must be compatible with future fuels. Tests with
diesel, broad cut, methanol, isopropyl alcohol, and ethyl alcohol
as well as various mixtures of these fuels have all shown emission
results similar to gasoline, although torch mixture adjustment
is required to compensate for major differences in a fuel's
stoichiometric ratio. See Table 1 for some sample emissions.
These results suggest general compatibility with most fuels.
Evaluation of an unrefined liquid fuel obtained from pyrolysis
of coal resulted in high NOx levels and excessive fouling of the
torch chamber. This fuel had high levels of chemically bound
nitrogen, residue, and ash. Further processing would be necessary
to make this an acceptable gas turbine fuel.

Upgraded Engine
No transient emission tesM*ng has been conducted to date on
the Upgraded Engine due to emphasis on power plant development.
However, excellent emissions have been achieved at steady-state
speeds (Table 2 ) .
This broader range of low-emission operation is a result
of the higher cycle temperature. As cycle temperature increases,
a greater portion of the airflow can be used in the premixer
before reaching excessive CO levels at idle. See Figure k. This
results in leaner operation at all speeds and, for this engine,
combustion temperature is. just reaching the level of rapid NOx
 13

formation at wide open throttle (not augmented). Idle CO level

is basically a function of reaction temperature and residence
time, modified by wall cooling and mixing intensity. Since
burner inlet air is about 85°C hotter in the Upgraded Engine, a
leaner mixture must be used for the same reaction temperature.
Residence time is increased somewhat by maintaining identical
reaction tube volume for the Upgraded Engine which has kO% lower
airflow than the Baseline Engine. Furthermore, the hotter burner
inlet air also means less wall quenching of the reaction mixture.
And finally, for the same CO concentration, mass emissions of CO
are still kO% lower due to the engine airflow. These conditions
combine to permit a cooler reaction zone at idle than used on the
Baseline Engine.
It is expected, then, that the Upgraded Vehicles which are
230 kg lighter than the Baseline Vehicles will be able to meet
the CO and NOx emission goals since they should require only 60%
as much fuel and air (nearly twice the fuel economy) as the Baseline
vehicles and emission concentrations will be similar.
Mass emissions of unburned hydrocarbons will also be reduced
due to the higher cycle temperature and lower airflow, but some
additional refinement of the torch and control system may also
be necessary to meet the HC goal. Since this is solely a transient
problem, its extent won't be known until vehicle tests have been
conducted.
 CONCLUSIONS

The regenerative, automotive gas turbine will be ablie to

meet stringent emission standards for a 1585 kg weight class
vehicle by utilising a fixed-geometry combustor with a choice
of several fuels. This will be achieved by combustion control
rather than exhaust aftertreatment, without sacrificing fuel
economy or driveabi1ity, and with only a small penalty in cost
and weight. There will be no incentive for consumer modification
or adjustment which would defeat this emission control. It will
be effective for all normal driving situations including highway
crui se.
Realization of this potential in production passenger cars
still depends on satisfactory achievement of competitive fuel
economy and overall cost. Only then can definite plans be made
for the conversion of facilities to produce gas turbines. Thus,
a great development effort remains before the gas turbine can
be the automotive enqine of the future.

/daa
 REFERENCES

1. Quarterly Progress Reports

Chrysler Corporation Baseline Gas Turbine Development
Program, Contract 68-01-0^59; January 13, 1973 through
April 30, 1975, Contract i£(l 1-1 )-27^9; July 31, 1975
through October 31, 1976.
2. Summary Reports
Automotive Power Systems Contractors Coordination Meetings,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Division of Advanced
Automotive Power Systems Development, Fourth through Tenth
(December, 1972 through May, 1976).
3. Angel 1, Peter R. and Golec, Thomas - Chrysler Corporation
"Upgrading Automotive Gas Turbine Technology - An Experi-
mental Evaluation of Improvement Concepts," Paper No. 760280
presented at SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Expo-
sition, Detroit, Michigan, February 26, 197°°
h. Ball, G.A.; Gumaer, J.I. - Chrysler Corporation, and Sebestyen, T.M.
- ERDA
"The ERDA/Chrysler Upgraded Gas Turbine Engine Objective
and Design," Paper No. 760279 presented at SAE Automotive
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan,
February 26, 1976.
5. Wade, W.R. et al, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan
"Low Emissions Combustion for the Regenerative Gas Turbine-
Part 1 - Theoretical and Design Considerations," ASME
Paper No. 73-GT-ll presented April 9, 1973, at 18th Annual
International Gas Turbine Conference, Washington, D.C.
6. Dent, J.R. - Ultra Electronics Limited, London, England and
LeFevre, H.P. - Chrysler Corporation
"Advancements and Application of Programmable Analog Control
Technology," ASME Paper No. 76-GT-122 presented at Gas
Turbine and Fluids Engineering Conference, New Orleans,
La., March, 1976.
 TABLE 1

ALTERNATE FUELS

Emission effects of several fuels with advanced, premixed

combustor on the Baseline Engine.

Idle-7O4UC P.T. Outl et Temp. Acceleration*

HC 6 (Net) CO NOx NOx

Fuel ppm PPm ppm ppm

Unleaded Gasoline 0 97 3.8 18

No. 1 Diesel 0 50 4.6 32
Ethyl Alcohol 0 53 1.7 11
Isopropyl Alcohol 0 64 3.0 14
Methyl Alcohol 1.5 330 0.8 11
Coal Derived 0.4 180 32.0 70

* Pear, observed NOx during gas generator acceleration from idle-

7O4°C to 70% speed.
 TABLE 2

STEADY-STATE EMISSIONS-UPGRADED ENGINE

Unleaded Gasoline Fuel

75O°C Power Turbine Outlet Temperature

Net* Concentration-ppm

Speed HC£ _co NOx

50% (Idle) 0 190 3.6

60% 0 16 2.9
70% 0 0 2.k
80% 0 0 2.2
90% 0 0 3.6
95% 0 0 k.8
100% 0 0 8.3

* Net = Exhaust - Inlet (Exhaust concentrations less

than inlet are reported as zero).
LIfT OF FIGURES

Nogle, T.D.

Figure 1: COMBUSTOR ASSEMBLY, ERDA/Chrysler Upgraded gas

turbine engine.

Figure 2: FUEL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC, ERDA/Chrysler Upgraded gas

turbine engine.

Figure 3: FUEL SCHEDULE, ERDA/Chrysler Upgraded gas turbine

engine.

Figure k: REACTION ZONE COMPARISON, Baseline reaction

temperatures and residence time versus Upgraded.
 FUEL FUEL OUT
P2 AIR TORCH CHAMBER

SPARK PLUG

PREM1XER
REACTION
CHAMBER
FUEL
INJECTOR

DILUTION ZONE
 TORCH MAIN FUEL
NOZZLE INJECTOR
3-WAY
SOLENOID J 51 ORIFICE

ELECTRONIC
FUEL METERING
VALVE

NORMALLY OPEN
BLEED SOLENOID
FILTER

PUMP
Q
 —50

ACCELERATION
—30-
O >
—20-- V^ROAD LOAD
j
STARTING S% (METERING >
U. VALVEl/^
—10-- , - ^ BLEED
FLOW
ROAD LOAD
1 1 1 _ (ENGINE) t
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% GAS GENERATOR SPEED
 REACTION ZONE COMPARISON
BASELINE ENGINE UPGRADED ENGINE
3
3520 cm REACTION VOLUME 3520 cm*
12 ms RESIDENCE TIME @ IDLE 16 m*

PREMIX AIR
PREMIX AIR o @ 705°C
620°C 1035°C @ IDLE
1085°C IDLE o
if) 1325°C @ 9 0 % _ 45% OF TOTAL
to
1395°C 80% 33% OF TOTAL •*- 1425°C @ 100%

\
CD
z
5

oc
DILUTION AIR C/)
niLUTION AIR
,_ 620°C
67%^0F TOTAL 705°C
TOTAL
THE AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE - STATE OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTS

P. Walzer

Research Division

Volkswagenwerk AG

Wolfsburg
Federal Republic of Germany

Fourth International Symposium on Automotive Propulsion

Systems, April 17 - 22, 1977, Washington D.C.
 THE AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE - STATE OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTS

ABSTRACT

At Volkswagen a 55 kW and a 100 kW automotive gas turbine

have been tested. Efforts are continuing on the development of low

emission combustion concepts and on tu.rbine components made from

high temperature ceramics. Based on the state of technology and

possible future improvements, it is predicted that advantages

in the fuel economy for heavier cars will be attained, that the

Muskie standards can be achieved, and that a wide variety of

furls can be used. It appears that higher production costs will

have to be accepted.

1. INTRODUCTION

Future power plants for automobiles must confine high fuel

economy, low pollutant emissions, multifuel capability and

reasonable production costs. At Volkswagenwerk AG continuing

efforts are being concentrated on further improving the conventional

automotive engines in these directions. At the same time the

possibility that other unconventional power plants could better

solve the requirements is being investigated. In the following

- 2 -
 the state of development of automotive gas turbines is des-

cribed. Based upon accomplished results and anticipating im-

provements which should be attainable in further development

steps, the advantages and disadvantages of gas turbines com-

pared to the conventional automotive engines are discussed.

2. STATE OF DEVELOPMENT

A 55 kW and a 100 kW gas turbine have been tested. The

prototypes of these engines have been developed in

cooperation with WILLIAMS RESEARCH CORP., Michigan, USA. Both

gas turbines are two shaft engines with regenerative air pre-

neating. Table 1 gives the most important design data. The

55 kW gas turbine represents an earlier state of technology (1).

This engine has a maximum turbine inlet temperature of 1184 K

and a pressure ratio of 3.7. The engine operates without

variable geometry. At full load a specific fuel consumption

of 388 g/kWh is attained. The fuel consumption rises to

660 g/kWh at 30 % load. In the 100 kW engine the maximum turbine

inlet temperature is raised to 1283 K and the pressure ratio to

4.5. This engine has variable inlet guide vanes at the power

turbine. At full load the specific fuel consumption is 31u g/kWh

the fuel consumption rises to 375 g/kWh at 30 % load.

- 3 -
 Figure 1 shows the 55 kW gas turbine. The gasifier shaft
and the power turbine shaft are arranged concentrically; both
shafts drive into a common front mounted gear box. Power ab-
sorption by the compressor is utilized for braking by means
of connecting both shafts with an overrunning clutch. Figure 2
shows the installation in the rear engine compartment of a VW-
Microbus. The standard three-speed automatic transmission
VW 1600 is used. The air inlet ducts of the standard air cooled
Otto engine have been connected in the gas turbine installation
directly to the compressor inlet. The exhaust gases leave the
turbine through two short gas ducts. Figure 3 shows the 100 kW
gas turbine on the test rig. The engine is equipped with an
electronic control, which provides tliat within the tolerable
temperature limits at .all steady loads the engine runs with
the lowest possible fuel consumption, that in instationary
operation load changes are attained in the shortest possible
time, and that during coasting braking is available. Figure 4
shows the installation of this gas turbine in a passenger car.
Again a three speed automatic transmission is used. Air inlet
ducts are provided at both sides near the top of the fenders.
The exhaust gases are ducted along the bottom of the car to
the rear end. Power turbine exit gases are used in the heater.
The car has power steering and power brakes.

- 4 -
 Figure 5 shows this experimental passenger car. It was

converted for this purpose from a Ro 80, which is a Wankel

engine powered car manufactured by AUDI NSU. The vehicle test

weight is 1700 kg. The acceleration time from zero to 100 km/h

(62.5 mph) is 14 s, a distance of 130 m is covered in the first

10 s. The response is fast enough to be able to follow the

US City Cycle driving pattern within the prescribed speed

tolerances. In the US Combined Cycle a fuel economy of 14 mpg

has been attained. From a distance of 7.5 m a noise level of

57 dB(A) at idling and 66 dB(A) at maximum gasifier speed has

been measured. The car can be driven with gasoline, Diesel, JP4,

and methanol fuel.

For the purpose of investigating the low emission capa-

bility of the gas turbine combustion process, a 3 year

research program was carried out, which was partially

sponsored by the German Ministry for Research and Technology

(2). Figure 6 shows some of the combustion systems developed

during this program. On the left side a conventional diffusion

flame type combustion chamber is shown. Using such a combustion

system the 100 kW gas turbine vehicle has attained 3.4 g/mile

CO, 0.4 g/mile HC and 2 g/mile 110 . In order to attain lower

NO levels, combustion systems with prevaporizing and premixing

are necessary. Depending on the NO goals more or less complicated

chamber designs and reaction zone controls are necessary. In the

middle a premix chamber is shown which reduces the NO emission to

- 5 -
 1 g/mile. On the right side a premix chamber with two stage

combustion is to be seen. In this concept the first stage

operates during low loads and deceleration while the second

stage is added during higher loads and acceleration. In both

reaction zones the fuel air mixture burns near the lean flame

limit. With such a two stage combustion system the Muskie

standards were attained on the combustor test rig in a 7 point

simulation of the US City Cycle. As a next step the control has

to be adjusted before this combustion system can be tested in

the vehicle.

Besides developing more efficient components, raising the

process temperatures would also aid in improving gas turbines.

A substantial temperature increase, however, can be realized

only if components froir, new high temperature materials can

successfully be developed. In Figure 7 different turbine com-

ponents made from ceramics are shown. The materials are silicon

nitride and silicon carbide, fabrication techniques include

hot pressing, injection molding, and slip casting. The parts

have been developed together with the ceramic industry in a

second research program, which is also partially sponsored

by the German Ministry of Research and Technology (3). So

far stationary components such as flame tubes and nozzle rings

have been tested up to the gas temperatures ?nd temperature

cycles of metallic gas turbines. Prototype allceramic rotors

with hot pressed Si_.N. hubs and reaction sintered Si,N, rims

- 6 -
 have survived circumferential speeds up to 450 m/s in cold
spinning and gas temperature shocks of 500 K/s. Rotors
with metallic hubs and simplified hot pressed Si,N. blades
have endured speeds up to 420 m/s in cold spinning. So far
this development work is suffering from a bread scatter and an
unsatisfactory reproducability of the test results. It appears
however that by continuing development efforts at least the
stationary components can be developed successfully. In the
case of the rotors such a prediction still has a high degree
of uncertainty since the question of economic fabrication
techniques is not yet answered.

3. FUTURE PROSPECTS

In the following the. prospects of gas turbines as power

plants for passenger cars will be discussed. Criteria are seen
in the fuel economy, the pollutant emissions, the multifuel
capability, and the production costs. The predictions are based
on the state of technology already established and on improvements
which seem to be attainable in future development work.

FUEL ECONOMY
An analog simulation technique which includes models for
the gas turbine, the transmission, and the vehicle was used in
investigating the fuel economy potential (4). The results are

- 7 -
 given in Figure 8. The upper diagram shows the engjne power
which has to be installed in order to give the vehicle an
acceptable acceleration performance. The lower diagram
shows the fuel economy in the US Combined Cycle. The fuel
economy shown for conventional engines corresponds to a large
extend to EPA measurements. The fuel economy which can probably
be attained with gas turbines is shown as a grey band. Gas
turbines using todays technology can attain fuel economies
near the lower border of this range. High temperature gas
turbines using ceramic components should attain a fuel economy
near the upper border. In comparing the fuel economy of the
different engine types considerable fuel economy advantages
for gas turbines in heavier cars are obvious.

As already mentioned the described 1700 kg experimental

gas turbine car has attained a fuel economy of 14 mpg. It is
felt that within the given temperature limits the fuel economy
range in the figure can be met with this engine by further
component improvements and by introducing variable geometry
at the compressor.

POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Figure 9 shows CO-NO correlations which have been measured
with diffusion flame type combustors and with preroix combustion
concepts. The HC emission values are not shown as this pollutant
normally does not exceed the tolerated limit if the CO limit is
met. The tolerated operation ranges for 1.5 g/mile NO and

- 8 -
 0.4 g/mile NO are shown as dark bands. According to the
X

analog simulation described above future metallic gas turbines

attaining fuel economies of 15 mpg in the US City Cycle would
operate in the indicated ranges. Therefore it is most likely
that future gas turbines can meet the Muskie standards. However,
two stage premix combustion systems together with more complex
fuel controls will be needed.

These predictions apply to gas turbines working with

todays turbine inlet temperatures. For gas turbines with higher
process temperatures the engine simulation and the extrapola-
tion of combustion chamber test results indicates that the
Muskie standards are attainable up to the desired ceramic
turbine inlet temperatures of 1623 K. Beyond this temperatures
the tolerable combustion chamber operation range has to be
restricted.

MULTIFUEL CAPABILITY

Gas turbines are expecially suited for multifuel operation

for numerous reasons.

- The continuous combustion process at constant pressure

allows fuels with a broad range of octane ratings, vapor
pressures, destination curves ignition characteristics,
and heating values.

- 9 -
 - The high amount of excess air allows the burning of fuels
with widely differing stoichiometric values.

- The reaction volume is formed as a free boundary which

adjusts itself to the reaction volume requirements of
the different fuels.

Accordingly the gas turbines developed so far could be operated

with a broad variety of fuels without influencing the performance
of the engines. Thus, based, on the reffinery structure of today,
60 - 70 % of the crude oil can be used in gas turbines.

PRODUCTION COSTS
In addition to fuel economy, pollutant emissions, and multi-
fuel capability the production costs will be decisive for the
serial introduction of an unconventional power plant. To get
reliable production cost predictions, however, is extremely
difficult. On the one side the mass fabrication technology for
these new engines is not yet developed; on the other side the
designs of the engines so far have not been optimized
for low production costs.

These difficulties and uncertanties should be kept in mind

when studying the cost projections in Figure 10. The upper
diagram again gives the relation between necessary engine power

- 10 -
 and vehicle weight. The lower diagram gives production cost
relations between the different engine types. The production
costs of a 37 kW Otto engine are taken as a basis. The cost
estimates of the gas turbines are based on a detailed cost
break down of the research engines developed so far. At low
vehicle weights a mass production of 400 engines a day, at
higher vehicle weights 200 engines per day have been assumed.
The results indicate that the production costs of two shaft
gas turbines with todays process temperatures would be at
the upper border of the gas turbine band. Ceramic gas turbines
will have smaller air flow which will reduce the volume of the
expensive heat exchanger and probably mean less control complexity.
For those engines therefore a reduction in production costs can be
expected. The lower border of the cost band should be attainable
with single shaft ceramic gas turbines. In a car application
the latter engines however will need an inexpensive and highly
efficient continuously variable transmission.

4. CONCLUSIONS

At Volkswagen two research gas turbines have been developed

and tested in cars. Besides improving these engines by continuing
component development, work is being concentrated on low
emission combustion systems and on ceramic turbine components.
Based on the state of technology and possible future improve-

- 11 -
ments, it is predicted that advantages in the fuel economy
of the heavier cars will be attained, that the Muskie
standards can be achieved, and that a wide variety of fuels
can be used. It appears that higher production costs will
have to be accepted.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A part of the work reported here has been sponsored by

the German Ministry for Research and Technology. The author
however is responsible for the content of this paper.

6. REFERENCES

(1) Walzer, P., Buchheim, R., Rottenkolber, P., Hagemann,G.:

Passenger Car Performance with the Experimental Gas
Turbine VW-GT 70, ASME paper 74-GT-1O8

(2) Buchheim, R., Distler, D., Giesen, K., Steinhilper, E.:

Schadstoffarme Verbrennung in der Pkw-Gasturbine, 4. Sta-
tusseminar Kraftfahrzeug- und StraBenverkehrstechnik,
Berlin 10.-12. November 1976

- 12 -
 (3) Walzer, P., Kohlor, M., Rottonkolber,P.: Hochtomporatur-

kerarnik fur Autcrnobilgasturbinen, MTU 37 (1976) 11

(4) Walzer, P., Klarhoefer Ch., Kohler, M.: Fuel Economy

Study of Future Metallic and Ceramic Automotive Gas

Turbines, ASMR paper 76-GT-1O4

CAPTIONS

Fig. 1 Automotive Gas Turbine VW-GT 70

Fig. 2 VWT-GT 70 in Microbus

Fig. 3 .'•.utOMOtivo Gas Turbine VW--GT 150

Fig. 4 W.'-GT 150 in Ro 8O

Fig. 5 >"!:-p;x:-r i .;.:n!;.31 Gas 'Cnrbins Car Ro 80

Fig. 6 C-. :•-;.: sti on C'l'.i.iTOer Conr-r-p ;. s

Fig. 7 Ce/;.-f"ic Gas TurlDine P^it.cs

Fig. 8 Fual ficonoifiy Potential of: ':--is Turbines

Fig. 9 CC -: i 0 R.ovjos for Di.i" Ctrc-nt C< • b ' i s ;. I on i;y ; .L

;
Fig. 10 Production Cost Proj.'i-ot.'.on "<^r d ' . s ' f u i b i : ; i -s
 Schriftgröße Linienbreite siehe vw oui u-
Für Dia: 5 x 5 cm 7 mm tur Bildtilel J,7 mm für nervorzuhebende Teile
5 mm tur Text und Bild-Nr. 2,5 mm für Hauptteile
Maskenausschnitt: 23 x 35 mm
5 mm tür Indizes u^a Exponenten für Bildtitel 0,35 mm für Nebenteile
3,5 mm tür Indizes und Exponenten lur Text 0,25 mm für Mittel-, Maß- ur>d Schraffurlinien

VW - GT 70 VW- GT 150

max. power 55 kW 1 (75 HP) 100 kW (136 HP)

spec, fuei consumption
- at max. power 388 g/kWh (0.63 ibs/HPh) 310 g/kWh (0.50 Ibs/HPh)
- at 30 % power 660 g/kWh (1.07 lbs/ HPh) 375 g/kWh (0.61 Ibs/HPh)
air flow 0.59 kg/s ( 1.30 lbs/ s) 0.84 k g / s (1.85 Ibs/s)
pressure ratio 3.7 4.5
turbine inlet temperature 1184 K (1674 F) 1283 K (1850 F)
size 0.156 m 3 3
(5.5 f t ) ; 0.275 m3 (9.7 f t 3 )
weight 170 kg (375 lbs) 210 kg (463 lbs)

ambient 288 K .1 b a r ; 2 % pressure l o s s at air inlet and at gas exhaust ;

engine auxiliaries

FE
OGGD Eng ine Design Data 76 30 57
 ;iphe ,iurh
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AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE FE

oro VW-GT70 76 30
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AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE FE

-GT150 76 30 51
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AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE FE

anco VW-GT150 76 30 51
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EXPERIMENTAL GAS TURBINE FE

oooo CAR R0 80 76 30 49
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JfV

DIFFUSION SINGLE STAGE TWO STAGE

FLAME PREMIX PREMIX

FE
O00D COMBUSTION CHAMBER CONCEPTS 76 30 52
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CERAMIC GAS FE
oooo TURBINE PARTS 76 30 53
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 FUEL ECONOMY COMB. CYCLE mpg RATED POWER , HP
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CERAMIC GAS FE
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C0-N0x RANGES FOR DIFFERENT FE

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Form FE 326 d
 THE PIAT 6803 GAS TURBINE ENGINE - DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Paper to be presented at 1977 ERDA - Fourth International Symposium on

Automotive Propulsion System/Low Pollution Power System Development
(April 18-22, 1977)

Washington DC - USA

E. CERRATO
G. CIPOLLA
R* mRGARY
G. PIGNONE

PIAT - S.p.A. - Torino

 ABSTRACT

This paper describes the mechanical design, components test, engine performance and

vehicular application of the FIAT 6803 two shafts, regenerative gas turbine engine.

The FIAT 6803 engine, designed for application on trucks and buses, has a maximum

rating of 260 KW (350 HP). The adopted solution is with a single stage centrifugal

compressor,two axial turbines, power turMne variable nozzle, two ceramic regenera-

tors, and is electronically controlled.

The engine performance and the mechanical behaviour are on the whole satisfactory,
although much work remains to be done in order to reduce fuel consumption. A great
deal of emphasis is being placed therefore on improvements of combustion system,
aerodynamic components efficiency and gasifier matching.

The main problems encountred within the mechanism of the engine concern the regenera
tors sealing system durability and the reliability of the variable nozzle mechanism.
In fact much work is still required in regenerators area.

After completion of the test evaluation program, one unit has been mounted on an expe
riaiental bus for road tests. The drivatolity is good. The exhaust emissions
are satisfactory.
 INTRODUCTION

The vehicular gas turbine enginehas been the object of a remarcable research effort

by PIAT from the early 195O"s.

In 1954 a simple cycle 180 KW engine was developed and installed on a vehicle for

road demonstration.

The activity was subsequently directed to deepen the knowledge, both theoretical and

experimental, of the gas turbine problems. Two models were developed of the two-shaft

recuperative type with variable geometry nozzle for the power turbine. One of these

engines followed the pattern with the power turbine upstream of the compressor's tur

bine, the other with the power turbine downstream.

At that stage a great deal of emphasis was placed to improve the ability to design

the fluidodynamic components. The methods of calculation were verified and improved

by an intense experimental activity on compressors, turbines and combustors.

Ai; the beginning cf 1970 the design of the 6803 engine for installation on an experi-

mental bus was begun. Engine tests started at the beginning of 1974, the bus evalua-

tion in the 3arly 1976. The goal of the program is the acquisition of a direct expe -

rience of the problems and technologies connected with the gas turbine vehicular a p -

plication.

The main effort has not, therefore, been directed to the design improvements as com-

pactness and cost, but rather iri order to achieve a unit which would allow the widest

acquisition of experimental informations.

To this effect the engine has been designed following a modular technique which allows

several engine arrangement variations.

- 1 -
 - 2 -

The design detail drawings and construction stages have been developed together

with an extensive experimentation of the fluidodynamic and mechanical components.

Presently two engines are testing,the first on a bus for road evaluation, the se-

cond on a test bench for endurance and reliability improvements. Tests on compo-

nents, and in particular the combustor evaluation with regard to the emissions of

pollutants, are in progress.

The purpose of the paper is to describe the thermo-fluidodynatnic and mechanical

design of the Fiat 6803 gas turbine engine, its installation on a bus and the per

formance achieved.

GEHERAL LAYOUT

The Fiat 6803 gas turbine engine has been designed to be installed on trucks or

biia-es. Its maximum power is 260 KW (fig. 1 ) .

The engine is a two-shaft regenerative gas turbine interstage variable nozzle. As

can be seen in fig. 2, the engine is also provided with a device to mechanically

connect the power turbine with the gas generator (power-transfer) in order to veri

fy the ability of this system for braking and control purposes.

The engine main section is shown in fig. 3.

The main housing, is the principal structural member of the engine, to which the

following six major subassemblies are assembled:

- the gas generator assembly with ancillary equipments: fuel and oil pumps, varia-

ble nozzle actuator pump, starting system and the hydraulic pump for the automatic

transmission;

- the two regenerators, fitted at both sides of the sngine, with the inherent sup-
 r
- 3- V

port system, the drive mechanism and the seals;

- the combustor, located at the "bottom side of the housing, with injector and igru
r

ter plug;
- the power turbine variable nozzle }
- the power turbine with reduction gear traino Incorporated in this unit is the
clutch for the hydraulic actuated power-transfer device«

Each subassembly is a self-contained unit and can be separatly removed from the en
gine, except the power turbine va.-iable nozzle which can been removed only after the
gasifier unit has been removed: this solution allows partial inspections and the
possibility to modify several components without disturbing the remainder of the
engine.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

The air enters the compressor through a double entry air intake, then from the com-
pressor diffuser outlet passes through the cool half of the regenerators to feed
the combustor. Prom the combustor the hot gases are conveied to the gasifier turbi- i
ne by a vortex chamber. After the turbine stages the gases pass through the hot half of
the regenerators and are finally exhausted. tt
The operating conditions at the design point are shown in table 1«

TABLE 1 - FIAT 6803 operation conditions at the design point (sea level and 300°K =
= 27°c)
Output power 260 KW (350 BHP)
Output speed 2920 rpm
Air flow 2o4 Kg/s
 _4-

Compressor pressure ratio 4*15

Turbine inlet temperature 95O°C
Gasifier speed 33» 300 rpm
Power turbine speed 27 »500 rpm
Compressor efficiency O»785
Compressor turbine efficiency 0«90
Power turbine efficiency 0.85
Combustor pressure loss 3»5$
Regenerator effectiveness 0.85
Regenerator speed 18 rpm
Regenerator leakage 5$
Fuel No. 2 Diesel oil

AERO-THERMO DESIGN

Compressor
The centrifugal compressor impeller aerodynamic design has been carried out on the
basis of the i)allenbach (1) and Katsanis (?) theory, csnsisting in the analysis of
the hvb-to-shroud and blade-to-blade equilibrium eqvsations.
Afterwards the computing methods, based on the jet-flow and diffusion ratio con-
cept of the R. Bean (3), were performed for check purposes. These methods are per-
haps less mathematically valid., but able to describe more realistically the rotor
flow which, being widly separated,is not actually similar to the ipotetical poten-
tial flow of the preceding methods. Likewise the diffuser (of the channel type) has
been designed o n the basis of the blade-to-blade analysis.
The present compressor design, defined through**** a large, amount of experimental
 - 5-

research, includes a 22 blade rotor with radial exit (tangential velocity at outlet

diameter is equal to 450 m/s) and a 13 channels diffusor (fig. 4 ) . A low diameter

ratio of the vaneless diffuser was selected to obtain anear straight surge line, fa-

vourable to a good gasifier matching.

At present a great deal of investigations is being performed both on the rotor and

on the diffuser to locate the gasif.'.er matching c\irve in the compressor maximum ef-

ficiencies range.

The total to sta+ic characteristics cf the current compressor configuration are shown

in fig. 5 compared with the first configuration.

Regenerators

Ceramic type regenerator cores of 685 mm outlet diameter and 76 turn thickness have

been chosen. A lot of research work has been devoted to the design and development

of the rubbing seals, the main problems being the leakage and wearing rates of the

solid lubrificant layer, plasma sprayed on the metallic pads..

To deeply investigate this subject a regenerator test rig has been built, ablp to

perform the seals tests in real operating conditions. Pig. 6 shows the values of

leakage and driving torque, obtained on the fixture, for the current seals and for

the new type with preloaded pads.

Before the rig tests, an important experimental program has been performed to evalua

te the characteristics of different kinds of solid lubricants.

Nevertheless a lot remains to be done to improve the life of the rubbing 7~4B» which

until now is far too short in comparison of other manifactures claims.

Comtmstor

The coiabustor of the 6803 engine is a conventional can type with three rows of holes

and film cooling fences for the primary and secondary air and finally for tha dilui-

tion air: a large swirler, useful to obtain a wide stability range of combustion
 - 6-

is provided.

For the geometry assessment an important experimental program has teen performed

using the corabustors tes t rig.

The results of the experimental investigations, as gas temperatures distributions

as the combustor exit and wall temperatures are shown in fig. 7» The pressure los-

ses are fairly low (3>5$ at the design point), no carton deposits are generated

in the whole range of operating conditions.

Recently, development work to optimize the combustGr emission characteristics is

being carried out using a specific test fixture, which exactly reproduces the flri

dodynamic engine working conditions (fig. 8 ) . Pig. 9 shows a new type of combustor

fitted with th= turbine inlet vortex chamber.

Turbines

The hot gases expansion occurs through two single stage axial turbine rotors: the

first to drive the compressor,the second for the power generation. The rotors rota

te in opposite directions.

The blade design has been performed employing computing methods derived from the ini_
tial Baumgartner concept (4), which was afterwards implemented using the radial e-

quilibrium equations. The basic flow pattern concept applied in both wheels design

is the free vertex, which is particularly suitable in this case, because of the re-

latively small height/diameter cascade ratio. The blade losses evaluation is based

on the Sodeberg correlation.

The efficiencies of the gasifier turbine are shown in fig. 10. The exhaust diffuser

geometry results exhibite a static recovery equal to above 50$ of the kinetic inlet

energyu
 - 7-

Control system •

The control of the engine operates essentially on the fuel flow and on the geome-

try of the power turbine variable nozzle. It is performed by an Electronic Control

Unit (E.C.U.) able to define the proper fuel flow and the variable nozzle blade
setting versus the accelerator pedal and the engine working conditions.

The hydraulic actuator of the variable nozzle inlet vanes is electrically control-

led.by the E.C.U.

The E.C.U. logic, shown in fig. 11,is alike the others applied in similar engines.

It allows two operating modes: the "slow" and the "fast" control.

In the case of "slow" power variation demands by the driver, the fuel flow and the

power turbine variable nozzle are controlled in such a manner as to mantain the gas

generator Turbine Inlet Temperature (T.I.T.) at the maximum value between the maxi-

mum gas generator r.p.ra. and 90$ r.p.m.. Below of this value the T.IoT. is decreased

in order to mantain the regenerators inlet temperature within the safety limits.

"?ast" power increase requests are complied by a quick opening and closing of the va

riable nozzle -toghether with a larger fuel flow supply. The TIT control, in this pha

se, is shown in the dotted line of fig. 12, shifted upwards of about 80°C with respect

to the slow control line.

When the variable nozzle is opened nearly all the enthalpy drop is accomplished through

the first turbine, therefore a fast acceleration of the gas generator occurso The fol^

lowing quick closing of the nozzle allows the power turbine tc pick up the higher

available power with a very short delay with respect to the driver demand.

Vfhen the driver quickly releases the accelerator pedal;the control system sets the

nozzle vanes in reverse position, thus achieving a braking effect.

The 3.C.U. is provided with programs for the starting and shut-off procedures and

with safety devices.

 -8-

The power-transfer system control has not yet been realised at the present.

MECHANICAL DESIGN

Engine housing
The engine main housing (fig« 13) is an one-piece nodular iron casting, providing
the connection of several modules as the gas generator, the power turbine unit,
the combustor subassembly and the oil sump. The regenerators aecomodations are pro
vided at both sides of the housing comprising the support and drive system, the
seals platform and the regenerators cover flanges.
The engine bulkhead dividing the high from the low pressure side is fitted with p£
wer turbine variable nozzle support flange. The inner housing surface is supplied
with linerless prefottned insulation panels directly glued on the metal. The panel
surface is hardened to avoid erosion from the gases.

Gasifier and ancillaries equipments

The gasifier module .includes the compressor, the compressor turbine, and the reduc
tion gear train for the ancillary equipments actuation.
The bearing support is in aluminum alloy casting (A-U5NZr), shielded with thermally
insulating panels as used in the housing*
The centrifugal compressor impeller is an aluminum alloy investment casting, fitted
on the gas generator, shaft by means of a polygon profile conreetion as a self-cent£
ring device. The compressor wheel vibration characteristics have been checked using
laser olografic techniques (fig. 14).
The compressor diffuser is an aluminum alloy casting, finished by a numerical con -
trol machine.
The sasifier turbine wheel (fig. 15) is integrally casted with the blades in UTOO
 - 9-

713 LC» It is electron beam welded to the shaft.

The first stage nozzle is integrally casted in Stellite 31 with the gas duct which

i-3 fitted with support rings for the turbine inlet vortex chamber at one end, and

at the other end for the interstage. The vortex chamber is made in Hastelloy X

sheets A gear train, fitted on the engine front, provides the actuation of the oil

and fuel pumps and the regenerators drive.

The starting is made by means of an 8 KW electric motor which drives the gear train

through an electro-magnetic clutch. When the clutch is disconnected, the electric

motor can indipendently drive an auxiliary pump to feed the lubrificating oil system

before the engine start or to provide an oil flow to coo3 Ine bearings after the en-

gine is stopped.

Regenerators

The driving and ."suspension system of the regenerator cores is made by an outside

metallic ring with intermediate foil springs; to compensate the thermal expansion and

to transmit the driving torque (fig. 16).

The metallic ring is externally shaped with two races for suspension rollers and is

fitted with a toothed ring meshing with the driving pinion. The radial position in

the housing is provided by the rollers mating with the ring •races, (Pig, 17)
One roller is mounted on a fixed pivot, the second on springed pivot, the third is

integrally machined with the driving pinion connected to the driving shaft of the re

generator by a polygon profiled joint. The regenerators are axially located by the

rubbing seals supporting the resulting gas thrust on the coree

The sealing system consists of metallic rubbing pads plasma sprayed with solid

cant (CaP+lTiO2) and flexible metal foils. The present and the upgraded configura-

tions are shown in fig, 18,

The second configuration has been studied in order to give some pressure on the rub-

bing pads fcven at the low engine speeds.

 - 10 -

The rubbing pads installation in the engine housing is shown in fig. 19*

Combustor

The combustor unit consists of the combustion chamber, the injector and the igniier

plug, all fitted to an external cap, flanged to the main housing. The injector is

a single nozzle air assisted type.

In i;teady-stade, the'air is supplied by the compressor diffuser exit with a dynamic

intake. During the starting sequence the air is supplied by the brake bus system.

Several igniter plugs were tested. The high energy system has been finally selected.

Variable power turbine nozzle

The variable power turbine nozzle module (fig. 13) consists of 27 Hastelloy X preoi

sion cast vanes supported by a ring holder, flanged to the bulkhead.

The vanes are fitted with pinion gears meshing with a ring gear supported by the hoil

der. In order to reduce friction and wear the vanes stems are spray coated with so-

lid lubricant and the ring gear is supported by suitable graphite pads.

The ring gear is actuated by an externally located hydraulic rotary actuator connec-

ted, through on Oldham coupling, to the stem of one vane. The vanes angles range from

- 12° (min throat area) to + 93° (reverse position) with respec to the design angle.

The holder bears, by means of the vanesYbushes, the external v. 11 of the interstage

duct. The internal wall of this duct is' clamped by three, airfoil shaped struts fitted

to the walls with a suitable degree of freedom in order to allow differential thermal
\
expansions.

Power turbine .
The power turbine module consists of the rotor, the shaft and bearings (fig. 20);the
 - 11 -

exhaust diffuser and the main gearbox. The rotor bearing housing is an aluminum al-

' loy casting (A-U5NZr) externally shielded by a. suitable thermal insulation.

The turbine blades are integrally casted with the rotor in INCO 713 LC as the gasi-

fier turbine. The. shaft is electron beam welded to the rotor.

The reduction gear train is double staged and nua.de by two couples of helical gears

with a resulting gear ratio of 9,45 to 1. In the gear box is also housed the powex-

clutch.

Lubrioat iron

Oil for lubrication and cooling is provided by three pumps, mechanically driven by

the gasifier shafts the first pump supplies the oil to the bearings and the gears,

the second takes the oil from the sump to the cooling radiators and
supplies the pressure to actuate the power-transfer clutch, the third scavenges the

oil from the auxiliary gear box pan.

The oil complies with DEI© 2487 specifications. Tha oil sump capacity is 30 litres.

Fuel system
The fuel is supplied to the nozzle by a gear pump through a metering device which

controls the nozzle pressure (p=30 bars at the design point) as a function of the

compressor discarge pressure and according to an electrical signal from the B.C.U..
An electrically drive boost pump supplies the pressurized fuel during the starting

sequence•
The fuel is Diesel oil number 2.

Bearings
The £isifier and power turbine shafts are carried by hydrodynam?.c bearings fitted to

an oil damped flexible support.

 -12 -

The hydrodynamics bearings were.selected because of their reliability and quietness

characteristics; nevertheless a solution adopting roller bearings is being investi-
gated, mainly with the aim of reducing the friction losses.
She material selected for the bearing support* is cast aluminum in order to avoid
engine soak—back problems after engine stop, because of the good thermal conducti-
vity of this material.
The external thermal insulation and the cooling of the internal surface,provided
by the oil discharged from the bearings,assure a steady state temperature of the
bearings well below the safe values.

BNQIBE TEST

The test bench results of the engine performance are shown in fig.21.
The main functional parameters are plotted in fig. 12 versus the gasifier speed.
A test bench exhaust emissions survey has.been performed on the engine in its current
configuration, not yet optimised from the emission point of view.
The emissions levels according to the "13 modes" procedure for heavy duty vehicles
are: HC = 3.4 gm/HP.h• , CO = 24 gm/HP.h , HO* = NO + ¥02 = 2 « 6 4 gm/HP.h .
The results regarding nitrogen oxides are plotted in fig. 22 versus gasifier speed.
The high values of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides are due to a not yet satis-
factory combustion at partial loads; a test program for improving the combustion pro-
cess in these conditions is underway.
 VEHICLE ESTSTALUTION

The bus is a modified intercity current model normally powered by a 200 KW Diesel
engine. .(Fig. 23).
The chassis modifications were made in order to allow the engine installation in
the rear end and the body nodifications in order to provide the passages for the
air inlet and exhaust gases ducts and the installation of the accessories and au-
xiliary units in the vehicle central zone (fig. 24).

The engine is connected to the wheels by means of an Allison HT74OCT four speed
automatic transmission fitted with an hydraulic coupling. The coupling has a very
low torque characteristic at power turbine low speed and is completely and autoaia
ticslly clutched when the power turbine speed exceeds 5000 r.p.m..
The engine and transmission oil coolers and the vehicle accessories (coolers, fan,
brake air compressor, alternator, poorer steering pump) have been installed in the
central section of the bus to achieve a better weight balance and to improve the
engine accessibility. The power to drive accessories is supplied by the power tur-
bine through an hydrostatic transmission.

Devised as a travelling test bench the vehicle is supplied with a complete system
of aurvay, with visualization and recording of all the main functional parameters
of the engine and the vehicle.
Vehicle performance
The tractive force characteristics of the vehicle are shown in fig. 25.
The acceleration curves of the vehicle at full load (total weight 16.000 Kg= 350001b)
are plotted in fj.g. 2*5 as function of time.
The drivability is satisfactory.
 - 14 -

Noise

Although the vehicle is only roughly treaded.from the point of view of the acoustic

insulation, a survey of the emitted noise has teen performed following the EECn°73/35O

specifications for heavy-duty omologation (full load acceleration from constant speed
of 3/4 of max speed' in II gear = 45 Km/h, with fully loaded vehicle) the noise levels

obtained are 82 dB (A); EEC limits are 91 dB ( A ) .

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors wish to express their gratitude to dr« G. Savonuzzi for his leadership

in the design and development of the 6803 gas turbine engine.

Finally, the authors wish to thank the FIAT Research Centre for permission to publish

this paper.

REFERENCES
(i)F. Dallenbach: The aerodynamic design and performance of centrifugal and mixed -
flow compressors (SAE Paper 268A - 1961)

(2) T. Katsanis: Use of arbitrary quasi - orthogonals for calculating flow distribution
in the meridional plane of a turbomachine^NAfiA TN D - 2546 (1964)).
T. Katsanis: Use of arbitrary quasi - orthogonals for calculating flow distribution
on a blade-to-blade surface in a turbomachine (lewis Research Center).- .

(3) R.C. Dean: The fluid dynamic design of advanced centrifugal compressors (Creare TN -
185 (1974))

(4) F. Baumgartner - 8. Ansler: Presentation of a blade-design method for axial-flow

turbines, including design and test results of a typical axial-flow stage (Transaction
of the ASME Journal of Engineering for Power - January i960).
 !33g_PIAT_68p3. Pas Turbine B-ugne_--_JDer= it.n and Development

ILLUSTRATION'S

Fig. 1 - Fiat 6803 L~-"5 turbine online

fig. 2 - .-jchrr/.itic C3nor=>l arrat:;~-;i.;e:it
P?£T. 3 - Fir*.t <"{:G3 £?.s t u r b i n e .-".5n r o e t i o n

Pig-. 4 - Co; t r i f u £ ; a l cv.iri-orr-or c r s •: izt rig

Fig 1 . 5 ~ Compressor parfor.-^r.oe v^.?.

;
^ C« 6 - ?.c g e n e r a t o r '"•^':"\:~3 •":!'i "c'.-v-.:^ cr.r. • • " • c ' . ' i - i s t i c s

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4
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•'•M •;. 9 •- :'~v; t v r s of c^rctce t o r -;i+h - t w i i - a ir>1&t v o l u t s

."\.^, ' 0 - '•*:-••;i f i ^ r tui'bir.2 efficiency

I'-'r« 11 " ir>1:'?^ ? ' ^ varJi-.'bla po;.'er •turbine i i o a z l e c o n t r o l Sj-^V.ni F c h s a a t i c

':"'•'~. ' 2 - f . j r f o ".•=.• •••? f '• " • - " o t e r s v s : " i . : s g . ' . s i f i e r vpseds

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?-•£• 15 •*• ^ s ° 2 -fU-r ' - j ' t i r ^ ; : : ^ p b l y v:* l h I . -• <-in : -;

'Pi J4 1'6. - Cer;:.<Tiic cor a <.•„ .>,•.•:"•' ^r ot.rtic : - " ^ ! i ! s i i j n :..rd •• v: v i '•5

iAi/;. 17 ~ Hoc5r.eivr.-tor •••••.^.•••..::ion i .'rivir£ •v/Htem

Fig. 18 ~ "^.--rorator KGalirg s ; ; - : .3

Fig. 19 ~ P.vibbing p-?.fls ir:«"'eallatr-:-:i ir. the engine housing
Fig. 20'•-:Fouer turbine r o t o r ay :••-!-nl/ with bearing's
?•'*. 21 - i!;:^i->as pij'foiraiica
,;'i r , ?2 -»-"!' i< 7sion ":ap of xh3 ;:••-;' ~3 • ..
r' •:. 23 - fizz C3O3 pc. -j^-sd tu3
r-5.;"• -'4 • ".V'i-i.cle .ir-si-b.-iJlotion
;:'.'S« 25 -- Tractive forns .•'; •.rac J; . i r-?':i c s '
?'£, 26 - V'?*ui els re? \ y.:-v"o^••-•v.-.a
 Pig. 1 - Fiat 6803 gas turbine engine

. Pig. 2 - Schematic general arrangement

Pig« 3 - Fiat 6803 gas turbine mair section

Fig. 4 - Centrifugal compressor on test rig

 TOTAL
TO STATIC
PRESSURE
RATIO
CURRENT TYPE
DIFFUSER VANE
4.5-

4.0-

3.5-

3.0-

2.5-

2.0-

1.5.

1J
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
INLET AIR FLOW, kg/s

Pig-. 5 - Compressor performance map.

KERCENT
REGENEHAVOR
LEAKAGE

j-PRELOAUtD SEALS

i————n^

80 90
PERCENT GASIFIER SPEED

Pig. 6 - Regenerator leakage and "torque characteristics

 GAS
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCES
6803 COMBUSTOR CHAMBER

WALL
FIRST COMBUSTOR TEMPERATURES
CHAMBER

124 65 4,61

DISCHARGE GAS
TEMPERATURE

120"
?940'

ITo- mmoBo
940" JgS^980'

WALL
CURRENT COMBUSTOR TEMPERATURES
CHAMBER

103 20

DISCHARGE GAS
TEMPERATURE
brfflrr. 320'
r ^ r ^ 880- I "V- MO"
g « « ^ 920" ^ ^ ^ 960 c

Pig. 7 - Teirpera-ture distributio-n at combustor exit and wall temperature

8 - Combustor test r i g sinralciting engine fluidodinamic flow conditions

Pig., 9 - of combustor with turbine inlst volute

0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 '1
VELOCITY PARAMETERS

Pig. 10 - Gasifier turbine efficiency

Pig. 11 - Fuel and variable power turbine nozzle control system schematic

?c G
PRESSURE AIR FLOW
RATIO . ko/h
FUEL RATIO "C

.1000

.950

900

60 7D 80 90 100
GASIFIER PERCENT S'EED

Pig. 12 - Performance parameters versus gasifier speeds

Fig, 13 - Main housing fitted with power turbine variable nozzle ass'y

Pig. 14 - Compressor impeller olografic laser vibration mode

 Pig. 15 - Gasifier rotor assembly with bearings

Pig, 16 - Ceramic core regenerator elastic suspension and driving

Pig. "?7 - Regenerator suspension and driving system

a) PRESENT CONFIGURATION
b ) UPGRADED PRELOADED CONFIGURATiQN

ip. 18 - Regenerator sealing systems

 19 - Rubbing pads installation in the engine housing

Pig. 20 - Power turbine rotor assembly with bearings

 SPECIFIC
FUEL
CONSUMPTION
g/kwh

1DDO.

7SO.

500.

250.

1000 2000 3000

OUTPUT SPEED S H A F T R.P.M.

Fig. 21 - Engine performance

A
NO

9 100
GASIFIER 'ERCENT SPEED

Fig. 22 - Emission map of the engine

 Pig. 23 - Fiat 680} powered bus

AIR INTAKE AND FILTER EXHAUST

TESTING INSTRUMENTATIONS

Pig. 24 - Vehicle installation

TRACTATIVE
FORCE
(x 103 Nwl

20
\ \ a 2 nd GEAR

^GASIFIER PERCENTSr
15
\\ v\ / 3 n d GEAR

10.

/ 4 t h GEAR

\A
5.

0.
50
X
100 150
VEHICLE VELOCITY (km/h)

ig. 25 - Tractive force oharacteristi cs

-1000 m

•400 m

:i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 sec.

F^fi:. 26 - Vehicle road performance

 COMBUSTION PERFORMANCES
OF INTERMITTENT FUEL INJECTION OF GAS TURBINE

Noritoshi HANDA
New Pcwer Source Research Department
Central Engineering Laboratories
Nissan Motor Co. , Ltd.
1, Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, Japan

ABSTRACT
This paper deals with the control and combustion of automotive gas
turbines, and describes the results of our combustion tests conducted to
find out how an inexpensive on-off control system could be applicable to
conventional gas turbines. To obtain stable continuous combustion, the
frequency of an on-off control system producing intermittent fuel injection
should be approximately 40 Hz or more. In our tests of intermittent fuel
injection, the stable combustion zone was expanded by damping the pulsa-
tion of fuel. Further, intermittent fuel injection rendered it possible to
decrease the fuel flow in ignition. Emission performance proved about
the same as with conventional control systems.

-1-
 FOREWORD
The gas turbine is one of (.he beFt prospects for automotive engines
ol the future from the standpoint of environmental protection and conserva-
tion of natural resources.
Among the problems involved in putting the gas turbine to practical
use as an automotive engine is the problem of initial cost. One factor
that renders the gas turbine high in cost is the use of super alloy; another
is the fuel control system. To make the fuel control system available
at a low cost is essential before the gas turbine can be put to practical
use as an automotive engine.
We believe that inexpensive electronic gasoline injection systems,
widely used recently on passenger cars, may be applicable to the gas
turbine. There is perhaps no other instance in which such an intermittent
fuel supply system and an intermittent inje. *:ion method have been applied
to the gas turbine.

To achieve application of the intermittent injection method to the

gas turbine, we have conducted a variety of tests and have gained insight
into its applicability. The tesr results are described in this paper.
The tests have been conducted on the following three items:
'1) Combustion stability
(2) Inflammability and blow -out limit
(3) Exhaust emission performances
The stability of combustion is an important factor which effects
driveability and which greatly contributes to the vibration and noise of

-2-
 the engine components. Therefore, we have conducted:
(1) Visual observation of flame
(2) Measurement of pressure fluctuation in combustor
(3) Measurement of flame luminosity fluctuation

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM

The purpose of controlling the gas turbine is to efficiently obtain
necessary output from the engine, with mechanical or thermal protection
provided for the engine. The fuel control system, calling for highly
accurate control, involves a heavy cost.
To control the fuel flow, the fuel passage area of a measuring valve
already has been changed by a servomechanism. If a fuel flow on-off
control system is applicable to fuel control in the gas turbine, a more
inexpensive measuring valve and control circuit will suffice. Furthermore,
such a pulse-controlled method will be easy to handle.

The on-off control utilizes only two positions--on or off--and the fuel
flow is controlled by changing the ratio of "on" time to one cycle time.
PWM is a control method which changes the time average of a controlled
variable by changing the ratio of "on" time to "off" time, under a constant
and stable frequency (Cf. Fig. 1). Fig. 2 shows the fuel flow when the
on-off valve is utilized.

CONTINUOUS INJECTION AND INTERMITTENT INJECTION

Unlike a reciprocal engine, the gas turbine carries on continuous

-3-
 combustion with continuous fuel supply. Fuel pressurized by the fuel
pump is sprayed from the fuel injector into the combustor after being
measured by the control valve. Near the nozzle of the fuel injector, the
fuel forms a spinning film in the shape of a hollow cone; the spinning film,
as it becomes distant from the nozzle, grows thinner and undulates until
it is separated into minute droplets and scattered away. These droplets,
grouped together, form spray.

In a continuous fuel supply, the flow of droplets injected from the

nozzle is considered constant.
Suppose that the constant supply of fuel to the fuel injector is dis-
continued temporarily, such as for 0.5 second. Then the flow of fuel
injected from the nozzle also will undergo a temporary change. In other
words, a nearly constant distance between droplets will increase.
If this distance is sufficient to permit droplet flame propagation under
the given conditions, the flame can occupy the same position in a stable
system of coordinates. If this distance is increased, the fuel (droplet)
supply to the flame under formation will be delayed so that the flame front
will recede from the nozzle for as long as the lag time.
Where the flame front is stabilized after that point will, of course,
be determined not only by the size and velocity of droplets passing through
the space near the flame front but also by the air-fuel mixture ratio, air
flow and temperature there. In the actual combustor, droplets forming
groups affect one another in an intricate manner, and both droplet combus-
tion and gas combustion simultaneously take place. Such a condition makes

analysis difficult.
-4-
 TEST METHOD AND EQUIPMENT
Fig. 3 shows the test equipment. The test rig is a cylindrical can
type combustor.
JIS No. 1 kerosene has been used as fuel, and preheating of the air at
the combustor inlet has not been performed.
To judge the stability of the combustion process -- that is, to see
whether combustion reaction as a whole is occurring smoothly - - a total
pressure probe has been installed in die liner in order to record, by a
photocorder, the output signal of th3 pressure transducer.
The llame luminosity has been measured by a phototransistor (its
circuit is indicated in Fig. 4). The flame luminosity is related to the
stability of the flame as well as to an increase or decrease in free carbon
in the flame and is useful in comprehending the condition of the flame after
2
droplet combustion. After the fuel is pressurized to 30 kg/cm , the
fuel flow is established by the on-off valve and is supplied to the fuel
injector. In order to examine how the damping of the fuel pulsation produced
by the on-off valve affects combustion, two system circuits have been
provided between the on-off valve and the fuel injector.
A copper tube has been used for one circuit, and a slightly elastic
rubber tube for the other. Simultaneously recorded by the photocorder
are: (1) the output signal from the PWPvi controller for opening or closing
the on-off valve; (2) the pressure of fuel immediately in front of the fuel
injector inlet; (3) pressure in the combustor; and (4) the output signal or
the circuit of the flame luminosity measurement.

-5-
 TEST RESULTS
(1) Fuel Flow and Output Signal from Controller
Fig. 5 illustrates the relationship between the fuel flow and the on-off
valve actuating output signal. The fuel flow is, of course, determined by
the duty percentage, and it also is affected by frequency.
(2) Visual Observation Results
Fig. 6 shows the visual observation results; Fig. 6a, b and c indicate
the results of observation when the air flow is changed. The line of cycle
time 0 on the axis of abscissa represents an example where a valve other
than the on-off valve is used to control the fuel flow.
In the classification of stability, a flame which flickers in its entirety
has been designated as an "GoCillating flame"; a flickering flame perceived
to have a greater difference between brightness and darkness has been
designated as a 'strongly oscillating flame. " The boundary between these
two zones is not definite.
The visual observation results have indicated that when frequency of
approximately 40 Hz or more is used for the output signal, stable combus-
tion is obtainable. However, the blow-off zone was sharply increased with
an increase in cycle time, and the engine was in the idling condition in the
vicinity of the fuel flow at 3g/second. As this state is frequently utilized,
improvement was needed.

Fig. 7 shows test results in the case where a rubber tube is used in
the pipeline between the on-off valve and the fuel injector to decrease fuel
pulsation. Use of the rubber tube has greatly improved the characteristics
of blow-off.
-6-
 (3) Measurements of Pressure in Combustor
Fig. 8 presents the measurements of pressure in the liner. In this
figure, shown in O is the pressure fluctuation rate (%) defined by the
following formula:
Pressure fluctua- _ 2(Pmax - Pmin) i n n IO7, ,n
x JUU ( / o ) (i)
tion rate " P m a x + ^min
This chart r t . t a l s a trend considerably resembling the visual observa-
tion results. A pressure fluctuation rate of zero indicates a stable zone;
a rate in the 10's, an "oscillating flame" zone; a rate of 20 or more, a
"strongly oscillating flame" zone.
(4) Measurements of Flame Luminosity
Fig. 9a, b and c show the test results on flame luminosity when inter-
mittent injection is performed. In comparison wiih Fig. 9a, Fig. 9b ;hows
a high value of flame luminosity in spite of the fuel flow having been decreased
to 60%. Compared with Fig. 9c, Fig. 9b shows the same fuel flow but
indicates that the maximum flame luminosity in intermittent spray combustion
is increased two or three times.
(5) Results of Exhaust Emission Analysis
The exhaust emissions CO, HC and NOx in intermittent spray combustion
have been examined. The measurements obtained did not reveal any remark-
able changes in any of the three substances.

CONSIDERATION OF CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION IN INTERMITTENT

INJECTION
In the gas turbine's combustor, spray combustion and gas combustion
-7-
 occur side by side. To gain continuous stable combustion, the space
density of droplets in each type of combustion must be kept within set limits
in the place of combustion. To form the flame, a sufficient supply of oxygen
must be furnished and flame propagation between droplets must be possible
as well.
As mentioned above, there is a close relationship between the fluctuation
rate of pressure in the combustor and the flame stability visually observed.
This indicates that intermittent spray causes not only the movement of the
fiame front but also the cyclic fluctuation of the mass burning velocity. Of
course, this fluctuation also results from combustion load intensity. How-
ever, the fact that the flame luminosity during intermittent injection is always
greater than that during continuous injection indicates not simply the fluctua-
tion of combustion load intensity but also a rapid increase in carbon
particles and a change in the flame distribution in the combustor.
The measurements of exhaust emissions have provided us wich data
indicating that intermittent injection causes a slight reduction in NOx. Within
the test scope, it may be said that intermittent injection only slightly affects
exhaust emissions, including CO and HC.

Results pertaining to ignition and blow-off also have been obtained from
intermittent injection combustion tests. Improvement in ignition performance
by intermittent injection may be due to the easily ignitable air-fuel mixtures
produced in the neighborhood of the spark plug, even when the fuel flow is
comparatively small, as a result of a fluctuating spray angle caused by the
fluctuation of fuel pressure.

To prevent blow-off characteristics from deteriorating, a rubber tube

installed in che fuel pipeline for damping has proved quite effective and is
an important point in enabling the gas turbine to be put to practical use for
automotive engines.

CONCLUSIONS
The PWM fuel control system under development by Nissan has a good
possibility of practical application with a frequency of more than 40 Hz.
Utilization of the PWM fuel control system will greatly improve the ignition
performance. By damping the pulsation of the fuel flow, the blow-off per-
formance will be protected from deterioration.
At any rate, use of the PWM control system on the gas turbine will mark
one further step toward application of the gas turbine as an automotive
engine based upon cost reduction and. performance improvement.
 ON ON

OFF OFF

. Ti r TIME „

CYCLE TIME
To

lo
PWM CONTROL
Fig-1
 ON-OFF SIGNAL
PWM CONTROLLER

FUEL PUMP
ON-OFF cm
VALVE

RETURN
5™ "RELIEF
7 VALVE
FUEL
INJECTOR

FUEL FLOW SYSTEM

Fig-2
 |HMl I ^M» ^^m «•• ^^A ^^V« ^^^ ^ ^^^

PWM
iL J PRESSURE CONTROLLER
TRANSDUCER

AIR FUEL

CAMERA
RUBBER
JUI

METAL TUBE
SCHEMATIC OF TEST FACILITY
Fig-3
 AAAAA LIGHT

LIGHT

AA/V\A

PHOTO TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

Fig-4
 FUEL • KEROSENE
ON-OFF VALVE
INLET PRESSURE
•30 kg/cm2 G

60 80 100
DutyOV.)"
FUEL FLOW BY PWM CONTROL
Fig-5
 FREQUENCY Hi (Vsec)
20 70 50 30 20 15 40
42
L

JIO
A A A 50
(FLAME OSCILATES) <i
cc
70
3
100
Hi
13
X(ELAMEOSCILATES STRONGLY 2 0 0 <
v OUT)
apwoyj) * ;—g-. I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X1Q"*
CYCLE T I M E VHz (sec) PIPING: METAL TUBE
ON-OFF FREQUENCY AND COMBUSTION STABILIZATION
Fig-6a (AIR FLOW Wa=0.8k9/ssc)
 FREQUENCY Hz d/sec)
7050 30 20
20 o 70
o A FLAME 0SC1LATES)
o (STABLE)
5a
3 O 100

UlJ
.8 150
LJ

8 JFLAME
k
0SC1LATES
STRONGLY) cc
300
- * •
(BLOW OUT) 500
0 1000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X10ri
CYCLE TIME I/Hz (sec) PIPING: METAL TUBE
ON-OFF FREQUENCY AND COMBUSTION STABILIZATION
Fig-6b (AIRFLOW Wa=Uk9/sec)
 FREQUENCY HH d/sec)
7050 30 20 15
-CJL
Sr20 T 100 o

I (STABLE)
O
(FLAME OSCILATES g
O
O
O O
HJIO o (FLAME
A
OSCILATES 200
3
ASTRONGJ
LL
o c:
o 300
O
(BLOW OUT)
0 -2
3 A 5 6 7 X10
CYCLE TIME 1/Hz (sec) PIPING: METAL TUBE
ON-OFF FREQUENCY AND COMBUSTION STABILIZATION
Fjg-6c fAIR FLOW Wa=2k9/sec)
 FREQUENCY Hz (Vsec]
70 50 30 20 15
o o
T.20 100
en

o (STABLE) 150 CC

1 o A( FLAME OSCILATES)
A 200
-J
UJ
LL.
UJ
o (FLAME 300
OSCILATES STONGLY)
.(BLOW
0
1 2 3 A 5 6 7 xlO
CYCLE TIME "1/Ha (sec) PIPING: RUBBER TUBE
ON-OFF FREQUENCY AND COMBUSTION STABILIZATION
Fig—7 (AIRFLOW Wa=2kg/sec)
 FREQUENCY H 2 (Vsec)
70 50 30 20 15
20
21 ©

It.
RATE OF PRESSURE FLUCTUATION ^ P m a X - P m J n )
. , , (Pmax+
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x1(f
CYCLE TIME VHz (sec) PIPING: METAL TUBE
ON-OFF FREQUECY AND RATE OF PRESSURE FLUCTUATION
IN A COMBUSTOR
(AIRFLOW Wa=2kg /sec )
FLAME 400
j STABLE FLAME OSCILATES STABLE
LUMINOSITY 2 0 0 '

J\J\J\
°ON
ON-OFF
SIGNAL
85 1 I [30Hz_n_n_n_30Hz
FUEL NOZZLE
INLET FUEL
PRESSURE 20'

2-\
PRESSURE IN A
COMBUSTOR V
M (b) Msec
sec . Q.I sec 0.1
Wf=20.6 9/s A / F = 9 7 Wf=12.0 9/s A F = 1 6 7 Wf=12.3g/s A/F=163
(Duty 98%} (Duty 3 8 % ) (CONTINUOUS INJECTION)
PRESSURE IN A CONBUSTORAND FLAME LUMINOSITY
Fig-9 (METAL TUBE)
Session 3b
 THREE SHAFT TURBINE-TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
FOR VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS
By S. 0. Kronogard
United Turbine AB & Co,
Malmo, Sweden

During the years a number of different gas turbine

types have been designed and tested for vehicle applications.
Each one has been aimed at better characteristics and lower
price. At United Turbine in Sweden, a subsidiary to Volvo
AB, a gas turbine system, called the KTT system is being
developed0 (Ref. ERDA Ninth Summary Report, Nov. 17, 1975,
page 96-117).

Recent publications have revealed some of the elements

of the KTT concept. This system was conceived primarily for
vehicular applications. Special emphasis has been on reso-
lution of the chronic problems associated with small vehicu-
lar gas turbines: high part load and idle fuel consumptiont
high cost, and acceleration lag. These difficulties have
discouraged and retarded early implementation of production
programs. The KTT approach appears to have potential to
resolve or mitigate these problems to the point where seri-
ous consideration should be given to production.

I Objective
The purpose of this paper isj to highlight the versa-
tility of the KTT system, to show how such an engine-trans-
mission system can satisfy the installation requirements of
light vehicles, and to indicate its potential for use in
multiple engine installations in larger, heavy duty vehicle
applications.

Gas turbine advocates have long believed that the inherent

compact, light weight, and smooth operating characteristics
of gas turbines would ultimately give the gas turbine an
important place in vehicle powerplant markets. Numerous
 - 2-
prototype engines have been built and tested. Many more
have been designed and analyzed. The important problem areas
have been identified} approaches to solutions formulated.

The three shaft KTT system represents a new approach which

offers considerable promise for vehicular gas turbine engines.
Analysis, design and prototype tests to date on the three-
shaft KTT system show it to have a remarkable compatibility
with the requirements for small vehicles such as low idle and
part load fuel consumption, rapid acceleration and low cost.

II Review of the KTT System

A close integration of the three-shaft turbine engine
with the car transmission functions is the basic idea of the
KTT system. The configuration involves three independent
turbine stages (Fig. 1). The first stage drives the com-
pressor (gas generator rotor); the second stage drives the
output shaft and thus the load. This is the same principle
as in a two shaft engine. The third stage, the auxiliary
turbine, drives a planetary gear system, and, through this,
can deliver power to both the gas generator rotor and the
output shaft.

The key features of this system are:

. The three-stage turbine design for a given rated power and
pressure ratio results in reduced size, weight, inertia,
and tip speed of the turbine wheels. This in turn results
in reduced stress and overall package size. It can also
open the road for early introduction of ceramic rotors
(Fig. 2 ) .

. Alternatively the three stages can be used for a higher

design pressure ratio without increasing the stresses or
sizes of the turbine stages compared to a two shaft engine.
A higher pressure ratio results in a substantial improve-
ment in part load fuel economy (Fig. 3 ) ,
 - 3 -
. The hydraulic torque conversion function (where conversion
losses are rejected through the oil cooler) is eliminated
from the transmission and put into the tur-ine system. The
aerodynamic torque conversion accomplished by the free po-
wer turbine and the auxiliary turbine (act<* as a rotating
exhaust diffuser for the power turbine) make possible stall
torque ratios over kil. Conversion losses are in this case
recovered by the auxiliary turbine and the regenerator.

. Use of variable geometry with the three-shaft KTT system

also makes it possible to keep TIT (Turbine Inlet Tempera-
ture) close to optimum levels at part load and idle. Since
changing the power split between the three turbine stages
allows a certain freedom when designing the compressor
turbine and power turbine, these can be designed for high
efficiency at low load. This plus the higher loss recovery
as per above all act to reduce the idle and part load fuel
consumption.

. The lower inertia compressor turbine wheel increases acce-

leration capability of the gas generator. This in turn
permits a lower idle speed without sacrificing the time to
accelerate to a certain speed. This then further decreases
idle fuel consumption.

. The gear arrangement also permits an iramediats transfer of

torque and inertia energy from the auxiliary turbine rotor
system to the gas generator shaft if some sort of variable
drive is connecting these two systems.

In addition, if this optional use of a continuously or step-

wise variable drive between the auxiliary turbine and the
power turbine is combined with the. planetary gear system,
reaction torque will be supplied to the output shaft during
acceleration.
 - if -

. The close integration of turbine-transmission functions

results in an overall simplification, an£ reduction in
size and weight of the entire power system package. This,
in turn, enhances the installation flexibility of the sys-
tem. The schematic illustration of Fig. 4 shows the system
compared to other suggested turbine transmission systems
for cars* a two-shaft gas turbine engine with a 3 speed
automatic transmission, and a one-shaft gas turbine with
an IVT transmission.

. The KTT package is about 40$ smaller in size than the com-
parable piston engine-transmission package and also the
two-shaft gas turbine-transmission package. Estimates
show that this could correspond to more than 10$ weight
reduction for the entire vehicle.

Not only does the size reduction make it easier to install

the engine package in the vehicle and still accomodate
different styles and functional designs, but the corraspon-
ding weight reduction also makes further reductions in fuel
consumption possible.

Regarding the development work, it can be mentioned that com-

ponent testing was initiated toward the end of 1975« This
has included test of sub-systems as well as individual compo-
nents. Operation of the turbine-transmission functions be-
tween the power turbine• auxiliary turbine and the power
transfer shaft to the gas generator has been demonstrated.
Test and development of the complete prototype engine was
started late in 1976.

The results to date support the performance and operation of

t M KTT system predicted from the earlier analyses and design
studies.
 - 5-

III Installation Studies

Increasing attention is being directed toward vehicle
installation investigations. The initial prototype engine
development is being done on a version of the KTT engine
called Mark I. To ease development problems, this engine
has two regenerator cores, one on each side. This will,
among other things, provide a more symmetrical temperature
distribution in the engine. The Mark II engine is a single
regenerator version of the KTT system. It represents a pro-
jected future production engine. Vehicle installations for
these two engines are discussed here.

A. Mark I Engine In Typical Compact Vehicle

The general arrangement and gas flow path of the Mark
I engine has been shown in Fig. 1. Figures 5. 6 and 7 show
the engine in the engine compartment of a typical compact
automobile.

In general this car is in the 3000 lb weight class with

10i<~ inch wheel base and suitable for four passengers. The
standard engine for the car has 130 cu. in. displacement,
and develops 100 HP at 5250 rpm. This engine plus automatic
transmission and radiator weighs about 520 lbs.

The MarK I in its initial version will develop about 125 HP

and weigh about 390 lbs. including the transmission. Accord-
ing to preliminary predictions, fuej. economy should be im-
prove d up to 20fo relative to a comparable piston engine.

B. Mark II In Typical Compact Vehicle

The Mark II engine is expected to be a production ver-
sion of the KTT system. It has been designed specifically
for a compact car or a light, high performance vehicle.
 - 6-

Special attention was given to reduced manufacturing cost,

lower installation volume. and increased installation flexi-
bility. Either front-, rear-, or four-wheel drive can be
used. Because the KTT turbine-transmission system is so
short, it can be mounted with the turbine rotor axis per-
pendicular to the vehicle axis (cross-wise) and the regene-
rator toward the passenger compartment. The burner and
accessories are then easily accessible from the front; the
engine shape nicely fits within a low hood contour.

Figure 8 shows a mock-up of the engine in a compact vehicle

engine compartment. Figures 9 and 10 are installation sket-
ches showing the Mark II engine in a conventional rear-wheel
(optional four-wheel) drive arrangement and in a front-wheel
drive arrangement respectively. The vehicle shown is the
same as described before.

Figure 11 shows the engine in a four-wheel drive, jeep-type

vehicle.

The Mark II engine-transmission, will be rated in the 75 to

100 HP range and weigh about 280 lbs. This corresponds to
10?J reduction in vehicle weight. This permits additional
reductions in size and weight of vehicle and, in turn, re-
ductions in power required to drive the vehicle. This all
results in further improvements in fuel economy and emissions.

IV Future Installations
The KTT system really represents a family of turbine-
transmission power packages (Fig. 12). The basic elements
of the system can be optimized and combined to match the
specific applications involved. With this flexibility ap-
plications can range from single shaft electric generator
sets, to marine propulsion systems, to small passenger cars,
to heavy military vehicles.
 - 7-

Because of the small size and high power density of the basic
KTT system, the growth in application development can be
pursued in another direction — multiple or dual power
packages.

The possibility of using dual KTT gas turbine engines in

heavy duty trucks and buses is illustrated in Fig. 13.
Again the small size and flexibility of the KTT package
leaves more space for additional payload. Simultaneously
the high power density gives improved vehicle performance.

V Conclusions and Outlook

Preliminary assessment of the KTT system for installa-
tion in compact vehicles continues to support the conviction
that gas turbines will ultimately have an important impact
on the vehicle market.

Projections of possible narket growth (Fig. 1^) indicate

significant penetration of the military, heavy duty, and
industrial vehicle markets by the 1985-1990 time frasne.
Important penetration of the light vehicle and passenger
car market will follow by about five years.
 Torque - Compressor Turbine
T,.T
-AT
Torque - Auxiliary Turbine
Torque - Power Turbine
t Gear Ratio

Pig. 1 Schematic Drawing of Three-S' aft KTT System with

Single Regenerator
 TWO SHAFT THREE SHAFT
TWO STAGE THREE STAGE
TURBINE SYSTEM KTT SYSTEM

Ttooi ,—, ,—i

••50%

VOLL

INEF

Two-Shaft Turbine Three-Shaft K^T Turbine

Rotor System Rotor System

r'ig. 2 Relative Dimensions, Stresses and Inertia for

Rotors in Two-Shaft and Three-Shaft KTT Systems
 400
SFC
9/kWh
B,

300-
FG-2

VG-2

200-

100
TTc

Three-Shaft Characteristic
Two-Shaft Characteristic

VG-2;VG-3 = Variable Geometry, 2- and 3-Shaft Machines,

Respectively

FG-2;fG-3 = Fixed Geometry, 2- and 3-Shaft Machines,

Respectively

B = Specific Fuel Consumption

=
^"c Compressor Pressure Ratio

•'ig. 3 Influence of Design Pressure Ratio, Variable Geometry

and Fixed Geometry (FG) on Fart-Load SFC
 QFL Flow losses.
QATC Aerodynamic torque
Q conversion losses.
-Wi- FL " QATC
QTCI Torque conversion losses.

&
/-\ QTC2 Torque conversion losses.
VG
VG Variable geometry

n
[
ATC VG1 Variable geometry
VG2 Variable geometer*/
I, I I , III Basic shafting
H I T II Esai

a. The KTT System representative of a 3-shaft turbine configuration.

QPL + QTCI

I—fl VG
"TCI

"TC2
II

II

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Fig. 4 Different Turbine-Transmissions for Car Application

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Fig. 11 Installation Sketch of KTT Mark II in a Four-Wheel
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 KTT TURBINE FAMILY 3SH, 2SH, 1SH

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1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Fig. 14 Projections of Possible Market Growth for

Vehicular Gas Turbines
"CERAMIC GAS TURBINE TECHNOLOGY:
MATERIALS FOR TURBINE ROTORS"

By: Arthur F. McLean

Lewis R. Swank
James C. Uy

Turbine Development Department

Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, Michigan 48121
 "CERAMIC GAS TURBINE TECHNOLOGY: MATERIALS FOR TURBINE ROTORS"

INTRODUCTION
This paper reviews some of the general background and highlights of the
emerging technology of ceramic turbines and, in particular, discusses some of the
material developments associated with the critical, highly-stressed turbine rotor.
Automotive companies and gas turbine manufacturers have R & D programs
underway to investigate the application of ceramics for advanced gas turbine
engines covering the spectrum of power range from small vehicular turbines to
large electricity-producing gas turbines. The motivation to apply ceramics to the
turbine is to increase turbine inlet temperature with resulting improvements in
engine efficiency and specific power, and to replace costly nickel-chrome super-
alloys with potentially low cost ceramics. The other attributes of the gas turbine
include continuous combustion with low exhaust emissions, multi-fuel capability,
potentially lower maintenance, smooth vibration-free production of power, low
oil consumption, good cold starting capability and rapid warm-up time. Because
of this potential for the ceramic gas turbine, automotive companies, gas turbine
manufacturers and ceramic materials companies are active in developing ceramics
technology.
Probably the most significant program that has been described publicly is
the Ford program which is supported in part by both the Advanced Research Projects
Agency and the Energy Research and Development Administration. The overall program
objective is to draw together and develop ceramic designs, materials, processes,
and test and evaluation methods to establish the usefulness of brittle materials
and show this by demonstrating that uncooled ceramic components for an exper-
imental, high temperature, vehicular gas turbine engine can survive 200 hours of
duty cycle operation comprising 175 hours at 1930°F, 25 hours at 2500°F and a
number of transient starts and shutdowns. In addition, ERDA's current objectives
are focussed on continued development of ceramic technology for advanced gas
turbine engines.
SUMMARY STATUS OF STATIONARY CERAMIC COMPONENTS
Figure 1 schematically shows the hot flow path of the experimental turbine
engine used in the program. All of the high temperature components in this flow
path were designed for ceramics. In the case of regenerators, a number of companies
had previously investigated the use of ceramics. For example, twin Corning ceramic
regenerators made of lithium-aluminum-silicate were used in Ford's industrial
turbine program, and had accumulated thousands of hours of operating experience.
Under certain conditions, however, the lithium-aluminum-silicate material under-
went chemical attack associated with the sulfur content in the fuel or sodium
(salt) ingested into the engine. Resolution of this problem now seems well along
in that new materials are being developed in a separate program sponsored in part
by ERDA. Approximately 300 hours per month are being accumulated on each of
several Corning regenerator cores made of a new chemically resistant aluminum-
silicate material. To date one such core has survived testing for over 6700 hours
and another has been tested for over 2500 hours at 1800°F indicating its suit-
ability for a high temperature gas turbine.
< The hot flow pach components which are subject to the peak cycle temperature
of 2500°F and which are made out of superalloys in today's gas turbine, comprise
the combustor, turbine inlet nose cone, 1st and 2nd stage stators, 1st and 2nd
 -2-
stage turbine rotors, and "1st and 2nd stage rotor tip shrouds. The ceramic nose
cone, stators, rotors and rotor tip shrouds shown are of the design D configuration
which was the outcome of considerable earlier development, ''his last D configura-
tion uses common stators and rotors for both turbine stages. While this reduced
aerodynamic efficiency, it accelerated ceramic development by providing common
parts and tooling; the common tooling was especially important since the stator
was injection molded in one piece, in contrast to earlier iterations where it v"s
assembled from individual vanes.

As a result of continued developmental iterations, considerable progress

has been made on the stationary ceramic flow path components as summarized by
the test results shown in Table I which give encouragement to meeting the program
objectives for the stationary components.
THE HIGH TEMPERATURE CERAMIC TURBINE ROTOR
While development of stationary ceramics is encouraging, the real break-
through from superalloys to ceramics rests with success of the ceramic turbine
rotor. This is by far the most difficult task in the ARPA/ERDA/Ford or any
ceramic turbine program. These accurately and complex-shaped parts are uncooled,
yet have to withstand hostile through-gas at temperatures of up to 1371°C (2500°F),
rotational speeds of up to 64,000 rpm and thermal up-shocks and down-shocks
associated with engine starts and shutdowns.
Preliminary Design and Materials
In the preliminary phase of the program, various combinations of rotor
design/material/fabrication processes were considered including:
Direct hot pressing of an integral silicon nitride rotor.
. Ultrasonic machining of a rotor from a hot pressed silicon nitride billet
. Psendo-isostatic hot pressing of an injection molded silicon nitride
preform.
. Hot pressing through comformable tooling of preformed silicon nitride
blades and hub.
. Fabrication of a dense silicon carbide blade ring by chemical vapor
deposition.
. Electrical discharge machining of a rotor from a hot pressed silicon
carbide billet.
On the one hand, silicon carbide was preferred over silicon nitride because
of its higher dissociation temperature and therefore expected higher use tempera-
ture. On the other hand, silicon nitride has a lower thermal expansion so that,
for the same thermal boundary conditions, thermal stresses and associated strength
requirements are lower. All things considered, and especially since it was further
along in development, silicon nitride was selected as the primary material candidate
to meet the program goals.
Further preliminary design/materials/fabrication process work on the fully
dense silicon nitride rotor concept revealed some problem areas. One was the
difficulty of fabricating a fully dense rotor from silicon nitride and the other
was the relatively poor creep and stress rupture for trie rotor blades. In the
blades where temperatures are highest, the use of fully dense silicon nitride
prestos a problem because the material strength dropped off at high temperature.
This was due to the incorporation of a magnesia hot pressing additive required to
form fully dense silicon nitride. To overcome these problems, a duo-density rotor
approach was conceived.
 -3-
Duo-Density Rotor
In this concept, the blade ring would be made of reaction sintered silicon
nitride and could be fabricated either by injection molding or slip casting.
These methods do not require additives which degrade the strength of hot pressed
material. The hub would be fabricated of hot pressed silicon nitride which has
the high strength required for the bore of.the rotor. The bore region operates
at a relatively low temperature and hot pressed material retains most of its room
temperature strength at these temperatures. The duo-density concept is illustrated
schematically in Figure 2. The blade ring is attached to the hub by diffusion
bonding; two approaches are under development for this. In the two-piece approach,
the blade ring attaches directly to the hub with one diffusion bonded joint. The
other approach uses three pieces in which an intermediate bonding ring is formed
between the blade ring and the hub. While this extra bonding ring provides for
minor material composition changes, it does necessitate two diffusion bond joints.
Recent experience is showing that the two piece approach produces a better bond
and, of course, is simpler.
Rotor Temperatures and Stresses
Based on known engine conditions, rotor design geometry, and rotor
material physical properties, the rotor thermal and stress gradients can be
calculated.
The rotor is subjected to an environment which imposes upon it severe therme
and mechanical stresses. The hot gases, from which work is extracted, heat the
blades as they flow by the blades. The attachment bolt passes through the bore
of the rotor. The bolt requires cooling to prevent overheating. It is cooled by
flowing compressor discharge air down, a hole in the bolt. The bore of the rotor
radiates heat to the attachment bolt. The combination of heat input from the
blades and heat loss to the bolt sets up a thermal gradient in the disc. The
thermal gradient is illustrated in the isothermal contour map of Figure 3. The
temperatures shown are for the maximum power condition at 100% speed (64,240 rpm)
and turbine inlet temperature cf 1371°C (2500°F). The temperature gradients shown
in Figure 3 impose thermal stresses in the disc and in addition stresses are
•>mposed by the centrifugal loads. The combined centrifugal and thermal stress
contour map of the disc is shown in Figure 4.

The rotor blades are slightly cooled by the heat flowing from them into
the rotor disc. This sets up a thermal gradient in the blades. The temperature
contour map of the blades for 100% speed and turbine inlet temperature of 1371°C
(2500°F) is shown in Figure 5. The temperature gradients shown impose thermal
stresses in the blades and, in addition, stresses are imposed by centrifugal
loads. The combined stress contour map of the blades at the camberline is shown
in Figure 6.
These stress and temperature maps are typical of those used during design
iterations which led to the final design of the turbine rotor. The actual maps
shown in Figure 3 through 6 are for the final design. The materials selected for
the rotor therefore must be able to withstand these temperatures and stresses.
Probabilistic Design Technique
Based on the calculated temperatures and stresses in the rotor and the
measured strengths of the rotor materials, estimates of the rotor reliabilities
can be made at various engine conditions.
 -4-
Ceramic materials lack ductility to redistribute, locally high stresses.
Flaws that occur in ceramic materials may act as stress concentrations and raise
the stresses above the local calculated value of stress. The locally high
stresses may cause the flaw to grow rapidly causing failure of the part. Failure
in ceramics is therefore dependent on the flaw and stress distribution in the
part and requires a statistical approach to the calculation of reliability. The
statistical approach used in this paper was first proposed by WeibullD] and is
shown in Equation 1. /a m
[0
V V
Reliability = e (1)
In this equation, a is the local calculated stress and a0 and m are parameters
which show the probability of having a certain strength at that local point.
Weibull showed that the characteristic strength o 0 is identical to the ultimate
strength of materials in the classical theory as the Weibull modulus m increases
indefinitely. This provides a physical interpretation of the characteristic
strength. The Weibull modulus m is a constant relating to material homogeneity.
The larger the value of m, the more homogeneous the material.
For any structure, equation 1 is integrated over the volume of the
structure using the local value of the maximum principal stress. Volumes in which
the local value of the maximum principal stress is oppressive are neglected to
the integration as suugested by MansonL2J because structural ceramic materials
generally do not fail in compression. For complex structures, a computer program
is needed to perform the integration numerically. In the case of the rotor blades
and disc, a computer program has been prepared to compute reliability. This
computer program and the temperatures and stresses shown in Figures 3 through 6
were used to compute rotor reliabilities reported later in the materials develop-
ment section of this paper.
The analytical techniques and computer programs developed give a rapid
means of evaluating the reliability of a turbine rotor made of any specified
material and provide feedback to the materials engineer to aid him in materials
development.
MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT FOR CERAMIC ROTORS
In the duo-density approach, the blade ring is currently a monolithic
reaction sintered silicon nitride of 2.7 g/cc density, and the hub is a hot
pressed silicon nitride which contains a hot pressing additive. Joining of the
blade ring to the hub by diffusion bonding is accomplished simultaneously during
the hot pressing operation, which has been termed "hot press oonding" to
distinguish it from regular hot pressing. Much recent effort has been devoted
to refining this hot press bonding technique with the objectives of minimizing
damage to the blade ring and improving the uniformity of bond strength within a
rotor and from rotor to rotor. Most of these refinements involved improvements
in "blade fill" (the support for the blade ring), uniformity of radial and axial
pressures during press bonding, redaction of bending stresses, and optimization
of pressures.
Rotor blade rings are currently being made by injection molding, although
methods to slip cast blade rings and complete rotors have also been developed.
Studies of nitriding and molding compositions have contributed to the increase
in density from 2.2 to 2.7 g/cc and to improvement in creep resistance. Currently,
the Weibull strength has also been improved to a characteristic MOR of 35,000 psi
at a Weibull modulus of 10.
 -5-
For the hot pressed hub, many known grades of silicon nitride have been
considered. Because of the unavailability of known high strength silicon nitride
in the powder form, work with such material was limited to press bonding of
available preformed hubs to blade rings. In-house development has concentrated
on utilization of the commercially available CP-85 grade of silicon nitride
powder from Advanced Materials Engineering in England.
Parametric Study of Rotor Hub Material
Recently, a material parametric study was initiated to optimize Weibull
strength and resulting rotor reliability. In order to achieve high rotor relia-
bility, the proper combination of characteristic MOR and m is required; for
example, a material with a low characteristic MOR, but a high m, may be more
desirable than a material with a much higher MOR but slightly lower m.
This study involves the following experimental parameters: powder purity,
additive content, and powder milling conditions. The effects of the variables
were analyzed by means of a saturated fractional factorial analysis.
Table II shows the six variables and their two levels investigated. The
dummy variable was included to indicate if any strong interaction or unknown
vtriable existed. Duplicate runs were made in experiments 1 and 8 to evaluate
the reproducibility of results. The matrix as shown rep/esents the very minimum
amount of experimental data in this initial work for factorial analysis, and
should be considered preliminary information.
From each of the ten billets (7.6 cm. in diameter by 2.5 cm. thick)
listed in Table II, approximately forty "A" size! MOR test bars were machined.
Half of the bars were tested at 871°C (1600°F) and the balance were tested at
1204°C (2200°F) in four-point bending using a 0.953 cm. upper span and a 1.905 cm.
lower span. This resulted in statistical strength distributions at two selected
temperatures. From the MOR data such as shown in Table III for one example,
Weibull parameters were calculated by means of a "most likelihood estimator"L3]
program. Weibull parameters at 704°C (1300°F) and 1371°C (2500°F) were obtained
by extrapolation assuming a straight line. Use of these parameters plus thermal
and elastic properties such as shown in Table IV, in conjunction with the stresses
shown in Figures 4 and 6, permitted the estimation of the overall rotor short-time
reliability, as tabulated in Table V. These reliability numbers were used in
Table VI to evaluate the matrix of Table II.
The results of the above factorial analysis indicated that, since the
reproducibility of reliability results is 0.19299 as shown in Table VI, only the
variables ranked 1 to 3 are significant because their effects are larger than
0.19299. The small effect of the dummy variable indicates little interaction
among the variables and absence of a strong, unknown variable. The best material
would thus be made by tungsten carbide milling and contain 5% magnesia. Table
VI shows also that the results can be strongly influenced by the test bar machininc
source. It is important to point out that these preliminary results are presented
here to illustrate the method of approach rather than to present definitive
conclusions.

3.2 cm. long x 0.635 cm. wide x 0.318 cm. thick

 -6-

Based on the current state-of-the-art in materials development, Table V

shows that the required short-time r e l i a b i l i t i e s are well within reach. I t is
important now to tighten quality control to ensure the reproducibility of material
properties and confirm the results of the analytic techniques by means of exper-
imental testing for actual rotor r e l i a b i l i t i e s , while continuing to improve
material properties and design for increasing the rotor r e l i a b i l i t i e s .

Future Materials Study

In the future, this parametric study will be expanded to include more
variables, more levels of each variable, and a larger matrix. In addition, both
short-time reliability and lifetime reliability will be considered. Lifetime
reliability is expected to be predicted by two methods.
1. Statistical method based solely on strength distribution in short-time
mechanical tests.
2. Proof test method in which actual hardware will be proof loaded to calculated
proof stress ratios for ensuring a certain minimum life.
CONCLUSIONS
Ceramic gas turbine technology is receiving widespread attention for potent
application over the power spectrum of gas turbine engine.
In the ARPA/ERDA/Ford program, stationary ceramic components for a vehicula
ceramic turbine engine have been designed, fabricated and tested with encouraging
results.
The ceramic turbine rotor is the most difficult problem and a duo-density
silicon nitride rotor approach has been conceived and is under development.
Temperatures and stresses in this rotor for the full speed operating condition have
been predicted and probabilistic analysis techniques have been employed to assess
rotor reliability. Based on the current state of materials development, the
calculated reliabilities for the rotor are very encouraging.
An initial parametric study of hot pressed silicon nitride,used in the
highly stressed rotor hub, has been completed. From this study, the starting
powder and hot pressing additive can be selected for best rotor reliabilities.
 Nomenclature

b = width of specimen (cm)

Cp = specific heat
E = Young's modulus (GPa)
G = shear modulLS (GPa)
h = height of specimen (cm)
I} = length between supports (cm)
l_2 = length between load points (cm)
m = Weibull modulus
MOR 0 = characteristic modulus of rupture (MPa);the characteristic
value is the modulus of rupture value at which 63.2 percent
of the specimens have failed.
n = number of test samples
V = volume of the structure (cm^)
a = thermal expansion (10"6/°K)
k = thermal conductivity (*££%„)
m x i\
a - maximum principal stress at each point in the structure (MPa)
oo = characteristic strength (MPa [cm] 3/m )
v = Poisson's ratio
 References

1. Weibull, W., "Statistical Theory of Strength of Materials", Proceedings

of Royal Academy of Engineering Science, No. 151, 1939.
2. Manson, S. S., "Thermal Stress and Low-Cycle Fatigue", McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1966, p. 293.
3. Mann, N. R., Schafer, R. E., Singpurwalla, N. D., "Methods for Statistical
Analysis of Reliability and Life Data", Wiley, New York, 1974.
 Status of Design D Stationary Ceramic Turbine Components

Best Hours of Survival (Without Failure)

Component 1930°F 2500°F

Reaction Bonded SiC Combustor 175 hours 26 hours

Reaction Sintered Si3N4 Nose Cone 220 hours 5 hours
Reaction Sintered Si-3N4 Stator 175 hours 5 hours
Reaction Bonded SiC Stator 145 hours Not yet tested
Reaction Sintered Si3N4 Tip Shrouds 245 hours 5 hours

Table I
 Table II
Factorial Analysis Matrix
Machining Dummy
Experiment Number Powder % MgO Ball Type Wet/Dry Time Source Varial
la 1011 CP85 5 we Wet 72 B Co.
lb 1012 CP85 5 we Wet 72 B Co.
2 1029 CP85 5 A1 2 O 3 Wet 48 t Co.
3 1010 CP85 2 we Dry 72 T Co.
4 1030 CP85 2 AI2O3 Dry 48 B Co.
5 1018 KB I 5 we Dry 48 B Co.
6 1017 KB I 5 A1 2 O 3 Dry 72 T Co.
7 1019 KB I 2 we Wet 48 T Co.
8a 1014 KB I 2 A1 2 O- Wet 72 B Co.
8b 1016 KB I 2 A1 2 O 3 Wet 72 B Co.
Powder: Si 3 N4 powder, either as-received A.M.E. CP85 or after magnetic separation
and air reclassification of the CP85 powder by KBI.
% MgO: Weight percent MgO hot pressing additive.
Ball Type: Type of milling balls. WC balls were 0.95 cm size and Al20 3 balls were
1.9 cm size. In a gallon size milling jar, 30,000 g. we were used
with 800 g. Si 3 N4 in dry milling, and with 2000 g. Si 3 N4 in wet
milling; 6000 g. AI2O3 balls were used with 800 g. Si3N4 in dry
milling and with 2000 g. Si 3 N4 "•" wet milling-
Wet/Dry: Wet milling with methanol or dry milling
Time: Milling time in hours
Machining Source: Name of shop which machined the MOR test bars.
Dummy Variable: A fictitious variable to indicate whether there is a strong
interaction among the real variables or whether there is a strong
variable which has not been considered.
 Table III
Sample MOR Data (Billet 1018) (MPa)

d71°C (1600°F)
499 529
509 547
598 535
567 515
447 473

1204°C (2200°F)
382 404 364 357
366 388 339 362
331 379 366 377
413 364 380 372
364 388 377 370
 Table IV
Material: Hot Pressed Silicon Nitride
Designation: Billet 1018
Density: 3.17 g/cc
Composition: 2.2 Mg, 0.8 Al, 0.6 Fe, 0.2 Ca

Temperature, °K
Property Unit 300 530 81_0 1090 1370 1

M0Ro MPa 617 617 617 566 429 303

i— en
3
-Q
C
(11 11.6 11.6 11.6 11.6 16.6 22.9
•i- S-

1.84 2.39 2.87 3.20 3.46 3.66

watts 29.4 25.9 22.5 19.0 15.9 13.8
m x °K
E <U
S- Q .
QJ O joules 745 950 1100 1209 1372 1360
I— O- kg x °K

E GPa 294 294 294 292 291* 286*

V 0.256 0.254 0.251 0.246 0.239* 0.221*

G GPa 117 117 117 117 117* 117*

*Extrapolated value or calculated from extrapolated values

 Table V
Weibull Parameters and Calculated Reliabilities

Characteristic Weibull
MOR, MPa Slope Reliability
Plumber 871 °C 1204°C 871° C 1204°C Ring Hub Rotor

1011 500 375 16.3 22.3 0.99190 O.i'9970 0.99160

1012 509 360 8.7 16.7 0.99190 0.90810 0.90074

1029 449 324 10.5 If,.5 0.99190 0.90027 0.89297

1010 639 368 21.7 11.2 0.99190 0.99917 0.99097

1030 471 . 346 5.0 21.1 0.99190 0.11365 0.11273

101 8 541 381 11.6 19.1 0.99190 0.99582 0.98775

1017 593 422 11.6 15.6 0.99190 0.99796 0.98987

1019 725 420 9.4 12.7 0.99190 0.99633 0.98826

1014 451 299 4.8 17.2 0.99190 0.01503 0.01491

1016 485 290 6.2 14.9 0.99190 0.31256 0.31003

 Table VI
Factorial Analysis

Variable
Machining Dummy
Level Powder % MqO Ball Type . Wet/Dry Time Source Variable

CP85 0.73571
KB.r 0.78209
KB I 0.0463S
2% MgO C.56361
5% MgO 0.95419
5% MgO 0.39058
we 0.97829
AI0O3 0.53951
we 0.43878
Wet 0.74747
Dry 0.77033
Dry 0.02286
48 hours 0.74543
72 hours 0.77237
72 hours 0.02694
B Co, 0.55228
T Co. 0.96552
T Co. 0.41324
Dummy ( + ) 0.75926
Dumrny (-) 0.75854
Dummy (+) 0.00072

Ranking of strength of variables at their indicated level changes:

Rank: 1 3 4 5 6 7
Variable: Ball Machining % Mgo Powder Time Wet/Dry Dummy
Type Source
Effect: 0.43878 0.41324 0.39058 0.04638 0.02694 0.02286 0.00072
Average Reproducibility in Experiments 1 and 8 =
1/2(0.99160 - 0.90074) + 1/2(0.31003 - 0.01491) = 0.19299
 THE "ALL-CERAMIC FLOW PATH" OF FORD;S 200 HORSEPOWER
VEHICULAR TURBINE ENGINE

Kt Ot \ t KAU1K

[Figure 1
 DUO-DENSITY SILICON NITRIDE TURBINE ROTOR

DIFFUSION BONDS HOT PRESSED

S i 3 N 4 HUB

INJECTION MOLDED HOT PRESS BONDED

REACTION SINTERED S13N4 BONDING RING
S13N. BLADE RING (NOT USED IN 2-PJECE APPROACH)
 BOND

Figure 3 Temperature Contour Map at 1371°C TIT and 100% Speed

First Stage Turbine Hub
Figure 4 Contour Map of Maximum Principal Tensile Stresses
at 1371°C TIT and 100% Speed - First Stage Turbine Hub
LEADING
EDGE I34O°C

1340 °C

I33O°C

1325 °C

r— I32O°C

I3I5°C

I3OO°C

!290°C

Figure 5 Temperature Contour Map at 1371°C TIT and 100% Speed

F i r s t Stage Tu-bine Rotor Blade Design D1
LEADING TRAILING
EDGE EDGE

Figure 6 Contour Map of Maximum Principal Tensile Stresses at

Camberline - 1371°C TIT and 100% Speed - First Stage
Turbine Rotor Blade Design D1
LEADING
EDGE
LEADING
EDGE
 GAS TURBINE ENGINE APPLICATION
IN TRANSIT COACHES

by

Hartford (Mike) Buckel

Richard Tarkir

Booz, Allen & Hamilton, Inc.

Transportation Consulting Division
 GAS TURBINE ENGINE APPLICATION
IN TRANSIT COACHES

ABSTRACT

An investigation of gas turbine engine application in

transit coaches was conducted by Booz, Allen Applied Research,

as part of the Transbus program, to determine the viability

of the gas turbine engine as a potential power source for

transit coaches. During the Transbus engineering and public

demonstration testing, the three Transbus prototypes that

were equipped with gas turbine powerplants exhibited numerous

advantageous operational characteristics that warranted

further investigation. Consequently, an in-depth survey was

conducted of gas turbine engine manufacturers whose products

may be suitable for installation in transit coaches. Their

engine products were evaluated to determine their merits,

if any, against those of the conventional diesel engine used

in transit coaches. While several concerns are actively

engaged in research and development of automotive turbine

engines, only Detroit Diesel Allison Division (DDAD) of

General Motors Corporation has a product that is currently

developed to a state where volume production can be seriously

considered.

In addition to research and development engines, nearly

100 DDAD gas turbines have been field-tested in trucks,

transit coaches, intercity coaches, marine craft, and

-1-
 industrial electrical generator sets laid air compressors.

Three DDAD gas turbine engines were installed in the Transbus

prototype coaches manufactured by Truck and Coach Division

of General Motors. This engine was selected for testing

in Transbus because of the gas turbine's apparent advantages

and demonstrated success in heavy trucks. Since 1972 test

engines in 24 trucks of ten different makes have operated

in widely divergent service in all parts of the country.

In addition, eight Greyhound intercity motor coaches powered

by gas turbines have operated throughout the country. In

both of these applications, the turbine engine has demonstrated

greatly improved reliability and fuel consumption rates

compared with earlier turbines. In fact, the fuel consumption

is nearly competitive with that of the diesel engine. In

the Transbus prototypes, the gas turbine engines were

extremely reliable and maintenance free; however, fuel

consumption was much higher than contemporary diesel engines.

The extended periods of idle and extensive part-load operation,

both inherent to transit coach service, account for a measure

of the high fuel consumption. Improvements have been made

since these coaches were evaluated and further improvements

are scheduled for reducing brake specific fuel consumption

(BSFC) in the transit coach duty cycle to where it will be

competitive with diesels.

-2-
 GAS TURBINE ENGINE APPLICATION
IN TRANSIT COACHES

INTRODUCTION
Development of the gas turbine engine as a potential

power source for automotive vehicles began in the early

1950's. By 1976 three manufacturers were actively pursuing

the development of small (150HP to 650 HP) turbine engines.

The major thrust of this development centered on heavy-duty

truck application because it comprised the largest potential

market in the small engine power range and because the

heavy-.mty truck power requirements corresponded to gas

turbine engine characteristics. Since 1972 test engines in

24 trucks have operated in widely divergent service in all

parts of the country.

Some engine development, however, has been directed

toward transit coach application and in the early 1970's,

under the Urban Mass Transportation Administration Transbus

program, a gas turbine engine was tested in one of the

prototype buses. During the program, this engine exhibited

the following operational advantages over the conventional

diesel engine in transit coach application:

Reduction of installed weight and volume

Elimination of cooling radiator, fan, and attendant

piping

-3-
 Cleaner exhaust emissions

Lower noise level

Vihration-free operation

Reduced oil consumption

Improved serviceability

Improved reliability

Improved vehicle performance for given power rating

Greater engine braking capability

Superior cold weather starting

Broad multifuel capability

Because of the gas turbine's apparent advantages and

demonstrated success in heavy trucks, an in-depth survey

of gas turbine engine manufacturers was conducted to deter-

mine the suitability of the turbine engine for transit

coach application.

This paper presents an overview of the survey, and

traces the development of the only smr.ll gas turbine engine

sufficiently developed to be considered for near-term

volume production and subsequent application to transit

coach service.

-4-
EVALUATION OF ENGINE MANUFACTURERS

Currently in the United States three companies — Chrysler

Corporation, Detroit Diesel Allison Division (DDAD) of General

Motors Corporation, and Industrial Turbines International

(ITI) , a consortium — are actively engaged in the development

of small (150 HP to 650 HP) qns turbines that can realistically

be considered engines for application to automobiles, trucks,

and buses. The efforts of these small turbine engine

developers, listed in Table 1 with the reported engine status,

were monitored and evalua.ted on the fcl Ic.ving bases:

Demonstrated reliability

Fuel consumption comparable with diesel engines

Design that can be mass produced at a cost

comparable with diesel engines

Realistic production plans

Product improvement potential.

Table 1

Activities Involved in Developing Improved

Gas Turbine Engines
Chrysler Corporation ERDA Baseline: Engine (150 HP) and
Upgraded Engine (123 HP) under active
development, 2-shaft regenerative
Detroit Diesel Allison 300 HP, 400 HP and 500 HP, 2-shaft
Division regenerative engine under active
development for bus, truck,
industrial application
Industrial Turbines Comprehensive program for truck
International (Air and industrial applications,
Research/Mack/KHD) 450-600 I.T" range

-5-
 The Chrysler engine evolved as a passenger car engine

and does not produce sufficient power for transit coach ser-

vice. In 1962 this engine was extensively field-tested in

50 prototype automobiles. The development of this engine

is continuing, with U.S. Government financial aid, in areas

that can best be described as "advanced technology." No

field testing, however, has been conducted on the current

design engine. Should the advanced design engine demonstrate

its viability in passenger cars, it could be upgraded to an

engine suitable for heavy-duty service. However, considering

the design, development, ar.d tooling effort that would be

required, the engine could not be available on a mass-

production basis for 8 to 10 years.

The ITI consortium engine is in the 450 HP to 600 HP

range and is considered 'coo large for transit coach propul-

sion. While this engine is being designed as an eventual

replacement for truck diesel engines, it is in the initial,

unproven stages of development and prototype engines will

not be available for 2 to 3 years. Production engines could

not be available for 4 to 6 years.

The DDAD turbine engine has been developed as a

replacement for the diesel engines manufactured by that

division. r In the Transbus program, the turbine engine

demonstrated its potential as a viable trans:.t coach power-

plant, and current production plans will make' the engine

available within 2 years.

-6-
 DETROIT DIESEL ALLISON DIVISION ENGINE

Description and State of Development

For over 20 years DDAD has been energetically developing

small gas turbine engines to compete in many commercial

applications with piston diesel engines. Specifically,

they have concentrated on engine applications in large

trucks and buses, although field evaluation has included

construction equipment, marine equipment, and electrical

power generation units. DDAD's goals were to develop a

practical, cost-effective turbine engine to meet the require-

ments of large, heavy-duty ground vehicles. This program

has resulted in a family of three engine sizes covering

the power range from 300 HP to 500 HP (SAE rating). The

smallest of these engines is designated as the GT-404, and

engines incorporating the latest design changes for improved

performance are designated as the -3 series. This engine

exhibits the following advantages over the diesel engine

currently used in transit coaches.

The GT-404 gas turbine, is a two-shaft, regenerative

gas engine featuring a power transfer system. A rigid

block assembly, constructed of cast, iron, serves as the

main structural support member for the engine. It houses,

in a modular fashion, the burner, gasifier section, power

section, regenerators, and the reduction and accessory

drive gearing. The modular design, shown in Figure 1,

allows easy service and unit replacement of the various

-7-
 BURNER COVER

- REGENERATOR DRIVE ASSEMBLY

BURNER ASSEMBLY

RIGHT HAND
REGENERATOR
HOUSING

POWER TURBINE
ROiOR &GEAR BOX
I ASSEMBLY
CD
I RIGHT HAND
REGENERATOR

GASIFIER
ASSEMBLY

LEFT HAND
COMPRESSOR REGENERATOR HOUSING
SHROUD
Figure 1
Modular Construction of GT-404 Gas Turbine Engine
sections. The engine controls are electronic and are remotely

mounted from the engine block itself. The angine is available

with a rated maximum output shaft speed of 2880 rpm.

The GT-404 engine's normal dry weight of 1750 pounds

is approximately 650 pounds lighter than a comparable diesel

engine, the DDAD 8V-71, and its basic size is very similar.

On an average vehicle-installed basis, this weight savings

advantage is about 1000 pounds, and the GT-404 can be installed

in virtually any vehicle accommodating the 8V"71.

The performance capabilities of the current GT-404-3

engine are shown on the characteristic curve in Figure 2.

1400 - VJ

1200 - 300

1000 -
p5V
/ \
7 250

3 aoo -
/ 200

/
-
U-
UJ
3
5 600- 0.6
V
J 150

400 - & 0S
A \
\
— /
100

/
CD
200 - 50

0.4 / !
4 6 8 10 1? 14 16 18 20
I
22 24 26 28

OUTPUT SHAFT SPEED • RPM x 100

Figure 2
Performance Capabilities of GT-404-3 Engine
 Maximum torque is produced at power turbine (output shaft)

stall (0 rpm) condition. With the high torque rise charac-

teristic, fewer number of transmission gear ranges are

required—generally five or less in trucks, and four or

less in buses. With arc automatic transmission, a torque

converter is not required and a fluid-coupling can be used.

The dynamic braking capability of the engine is equal to

the rated power at maximum output shaft speed and is effec-

tive in each transmission gear range. The fuel consumption

(BSPC) characteristics of the engine are shown with BSFC

as a function of engine output shaft speed at 100 percent

gasifier speed (maximum power capability). This fuel

consumption does not compare with the DDAD 8V-71 diesel

engine which has a BSFC of less than 0.40 at 100 percent

power and which maintains this efficiency at low engine

speeds.

1
The GT-404 engine consumes only about quart of oil

per 20,000 to 30,000 miles compared with about 1 quart per

800 miles for a diesel engine in transit coach - iplication.

In addition, the turbine engine oil requires d ging every

250,000 miles compared with 20,000 miles for a diesel engine.

This results in considerable savings for the turbine engine.

The GT-404 engine emits less noise than a comparable

diesel engine. Results of an exterior noise test, conducted

-10-
 to the SAE test standards, on trucks demonstrate that the

noise level of the GT-404 engine is 11 dBA lower than a

standard diesel-powered truck. This 11 dBA lower reading,

which represents nearly a three-fourths reduction in sound

pressure over that of a diesel, would reduce transit coach

noise levels to about 75 dBA. Development effort is con-

tinuing toward a still further reduction of the noise level

to meet future noise attenutation requirements.

/'.'•'•• Major pollution elements of the GT-404 engine in

transit coaches would be minimized because highly efficient,

low-pressure, continuous burning with large amounts of

excess air produce almost 100 percent combustion. The odor

is almost undetectable, exhibiting only a slight kerosene

odor at engine idle, and exhaust smoke is virtually

undetectable.

The gas turbine's ability to start quickly at low

temperature is superior to any conventional powerplant.

The GT-404 engine has demonstrated its ability to start,

without aids, in temperatures well below 0° F. However,

batteries must be reasonably well-charged and diesel fuel

#1 must be used as diesel fuel #2 begins to cloud (solidify)

at about +20° F.

Tne GT-404 engine does not require a water-based

cooling system because it is internally cooled by the

-11-
 atmospheric air passing through the engine and by the

lubricating oil which is cooled through a small oil-to-air

heat exchanger. The elimination of a water-based cooling

system greatly decreases engine maintenance and downtime,

thereby reducing a major maintenance cost area in transit

coaches.

The gas turbine engine in general requires less main-

tenance than a diesel engine because of fewer wearing parts

and almost vibration-free operation. All moving elements

in the basic turbine engine are rotary in motion, compared

with reciprocating components in diesel engines. No water

hoses or pipes, drive belts, or other elements that tend

to be unreliable are exposed on the exterior of the engine.

Increased oil change intervals, use of self-cleaning inertial

air filters, absence of the liquid cooling system, absence

of a manifold exhaust system, extended brake life, and

probable extended life of components tend to reduce main-

tenance costs and significantly increase vehicle availability.

The fuel system of the GT-404 engine can operate on a

wide range of petroleum-based fuels including: diesel #1,

diesel #2, furnace oil, JP fuels, kerosene, and gasoline.

The diesel fuels are most commonly used because of their

higher energy content and ready availability. Gasoline is

the least preferred fuel because the lead component tends

-12-
 to deposit and foul the turbine, nozzles, and regenerators,

thereby reducing engine performance. But it can be used

in. an emergency situation. When synthetic or other fuels

become available in quantity, the fuel handling and control

system of the GT-404 could be modified or redesigned to

accommodate these fuels.

Field Test Summary

DDAD has manufactured approximately 100 GT-series gas

turbines for field evaluation in trucks, buses, boats,

electrical power generation units, and other applications.

These engines include the GT-404 and GT-505 in both the -2

and -3 configurations.

Pilot models of the engine began going into service

in 1972 for extensive field evaluation. The engines have

been tested in 24 trucks from ten manufacturers, eight

motor coaches from MCI-Greyhound, coaches from GMC Truck

and Coach Division, Transbus prototypes, various watercraft,

and industrial applications.

Consignment engines are currently operational with

Greyhound on the East Coast and West Coast, Binswanger

Trucking in Lcs Angeles, Freightliner Corporation and

Consolidated Freightways in Portland, Acadian Marine Rentals

in New Orleans, Terminal Transport in Atlanta, Gardner-

Denver in Quincy, Illinois, a Hatteras yacht operating in

-13-
 the waters off New Jersey, GMC Truck and Coach Division

of General Motors in Pontiac, Michigan, and Detroit Diesel

Allison in its Indianapolis-based field-test vehicles.

The major effort at DDAD, in the development of the

GT-404 engine, has been directed toward heavy-duty trucks.

The field experience with turbine engines in transit coaches

has been limited to the Transbus prototypes and several

development engineering models assembled by Truck and Coach

Division that never experienced real transit service. The

most extensive coach experience with turbine engines is in

the Greyhound fleet. However, it must be recognized that

the duty cycle and service requirements for intercity coaches

such as Greyhound is substantially different from transit

coaches.

The six GT-404 turbine-powered Greyhound coaches have

logged well over one million miles since mid-1975 and have

currently been fitted with -3 pre-production engines. These

-3 engines are capable of operating at 0.51 BSFC as compared

with 0.54 BSFC of the -2 engines used in the Transbus

prototypes, and DDAD is updating the -3 engines with the

latest burner improvements, and other developments to lower

the BSFC to 0.45. Even without the improved engine modifica-

tions, the fuel penalty sustained by Greyhound has averaged

only slightly over 1 mpg foi the turbine engine compared

-14-
 with the diesel. The turbine engine has also virtually

eliminated engine overheating and other cooling system-

related problems, which account for 50 percent of Greyhound's

road failures with diesel engines. Brake life on the turbine-

powered Greyhound coaches has been extended by more than 50

percent due to the engine's regenerative braking system.

Elimination of the engine vibration-induced cracks in

refrigerant lines and fittings has improved air conditioning

system reliability in turbine-powered coaches, and elimination

of engine vibrations and reduction of the powerplant weight

have improved coach structural integrity. The largest number

of engine problems Greyhound experienced with the turbine

engines were with the various electrical controls.

Because the turbine engine does not have a water base

cooling system to provide hot water for coach heating,

Greyhound mounted an exhaust gas-to-water heat exchanger

above the engine at the rear of the coach. This system

is augmented by a boiler element located in the heater

plenum. This auxiliary heating system is used infrequently,

only during very cold ambient temperatures. In transit

coaches the exhaust gas-to-hot-water heating system will

be inadequate by itself because transit coaches require

higher heating due to the frequent door openings and there

is less heat available in the exhaust gas to power the system

due to the lower load factor of the engine.

-15-
 In summary, Greyhound is more than pleased with their

turbine engine experience and view the engine as a technical

breakthrough for intercity coach transportation. Top

management personnel of Greyhound have publicly stated on

several occasions that they are prepared to incorporate

gas turbines in their entire fleet of coaches when the

engine becomes available in production.

Production and Development Plans

DDAD has established a plan to place the GT-series of

turbine engines into production, but the plan has not been

accepted or funded by the management of General Motors at

this time. It is contingent upon successful attainment of

several engine development milestones which relate to fuel

consumption and engine durability and production cost

contingencies that must be attained. DDAD has stated,

"that when the gas turbine engine is available in production,

the cost of a turbine engine will be within 20 to 25 percent

of an equivalent power size diesel engine."

Cost of the complete turbine powerplanir will be on

the order of 20 percent over the diesel, considering that

the cost of the muffler and radiator reguired for the diesel

will be offset by the coach cabin heating system required

for the turbine transit bus. Several potential engine

component suppliers have reportedly stated a willingness

-16-
 to accept a monetary loss in the low-volumed early production

to ensure participation in the forecasted high production

volumes of the early 1980's.

The major development effort on the turbine engine is

being directed toward improving the fuel economy. However,

since the turbine inlet temperature (TIT, has the greatest

single effect on fuel consumption and engine life, engine

durability is a function of the BSPC (where TIT is increased

without blade cooling or improved iraterials). The durability

goal is to double the engine life currently rated at 5,000

hours by 1981.

The improvement goal of J.40 BSFC scheduled for later

production engines is not quite equal to the current fuel

rate of diesel engines, however, if the relative costs of

fuel, maintenance, and labor do not change, the gas turbine

will be less expensive to own and operate than a diesel

engine in a heavy truck because of the turbine's extended

life and other advantages.

In spite of zhe favorable ou-clook for the gas tizrbine

in heavy trucks and intercity coaches, the engine's

future in transit coaches is less certain. Even with the

fuel consumption improvements scheduled by DDAD. the gas

turbine will still be far from competitive with the diesel

engine at idle and part-load. Figure 3 shows a comparison

-17-
30 40 SO 60 70 90 100
OUTPUT SHAFT SPEED • PERCENT

Figure 3
Full Power Fuel Consumption Comparison

-18-
 of gross fuel consumption characteristics for the diesel
and turbine engines. The gross fuel curve for the diesel
engine indicates gross engine BSFC data and does not reflect
the installed losses from inlet and exhaust, cooling system
losses, and fan losses. The net installed curre for the
diesel engine reflects a 10 percent adjustment to include
these losses. The poorer fuel economy of the turbine engine
at idle and part-load conditions can be observed from the
data curves. Transit coaches can be idle up to 35 percent
of the time, and virtually all"of their operation is at
low speeds. Hence, the advantageous aspects of the turbine
must offset this fuel penalty to justify its use in transit
coaches.

DDAD has several developments underway to reduce turbine

engine fuel consumption and to adapt the engine to the
transit coach application.

Projection of Current and Turbine Power Coach Costs

Table 2 projects the cost of incorporating turbine
engines3 in transit coaches. The established baseline current
(1973) bus fleet data is shown in the first column of Table 2.
The 1976 coaches, however, are different in some major respects
from the "typical" coach of the 1973 transit fleet. In
addition, fuel costs have increased at a rate far higher
than "normal" inflation (other costs, such as labor, overhead,

-19-
and repair partr h:<-t t ?,-alated at the same relative rate
since 1973 and h- ve i,aen carried over in the cost projection).

The second column of Table 2 reflects the projected cost of

operating a "typical" 1976 model transit coach, The third

column of Table 2 reflects the projected cost of operating

a "turbine-powere^" 1976 production coach in the 1976 operating

environment.

In making operating cost projections for new coaches

and engines, the data sources available are:

Booz, Allen experience with the coach system, or

component, on prototype vehicles, if the system
or component is new

Transit industry experience, if the component is

the same as on current buses

Engineering judgment and supplier claims, if the

component is new to both ths: industry and Booz,
Allen.
Table 2
Changes in Maintenance, Servicing and
ConsuirtaLles Cost for Complete Replacement of Fleet

CURRENT
CURRENT BUS AS BUILT IN 1976 MATURE TURBINE (GT4O4-3PI) IN 1976 BUS
BUS FLEET
(1973)
CATEGORIES «/MILE l/MILE BASIS */MILE BASIS

REPAIRS TO REVENUE
EQUIPMENT:

- ACCIDENTS 1.33 1.72 SAME 172 SAM€

- POWER PLANT 1.83 2.27 8V-71 1.22 REDUCED MAINTENANCE
- BODY AND OOORS 1.68 2.08 SAME 2.08 SAME
- SUSPENSION/CHASSIS/ 1.47 1.B2 SAME 1.82 SAME
REAR AXLE/XJRIVE TRAIN
- BRAKES 1.13 1.79 FMVSS 121 SYSTEM 1.60 REGENERATIVE ENGINE BRAKING
- TRANSMISSION .B2 1.26 V-730MORE COMPLEX 1.26 SAME
- ELECTRICAL, STARTER, 1.11 1.38 SAME 1.38 SAME
GENEHATOR
- AfR CONDITIONING .64 .79 SAME .99 AC/SAME, ELECTRIC Oh OTHER
HEATING SYSTEM WILL COST MORE
- FRONT AXLE/STEERING .49 .69 POWER STEERING .60 SAME
- AIR SYSTEM .37 .51 INCREASED CAPACITY FOR .51 SAME
FMVSS 121 BRAKE SYSTEM

TOTAL FOR REPAIRS 1053 14.31 13.27

FUEL 3.60 B.86 HIGHER FUEL COST y.82 INCREASED FUEL CONSUMPTION
OIL .16 .20 SAME .'J1 REDUCED O!L CONSUMPTION
TIRFS 1.28 1.98 INCREASED PERFORMANCE 1.84 REDUCED VEHICLE WEIGHT

TOTAL COST 15.97 25.35 24.94

SOURCE: BOOZ, ALLEN APPLIED RESEARCH. CURHENT 1973 BUS COSTS BASED ON 1973 APTA OPERATING COST DATA. A SURVEY OF 16 MAJOR
PROPERTIES. AND ENGINEERING ESTIMATES. WHICH UTILIZE TF.iST DATA, COMPONENT MANUFACTURER'S DATA, ANO JUDGEMENT
BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF VEHICLES AND DRAWINGS OF EQUIPMENT. 1973 COSTS UPDATED TO 19V6 DOLLAHS.

-20-
Production Cost Impacts

Production cost and selling price are not directly

relatable. Selling price is a function of production cost

plus market conditions, profit margin, and the time selected

by the manufacturer over which tooling and production

engineering costs are written off. It is, therefore,

unrealistic in this analysis to attempt to predict selling

price. However, since DDAD has made available anticipated

production costs for the turbine engine, based on 1976

dollars, consistent production cost estimates are possible

and are shown in Table 3.

Table 3
Production Cost Comparison
Assuming Equal Amortization of Manufacturer Start Up Costs* 1976 Dollars

1576
PRODUCTION TURBINE ENGINE
SYSTEM CATEGORIES BUS** 1976 BUS

• BODY STRUCTURE. DOOR AND GLAZING 10,527 10,527

• SUSPENSION, INCLUDING AXLES AND STEERING 7,705 7,705
• ENGINE 6,465 8.081
• DRIVELINE AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS (not affected by engine)
— Transmission Accessories/Mounts/Wheels/Drive Shafts/IVIisc. 13,511 13,511
• DRIVELINE AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS (affected by engine)
— Exhaust/Aspiration Air/Cooling 1,175 250
* ELECTRICAL 1,544 1,544
• AIR CONDITIONING/HEATING 4,772 5,877
• INTERIOR TRIM 4,292 4,292
• SEATS 3,948 3,948
• DESTINATION SIGNS/BUMPERS/MISC. 8,033 8,083

SUBTOTAL 62,022 63318

G&A AND P.ROFIT (10%) 6,202 6.382
TOTAL 68,224 70.200

'These are cost, not selling price, estimates

"Current production bus used as a baseline is not typicsl of f!eot-in use, but of a fully equipped 1976 model bus.
Source: Booz, Allen Applied Research

-21-
 The turbine engine in the early years of production

is projected to cost 20 to 25 percent more than 8V-71

diesel engine. The projected production cost of a turbine-

engined transit coach, however, is projected to be $70,000

in 1976 dollars, or only 2.9 percent more than $68,224 for

the typical diesel-powered coach currently in production.

CONCLUSIONS

The operational cost impact analysis indicates that

transit coaches equipped with the production improvement

gas turbine engines (GT-404-3 PI) will be; essentially equal

in total operating cost to current diesel-powered transit

coaches, without including any added value for:

BSFC performance gain potential beyond 1981

Multifuel capability

Ability to accommodate heavier middle-distxilate

fuels

Improved performance

Conformance with environmental standards

Perceived environmental improvement

Reduced noise

Reduced gaseous emissions

Elimination of exhaust odor and smoke.

The tangible and intangible value/benefit of these

attributes can, based on currently proposed regulations,

-22-
 lower the operating cost of a turbine-powered transit bus

by well over 1 cent/mile.

If the current government regulatory trends continue •

into the 1980's, the above factors will become increasingly

important and realistic monetary value could be assigned to

these benefits offered by the gas turbine engine. The

current higher fuel consumption of the gas turbine will

continue to be a disadvantage of the engine, particularly

if the cost of fuel continues to escalate at a faster rate

than other costs. The multifuel capability and the ability

to burn a lower grade middle-distillate fuel may offset this

disadvantage, especially if nonpetroleum-based fuels become

readily available.

Beyond 1981, the fuel consumption of the gas turbine

engine will continue to improve relative to the diesel

engine. Improved technologies under development by engine

manufacturers at this time in all engine component areas

indicate that a fuel economy equal to that of the diesel

engine at all speed/load ranges (with the exception of idle)

may be achieved by the mid-1930'•=;.

The rajor factors indicated by the cost impact analysis

are the improved reliability and reduced maintenance costs

of the gas turbine engine, offsetting the increased fuel

-23-
 consumption. The turbine engine used in the analysis was

the DDAD GT-404-3 PI model. This improved engine, with a

rated MTBO of 10,000 hours, is tentatively scheduled for

volume production in 1981, which is the earliest reasonable

date to expect widespread use of turbine engines in transit

coaches. This GT-404-3 engine is projected to have a transit

service operational fuel consumption penalty of about 19 per-

cent over contemporary diesel engines. The GT-404-3 PI is

a dramatic improvement over the GT-404-2 turbine engine which

was used in the GM Transbus prototype and which demonstrated

a fuel penalty of 37 percent and a MTBO rating of 3,000

hours. The first production model engines, designated

GT-404-3 PM, cannot be considered truly viable transit

coach powerplants even with the 4,000-hour MTBO due to the

projected 34 percent operational fuel penalty.

The procurement cost of the turbine engine, as stated

previously, will initially be about 20 percent higher than

the contemporary diesel engine. As the production volume

of the engine is increased in the 1980's, the cost of the

engine should be reduced and may be comparable with the

diesel engine. Cost of the diesel, moreover, may be adversly

affected by additional equipment required as a result of

environmental regulations. The anticipated fuel consumption

improvements will be attained by increasing the'TIT and

possibly the variable inlet geometry. The higher TIT will

-24-
necessitate incorporating improved materials in the nozzles
and turbine blades and may a.1 so require blade cooling.
These changes and the additional complexity of the variable
inlet mechanism will increase the cost of the engine some-
what, but it must be presumed that the competitive nature
of the engine market will maintain the selling price of
the gas turbine within a range commensurate with the advan-
tages it has to offer for vehicular power.

In summary, it appears that the gas turbine engine

will become competitive and, in fact, superior to the diesel
engine in transit coach operation in the 1980's.

-25-
 "IMPROVED HEAVY DUTY GAS TURBINE ENGINE"

by

H. E. Helms
Chief Project Engineer
Industrial Gas Turbine

Detroit Diesel Allison Division

Genera! Motors Corporation
I ndianapolis, I ndiana 46206

Prepared for: NAlO/CCMS Fourth International

Symposium on Automotive Propulsion Systems
Washington, D.C., April 17-22, 1977

Reference Contract: "Improved Heavy Duty Gas Turbine Engine" — National

Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) Contract
No, NAS 3-20064 - NASA Lewis Research Center,
Cleveland, Ohio
Mr. D. Beremond, Technical Manager
Mr. W. Goette, Technical Manager
Mr. M. Krasner, Chief, Transportation Propulsion Division

Program Sponsors: United States Energy Research and Development

Administration, Washington, D.C. 20545
Mr. George Thur, Chief Heat Engine Systems Branch,
Energy Conservation
 ABSTRACT

An improved heavy duty gas turbine engine program plan has resulted

from a study contract issued by NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland,

Ohio using funds supplied by the Energy Research and Development Adminis-

tration (ERDA). Program objectives are to demonstrate improved fuel

economy [(213 mg/W'h (0. 35) specific fuel consumption by 198l] , con-

formance to current and projected Federal noise and emission standards

and to demonstrate a commercially viable engine.

Study results show that increased turbine rotor and regenerator inlet

temperatures, using ceramic materials, contribute the greatest amount

to achieving fuel economy goa2s. Further, improved component efficiencies

(for the compressor, gasifier turbine, power turbine and regenerator disks)

can also show significant gains in fuel economy. Fuel saved in a 500, 000

mile engine life, risk levels involved in development and engine related

life cycle costs for fleets (100 units) of trucks and buses were used as

criteria to select work goals for the planned program.

INTRODUCTION

Gas turbine engines offer an alternate power plant selection for trucks,

buses, and other heavy duty engine applications. The diesel engine now is

the prime power plant in these heavy duty vehicles and has established an

impressive record for reliability, economy of operation and flexibility of

operation. The gas turbine must also achieve a similar level of perfor-

mance, durability and economy to become a complimentary power plant for

heavy duty applications.

 An industrial gas turbine (IGT) (see Figure 1) has been under develop-

ment at General Motors Corporation for more than fifteen years and is

rapidly approaching a stage of production readiness. This engine is being

developed in two power sizes. The 404 engine is rated at 224 kW (300

hp) at 29. 4°C (85°F) and 152 (500 ft) altitude. The 505 engine is

rated at 291 kW (390 hp). A third member of this engine family is planned,

the 605 , to be rated at 347 kW (465 hp). Several million miles of bus,

truck, boat, and other field service has now been accumulated on the

404/505 all metal engines. See installations in Figures 2 and 3. Valuable

lessons on performance, durability and operating costs have been learned

as introduction to production of this family of engines is considered.

Recent emphasis on fuel economy has produ< ed improvements in fuel

consumption for all types of highway and off-highway vehicles. Gasoline

and diesel engines have incorporated new features (leading to improvements

in fuel economy) and the IGT 404/505 gas turbine engines must also be im-

proved to meet target fuel economies in-the late 1970's and the 1980's. This

consideration has led to the "Improved Heavy Duty Gas Turbine Engine"

program initiated with NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, and the

Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) in 1976. This

Phase I study program has three definite objectives. These are to

• Improve specific fuel consumption (sfc) from 274 mg/W-h (0.45) [in-

stalled] to 213 mg/W*h (0. 35) [installed] by the year 1981

 © Satisfy current and projected government noise and emission regula-

tions

Q Develop a commercially viable engine for use in trucks and buses

The suggested method to achieve improved fuel economy in the IGT is to

increase turbine and regenerator inlet temperatures and improve component

efficiencies of the compressor, turbines, and regenerator. The increased

turbine and regenerator temperatures are to be achieved by the introduction

of ceramic materials (non-cooled). An inherent advantage of the gas turbine

is lower noise and emission characteristics than diesel and gasoline engines.

Meeting current and projected noise and emission standards should be easily

achieved. Demonstrating a commercially viable engine can only be achieved

by future demonstrations of required performance, durability and costs.

This first study phase has the objective of quantifying levels of improvement

to be pursued, to plan technical activities, and establish a feasible program

schedule to achieve these improvements.

In the Phase I study program many factors were considered. Utilizing

existing engines and capitalizing on the availability of spare parts was im-

portant. This would promote early acceptance for production of new ceramic

components and minimize program cost. Selection of work to be performed had

to be established recognizing time, funding, and feasibility of technical accom-

plishment. The final selection of work had to be based upon reduced fuel

consumption and life cycle costs (engine related) for a customer of the gas

turbine engines. Evaluation of these life cycle costs involves assumptions

 relative to fabricability, reliability and costs of ceramic parts which intro-

duce an unknown 'risk' to the final assessments made in the study.

ANALYSIS PERFORMED AND RESULTS OF STUDY PROGRAM

Approach to Study

The approach to establishing a viable program was to make design as-

sessments of candidate engine improvements, evaluate reductions in fuel

consumption, assign production and maintenance costs for candidate engines

and establish fuel saved and life cycle costs for a fleet of buses or trucks for

each level of engine improvement. If fuel saved was significant and life

cycle costs improved, the individual developments would be worthwhile and

new components should receive serious consideration for early introduction

to production engines.

Assessment of Candidate Improvements

An assessment of sensitivity to change in component efficiencies, en-

gine pressure losses, engine heat rejection, cooling air requirements, en-

gine operating temperature, regenerator inlet temperature, engine pressure

ratio and leakages was conducted. Table 1 summarizes the sensitivities

compiled showing the change in parameter required to obtain 1% improve-

ment in specific fuel consumption (sfc). Having these sensitivities, tech-

nical analysis was applied to establish which parameters could be improved

with development and improved materials. Two basic routes for improve-

ment were selected as follows.

• Improved component efficiencies

• Higl • turbine inlet temperature (through use of ceramic materials)

 Changing pressure ratio would not be effective because lower pressure

ratio leads to compromised part power engine operation. Only very small

improvement in heat and power losses relative to the current engine can be

achieved. Small reductions in cooling air flows and leakages will be strived

for although increasing turbine inlet temperature will make it difficult to

keep cooling air flows at the same level as in the current engine. Pressure

losses are largely a function of overall engine geometry (turns, expansions,

heat exchanger matrix and inlet and exhaust) and it is desirable to maintain

maximum geometric similarity with the current engine because of costs and

time to accomplish changes in the basic block, covers and gearbox.

Specific components selected for improvement were the compressor,

turoine (compressor drive), the power turbine and the regenerator. It was

known that increasing turbine inlet temperature would require lower engine

airflow for a given engine horsepower output. Further, lower engine air-

flow leads to smaller compressor and turbine sizes with the associated loss

in component efficiency from decreasing size. Figure 4 shows a projection

of loss in compressor, turbine (compressor drive) and power turbine effi-

ciencies with decreasing airflow. Also shown is the projected improvements

p.ciievable in these components with a rigorous development program. Two

to three years will be required to fully develop these advanced technology

components. Figure 5 shows a regenera+or effectiveness plot. Improved

effectiveness is achieved by decreasing airflow while maintaining the same

frontal airflow area in the current regenerator matrix. The lower curve

represents the current metal matrix, the center curve is a current thin wall
 (0.0889 mm [0.0035 in.] to 0. 1143 mm [o. 0045 in.]) triangular ceramic (AS)

matrix, and the upper curve represents a thin wall rectangular matrix (pro-

jected to require two to three years to develop) which has the potential of

both higher effectiveness and lower matrix pressure drop. A prime benefit

achieved in the change from metal to ceramic regenerators is the increased

temperature capability of the ceramic. The current metal regenerator is

limited to a maximum steady state temperature of 774°C (1425°F) and a

transient temperature of 913°C (1675°F). The ceramic regenerator can achieve

a 982 °F (1800°F) steady state temperature and a transient temperature of

1093°C (2000°F). This increased temperature capability is particularly

important at part power operation of the engine since the best sfc is achieved

by maintaining turbine inlet temperature constant over the power range of

the engine and letting the regenerator inlet temperature increase as power

level decreases. In the current engine, turbine inlet temperature is re-

duced starting at approximately 80% power (to accommodate the 774°C

[1425°F] metal limit), whereas the ceramic regenerator with a 982°C

(1800°F) capability will not require reduced part power turbine inlet tem-

perature until a level of near 1260°C (2300°F) is obtained. In addition, the

lower conduction loss of the ceramic provides a favorable part power effec-

tiveness.

In summary, improvements in component efficiencies and regenerator

effectiveness can substantially improve the engine fuel consumption and

should be vigorously worked on in the proposed program.

HIGHER TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE

The current engine turbine inlet temperature is 1002°F (1835°F).

Table 1 shows that a 12°C (22°F) increase will give a 1% improvement in

sfc at this level of turbine inlet temperature. This is not a linear function,

but increasing temperature does provide improved sfc over a considerable

range of temperature. Changing this parameter yields the greatest single

improvement in sfc so long as it is not necessary to change another param-

eter (such as cooling air from the compressor). The incorporation of

ceramic materials in the high temperature components offers the means for

achieving the improved sfc. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride are the two

leading candidate ceramic materials for the high temperature vanes, blades,

comtustor, turbine inlet plenum and the stationary turbine tip shroud rings.

Analysis of metal high temperature parts was performed to establish

limiting turbine inlet temperatures which render the metal no longer usable.

In metal components it was found that either chemical stability (oxidation,

sulfidation), creep strength or tensile strength were a limiting factors

at given operating temperatures. Figure 6 shows limits for components

plotted against ^asifier turbine inlet temperature, regenerator inlet temp-

erature and power1 turbine inlet temperature. The metal regenerator,

gasifier turbine inlet vanes and tip shrouds are the initial metal com-

ponents that should be replaced with ceramic materials. Table 2 shows

the turbine inlet temperatures at which other metal components must

be replaced. Figure 7 shows these ceramic components in the IGT

engine. Table 2 identifies logical engine development temperature levels

 for advancing to the target sfc levels. These engine temperature levels

(1038°C [l900°F], 1132°C [2070°F] , 1204°C [2200°F] andl271°C

[2500 °F] ) were used in the balance of the study to calculate engine per-

formance, design of components and for cost analysis.

IMPROVED ENGINE PERFORMANCE LEVELS

Initial planning specified use of the current engine with the introduc-

tion of ceramic components and improved component efficiencies as they

became available. Assessment of component efficiency improvements

suggest a two to three year development period for compressor, turbine

and regenerator efficiency development. A thin wall ceramic regenerator

can be introduced into the c rrent engine along with ceramic vanes, tip

shrouds, turbine blades and a ceramic turbine inlet plenum. Thus, the

current engine can be used for development at turbine inlet temperatures

to 1132°C (2070°F). (At this temperature level, the power turbine must

be replaced because of limiting blade creep strength and turbine aero-

dynamic loading.) This permits two to three years development before a

significant flow path change can be accomplished. A new compressor and

turbine flow path would then be introduced with improved component ef-

ficiencies at the 1204°C (2200 °F) gas turbine operating temperature and

this technology would be applicable to 1371°C (2500°F). This timing

dictated that a technology discontinuity occur between the 1132°C (2070°F)

and 1204°C (2200°F) engines.

 For comparison of fuel savings and life cycle costs, the engine horse-

power selected for engine sizing was 224 kW (300 hp) (the same as the

404-3 engine). Performance calculations were then made using the preced-

ing turbine inlet temperatures, component efficiency improvements and

constant horsepower. Table 3 shows the airflow for constant horsepower,

sfc at the various turbine inlet temperatures, and other engine component

parameters. It is noted that the target 213 mg/W-h (0. 35) sfc is achieved

at a-temperature level between 1204°C (2200°F) and 1371 °C (2500°F).

Figure 8 shows how sfc varies for the baseline engine and the increased

cycle operating temperatures over a complete operating power range from

0 to 224 kW (300 hp). It is noted that the ceramic regenerator tempera-

ture limit yields a much flatter sfc curve in the 50% (112 kW [150 hp] )

to 100% (224 kW [300 hp] ) power range where most heavy duty engine

usage occurs. Also, it is worthy of note that the turbine is very stable

to low power levels and yields a torque-speed curve that is ideal for

many off-design operating conditions. Figure 9 shows this torque

characteristic (compared to a diesel engine) which experience has shown

to be very valuable on icy roads, wet roads, for use on grades and for

selecting a less complex transmission when compared to a diesel engine.

An engine feature maintained in all the engines analyzed is the power

transfer unit. This device has several advantages as follows.

• Braking capability equal to maximum engine horsepower

• Single shaft operation capability (particularly valuable in gen set instal-

lations)

• Power curbine overspeed control

 10

O Lower transient turbine temperature excursions compared to most

turbine engines

This power transfer feature is considered to be important io help the

turbine successfully compete against current heavy duty power plants.

All engine performance presented is shown for an SAE standard day

rating of 29.4°C (85°F) and 152 (500 ft) altitude. Gas turbines are sensitive

to ambient inlet temperatures as shown in Figure 10. Attention is directed

to the feature that lower ambient inlet temperatures produce increased power

and lower specific fuel consumption for a given turbine engine. The average

United States temperature is 13.3°C (56°F).* This lower average ambient

air temperature (compared to the SAE Rating temperature) means an average

improvement in fuel economy of approximately 5% above the values shown

herein.

PERFORMANCE — NOISE AND EMISSIONS

Current and projected regulations on noise and emissions for heavy

duty vehicles /engines are shown in Table 4. These regulations are subject

to change, but can materially affect the current gasoline and diesel

heavy duty power plants if they are not changed. The production diesel

*Reference: The Weather Almanac, 1974, edited by James E. Ruffner and

Frank E. Bair, p. 189.

 11

engine will find it difficult to meet the 1980 and 1983 California standards

without compromising fuel economy. However, it is believed that Federal

standards may override state standards and may continue to be much less

stringent than state standards.

The noise standards may become restrictive for the diesel with encapsu-

lation a possible solution to the truck noise problem. This will cause in-

creased acquisition and maintenance costs.

Noise and emission values were calculated for each of the four study

engine cycles [1O38°C (1900°F), 1132°C (2070°F), 1204°C (2200cF) and

1371 °C (2500°F)] . Because of reduced airflow and lower exhaust velocities,

noise was found to be reduced below current turbine engine noise values of

75-77 dBA at 15.2 m (50 ft) sideline measuring locations. The exhaust

noise will be reduced by over 5 dBA at the 1371°C (2500°F) turbine inlet

temperature. Even the 75 dBA noise at 15. 2 m (50 ft) sideline regulations

of some cities and states can be met by these improved turbine engines

(with no special noise insulation or encapsulation). It is noted that the

normal air inlet filter and regenerator disks are very effective noise sup-

pressors for compressor and turbine noise.

Emission values obtained at each of the improved engine cycln tempera-

tures are shown in Table 5.

These emission levels were obtained for the 13 mode Federal Heavy

Duty Diesel Cycle. HC, CO and smoke all reduce at; a result of higher

cycle temperatures. The primary pollutant of concern is NO . This would

 12

"only be of concern if a Federal Standard of less than 10. 0 is legislated in

1979 and will only very slightly exceed the projected 1980 California stan-

dard. Work for pollutant (NOX) reduction will be performed in the proposed

program to achieve a minimum Nox margin of 25% to accommodate devia-

tions obtained in production combustors.

VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS WITH IMPROVED ENGINES

Having performance established for the improved engines, typical truck

and bus usage with these power plants was evaluated. The truck selected

was a 31, 751 kg (70, 000 lb) gross weight unit with 9.5 m 2 (102 square foot)

frontal area, 0. 2983 tire revolutions per metre (480 revolutions per mile), a

4. 886 axle ratio and a Fuller RT9509A nine speed transmission. The bus was

a typical Greyhound of 16, 329 kg (36, 000 lb) gross vehicle weight, 6. 9 m2

(74 square feet) frontal area, 0. 3088 tire revolutions per metre (497 revolu-

tions per mile), an axle ratio of 4. 330 and a DDA HT-740CT four speed trans-

mission. In each vehicle, appropriate accessory loads and driveline losses

were assigned for various vehicle speeds. Each vehicle was then run

through the General Motors vehicle computer analysis for typical runs

from Los Angeles to Salt Lake City and from Chicago to Boston. Figure 11

shows the plots of kilometres per litre (miles per gallon) versus rotor tur-

bine inlet temperature for both the truck and the Greyhound bus. Note is

made of the discontinuity in the curves between 1132°C (2070°F) and

1204 °C (2200° F) as predicted earlier in the paper.

Particular note is made in the improvement made in fuel consumption.

Figure 12 shows fuel used in a typical 804, 672 kilometres (500,000 mile)

engine life for the baseline engine and fuel savings for the study engines.
 11

engine will find it difficult to meet the 1980 and 1983 California standards

without compromising fuel economy. However, it is believed that Federal

standards may override state standards and may continue to be much less

stringent than state standards.

The noise standards may become restrictive for the diesel v/ith encapsu-

lation a possible solution to the truck noise problem. This wil] cause in-

creased acquisition and maintenance costs.

- Noise and emission values were calculated for each of the four study

engine cycles [lO38°C (1900°F), 1132°C (2070°F), 1204°C (2200°F) and

1371 °C (2500°F)] . Because of reduced airflow and lower exhaust velocities,

noise was found to be reduced below current turbine engine noise values of

75-77 dBA at 15.2 m (50 ft) sideline measuring locations. The exhaust

noise will be reduced by over 5 dBA at the 1371°C (2500°F) turbine inlet

temperrture. Even the 75 dBA noise at 15.2 m (50 ft) sideline regulations

of some cities and states can be met by these improved turbine engines

(with no special noise insulation or encapsulation). It is noted that the

normal air inlet filter and regenerator disks are very effective noise sup-

pressors for compressor and turbine noise.

Emission •''alues obtained at each of the improved engine cycle tempera-

tures are shown in Table 5.

These emission levels were obtained for the 13 mode Federal Heavy

Duty Diesel Cycle. HC, CO and smoke all reduce as a result of higher

cycle temperatures. The primary pollutant of concern is NO . This would

 12

only be of concern if a Federal Standard of less than 10. 0 is legislated in

1979 and will only very slightly exceed the projected 1980 California stan-

dard. Work for pollutant (NOX) reduction will be performed in the proposed

program to achieve a minimum Nox margin of 25% to accommodate devia-

tions obtained in production ccmbustors.

VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS WITH IMPROVED ENGINES

Having performance established for the improved engines, typical truck

and bus usage with these power plants was evaluated. The truck selected

was a 31,751 kg (70,000 1b) gross weight unit with 9.5 m2 (102 square foot)

frontal area, 0.2983 tire revolutions per metre (480 revolutions per mile), a

4. 886 axle ratio and a Fuller RT9509A nine speed transmission. The bus was

a typical Greyhound of 16, 329 kg (36, 000 1b) gross vehicle weight, 6.9 m 2

(74 square feet) frontal area, 0. 3088 tire revolutions per metre (497 revolu-

tions per mile), an axle ratio of 4. 330 and a DDA HT-740CT four speed trans-

mission. In each vehicle, appropriate accessory loads and driveiine losses

were assigned for various vehicle speeds. Each vehicle was then run

through the General Motors vehicle computer analysis for typical runs

from Los Angeles to Salt Lake City and from Chicago to Boston. Figure 11

shows the plots of kilometres per litre (miles per gallon) versus rotor tur-

bine inlet temperature for both the truck and the Greyhound bus. Note is

made of the discontinuity in the curves between 1132°C (2070°F) and

1204°C (2200°F) as predicted earlier in the paper.

Particular note is made in the improvement made in fuel consumption.

Figure 12 shows fuel used in a typical 804, 672 kilometres (500, 000 mile)

engine life for the baseline engine and fuel savings for the study engines.
 13

The gallons saved for one truck with a 1204°C (2200°F) engine multiplies to

3, 060, 000 gallons (72, 857 barrels) for a 100 truck fleet. It is believed that

fuel savings shown are extremely significant and will have a meaningful impact

on conservation of petroleum products.

LIFE CYCLE COSTS

Engine drawings were generated for each engine cycle temperature

(1038°C [l900°F] , 1132°C [2070oF] , 1204°C [2200°F] and 1371°C

[2500°Fj ) with emphasis placed on cp^amic components and supporting

metal parts* Figure 13 is a general arrangement drawing showing the

1371°C (2500°F) configuration study engine. Sketches of tach unique

part.were made and pricing for ceramic components was performed by

the Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, New York. Costs for ceramic

parts to produce 6000 engines per month were supplied. Harrison

Radiator Division of General Motors Corporation supplied quantity costs

for regenerators and seals and Detroit Diesel Allison priced all other

engine parts required. These prices were then used to generate engine

acquisition and maintenance costs in the life cycle cost study.

Life cycle costs were calculated for both trucks and buses. A 100

tractor truck fleet and a 100 coach bus fleet was chosen for these studies.

A 804, 672 km (500, 000 mile) engine life v/as used. An avera. ige of

14, 484 km per month (9, 000 miles per month) was used for the .. acks and

26, 554 km per month (16, 500 miles per month) for the buses. A mature
 14

engine schedule of maintenance was applied for each engine. In this mainte-

nance schedule it was assumed that ceramic and metal parts would have the

same reliability since no data base is available for ceramic parts in

production gas turbine engines. Road applied maintenance included oil

and fuel. Shop applied maintenance included predicted items (oil change,

oil filter, fuel filter, and other predicted component parts). Sixty percent

of shop maintenance was in-frame, forty percent was out-of-frame. Of

the 40% out-of-frame, 10% was overhaul and 5% was major repair. Fuel

costs were calculated based upon $0. 40 per gallon (current price) and

$0.60 per gallon (projected 1980 price).

Data gathered for vehicle performance, maintenance material and

labor and engine acquisition costs were then entered into a life cycle

cost computer program and actual life cycle costs calculated.

The current all metal 404 engine was used as a baseline engine for

comparison purposes with the improved engines. Figure 14 shows a plot of

life cycle costs relative to the baseline engine life cycle costs. This figure

is for the line haul truck fleet. Figure 15 is for the Greyhound bus fleet.

Note the effect that $0.40 and $0. 60 fuel has on relative costs. Note the

discontinuity between 1132°C (2070°F) and 1204°C (2200°F) caused by

the introduction of components with improved efficiencies. Figure 16 sum-

marizes gains in fuel savings and costs for the study engines.

The most obvious conclusion drawn from the life cycle cost analysis was

that only 1% improvement is achieved in going from a 1204°C (2200°F)

 15

turbine rotor inlet temperature to a 1371°C (2500°F) turbine rotor inlet

temperature. This is caused by fuel cost being the primary cost driver and

the fact that so little improvement in specific fuel consumption is achieved in

this change in operating temperature level.

It is observed that high risk is introduced by the use of ceramic ma-

terials at the 1371CC (2500°F) cycle temperature level. At this tempera-

ture level, the single stage gasifier turbine rotor blades, two stages of

power turbine rotor blades and all three stator vane rows (one gasifier

and two power turbine stages) are made of ceramic materials.

Also, variations in costs of ceramic components can impact severely

the acquisition costs and thus total life cycle costs. Analysis was performed

where ceramic components were priced 10% to 25% over those levels used in

the basic analysis and it was found that total life cycle costs at 1371 °C

(2500°F) actually increased over the baseline engine costs. Costs are very

important and must be closely monitored as engine development proceeds.

(It is acknowledged that ceramic component prices could also be less than

the base prices obtained.)

Based upon the low improvement in life cycle costs and high ri?k with do-

day's technology with ceramic materials in going from 1204°C (2200°F) to

1371 °C (2500°F) it was decided that the program recommended would have

a maximum cycle temperaturethat would produce the target sfc of 213

 16

mg/W'h (0. 35) at 100% power. It is also recommended that flexibility be

maintained in t > program to permit re-evaluation of this conclusion as

progress is made toward meeting program objectives and experience is

gained in working with ceramic flow path components.

PROGRAM PLAN EVOLVED FROM STUDY

Two primary means of improving fuel economy evolved from the study

conducted. These were:

1. Improved component efficiencies are feasible and can achieve

approximately one-third the specific fuel consumption improve-

ment desired. Improved efficiency in the compressor, both gasi-

fier and power turbines and in the regenerator should receive em-

phasis in the program.

2. Increased engine cycle and regenerator inlet temperatures are

feasible using ceramic materials and can achieve approximately

two-thirds the specific fuel consumption improvement desired.

This is achieved by increasing turbine.rotor inlet temperature from

10C2°C (1835°F) to 1241°C (2265°F) and regenerator inlet tem-

perature from 774°C (1425°F) to 982°C (1800°F).

Naturally, it is desirable to initiate this program using the engine being

prepared for production and introduce improvements as soon as possible.

Steps to achieve engine fuel consumption improvements as soon as pos-

sible are suggested. The first step is to introduce ceramic regenerators,

ceramic gasifier turbine vanes and ceramic stationary tip shrouds into the

engine and increase turbine rotor inlet temperature to 1038°C (1900°F).

 17

The second step is to introduce additional ceramics into the current engine

for the turbine inlet plenum and ceramic gasifier turbine rotor blades and

increase turbine rotor inlet temperature to 1132°C (2070°iT) (the current

power turbine temperature limit for minimum demonstration testing).

While these two steps are in progress, improved efficiencies for the com-

pressor, turbine and regenerator disks should receive emphasis with rig

testing and engine evaluations as practical. Estimates of time required to

achieve these steps is two to three years. (This recognizes funding

and technical constraints.) The highest risk element is considered to

be the rotating gasifier turbine rotor with ceramic blades. It is r e -

commended that an alternate air-cooled rotor be carried as a parallel

program in case development problems with the ceramic bladed rotor

assembly are not ^olved in time to meet the proposed schedule.

The third step in the program will be an advanced engine with new,

improved compressor, turbine and regenerator components and maxi-

mum use of ceramics. This engine would demonstrate the target sfc .

of 213 mg/W'h (0. 35). Table 6 summarizes the steps for introduction

of ceramic components. Table 7 summarizes the temperature steps,

engine airflow, horsepower and specific fuel consumption that will be

obtained. Test stand and vehicle demonstrations will be made with

each of the last three steps in the program. Figure 17 shows the

predicted sfc versus power to be achieved by the recommended engines

in the proposed program. The timing required for the third step is

recommended to be three years. However, it is desirable to perform the

 design and initial fabricatioii of the advanced engine during the third year of

the program thus giving a five year overall program. Figure 18 shows a

schedule with various steps identified for reference. On this schedule, the

vehicle demonstrations with the improved engines will be made either in a

line-haul truck or a bus as appropriate.

SUMMARY

This study program has identitied a program plan which should meet

the objectives of improving sfc from 274 mg/W-h (0. 45) to 213

mg/W'h (0. 35) by 1981, and should produce demonstration engines meet-

ing Federal noise and emission regulations. Sufficient durability running of

engines is planned in the program to demonstrate components that can

progress to a commercially viable engine for use in trucks and buses.

Technology generated in this program will be applicable to automotive

turbines and will represent a significant step forward for commercial gas

turbine engines.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work summarized in this paper has been prepared by a large team

of experts at Detroit Diesel Allison Division of General Motors Corporation.

These persons have contributed skills in engineering, materials, fabrication,

cost analysis, service and maintenance, marketing, accounting and manage-

ment. A complete listing of contributors would be lengthy, however, the

following individuals have been the largest contributors to material presented

herein.
 19

Beuford C. Hall Technical Director for Phase I Study

Program

Roger C. Dycus Project Direction and Coordination

Samuel R. Thrasher Regenerator Design and Analysis

James R. Wooten Performance Analysis

Terry Knickerbocker Performance Analysis

Carlton Curry Life Cycle Cost Analysis

John Wertz Design Analysis

James Lunsford Design Analysis

John Hayes Design Analysis

David Decker Design Analysis

Dr. Peter Heitman Materials

Acknowledgement is directed to personnel from the Energy Research

and Development Administration for their conceptual program planning,
efforts to seek and provide program funding and continuous monitoring
of program progress. Specific recognition is directed to:

Mr. John Brogan, Assistant Director, Highway Systems,

Transportation Energy Conservation

Mr. Goerge Thur, Chief, Heat Engine Systems Branch

Energy Conservation

Mr.- Thomas Sebasteyn, Program Engineer, Heat Engine

Systems Branch

Mr. Robert Mercure, Program Engineer, Heat Engine

Systems Branch
 20

Acknowledgment is given to NASA Lewis Research Center personnel for

their assistance in defining the Phase I study work and their technical and

administrative assistance in sponsoring this work at Detroit Diesel Allison.

Specific recognition is directed to:

Mr. Mort Krasner Chief, Transportation Propulsion Division

Mr. Don Beremond NASA Technical Program Manager -

"improved Heavy Duty Gas Turbine

Engine" Contract No. NAS3-20064

Mr. William Geotte Technical Program Manager -

(Replaced Mr. Beremond 12/1/76)

 21

Table 1
IGT 404 PM Baseline Engine Performance Parameters and Sensitivities

Turbine Inlet Temperature = 1002°C (1835°F)

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC = 268 mg/W-h (0.441 Xb/bhp-hr)

Parameter Parameter
Parameter Name Value Sensitivity (1)

Component-Efficiencies
Compressor 82.4% ,+0.66
Combustor 99. 9% +1.00
,Gasifier Turbine 87.0% +0.92
Power Turbine 89. 7% +1.32
Regenerator Effectiveness 89. 8% +0.92
Pressure Losses (AP/P) 11.56% -0.80
Leakage and Cooling Flow
Turbine Piston Ring Leakage 0.17%<2>
Turbine Rotor Cooling 1.54%
1.71% -0.62
Overboard Leakage (Splitlines and
Main Bearing Seals 1.21% -0.74
Regenerator Leakages 5. 12% -1.11
Block and Flow Path Cooling 3. 56% -1.66
Gasifier Turbine Nozzle Coi 'ing 1.00% -1.66
Power Losses
Gasifier Driven Accessories (Fuel 6.7 kW -2. 5 kW
Pump, Oil Pump, Regenerators) (9.0 hp) (-3.3 hp)
Gearbox Windage and Friction 9.0 kW - 2. 2 kW
(12.11 hp) (-3.0 hp)
Gasifier and Power Turbine Bearingss -2.2 kW - 2 . 4 kW
(2.91 hp) (-3.15 hp)
17.9 kW
(24.02 hp)
Heat Losses
Into Lubrication System 5. 3 kW -7. 1 kW
(300 BTU/min) (-405 BTU/min)
External 10.6 kW -7. 1 kW
(600 BTU/min) (-405 BTU/min)
Engine P r e s s u r e Ratio 4.0 -0.34
Engine Cycle Temperature
Turbine (Rotor) Inlet 1002°C 12°C
(1835°F) (+22°F)

(1) Sensitivities shown are the change in the parameter value to produce a 1.0%
reduction in engine BSFC
(2) Values are percent of supply point airflow
 22

Table 2
Introduction of Ceramic Components into Study Engines

Engine Cycle Temperature, °C (°F) 1002 1038 11C2 1204 1371

(1835) , (1900) (2070) (2200) (2500)

Regenerator Disk and Seals M C C C C

Gasifier Nozzle and Tip Shroud M c C C C
Plenum M M C C C
Gasifier Rotor Blades M M C c C
'Single Stage Power Turbine M M M
Two Stage Power Turbine Nozzles c C
Two Stage Power Turbine Blades M C
Exhaust Diffuser M M I c C
Combustor M M M M C
M - metal component
I - improved metal component
C - ceramic component
 23

Table 3
Performance Analysis of Baseline and Study Engines (100% Power)

CYCLE PARAMETER AT MAX POWER

Gasifier Rotor Inlet Temperature °c 1002 1038 1132 1204 1371
<°F) (1835) (1900) (2070) (2200) (2500)
Compressor Pressure Ratio 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
Compressor Airflow kg/see 1.57 1.57 1.33 1.15 0.96
(lb/sec) (3.45) (3.45) (2.93) (2.54) (2.12)
Compressor Efficiency (%) 82.4 82.4 82.2 82.9 82.2
Gasifier Turbine Efficiency (%> 87.0 87.0 86.4 87.1 86.6
Power Turbine Efficiency (%) 89.7 89.7 88. & 89.2 88.8
Burner Efficiency (%> 97.6 97.6 97.6 97.8 97.8
Regenerator Effectiveness (%) 88.9 90.6 93.3 96.2 97.0
Regenerator Leakage (%> 4.92 4.92 5.75 5.26 6.29
Turbine Cooling (Wheels & Seals) (%) 1.71 1.83 2.63 3.04 3.66
Block & Turbine Shroud Cooling (%> 3.56 3.56 3.56 3.56 3.56
Gasifier Vane Cooling (%) 1.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Overboard Leakage (%) 1.21 1.21 1.42 1.29 1.54
Total Pressure Loss** (%> 11.8 13.0 12.5 10.3 9.5
Mechanical Losses kW 17.9 17.9 17.9 15.9 15.9
(hp) (24.0) (24.0) (24.0) (21.4) (21.4)
Shaft Horsepower kW 224 224 224 224 224
(hp) (300) (300) (300) (300) (300)
Specific Fuel Consumption mg/N-hr 268.25 258.52 245.74 217.16 209.25
(Ib/hp-hr) 268 259 246 217 209

*Baseline IGT 404

**Includes inlet and exit loss
***Technology advancement
 24

Table 4
Noise and Emission Regulations

1977 1978 1979 1980 1982 1983

Noise*
dBA at 15. 2 m (50 ft)
Greater than 4536 kg GVW (10, 000 lb) - 83 83 83 - -

Emissions—kg/kW-hr
(gm/bhp-hr) -
Federal
HC - - 0.002 0.002 - -
(1.5) (1.5)
NO X - - - . - -
HC + NOX 0.02 0.02 0.01** 0.01** ** **
(16) (16) (10)** (10)** , ** **
CO 0.0b 0.05 0.0003** 0.0003"*
(40) (40) (0.25)** (0.25)** ** **
California
HC 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.0007
(1.0) (1.0) (1.5) (1.0) (1.0) (0.5)
NO X 0.010 0.010 0.010 - - -
(7.5) (7.5) (7.5) - - -
HC + NOX 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008+ + 0.008+ + 0.006
(5.0)+ (5.0) + (5.0)+ (6.0) (6.0) (4.5)
CO 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034 0.034
(25) (25) (2S) (25) (25) (25)
*Many City and State Regulations a r e more rigid (75 dBA in 1980)
**To be established
+Option
++
Optional 5HC + NOX with no separate HC std.
 25

Table 5
Emissions for Study Engines

kg/kW-hr Standards 1038°C 1132°C 1204°C 1371°C

(gm/bhp-hr) Federal California (1900°F) (2070°F) (2200°F) (2500°F)
1977 1980

HC 0.001 0.0004 0.0003 0.0004 0.0003

(1.0) (0.3) (0.2) yO. 3) (0.2)
NOX - - 0.005 0.007 0.005 0.008
(3.9) (5.3) (4.0) (6.0)
HC + NOX 0.022 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.008
(16,0) (6.0) (4.2) (5.5) (4.3) (6.2)
CO 0.054 0.034 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001
(40) (25) (1.7) (1.2) (1.7) (1.0)
 26

Table 6
Introduction of Ceramic Components in Recommended Program

Gasifier Rotor Inlet Temperature 1002 1002 1038 1132 1241

c
F) (1835) (1835) (1900) (2070) (2265)
Regenerator Hotslde Inlet Max Temperature C 774 866 899 954 982
F> (1425) (1590) (1650) (1795) (1800)
Introduction of Ceramic Components
Regenerator Disk and Seals M C C C C
Gasifier Nozzle Assembly M M C C C
Gasifier Tip Shroud M M C C C
Plenum M M M C c
Gasifier Rotor Blades M M M C c
Two Stage Power Turbine Nozzle * * V * c
Two Stage Power Turbine Rotor Blades * M
Exhaust Diffuser M M M M c
Combustor M M M • M c
M - Metal
C - Ceramic
* - Single Stage Metal
 27

Table 7
Recommended Program Engines

Performance Demonstration Engines

29.4°C (85°F) 152 m (500 ft) altitude

Baseline Initial Step Step Step

Engine Tests 1 2 3

Gasifier Rotor Inlet Temperature •c 1002 i002 1038 1132 1241**

(°F) (1835) (1835) (1900) (2070) <2265)
Compressor Airflow kg/sec 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.37*
(lb/sec) (3.45) (3.45) (3.45) (3.45) (3.03)*
Shaft Horsepower kW 224 219 231 261 287
(hp> (300) (293) (310) (350) (385)
Specific Fuel Consumption mg/Wh 274 268 262 243 213
(Ib/hp-hr) 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.40 0.35
Test Stand Data Yes Yes YPS Yes Yes
Vehicle Demonstration Yen Yes Yes

^Improved Technology Components

^Demonstration of HDGTE Performance Goal [213 mg/N-h (0. 35) sfc]
 28

Figure 1. Detroit Diesel Allison Industrial Gas Turbine.

Figure 20 Chevrolet Titan 90 truck powered by GT 505-3 engine.
 00
o
Figure 3. GT 404-3/505-3 applications.
 31

90.0
ADVANCED '
TECHNOLOGY

84
ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGY
ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGY V
a: 83
o
1/3
"V> ft?
Q:
Q_
s
§ 81 CURRENT
<_> TECHNOLOGY
£80
p-

79

88.0.
78 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0
KG/SEC KG/SEC KG/SEC
I i I i I I I I I
2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
LB/SEC LBKEC LB/SEC

,.£.
CORRECTED FLOW-KG/SEC (LB/SEC)

Figure 4. Effects of size on component efficiency.

 32

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

THIN WALL ALUMINLWSILICATE

CERAMIC REGENERATOR

BASELINE IGT404

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

LBftEC
REGENERATOR COLDS I DE AI RFLOW

Figure 5. Effectiveness for metal and ceramic regenerator disks.

 33
1700-

TURBINE INLET PLENUM

GASIFIER ROTOR BLADES
, i ,1

\ POWER TURBINE ROTOa

(TWO STAGE)

POWER TURBINE NOZZLES

POWER TURBINE ROTOR
(SINGLE STAGE)
800

1800 iWO 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500

°F
1000 1100 1200 1300
"C
CYCLE TEMPERATURE

Figure 6. Limiting turbine inlet temperatures for metal engine.

 34

TURBINE TIP SEALS

SHROUDS
COMBUSTOR
fi

1ST STAGE
TURBINE BLADE 6 WHEa
EXHAUST DISK
DIFFUSER

Figure 7. Applications of ceramics to IGT.

 35

SFC VS. SHP

29.4'C <85°F> INLET TEMPERATURE
152 M 1500 FT) ALTITUDE
0.8
-BASELINE IGT 404, 1002°C (1835°F), T6LIMIT 774"C I1425°F)
450 -1038°C<1900°F>
0.7 -1132*C(2070°FI T6LIMIT982'C(1800'>F)
400
OPERATING RANGE
0.6 p w / w i l I N F HAUL TRUCK-AVG POWER
£350 VZZZZZH HIGHWAY BUS-AVG. POWER
5
H 0.5
300

0.4
250

0.3 200

50 100 150 200 250 300

HP
POWER

Figure 8. SFC versus horsepower for baseline and study engines.

 36

50-

PERCENT OUTPUT RPM

Figure 9. Comp? "^on of maximum available diesel and gas turbine torque.
 37

152 M (500 FT) PRESS. ALTITUDE-v

762 M (2500 FTI - A
1524 M (5000 F T ) - O \ \

2 280 r .46

270
.44

260
.42

250

0.40
0 20 40 60 i 10 100
f
1 1 1 t t 1
-10 0 10 20 30 40
"C
To, AMB I EMT TEMPERATURE

Figure 10. Inlet temperature for a heavy duty gas turbine engine.
 38

O LOS ANGELES TO SALT LAKE CITY

A CHICAGO TO BOSTON

LINE HAUL TRUCK GREYHOUND BUS

27%
IMPROVEMENT
g 2-5
50
II '
l < 5 4.0
§2.0
32%

•IMPROVED
11.5 IMPROVED COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS
1.0
2.0 1 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
°C °C

1800 2000 2200 2400 2M0 1800 2m 2200 2400 2600

°F °F
ROTOR INLQ TEMP. ROTOR INLET TEMP.

Figure 11. Kilometres per litre (mi per gal) vs increasing cycle
temperature for study engines.
 39

COMPOSITE L.A. TO SALT LAKE CITY AND CHICAGO TO BOSTON ROUTES

BASELINE ENGINE USES!
FOR TRUCK-518,601 LITRES (137,000 GALLONS)
FOR BUS-473.176 LITRES (125.000 GALLONS)
151,416
(40,000)

113,562
(30,000)

75, 708
(20,000)
TRUCK.
37,854
(10,000)

S* 3
1037 C 1132 C 1204"C 1371"C
(1900°F) (2070°F) (2200°F) (2500°F)
ENGINE SIZE-223KW ENGINE LIFE—804,672 KILOMETRES
(300 HP) (500,000 MILES)

Figure 12. Fuel savings for study engines.

Figure 13. Combustor and turbine general arrangement for 1371.1°C
(2500°F) engine.
 100
— SAVINGS

_ACQUIS1TION
COSTS

_ OPERATING
COSTS

1000 1400

1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500

V :
NOTE: $0.40 PER GALLON
ENGINE CYCLE TEMPERATURE
(a)

— SAVINGS
TOTAL COST •
" ACQUISITION
COSTS
_ OPERATING
COSTS

1300 1400

1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500

NOTE: * 0 . GO PER CALLOfl
[ENGINE CYCLE TEMPERATURE

Figure 14. Line haul truck life cycle cost results.

 42

- SAVINGS

ACQUISITION
i COSTS

_ OPERATING
COSTS

1000 1400

1800 1900 2000 2100 ??00 2300 2400 2500

NOTE: *0.40 PER'
ENGINE CYCLE TEMPERATURE
(a)

- SAVINGS
"ACQUISITION
- : COSTS
_ OPERATING
COST

1000 1400

1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500

"F NOTE: SO. 60 PER GALLON

ENGINE CYCLE TEMPERATURE.
(b)

Figure 15. Highway coach life cycle cost results.

 43

1002°C
'1835°F) 1204-C 1371°C
(BASELINE) I22OD°F> (2500°FI
ENGINE ENGINE ENGINE
TEMPERATURE CHANGE -185°C - -148.9°C-
(365°F> (300°F)
REDUCTION IN ENGINE SFC
DUE TO TEMPERATURE
DUE TO IMPROVED COMPONENTS
TOTAL 19.1%
FUEL SAVINGS IN ENGINE LIFE
31751.5 KG (70,000 LB) GVW TRUCK •" 115,834 LITRE - -10.22HITRE-
(30,600 GAL.) (2, TO GAL.)
GREYHOUND COACH -100,313 LITRE - -5, 678 LITRE -
(26,500 GAL.) II, ^O GAL. I

ENGINE MANUFACTURING COST INCREASE -22.8%- -4. 7%-

LIFE CYCLE COST REDUCTION

TRUCK AND COACH
NUMBER OF ROTATING CERAMIC PARTS • 1 -

RISK FACTORS ICOSTS, STRUCTURAL, • MEDIUM- -H1GH-

CONTROL, MATERIALS, FAB)

Figure 16. Summary of study engines—fuel savings and costs.

 44

DEMONSTRATION ENGINE PERFORMANCE

29.4*C (85*F> INLET TEMPERATURE
15?.. M!500 FT. (ALTITUDE
400
1002"C(1835"F)R.I.T.
350 1038*C«»OC*F)
1132*C(2070'FI
0.5 300 1241'C(2?65*F)

0.4 250

"200
0.3 I i
50 100 150 200 303
KW
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
SHAFT POWER

Figure 17. Proposed engines—sfc vs shaft horsepower.

 YEAR

MATERIALS - CHARACTERIZATION, QUALIFICATION & SUFPORT

ENG TEST - BASIC ENGINE S/N 1281

HEAVY WALL REGN. DISK

IO38°C (1900°F) BASIC ENGINE - DES I

HEAVY WALL REGN. DISK
INDIV. GASIF. VANE
INDIV. TIP SHROUD
IDES f-AB RIG TEST f ENG TEST S/N C l & C 2

GA5IF. ROTOR BIADES

DES STUDY FAB SPECIr/.tNS BENCH TEST

AERO COMPONENT TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPM NT

COMPR, GASIF TURBINE, POWER TURBINE DIFFUSER FLOW
DISTRIBUTION, REGENERATOR ( RECTANGULAR MATRIX)

1038°C(l90Q°F) BASIC ENGINE - 262 M G / W - H (0.43) SfC - DES II

THIN WALL REGN. DISK
INTEGRATED GASIF. VANES
INTEGRATED TIP SHROUDS
joes FAB RIG TEST ENG TEST S/N C 3 & C 4
4-
1132'C (2O7OaF) BASIC ENGINE - 2 3 M G / W - H (0.40) SFC
GASIF ROTOR BLADES (ALT. AIR COOLED)
PLENUM
IDES FAB ENG TEST S/N C 5 & C 6

1240°C (2265°F) ADVANCED ENGINE - 213 M G / W - H (0.35) SFC

THIN WALL REGN DISK PWR NOZ ASSYS
GASIF NOZ ASSY COMBUSTOR
GASIF TIP SHROUD TURB EXH DIFF '
GASIF ROTOR BLADES BLOCK 6, INSULCHGS
PLENUM TWO STAGE POW TURB
V VEHICLE S/N C7 & C8
DES' FAB RIG TEST ENG TEST
DEMONSTRATIONS
DES FAB | ENG TEST. C

F i g u r e 18. HEAVY DUTY GAS TURBINE ENGINE PROGRAM SCHEDULE

 REVIEW OF PROOF TESTING ACTIVITIES
IN
STRUCTURAL CERAMICS

by

E. M. LENOE

Prepared for

Fourth International Symposium

on
Automotive Propulsion Systems/
Low Pollution Power Systems Development
Washington, P. C , U.S.A.
April 18-22, 1977
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. Illustrating Iterative Program and Component Screening Tests

FIGURE 2, Ceramic Turbine Rotor Fabrication Flow Chart

FIGURE 3. Potential Defect Introduction

FIGURE 4. Blade Flexure Apparatus

FIGURE 5. Cold Spin Rig

FIGURE 6. 2500°F Flow Path Qualification Rig

FIGURE 7. Schematic of Hot Spin Rig

FIGURE 3. Modified Engine Flow Path

FIGURE 9. First Stage Turbine Rotor Hub Isotherms in the Engine and in the
Hot Spin "\ig. (Courtesy Ford Motor Company)

FIGURE 10. Illustrating Shift in Maximum Principal Stresses, Thermal and

Mechanical, of Rotor Hub in Engine (Courtesy Ford Motor Compa.iy)

FIGURE 11. Thermal and Centrifugal Stress of Rotor Hub in Hot Spin Rig
(Preliminary Analysis, Courtesy Ford Motor Company)
 REVIEW OF PROOF TESTING ACTIVITIES IN
STRUCTURAL CERAMICS

E. M. LENOE
Supervisory Research Engineer
Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center
MEMBER, A.S.M.E.

ABSTRACT

Important structural ceramics currently exhibit considerable variability

in mechanical behavior. Therefore successful application of ceramics in heat
engines requires a thorough understanding of the source of this variability
and insight into those experimental procedures which can be applied to minimize
strength scatter. This paper briefly reviews the various techniques to monitor
component quality during manufacture, to qualify parts for further evaluation,
and to proof test in order to guarantee minimum desired strength levels.

INTRODUCTION

Starting in mid 1971 Ford Motor Company in partnership with ARPA,*

embarked on an extensive program to design, evaluate and demonstrate an all
ceramic vehicular engine. Encouraged by the positive technical achievements
of the past few years, The Office of Highway Systems, Division of Transporta-
tion Energy Conservation of ERDA** (ERDA-TEC) is attempting to exploit the
civilian sector related technology of the ARPA program. Accordingly, ERDA is
now participating in the funding of Ford activities in ceramic vehicular
engine development. In particular this paper describes the ERDA-TECH task on

•Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

**Energy Research and Development Administration
 development of proof testing methodology. Currently, this study is underway

both at the Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center and the Turbine

Development Department of Ford Motor Company.

In reality, from the initiation of the Ford ceramic engine program, proof

testing concepts have played an integral role. This is clearly illustrated by

Figure 1, indicating that an iterative design, analysis and test evaluation

sequence was the basis of the study. Materials and process development were

directed by results of simple mechanical and thermal screening tests as i'ell

as various rig tests. As examples, a rotating, alternate heating and air

quench thermal shock apparatus proved not only economical but invaluable in

providing insight into development of improved reaction sintered stator and

rotor vane designs. A simple cantilevered blade bend failure test gave data

on uniformity of ceramic component properties and a further index to measure

progress in process technology. Blade flexure tests were applied to both

stators and rotors in process development. Stator vane proof testing is

currently based on static preloading of each vane to screen out defective parts.

The proof test load level was established by correlation with observed

survival times in the high temperature flow path qualification rig. The

stator shrouds were also subjected to proof testing by imposing external

pressures of 100 psi in a special fixture. An elementary globar furnace pro-

vided capability to impose radial thermal gradients across :he bond line of

duodensity ceramic rotors whereas curvic couplings were initially screened by

means of a specially designed axial loading device. In addition, ceramic

stationary and rotating hot flow path components were subjected to various rig

tests which attempt to simulate critical aspects of the engine environment.

 [[FAILURE ANALYSIS
LYSIS OF
STATIONARY CERAMIC
! COMPONENTS !

IMPROVEMENTS
FOR STATIONARY
CERAMIC COMPONENTS
T i 1930 F STATIONARY
! DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS ^COMPONENT ENGINE TESTING
—', FOR STATIONARY k (WITH AND WITHOUT
! CERAMIC COMPONENTS FABRICATION OF NDE SCREENING SCREENING TESTS METAL ROTORSI
STATIONARY OF STATIONARY FOR STATIONARY
/ICERAMIC COMPONENTS CERAMIC COMPONENTS COMPONENTS
; MATERIAL AND PROCESS' 2500 F STATIONARY
• IMPROVEMENTS FOR \ S COMPONENT TESTING
i STATIONARY ' (WITHOUT ROTORSI
I CERAMIC COMPONENTS J

SCREENING TESTS FINAL

TEST SUPPORTS! 2 0 0 F ENGINE
EQUIPMENT DEMONSTRATION

.*_) DESIGN IMPROVEMEWS

' FOR CERAMIC ROTORS
N HOT SPIN
ROTOR TESTING
FABRICATION OF NDE SCREENING
CERAMIC ROTORS OF CERAMIC
TURBINE ROTORS
PHASED BLADE \
HEIGHT ROTOR | ,
'MATERIAL AND PROCESS i / TESTING •
—< IMPROVEMENTS FOR / ! IMPROVEMENTS !
CERAMIC ROrORS ! • FOR ]
[CERAMIC TURBINE ROTORSJ

FAILURE ANALYSIS OF
CERAMIC TURBINE ROTORS
- Activities (or Final 2500 F Demonstration
Iterative Development Activities Currently Underway

FIGURE 1. Illustrating Iterative Prograir and Component Screening Tests

 The purpose of ther.e numerous procedures was to achieve rapid feedback on

materials, process and design deficiencies and moreover to provide a stock-

pile of engine components which successfully survived these screening tests.

Engine durability tests are to be performed on an assembly of veteran, pre-

screened parts.

Not withstanding these systematic component qualification and screening

procedures, it is important to realize that to date no formal, quantitative

proof testing methodology has been developed for actual engine parts. Thus

this paper presents preliminary analytical findings regarding application of

proof testing.

Prior to discussing the various test rigs, it is well to consider fabri-

cation procedures since they are important in controlling the introduction of

defects into ceramic engine components. In this paper for the remaining

discussion emphasis is on the ceramic rotor.

FORMING METHODS

There are many techniques to form ceramic powders into useable shapes,

including isostatic pressing, flame spraying, injection molding, warm die mold-

ing, slip casting, extrusion, and thin film forming (1 thru 4 ) . * Selection of

the forming method depends on component design requirements such as size, shape

and mechanical properties criteria. Each method has its advantages and draw

backs and often times it is necessary to combine techniques to produce a satis-

factory article. For example, the all ceramic turbine rotor currently being

evaluated at Ford Motor Company, used injection molding, slip casting and hot

pressing techniques.

Ford engineers have used injection molding to form complex shapes with

* Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.

 close manufacturing tolerances such as rotor blade rings, stators and nose

cones. A moldable compound is formulated by adding polymeric materials

(20 to 40% by volume) to silicon powder. When heated, this provides a viscous

material which can be forced under moderate pressures into a metal die cavity

to form the desired part. The molded part is solidified by cooling, extracted

from the mold, reheated under controlled conditions to remove the polymeric

vehicle and subsequently reacted with nitrogen to convert the component to

silicon nitride. Such parts can be successfully produced with typical

densities ranging from 2.2 to 2.75 gm/cm .

The so-called duodensity turbine rotor concept is the primary fabrica-

tion technique being developed at Ford Motor Company. This concept utilizes

the high strength of hot pressed Si_N. (HPSN) in the hub region where stresses

are highest but temperatures are moderate and so creep problems caused by use

of an MgO densification aid are minimized. Reaction sintered Si_N. (RBSN)

which can be readily formed into complex airfoil shapes by either injection

molding or slip casting, is used for the blade rings. Since RBSN does not

contain the MgO densification additive, it exhibits better creep resistance

at the higher blade gas stream temperatures. Although the reaction-sintered

material possesses lower strength, it is also of lower density and is adequate

for the turbine blades because the stress levels are considerably lower than

those in the hub region.

js*. The duo-density concept relies on the ability to successfully bond

these two varieties of Si N [i.e. HPSN & RBSN) by hot pressing into an

integral turbine rotor. Significant bonding parameters and the results of

over 700 hot press bonding experiments have been reported elsewhere
 CERAMIC TURBINE ROTOR FABRICATION

Material Material
Preparation Preparation

FLAW FREE ROTORS

FIGURE 2. .Ceramic Turbine Rotor Fabrication Flow Chart

FIGURE 2
 POTENTIAL DEFECT IOTRODUCT1ON

Argon Visual P re- Visual

Oven Dry-Out Inspection
Sinter Machining Inspection
Vibration /^Surface '\
\ Damage V Defects J

Removal \
'v from

Furnace Leaks:
lmpuritiesy,/
I njection
Visual Hub Visual Burn
Molds X-Ray
Inspection Machine Inspection Out
.Blade Rings
/ Surface Introduce ^
V Defects Oxygen,

FIGURE 3. Potential Defect Introduction

 [5, pages 113 thru 153]. It is evident that the method to produce the ceramic

component controls the nature and distribution of microflaws and defects

introduced into the component. Figures 2 and 3 are intended to illustrate

some of the features of the manufacturing technology" and the relationship to

potential defect introduction. Referring to Figure 2, for instance, material

preparation, the nitriding process, techniques for blade fill and subsequent

removal of the fill as well as the details of the hot press bonding techniques

all have a marked controlling influence on the quality of the finished rotor.

Figure 3 illustrates in somewhat more detail other potential defect sources.

Obviously it is necessary to introduce a variety of materials and screening

tests to provide process controls and also to evaluate actual component

quality.

It is not sufficient to prepare mechanical properties test specimens

usiiig the same starting materials, nitriding cycles, etc. As a further

illustration of this point, consider removal of the blade ring from the molds.

A different procedure is required for the slip cast versus the injection

molded RBSN. The injection molded blade ring tool is quite intricate in

design and pull angle, ground part-lines, surface finish, distribution of

heat, pressure and mold gate design are important features in producing a

high quality component. In order to systematically develop appropriate

process controls, component evaluation techniques are necessary. These have

included thermal shock tests and the blade flexure test previously mentioned.

The blade evaluation procedure ha.^ demonstrated its utility in several ways.

TURBINE BLADE FLEXURE TESTS

In this apparatus blades or reaction sintered silicon nitride blade

 rings can be mechanically loaded in bending as shown in Figure 4. The blade

ring is accurately mounted on an indexing fixture and each blade can be

displaced by an instrumented loading arm until failure occurs. Variations in

fracture load from blade to blade within one blade ring can be assessed as

well as variation in fracture loads from one blade ring to another. Results

to date indicate a characteristic failure load of approximately 90 lb. which is

equivalent to a maximum tensile stress of 35,000 psi and a Weibull modulus of

about 9. These values agree reasonably well with four-point MOR* test data of

flexure test specimens. A strain gauge calibration of a ceramic blade under

such a bending load indicates that 100 lb. load is equivalent to about 39,000

psi tensile stress in the blade outer fibers. A high temperature version of

this fixture is currently being designed.

The primary function of the blade flexure test is to evaluate changes in

the fabrication process* and provide timely feedback. Such feedback has prompted

a current program to refine the nitriding step i" the rotor fabrication process

to produce blade rings of more homogeneous microstructure.

As a further example of the usefulness of the apparatus, characteristic

blade failure loads ranged from 69 to 123 lbs. for injection molded material

and from 69 to 130 for the slip cast material. Based on limited data, it

appears that there is no significant difference in the room temperature

strength of these two fabrication processes. However, two injection molded

blade rings of 2.7 g/cc density were tested before and after a 200 hour

furnace soak in air at 1900uF. In this case, failure loads of the thermally

treated blades were slightly higher than the untreated blades. This is con-

trary to results obtained with a slip cast 2.8 g/cc material where a strength

*Modulus of Rupture as determined in flexure tests.

FIGURE 4, Blcde Flexure Apparatus
 degradation occurred after thermal exposure. The difference in behavior

between the 2.8 g/cc slip cast and the 2.7 g/cc injection molded materials is

attributed to the effect of unreacted silicon present because of incomplete

nitridation of the higher density slip cast material. It is evident that

such data is invaluable in further process developments.

COLD SPIN TESTS FOR BLADES AND BLADE RINGS AND ROTOR HUBS AND xiOTORS

Cold spin testing of rotor blades and finished turbine rotors is

carried out in a vacuum spin rig shown schematically in Figure 5. Rotor

blades or blade rings are bonded with epoxy to a hub which is then attached

to a shaft and inserted into the spin pit, and the chamber subsequently

evacuated. A fragile ring coated with a conductive paint surrounds the blade

ring. Blade failure will break the continuity in the conductive paint and

trigger a strobe light enabling a pictorial record. Of interest is the fact

that recently injection molded blades have been cold spun successfully to

80,000 RPM.

This apparatus is also used to evaluate complete rotors and rotor hubs

as well as blade rings and segments. During the Ford project, over 1,000

press bondings of duodensity rotors have been completed. Fabrication improve-

ments in the hub regions have progressed from flat-sided hubs to fully con-

toured hubs made simultaneously in the hot press bonding operation. Over 110

cold spin tests have been conducted and some rotors have exceeded full speed

requirements.

Test procedures for hubs have been described elsewhere [6,7]. Hubs

have been tested to destruction and photographed at burst speeds. HPSN hub

failure speeds have shown a characteristic failure speed of 115,965 RPM.

11
 SPIN PIT
TACHOMETER PICKUP
!!L 0 ' 0 -!?_- R ™
AIR TURBINE
CERAMIC PLASTER
TEST ROTOR BURST RING
TURBINE AIR LINE
VACUUM
LINE

GLASS PLATE

CAMERA CONDUCTING
PAINT

LEADS TO
FAILURE DETECTOR
FAILURE DUAL MIRROR
DETECTOR STROBE LAMPS-

FIGURE 5. Cold Spin Rig

 Several successful attempts have been made to obtain correlations of pre-

dicted and observed failure distribution for hub burst speeds. Commercial HPSN

and Ford materials made from 2% MgO Si,N. have been evaluated. The purpose of

the correlation study was to check the validity of the use of Weibull theory

(8) as applied to brittle materials by calculating a failure distribution versus

speed and comparing it to the experimentally determined failure distribution.

Generally the calculated failure distributions fall within the 90 percent

confidence band of the experimental failure distributions. This indicates

reliable correlation between calculated and experimental results and confirms

use of Weibull theory in the prediction of rotor hub failure distributions

under the cold spin test conditions.

HIGH TEMPERATURE TEST RIGS FOR COMPONENT EVALUATION

Now let us briefly review the various high temperature test rigs and

test techniques for evaluation of the stationary ceramic components and the

turbine rotors. Figure 6 is a schematic of a combustor test rig which

essentially comprises an assembly of ducting to direct incoming air to th3

test combustor in a manner similar to the engine. Incoming air can be

pressurized to five atmospheres by a laboratory compressor system and heated

up to 1200°F and further by a separate upstream combustor to 1700°F. The

ceramic combustor is mounted in a manner similar to the engine and the

observation window, shown in the schematic, can be used to observe combustor

operation at high temperature. Another rig similar to the combustor test rig

is used to test combustors, nose cones, stators and/or rotor tip shrouds up

to equivalent turbine inlet temperatures of 2500°F. The primary difference

between these test rigs and the engine is that they do not use a high speed

rotating shaft, nor do they use regenerative heat exchangers. However care

13
 2500°F Flowpath Qualification Rig
Non - Rotor Steady - State Configuration

Observation Test Facility

Port i upply
(70° to HOO°F)

low Path
Components
Under Test

Exhaust
Gas

FIGURE 6. 2500"? Flow Path Qualification Rig

14
 Hot Spin Rig

Ceramic Fiber Wrapped and Welded

Insulation Burst Ring
(typical)

Simplified Bolt

12 Self -Aspirated Gas Burners

with Spark Ignition

\ Gas Manifold

Metal Cone Axial Adjustment

Plotted in Shaft for Burners
1
View port for Remote Reading
Pyrometer
Ceramic Coned Adaptor' Sub-Atmospheric \
Plotted in Test Rotor Exhaust Test Rotor
FIGURE 7. Schematic of Hot Spin Rig
 has been taken in the design to closely simulate thermal conditions of the

ceramic components under test.

Hot spin testing of ceramic turbine rotors is a further step which more

closely approximates testing conditions experienced in an engine. A hot spin

rig was designed, as shown schematically in Figure 7, to subject ceramic tur-

bine rotors to both centrifugal and thermal stresses. The rig was designed

to test-to-failure and yet minimize both, the acilliary damage to the apparatus and

associated turn-around time. The rig uses engine hardware for the rotors,

high speed shaft and reduction gear. A motoring dynamometer drives the out-

put shaft, which through the gear box, drives the high speed shaft and the

rotors. Twelve gas jets evenly spaced in a circle are used to heat the rotor

blades and rotor rim. The rotor environment is surrounded with fibrous

insulation which serves to insulate the outer metal housings from high

internal operating temperature and which also serves as a readily replaceable

"catcher" material to absorb pieces of rotor on failure. Two quartz windows

are provided for. observation during testing and also for sighting optical

pyrometers for setting operating temperatures. Recognizing the difference

in heat flux from the 12 gas jets as compared to that of the engine coinbustor,

the test procedure is to use the pyrometer to set a given rotor rim tempera-

ture which is equivalent to the desired turbine inlet temperature in the

engine. While this means a higher turbine inlet temperature in the hot spin

test rig, it is considered to more closely simulate local hub temperatures in

the bond regions of the rotor. Currently two such hot spin test rigs are

operational which provide capability for testing ceramic turbine rotors to

failure in an air-atmosphere at rotor rim temperatures in excess of 2200°F

or equivalent turbine inlet temperatures in excess of 2500°F. This

16
 capability, which provides for a turn-around time of one-test-per week is

considered a unique step forward in the development of high temperature,

ceramic turbines.

In addition to the combustor rig and hot spin test facilities, several

Ford Model 820 ceramic turbine engines are used in the program for testing

ceramic components; these engines have been designed to facilitate experi-

mental flexibility for testing ceramic components. There are a number of

unique ways of operating the engines during such testing. First, the engine

can be operated as a complete engine using either metal or ceramic turbine

rotors; the. latest designs for rotor mounting provide for metal rotor/ceramic

rotor interchange. Second, the rotor can be completely removed from the

engine and, being a single shaft engine, the high speed shaft and compressor

can be driven from a laboratory motoring dynamometer. Third, the high speed

shaft, including the turbine-rotors and compressor can be removed from the

engine and an external laboratory air supply ducted to the engine at the

normal compressor discharge location. In this third configuration, the

regenerators are driven independently by variable speed electric motors.

These last two arrangements have proven to be extremely useful for testing

and developing the stationary ceramic components under very realistic

conditions. The standard 820 ceramic turbine engine is designed to operate

on a temperature schedule which increases turbine inlet temperature from

1930°F at 55% speed to 2500°F at 100% speed. . This schedule was selected to

prevent turbine exit temperature or regenerator inlet temperature from

exceeding 1850°F, which is considered the limit for the aluminum-silicate

material used for the regenerators. The difference between the turbine inlet

and turbine exit (regenerator inlet) temperature is, of course, a measure

17
 Modified Engine Flowpath

FIGURE 8. Modified Engine Flow Path :lg

 of the work taken out by the turbine. While this turbine inlet temperature

schedule is meaningful for a fully developed engine, it has distinct drawbacks

during the ceramic hardware developmental stage. For example, it is desirable

during development to engine test ceramic rotors at full turbine inlet

temperature (2500°F) over a range of speeds rather than, at only 100% speed,

because the rotors may fail at less than 100% conditions. Alternatively, it

is desirable to engine test rotors during development with excessive tip

clearance or with less than the full complement of blading. In either case,

the temperature drop through the turbine stages would be less than design

values. Accordingly for such testing, turbine stages would operate at

less than design values. Therefore it is desirable to be able to test with

2500°F turbine inlet temperatures, take little or no work out of the turbines,

yet limit the turbine exit tenroeratures to"1850°F to protect the regenerator

materials from over-temperatures. A special engine modification accomplishes

this, by-passing the turbines and combustor with some of the regenerated com-

pressed air and remixing at the turbine exit. Figure 8 shows a schematic of

the modified flowpath incorporating a by-pas's outside of the stator and tip

shrouds to reduce the turbine exit gas temperature prior to entering the

aluminum-silicate regenerator. With this modification, it has been possible

to test ceramic turbine rotors at turbine inlet temperatures as high as

2650°F without exceeding the regenerator inlet limit of 18S0°F.

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF PROOF TESTING

With regard to brittle fracture a statistical approach is mandatory in

order to account for observed variability in ceramic properties,. The most

commonly applied theory is the Weibull [8] approach to estimate fast fracture

19
 reliability. Slow crack growth considerations to estimate ceramic component

life have also beer developed and applied [9 thru 14]. Techniques to account

for the influence of proof test truncations of properties into reliability

estimates have also been derived [15 thru 19]. It is important to recall that

analytical predictions are based on various approximations to physical

properties as well as to strength and slow crack growth parameters of materials

and the boundary and loading conditions in the components. Thus the adequacy

of the mathematical modeling must be established. It is imperative to

develop insight into the controlling influences of these numerous assumptions

and conditions. Therefore systematic analysis as well as reproducible

experimental rig tests are required.

Analytical methods expounded to date have been aimed at components sub-

jected to relatively simple stress states wherein the principal stress

orientation and magnitude are fairly well known. Application of the

elementary theories to simple situations appears to have been fruitful.

[14,20] However when definition of the problem becomes more dubious, less

success has been demonstrated. [21,22]

Any attempt to apply proof test considerations to a practical situation

is of interest since improvements in engineering methodology are largely

dependent on lessons learned from past mistakes. In this instance,

[21 thru 24] unknown or uncontrolled boundary conditions and loading

conditions negated attempts to apply simple engineering methodology.

Therefore it is imperative to systematically calibrate and evaluate the

behavior of the various test rigs and also to complete detailed analyses

of critical test conditions. Preliminary results have been obtained relating

to rotor proof tests at Ford Motor Company. It is axiomatic that to be

20
 effective, a proof test should be as simple as possible and yet closely

simulate the critical stress conditions. However, for the vehicular engine

under consideration it is interesting to note that the hub stresses at full

power consist of approximately 50% centrifugal and 50% thermal stresses,

whereas the blade stresses at the same design point are virtually all

centrifugal. Obviously this introduces problems with regard to cold spin,

versus hot spin versus static imposition of a radial thermal gradient across

the rotor. The exact distribution of stresses throughout the component is

also of importance. Considering, each elemental volume of the stressed

rotor, the stress severity factor will vary from element to element. Further-

more in the case of time dependent loadings, the orientation of principal

r

stress throughout the component, will necessarily vary with time. A key

engineering judgment then is the isolation of critical conditions during the

operational cycle. This further emphasizes the importance of rig testing to

substantiate such judgment as well as to systematically calibrate the appara-

tus.

Application of proof test analysis to the short term, fast fracture

problem is relatively straight forward. Considering a cold spin test Ford

engineers have also applied slow crack growth considerations, again using

available data, and the critical rotor element (in the neck region of the

rotor) to estimate the overspeed requirement to attain desired rotor life

of 25 hours with a survival probability of 90%. The result was an over-

speed of 68%. It is noteworthy that the calculation was determined to be

extremely sensitive to input statistical data, further emphasizing the

necessity for a rather extensive properties characterization program.

21
 The requirement for similarity of stress conditions is clearly

demonstrated by considering the isotherms and stress states depicted for the

rotor both in the engine and in the hot spin rig [Figures 9, 10 and 11].

The difference in temperature distribution at 100% design speed and 2500°F

turbine inlet temperature, steady state conditions in the engine is contrasted

to the hot spin rig with blade ring rim at 2300°F in Figure 9. While

temperature conditions in the critical rotor hub neck bond region are well

simulated in the hot spin rig, peak temperatures are higher in other portions

of the hub. In general the overall stress symmetry is affected and peak

stresses are slightly higher in the hot spin test. More importantly, the

volume of stressed material is affected. Based on these preliminary

analyses the failure rates in the hot spin rig is anticipated to be higher

than in an engine test. However it must be emphasized that these estimates

are based on preliminary data and further characterization* of ceramics is

required.

Furthermore symmetry of stress distributions in the hot spin rig is

based on assumed boundary conditions which remain to be experimentally

verified. However it is likely that the rotor hub temperature gradients

will differ in the engine as contrasted to the hot spin test rig. This

difference can largely be attributed to differences in the rotor mounting.

For instance the hot spin mounting shaft has a lower temperature material

capability accordingly necessitating approximately a factor of three in

bolt cooling mass flow rates which obviously imposes different thermal

gradients under the two test conditions.

22
 2300 F Rim

Bond
Region

2500 F Turbine Inlet Temperature, 100% Mechanical Speed

ENGINE
HOT SPIN RIG

fIRST STAGE TURBINE ROTOR HUB

FIGURE 9. First Stage Turbine Rotor Hub Isotherms in the Engine and in the
Hot Spin Rig. (Courtesy Ford Motor Company)

CM
 ~ 100% Centrifugal
100% Steady State and 100% Centrifugal

Illustrating Shift in Location of Maximum Principal Stress

ROTOR HUB IN ENGINE

FIGURE 10. Illustrating Shift in Maximum Principal Stresses, Thermal and

Mechanical, of Rotor Hub in Engine (Courtesy Ford Motor Company)

24
 Rim 2300 F Rim

Thermal and Centrifugal Stresses at 24,000 rpm Thermal Stresses at 24,000 rpm Plus Centrifugal Stresses at 64,240 rpm
ROTOR IN HOT SPIM RIG ROTOR IN HOT SPIN RIG

FIGURE 11. Thermal and Centrifugal Stress of Rotor Hub in Hot Spin Rig
(Preliminary Analysis, Courtesy Ford Motor Company)
 CONCLUSIONS

In the past six years the various types of silicon nitrides as well as

silicon carbides have been significantly improved and a]ternate materials

such as siliconized SiC have been developed. While more progress is a

reasonable anticipation, it would be too optimistic to expect an equal rate

of progress in ths next few years. Making the conservative assumption that

strength and uniformity of these classes of materials will not change

significantly in the near future it is timely to explore alternate ways to

enhance the quality of ceramic components. Proof testing is a practical

method of eliminating defective parts in a particular lot of components

(for example in the ceramic grinding wheel industry). Therefore, our next

goal is to systematically explore economic methods to proof test ceramic

engine components, and verify the proof testing methodology via tests.

Within the next year, hot spin and engine rig test data on high temper-

ature evaluation of ceramic rotors will be available. Fast fracture as well

as preliminary durability data are anticipated. These results will permit

asse sment of the design procedures and may well stimulate further studies.

As an example, further evaluation of material stability, of tensile behavior,

and geperal nonlinear stress-strain response at high temperatures, as well

as combined stress failure behavior may be required, especially for the

highest temperature exposures. Therefore, the later portions of our study

of proof testing are reserved for such efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The wcrk reported herein was conducted by.engineers of the Ford Iiotcr

Company, Turbine Development Department. The author is particularly indebted

26
to A. F. McLean, A. Paluizny, J. C. Uy, and L. R. Swank. The financial
support of ARPA and particularly ERDA is acknowledged. The encouragement
of G» Thur and R. Schulz is gratefully appreciated.

27
 REFERENCES

1. Burke, J. J., Gorum, A. E., and Katz, R. N., Editors, "Second Array

Materials Technology Conference: Ceramics for High Performance

Application", Brook Hill Publishing Company, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts,

1974.

2. Caws, R. B., Graham, R. P., and Stoddart, D. E., "Silicon Nitride

Materials for Gas Turbine Components", ASME publications, 73-GT-47

April, 1973.

3. Fisher, E. A., "Technical Ceramic Fabrication Processes," ASME

publication, 75-GT-110, March 1975.

4. Wang, F.F.Y., ed., "Treatise on Materials Science and Technology,

Volume 9, Ceramic Fabrication Processes, Academic Press, New York,

San Francisco and London 1976.

5. Goodyear, M. U., and Ezis, A., "Joining of Turbine Engine Ceramics" in

Proceedings of the Fourth Army Materials Technology Conference Advances

in Joining Technology. Editors: Burke, J. J., Gorum, A. E., and

Tarpinian, A., Brook Hill Publishing Company, Chestnut Hill, Massachu-

setts, 1976.

6. McLean, A. F., Fisher, E. A., Bratton, R. J. and Miller, D. G., ''Brittle

Materials Design, High Temperature Gas Turbine" AMMRC-CTR-75-38, Interim

Report, Sept. 1975; AMMRC-CTR-76-12, Interim Report, April 1976.

•7. McLean, A. F. and Baker, R. R., "Brittle Materials Design, High Tempera-

ture Gas Turbine", AMMRC-CTR-76-31, Interim Report, October 1976.

8. Weibull, W., "A Statistical Theory of the Strength of Materials",

Ingeniors Vetenskaps Akadamien-Handlingar, no. 151, 1939.

28
 9. Charles, R. J., "Static Fatigue in Glass", Journal of Applied Physics,

vvol. 29, no. 11, November 1958, pgs. 1549-1560.

10. Charles, R. J., "Dynamic Fatigue of Glass", Journal of Applied Physics,

vol. 29, no. 12, December 1958, pgs.'1657-1667.

11. Evans, A. G., "Method of Evaluating the Time-Dependent Failure Character-

istics of Brittle Materials and Its Application to Polycrystalline

Alumina" Journal of Materials Science, vol. 7, no. 10, October 1972

pgs. 1137-1146.

12. Davidge, R. W., McLaren, J. R. and Tappin, G., "Strength-Probability-

Time Relationships in Ceramics, Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 8.

No. 12, December 1973, pgs. 1699-1705.

13. Evans, A. G., "High-Temperature Slow Crack Growth in Ceramic Materials"

In Ceramics for High Performance Applications, Burke, J. J., Gorum, A. E.,

and Katz, R. N., Editors, Brooks Hill.

14. Wiederhorn, S. M., Evans, A. G. and Roberts, D. E., "A i-racture Mechanics

Study of the Skylab Windows", In Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics, vol 2,

R. C. Bradt, D. P. Hasselman and F. F. Lange, Eds., Plenum Press,

New York, 1974, pgs. 829-841

15. Evans, A. G., and Wiederhom, S. M., "Proof Testing of Ceramic Materials-

An Analytical Basis for Failure Prediction", International Journal of

Fracture, vol. 10, no. 3, September 1974, pgs. 379-392.

16. Paluszny, A. and Wu, W., "Probabilistic Aspects of Designing with

Ceramics',1 22nd Annual Gas Turbii e Conference of ASME, 27-31 March 1977.

17. Paluszny, A., "Life Prediction Methodology for Ceramic Structures"

ERDA, Workshop on Ceramics for Advanced Heat Engines, 25 January 1977,

Orlando,- Florida

29
IS. Uy, J. C , "Life Prediction: A Simplified Approach", IBID.
19. Ritter, J. E. and Jakus, K., "Lifetime Prediction", IBID.
20. Wiederhorn, S. M., "Prevention of Failure in Glass by Proof-Testing",
Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 56, No. 4, April 1973
21. Evans, A. G., Wiederhorn, S. M., Linzer, M. and Fuller, E. R., Jr.,
The Proof Testing of Porcelain Insulators and The Application of
Emission NBSIR 74-512, June, 1974.
22. Corrente, D. T., Stress Concentration Factor Determination in Station
Post Insulator, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Technical Note N-1427
Port Hueneme, California, February 1976.
S. K. Takahaslu, Instrumentation of Replacement Base Insulator Assembly,
VLF East Tower, Lualualei, Hawii, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
Techical Note N-1430, Port Hueneme, California, April 1976.
23. Wind Forces on Structures, Final Report of the Task Committee on Wind
Forces Structural Divison, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Decenfrer 1960.
24. McCaffrey and Hartmann, Dynamics of Guyed Towers, Journal Structural
Division, Vol. 98, No. ST6, June 1972.

30 .
 NET SHAPE INTEGRAL AND CERAMIC BLADED WROUGHT
SUPERALLOY GAS TURBINE ROTORS

Bryant H. Walker

ABSTRACT

With ever increasing demands for more efficient, low cost automotive propulsion systems,

many development programs have been initiated to improve the gas turbine engine. This paper

summarizes two such programs utilizing the GATORIZING™ forging process to fabricate (1) net

shape integrally bladed and (2) ceramic bladed wrought superalloy turbine rotors.

Discussed first is the demonstration of fabricating a net shape integrally bladed rotor which

is both aerodynamically efficient and economically feasible. Included are material processing and

rotor fabrication techniques, component evaluation, and projected cost analyses for mass

production.

Reviewed secondly is the development and evaluation of a hybrid superalloy rotor w' h

ceramic blades. This includes design, fabrication, and testing of the blade root attachment,

culminating with the hot spin test of a fully biaded rotor.

INTRODUCTION

Two programs currently being conducted by the Government Products Division of Pratt &

V/hitney Aircraft are aimed at demonstrating unique techniques for producing uncooled gas

turbine rotors. However, the approaches to achieving this objective are significantly different in

the two programs. In one program, sponsored by the Energy Research & Development

Administration (ERDA) [Contract E(ll-l)-2637], the approach is to produce integral wrought

Project Materials Engineer

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group
P. O. Box 2691
West Palm Beach, Florida 33402
Nonmember
 superalloy rotors utilizing the GATORIZING isothermal forging process. In the other program

sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Contract N00019-74-C-0484), the

GATORIZING process combined with diffusion welding are used to produce hybrid ceramic

bladed superalloy disks. This paper presents additional details of these programs and discusses

their current status.

INTEGRAL WROUGHT SUPERALLOY

ROTOR PROGRAM (ERDA/NASA)

'' • • It has been well identified1 that one of the cost drivers in an automotive gas turbine is the
v
v / /•*•

' v 'cast oFthe turbine rotors. Pursuant to investigating lower cost manufactu; ,v U; hniques this two

phase program was initiated to demonstrate the feasibility of using an isotht-iual, superplastic

forging (GATORIZING) process to produce wrought integrally bladed turbine rotors. The rotor

selected as the demonstration model throughout the program was the gasifier-turume rotor for

the ERDA/Chrysler baseline gas turbine engine.

In Phase I, the superalloy IN-100 was selected for demonstrating, (1) the feasibility of low

cost - close tolerance forging, using the GATORIZING process, and (2) the ability of the wrought

superalloy to meet mechanical property requirements for the targeted design limits of the rotor.

To fabricate the rotor, a two-step forging sequence was selected. The first step produces a

nonbladed overthick preform to ensure proper metal distribution for the second step. During the

second step the preform is forged to a finish dimension disk and the blades extruded onto the rim

of the disk to form the integral bladed rotor. Figure 1 shows an actual billet, preform and rotor

fabricated using this two-step sequence. Figures 2 and 3 are cross-sectioned views of the TZM

molybderum preform and final form tooling used to isothermally forge the preform and rotor

shown in Figure 1.

To optimize the forging parameters various temperatures and strain rates were evaluated to
effect proper die fill and resultant response to heat treatment. The optimum forging parameters
1
United Aircraft Research Laboratories Report K-97017-4, "Manufacturing Cost Study of Selected Automotive Gas
Turbine Concepts," dated August 1971.
 were found to be a constant strain rate of 0.1 in./in./min (0.25 cm/cm/min) with the preform

forged at 1900°F (1038°C) and the final rotor forged at 2000°F (1093°C).

During the forging parameter optimizations, definite limitations to the processes were

formulated. Very close tolerance forgings were easily produced; however, there are restrictions on

the blade design to assure forgeability as evidenced by lack of blade fill during the second forging

step. These restrictions were found to be an interrelated function of blade length, thickness, and

radial taper in cross-sectional area. With these parameters quasi-quantified, the airfoil of the

Chrysler design was modified to allow complete fill of the blade die cavities. Figure 4 shows the

final rotor configuration in the as forged condition. To attain the finished part, shown in Figure

1, the only machining was that required to deburr the forging and grind the blades to the correct

length.

. Having attained a reproducible forging sequence demonstrating close tolerance forging of

the rotor, a heat treatment study was conducted to optimize the mechanical properties of the

rotor. This study was aimed at establishing a single heat treatment which would achieve a

compromised microstructure combining the high tensile strengths typical of a fine grain structure

with the good rupture life of large grained materials, while maintaining an adequate low-cycle

fatigue (LCF) life. The heat treatment selected to achieve this optimum combination of

properties was a double solution at 2150°F (1177°C) and 1950°F (1066°C) followed by

precipitation at 1600°F (871 °C) and 1800°F (982°C), and aging at 1200°F (649°C) and 1400°F

(760°C).

Material capability curves were generated from several rotors heat treated using the

described heat treatment. These curves indicated that neither the stress rupture nor the low-cycle

fatigue properties met the targeted values of a 100 hr, 1750°F (955"C) stress-rupture strength of

17.5 ksi (121 MN/m'), and a 5000 cycle LCF life at 1700°F (927°C) and a 0.5% strain range. The

typical properties were, however, close to the target goals [14.5 ksi (100 MN/m2) and 3200 cycles

respectively] and were considered as good a,combination of properties as could be achieved within

the limits of the investigation using the wrought superalloy IN 100.

 To ascertain the projected cost of producing an automotive rotor utilizing the GATORIZ-

ING process, a manufacturing process and complete facility suitable for volume production of

rotors was projected. Based on this study, volume production of the rotors is within current state-

of-the-art at a selling price of $51.77 per rotor at the rate of one million per year. The impact of

alternate production rates is considered during Phase II of the program.

Based on the results of Phase I, the Phase II effort was directed at (1) producing turbine

rotors with blades that would meet aerodynamic efficiency requirements of the baseline engine,

and (2) to evaluate an alternate alloy, IN 792, as to its capability to meet, in wrought form, the

targeted stress rupture and LCF values.

In an effort to produce turbine rotors that would equal the desired 78.8% efficiency, a

tradeoff study was conducted on turbine rotor performance versus ability of the GATORIZING

process to produce various blade shapes. Through iterative design and single blade forging trials,

an optimum tradeoff was obtained resulting in a 78.3% efficient rotor. This was an acceptable

design, and could easily be improved by modification of the stator exit gas angle to ensure

convergence in the blade row.

To fabricate rotors with the redesigned blades, new blade die inserts were fabricated using

a unique electro chemical machining (ECM) technique. This approach was selected to hopefully

maintain-tight contour tolerances from insert to insert. It was also felt this technique would prove

very cost effective in meeting the high volume machining requirements of the projected

production facility studied in this program. Unfortunately, this ECM technique required many

iterations to obtain an acceptable contoured die insert and significantly delayed the program.

However, it is felt in a production facility this method of machining would be very cost effective.

While the ECM iterations were being conducted, the program efforts were concentrated on

evaluation of the IN 792 alloy. This evaluation consisted of characterizing optimum extrusion and

forging parameters to effect proper response to heat treatment and yield acceptable mechanical
 properties. The elimination or control of this structure would have required a forging and heat

treating study beyond the scope of this program with no guarantees as to resultir •» mechanical

properties.

Due to the out of scope effort required to solve the IN 792 problems, the decision was made

to use another alloy, AF2-1DA, capable of meeting program goals and requiring minimal

optimization studies.

To conserve remaining program funding, AF2-1DA forging stock was processed using an all

inert powder processing technique and extruded using parameters developed under an Air Force

Materials Laboratory contract (F 33615-70-C-1387). The material is currently being forged, using

Phase II tooling, into integral bladed rotors for subsequent heat treatment and mechanical

property evaluations.

The manufacturing cost study compiled during Phase I of the program will be updated and

expanded to incln.de alternate quantities of 100,000 and 10,000,000 units per year. This update

will reflect further process refinements obtained during Phase II of the program.

CERAMjC BLADED WROUGHT SUPERALLOY

DISK PROGRAM (DARPA/NAVAIR)

This two phase program was planned to develop and demonstrate the attachment of

ceramic blades to a wrought superalloy disk. A unique approach was devised utilizing

superplastic, isothermal forging (GATORIZING) to form a disk around the ceramic blade roots.

During Phase I, analytical and experimental design studies of selected candidate

attachment schemes were conducted. Primary candidates chosen for further evaluation were

reduced to practice on a sample basis to establish optimum fabrication parameters and their

respective load carrying capabilities. Interactive evaluation yielded an optimum attachment

combining the GATORIZING forging process with diffusion bonding (welding).

 In this attachment scheme, illustrated in Figure 5, the root sections of the hot pressed and

diamond ground silicon nitride blades are sandwiched between two nickel base superalloy

AF2-1DA disk halves in a forging-diffusion welding cycle. The flexibility of this scheme is

depicted in Figure 6 with the primary attributes of the attachment listed as follows:

1. Attainment of compressive surface-to-surface contact between the ceramic

blade root and superalloy disk throughout its intended operational regime

2. Utilization of a compliance layer eliminating ceramic/wrought alloy interac-

tion during fabrication and enhancing surface-to-surface contact

3. Simplicity of fabrication and incorporation of bore entry air cooling when

required

4. Attachment of the ceramic blades directly to the disk or attach the ceramic

blades to an intermediate wrought alloy blade root for attachment to the disk

by conventional means.

To establish a meaningful design criterion for the room temperature strength capability of

the optimized attachment, twelve single blade attachments were spin tested to failure. A peaked

distribution of data resulted and a Wiebull plot of the P/A ultimate stress levels was made and

shown here in Figure 7. This plot reveals a mean stress of 37.4 ksi (258 MN/m2) and a 99.5% lower

bound stress of 20.5 ksi (141 MN/m1) above which 99.5% of the failures v/ould occur for a given

sample size.

With this three sigma (99.5%) lower bound design point established, a demonstration test

was conducted to complete Phase I of this program. This test consisted of spin testing three

attachment specimens to 100% of the' design stress level without failure. Two attachments were

spun to 60,000 rpm and tip speeds of 2029 ft/sec (618.4 m/sec) while the third was spun at 40,000

rpm and a tip speed of 1487 ft/sec (453.2 m/sec).

 The objective of Phase II of this program is to demonstrate the elevated temperature

capabilities of the attachment by spin testing a fully bladed rotcr at state-of-the-art

temperatures. To accomplish this objective, several single and multi-bladed rotors were designed

and spin tested at various temperatures and speeds. These tests led to the establishment of a

quantified program milestone of spinning a fully bladed rotor for 50 hours at a blade temperature

of 2250°F (1232°C) and 45,000 rpm.

The first step toward attaining this milestone was the design and testing of a single blade

rotor. This specific rotor was spun without failure for 68 hours at 45,000 rpm and a blade tip

temperature of 2250°F (1232°C). During the test, the rotor was subjected to 10 thermo-

mechanical cycles and 97 isothermal LCF-dwell cycles. The success of this test led to a similar

spin test of the 29 bladed rotor shown in Figure 8. Two blades were omitted to accommodate

thermocouple instrumentation of the disk and blades. Following calibration, this rotor was spun

for 54 hours at 45,000 rpm, blade temperature of 2250°F (1232°C), and saw 12 thermo-mechanical

cycles without failure.

To meet the Phase II milestone, the 30 bladed rotor shown in Figure 9 was fabricated and

tested. Spin testing was accomplished without failure of the rotor for 50 hours at 45,000 rpm, a

blade tip temperature of 2250°F (1232°C), and included 4 thermal and 10 mechanical cycles.

The total success of this program has led to the extension of this work to include additional

spin testing of a fully bladed rotor up to blade temperatures of 2500°F (1371 °C).

SUMMARY

Two programs using unique techniques to fabricate high-performance gas t j ' bine rotors

have been discussed. One approach utilizes the GATORIZING forging process to produce

wrought integral bladed rotors which are both aerodynamically efficient and economically

feasible for large volume production. The other technique combines the GATORIZING process
with diffusion welding to produce a hybrid ceramic bladed superalloy rotor. This hybrid rotor has

the potential to allow significant increases in turbine inlet temperatures without introducing the

requirement for air cooling; a much more efficient engine would thus result.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his thanks to the Energy Research and Development

Administration and to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency for funding these

programs, and to the respective program monitoring agencies NASA and NAVATR. Special

thanks also go to the respective program task groups for the successful complf cion of each of these

programs.
 FD 1W851

Figure I. Two-Step Superplastic Forging Sequence

to Form Integrally Bladed Turbine Rotors
FD72M3B

Figure 2. Cross-Section of Preform Tooling

FD7J148C

Figure 3. Cross-Section of Final Form Tooling

FD7923SA

Figure 4. Fully Bladed Turbine Rotor in As Forged

Condition

Figure 5. Fabrication Process for the Ceramic

Wrought Attachment

Figure 6. Flexibility of the Ceramic Blade Metal

Disk Attachment Scheme

Figure 7. Room Temperature Spin Test Results of

Ultimate Strength for the Ceramic
Wrought Alloy Attachment
FD 1102S8

Figure 8. Instrumented Ceramic Bladed Rotor Hot

Spin Tested for 50 Hours at 2250°F

Figure ft Fully Bladed Hybrid Rotor Spin Tested at

2250°F Blade Temperature for 50 Hours at
45,000 rpm
Approach:

Billet
Preform

Net Shape Rotor

Figure 1. Two-Step Superplastic Forging Sequence PD 104B51
763011
to Form Integrally Bladed Turbine Rotors t130

FD 72643B
 TOP KNOCKOUT TOP DIE

PREFORM
CAVITY

BOTTOM
DIE

-BOTTOM KNOCK OUT

FD 72643B
772502
0392

Figure 2. Cross-Section of Preform Tooling

FD74448C
 p~-~—-\/ TOP KNOCKOUT PIN
TOP DIE

/-HOLD DOWN
RINGS

DIE INSERTS
BOTTOM
KNOCKOUT
SYSTEM
BOTTOM DIE
FD 74448C
77S502
0391

Figure 3. Cross-Section of Final Form Tooling

FD79238A
Figure 4. Fully Bladed Turbine Rotor in As Forged
Condition

PD 110264A
 AF2-1 DA
DISK HALF

AF2-1DA
DISK HALF
DISK HALF MATERIAL
DISK HALVES FORGED TO MATCH THE
BONDED CONTOUR OF CERAMIC
UNDER -1 DA BLADE ROOT
LOAD BOND (NO CERAMIC/WROUGHT
AND HERE BOND IS FORMED. AN
TEMP- AF2-1DA INTERFERENCE F T !S
ERATURE OBTAINED BETWEEN
CERAMIC AND
LOAD
WROUGHT ALLOY). FD 11028"! A
772502
0393

Figure 5. Fabrication Process for the Ceramic

Wrought Attachment
 Attach Ceramic Directly n Attach Ceramic To
ur
To Wrought Disk Wrought Alloy Root

Air-Cooling Passages Wrought Alloy Root

Ceramic
Blade
Superalloy
Disk

Compliance Layer Ceramic Blade

AV 104857
772401
T983

Figure 6. Flexibility of the Ceramic Blade Metal

Disk Attachment Scheme
 39.9
Ill 99.5 WIEBULL DISTRIBUTION
(C
BETA = 8.0
= 63.2 THETA = 39.7
IL SAMPLE SIZE = 12
IL
O
> 10
2a: 26.2 KSI
(179MN/m 2 )
1
o 3a: 20.5 KSI
a (141 MN/m 2

O.Ob i i
0.1 1 10 100
ULTIMATE STRESS PSI X 10 4 FD110266A
772502
'.26

MN/m2 = PSI X 6.8948

Figure 7. Room Temperature Spin Test Results of
Ultimate Strength for the Ceramic
Wrought Alloy Attachment
Figure S. Instrumented Ceramic Bladed Rotor Hot
Spin Tested for 50 Hours at 2250°F
Figure 9. Fully Bladed Hybrid Rotor Spin Tested at
2250°F Blade Temperature for 50 Hours at
45,000 rpm
 -1-

COMPLIANT FOIL AIR BEARINGS FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINES
S. Gray*

INTRODUCTION ,

While the objective of achieving' a successful gas turbine for an automobile is

not new, this engine ;has received some emphasis in recent years as a possible
alternate power plant which potentially offers increased performance (less fuel
consumption), reduced pollutants, and competitive costs-

Table 1 prepared in the 1960's lists th2 important criteria which have to be met
in achieving the successful gas turbine powered vehicle [1]**; these criteria have
not changed significantly today.

Even as the present generati~n of gas turbines progresses through development and
application, thought is being given to the next generation of Advanced Gas Turbines
for smaller vehicles. It is anticipated .that a program will be required to develop
smaller, faster, and higher temperature engines of less than 100 HP output and
constructed from some novel materials.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the part that the compliant foil air
bearing is playing in supporting the Performance, Reliability, and Cost goals of
a current engine and its anticipated contribution to advanced engines.

Mueh of the discussions and projections are based on current work with the MTI
Hydresil™ compliant foil air bearing in the Chrysler/ERDA Upgraded Automotive Gas
Turbine and on technology support work sponsored by NASA/ERDA.

THE COMPLIANT FOIL BEARING IN THE AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE

The MTI Hydresil, hydrodynamic, compliant foil air bearing as used at the turbine

position in the gas generator section of the two-shaft, Chrysler/ERDA Upgraded

*Manager, Fluid Film Technology Section

Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham, NY
**Numbers in brackets designate references at end of paper.
 TABLE 1

IMPORTANCE OF ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS RELATIVE TO THEIR

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE AND ECONOMY OF OPERATION (1)

ENGINE CHARACTERISTIC RATING

LOW FUEL CONSUMPTION. 10

HIGH RELIABILITY 9
LOW INITIAL COST.. . 9
LOW MAINTENANCE.COST. 7
HIGH POWER/WEIGHT RATIO . 6
SMALL BULK- 6
RAPID THROTTLE RESPONSE . 6
LOW NOISE LEVEL . . 6
INHERENT TORQUE MULTIPLICAliON 5
POWER AT HIGH ALTITUDES . 5
LOW VIBRATION LEVEL . 4
GOOD ENGINE BRAKING . 4
WIDE FUEL RANGE . . . . 4
LOW ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION 3
GOOD COLD STARTING , 2
LOW LUBRICATING OIL CONSUMPTION 2
LOW ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE . 1
LOW INFRA-RED RADIATION . 1

(KEY: 1 TO 10 IN RISING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE.)

 -3-

Turbin.e is illustrated schematically in Figure l(a). Details of the foil con-

figuration are given in Figure l(b). The gas generator rotor operates-at 58,500
rpta with an air bearing temperature of about 500 F.

The original justifications for the use of a foil bearing at the hot turbine

position are listed in Table 2 [_2j.

The Chrysler program for the Upgraded Engine has reached the stage of approxi-
mately 50-60 hours of operation on the engine test bed at full speed and tem-
perature and preliminary checks in the car; this follows simulator development
testing of the gas generator rotor-bearings system at MTI.

The illustration of the engine in the car is shown in Figure 2, and Figures 3

and 4 show the foil bearing in the engine and actual engine hardware.

Currently there is considerable interest in the potent'al for compliant air

bearings with both flexible and rigid surfaces for turbo-machinery, particularly
as speeds and temperatures continue to increase. This is evident from the
number of bearing concepts being disclosed, some of which are shown in Figure 5.
Most of these have been reduced to practice.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE HYDRESIL FOIL AIR BEARING TO THE AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE

The contribution of the Hydresil foil bearing to the current and future advanced
automotive gas turbines will be discussed in the context of Performance,
Reliability, and Potential Cost ~ much of the discussion is on the basis of
recent experience with the Chrysler/ERDA Upgraded Gas Turbine.

Engine Performance Gain from Reduced Bearing Power Losses

The Upgraded Engine is a derivative of the previous more powerful and lower speed
Chrysler automotive engine now referred to as the Baseline Engine. Figure 6
gives a direct comparison of the turbine ends of the gas generators for the two
engines which includes the change from an oil journal to the foil air bearing.
 -4-

SHAFT

BEARING
CASE BUMP FOIL

TOP FOIL

(a) SCHEMATIC

BEARING DIAMETER: 1.5"

LENGTH: 1.5"
STIFFNESS: 20,000 lb/in.

. 180" TOP FOIL

PITCH THICKNESS
.004"

BUMP FOIL
THICKNESS .003

(b) DETAILS OF BEARING

FIG. 1 HYDRESIL FOIL JOURNAL BEARING - UPGRADED ENGINE

 -5-

TABLE 2

ADVANTAGES OF AIR FOIL BEARING IN UPGRADED GAS GENERATOR

• REDUCED FRICTIONAL POWER LOSS.

• REDUCED OIL SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS.
FOIL AIR • ELIMINATION OF OIL SEAL AND FIRE HAZARD AT TURBINE END.
BEARING
• COMPATIBILITY WITH LOW COST HOUSING MATERIALS.
• POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT TO HIGHER SPEEDS AND
TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURES.
FIG. 3. HYDRESIL FOIL BEARING IN GAS GENERATOR OF CHRYSLER ENGINE

MTI-17214
 GAS GENEI :VrOR
COMPRESSOR

FOIL BEARING
JOURNAL GAS GENERATOR
TURBINE

POWER
TURBINE

OIL BEARING

HYDRESIL AIR
FOIL BEARING

i
FIG. A. ENGINE PARTS SHOWING FOIL BEARING AND JOURNAL
i
 -9-

SHAFT JOURNAL
BEARIN6 BUMP FOIL
CASING
TOF FOIL

HYDRESIL SINGLE PAD

FOIL BEARING

SPIRALLY WOUND FOIL BEARING

(3)

MULTI-LEAF FOIL JOURNAL BEARING

CARBON GRAPHITE
PADS
(5)
3-PAD TENSION FOIL BEARING

COMPLIANT
MATERIAL
HEAT EXCHANGER
BACKING RING

(6) CANTILEVER MOUNTED RESILIENT (7,8)

3 RIGID PADS - COMPLIANTLY MOUNTED
BEARING PAD THRUST BEARING

FIG. 5 . EXAMPLES' OF FOIL AND COMPLIANT BEARING CONCEPTS

 -10-

58,500 RPM

UPGRADED
ENGINE

BASELINE
ENGINE

44,600 RP

FIG. 6. COMPARISON OF GAS GENERATOR TURBINE BEARINGS

 -11-

Despite the increase in bearing size and speed of operation, the air bearing
requires 1.0 less horsepower than the smaller oil bearing to overcome frictional
drag when operated at the new higher speed. If foil air bearings are used at
all positions in the gas generator, as shown schematically in Figure 7, then an
additional power saving of 4.0 HP is achievable. This additional savings,
detailed in Table 3, also includes influences such as seal changes and elimina-
tion of shear pumping losses related to oil in the housings. These power
savings are certainly not insignificant for engines in the 50-100 HP output
range.

The type of foil thrust bearing applicable to this analysis is shown in Figure 8.

Engine Performance Gains from Increased Cycle Temperatures

Returning to Figure 6, the increase in the turbine inlet temperature to achieve

greater performance and the shorter heat flow path to the turbine bearing will
be noted for the Upgraded Engine. These trends are expected to continue for
the advanced gas turbine.

The operating temperature of the oil at the turbine bearing in the Baseline
Engine is approximately 300 F and reaches approximately 400 F at soak back. It
is apparent that any significant increases in these teoiperatures which must be
anticipated in smaller, higher performance engines will give rise to oil coking
problems affecting engine life and reliability. The benefits from the elimina-
tion of the oil at this bearing are thus significant.

A careful thermal analysis made for the Upgraded Gas Generator design with the
foil air bearing [2J was important in arriving at the optimum design of the
bearing area and of the cooling air arrangement. Figure 9 shows the thermal
map which was developed. The corresponding temperatures to those given above
with the foil air bearing are 500 F operating and 650 F at soak back, these
temperatures are quite acceptable in the foil bearing and can be exceeded in
 ALL AIR
FOIL
BEARING
CONCEPT

UPGRADED
GAS
GENERATOR
DESIGN

FIG. 7. CONCEPT FOR ALL AIR FOIL GAS GENERATOR

 -13-

TABLE 3

FRICTION HP POWER SAVING OVER UPGRADED GAS GENERATOR

WITH ALL AIR FOIL BEARING SYSTEM

HORSEPOWER POWER
SOURCE OF CHANGE SAVINGS
AIR OIL HP

COMPRESSOR END JOURNAL BEARING 0.1 i.l 1.0

MAIN THRUST BEARING 0.5 1.6 1.1

REVERSE THRUST BEARING 0.1 0.3 0.2

MID-SHAFT SEAL 1.5+ 0.8

COMPRESSOR SEAL 0.01 1.5+ 0.8

"PUMPING" IN CAVITY (ESTIMATE) 0 0.1 0.]

TOTAL SAVINGS 4.0

+ Based on complete oil film

 -14-

• BUMP..PMLS ASSEMBLEO BEARING

M|i/i|)ji|fjr|ii»ll|lJlJ«|<|M>l<l'l<jWillMlI|'lll'l'll|ll1ll|i|||'ll!1tM1|llll'l1l1!'|Illl'i1|'IMMMM1l'-1'1l'\illl'i'i''.1' >•;"'","'••'•• ' ' ' ' "••: ' i 1

3 3 4 S 6 7 B 9
3-4" S _« 7 a O IO 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 IB 19 2O 21 22 23

FIG. 8. AIR FOIL THRUST BEARING

 AIR BEARING ENLARGEMENT NOTES:
ALL VALUES ARE METAL
TEMPERATURES UNLESS
(AIR; (AIR) (AIR) (E) (F) OTHERWISE INDICATED,
475 454 472 489 478 508 506 644 502 VALUES WITH IDENTIFYING
\ \ / I / / / ' LETTER ARE SOAKBACK
TEMPERATURES
TEMPERATURES, °F

538 (AIR)

1167(B)
250 174 v
/ 232 226 {l393 377 24 5 421 3 4 5 4H 4 5 \ 649 775 901 8o 5 977 1084
' > (G) (C)
FIG. 9. THERMAL MAP - UPGRADED GAS GENERATOR
 -16-

future designs thus permitting higher turbine inlet temperatures and further

performance gains.

Determination of Bearing Performance and Reliability from Simulator Testing

The gas generator simulator for .:he Chrysler/ERDA Upgraded Engine played an
important part in the development work ahead of the first engine built in deter-
mining bearing-rotor performance. It is now being used in parallel with engine
testing in developing reliability criteria for the bearing-rotor system.

The simulator under high temperature testing is shown in Figure 10, and Figure 11
shows the rotor and bearings.

Recent activities have emphasized simulation of vehicle shock and maximum rotor
unbalance in the testing, and future work will explore the effect of bearing
clearance tolerances on performance.

Figure 12 illustrates the results of testing in which shock loads of up to 16 g

were imposed on the simulator with the rotor at high speed. This shock level is
representative of combined road shock and vehicle slew loading. Also shown in
Figure 12 are the rotor orbits measured outboard of the dummy turbine wheel with
unbalance levels of 0.006 oz. in. and 0.010 oz. in. at both wheel planes. These
small orbits include manufacturing run-out errors of approximately 0.0005 in.
T.I.R. The 0.010 oz. in. level of unbalance is the; maximum anticipated from
balance deterioration during vehicle operation and prior to engine servicing.

In both the shock and unbalance tests, no surface damage was experienced in the
air bearing.

Cost and Manufacturing Considerations

While major emphasis has been on developing the bearing system for the engine,
continuing thought has been given to bearing cost and manufacturing requirements
for the high volume production necessary for a viable product.
 ..\"»

£^;

FIG. 10 HIGH TEMPERATURE TESTS IN SIMULATOR

FIG. 11. SIMULATOR ROTOR AND BEARINGS
 -19-

Accelerometer \\ Capacitance
A V i\\^ Probe

Accelerometer B

Drop

Elastomer Pad

Accelerometer B

8.3 g/DIV

Accelerometer A

—•*{ r*~ 5 raillisecs/DIV

SHOCK TEST

.001

TURBINE END
ROTOR ORBITS

0.006 oz-in. 0.010 oz-in.

Unbalance in Two Planes Unblance in Two Planes
FIG. 12. SHOCK AND ROTOR UNBALANCE TESTS IN SIMULATOR
AT 90° SPEED
MTI-17279
 -20-

A foil bearing is not a one-for-one replacement for an existing oil bearing, and
other engine and system items are subject to changes which affect cost. These
changes are listed below:

• Simple less critical single pad bearing

• New rotor sleeve material and design
• Reduced oil system requirements
» Potentially simplified seals

• Lower cost bearing housing

• Reduced insulation

Most of these changes are advantageous from a cost savings viewpoint, and a pre-
liminary cost review at Chrysler was positive in this regard.

Other cost saving studies involving replacement of rolling element and oil film
bearings systems with foil bearing systems [9, Ij] have also given quite positive
results.

Looking specifically at the Hydresil foil air journal bearing, which has the
virtue of the minimum number of parts, this is presently being built in proto-
type quantities without the benefit of "Detroit" automotive high-volume manu-
facturing engineering techniques being applied. One critical factor influencing
cost is the control of the cold bearing clearance. This clearance is affected
by tolerances on the rotor journal, foil members (this enters twice), and
bearing sleeve bore.

In the simulator testing, diametral clearances ranging from 0.0015 in. to

0.0035 in. have been used. Bearings for the engine are being set up with 0.002
in. clearance; and as mentioned before, further work is underway to establish
a satisfactory clearance range. Figure 13 shows the present situation on
 -21-

Solutions for Achieving Desired Clearance

A B
Use Shim Under Use Alternate Perform Second
Sununation of Individual Foils Thinner Top Forming Opera-
Tolerances of Bearing Foil & Permit tion on Bump
and Journal llearance Range H<eight- ,Plus B
.004-
Sleeve
Bore

Bump
Foils
Height
.00

Top Foil Permit

Clearance
Thick-
ness Range

t
Optimum Clearance

.001—

Assumptions
Rotor and Slaeve Bores Used ss Manufactured. All Adjustments Made on Foil
Members or with Shims.

FIG. 13. MANUFACTURING CONTROL OF FOIL JOURNAL BEARING OPERATING CLEARANCE

 -22-

bearing-rotor-sleeve tolerances and three methods suitable for automatic manu-

facturing and gauging which can be used for clearance control in high volume
production.

In these methods rotors and sleeve parts are used "as manufactured" and all
adjustments are made on foil.elements, consequently interchangeablity and serv-
icing requirements can be met.

BASIC TECHNOLOGY WORK DIRECTED TO THE ADVANCED AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE

A continuing technology activity is essential in order to ensure the foil air

bearing will be ready for the requirements of the future advanced gas turbine,
particularly in the areas of: (a) increasing load capacity beyond the present
25 psi level to permit the use of small bearings, (b) developing higher tempera-
ture bearing materials and coatings, and (c) achieving higher reliability under
severe long-life service conditions.

Some technology work is currently in progress under NASA/ERDA sponsorship aimed

at gaining a better technical understanding of the foil bearing characteristics
which will lead to increased load performance, and for achieving bearing mater-
ials and coatings suitable for high temperature services.

Foil Bearing Technology

Figure 14 illustrates results' from recent work with the Chrysler sized foil air
journal bearing in which the minimum film thickness is measured at speed and
under load in both the circumferential and axial directions using rotating capac-
itance probes mounted in the journal.

The wide minimum film thickness bands of the compliant foil bearing relative to
a rigid air bearing illustrated in Figure 14 are indicative of the potential
for higher load capacity and tolerance to shock loading of the foil bearing.
Also illustrated is the detection of foil excitation from a poorly positioned
 -23-

Axial Traverse
,of Bearing [

Slip 4 Ring _Lh_:Rotating Capacitance (

Probes Slip Ring -)*•

X /

: A - \ \ \ \X\\\\

Test Foj
Cooling Air Bearing 'Test
Load

TEST ARRANGEMENT

K=14,300 RPM N=45,000 RPM

Load=11.9 lb. Load=43.2 1b.
Min Film =
Reference Data with
Rigid Air Bearing

One
Revolution
Film Thickness of Foil Bearing

N=30,000 RPM
Load=9-l/4 lb.
Min. Film Thickness,. r.0005

3/4" 1/2" 1/4"

Excitation of Top
Edge Axial Length of Beering Ins.
Foil at X by Cooling Air
Axial Min. Film Thickness Scan

FIG. 14. TECHNOLOGY DATA - AIR FILM THICKNESS OF FOIL BEARINGS

 -24-

cooling air supply. Studies such as these coupled with good analysis give di-
rections for the achievement of greater bearing performance.

Material and Coating Technology .

The Upgraded Engine is operating with a bearing constructed from Inconel X-750
with a commercial M S . type dry film lubricant coating for meeting the start-
o 2
stop sliding contact requirements. The mating journal sleeve is made of stainless

steel with a flame sprayed and ground chrome carbide surface.

This combination has proved to be satisfactory in simple rig tests of 11,000

contact cjrcles, in simulator tests at temperature, and in the limited engine
testing. There is, however, some evidence that tho loading on the foil bearing
surface during sliding contact is higher than originally assumed. This is probably
the result of engagement and acceleration of the rotor by the starter motor.
There is a continuing need for improved coatings and materials, and the problem
becomes increasingly severe as the temperatures are increased.

The present technology effort applicable to the advanced gas turbine is directed
towards foil bearing materials and coatings suitable for 1000 F operating and
1200 F soak back temperatures. Base materials of Inconel X-750 for the foils
and A-286 for the journals have been selected and the major emphasis is on
coatings.

Table 4 details the range of candidate coatings and combinations which have been
selected, applied to material coupons, and subjected to the following static
oven tests:

300 hours at a test temperature of either 1200 or 1000 F

10 temperature cycles

This screening has been very encouraging in that an adequate number of candidate
coatings passed the test. Many of the coatings which were unsuccessful failed
during the temperature cycling.
 •a •» •» o. CO (N
c K* n o
to n
a.itvO« O.a
o m a.
o
D
H> o 8.2
S ^
00

TIC
(sputtered)
E4C
(sputtered)

(sputtered)
Nl-Cr Bonded
CrB2
(Plasma Sprayed
Ni-Cr Bonded
Cr
2°3
(Plasma Sprayed
Borided
A-286
Tribaloy 800
Ni-Aluminide
Undercoat
(Plasma Sprayed

Metco JrjCj
with a Binder
(Plasma Sprayed
Llnde
with a Binder
(Plasma Sprayed;

(sputtered)
we
(sputtered)
NASA PS-101
© (Plasma Sprayed
Cr 3 C 2
(sputtered)
Electrolyzed
A-286
Silicon Nitride
(sputtered)

(sputtered)

(Plasma Sprayed
CdO and Craphitf
with Sodium
Silicate
(Fused Coating)

Ni-Co
ICE Nitrided
(Electroplated)

A-286
NASA
S-100
Silicon Nitride
Suspended in
Electroless
Nickel

-sz-
 -26-

Table 5 details coatings and combinations selected from above which will next
be given S.E.M. and X-ray defraction examinations prior to being used in dynamic
bearing tests. The dynamic start-stop cycle testing of the coatings will be
done on partial arc bearings under 2 psi and 5 psi loading at temperature in the
test fixture shown in Figure 15.

Emphasis in the materials and coatings work has been placed on using thin coatings
(5,000 angstroms) applied by sputtering since this is particularly attractive
with the thin foil materials, and also on coating both the journal and foil
surfaces.

Figure 16 shows equipment which will be used in future parametric studies aimed
at optimizing the sputtering procedures of the most promising coatings.

Looking further to the future and the trend towards complete ceramic components
in the engine, it is encouraging to note that, in general, ceramics make good
bearing surfaces. Further thoughts on all ceramic bearings will be found in
Reference Jllj .

THE SINGLE SHAFT AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE

It is not clear at this time whether success for the advanced automotive gas
turbine will be achieved with a single or multi-shaft design since many design
parameters a_e involved J12J . An example of a single-shaft gas turbine config-
uration is shown in Figure 17 J13] .

Two significant features demonstrated in this Ford design are: (a) the intro-
duction of many ceramic components for the high operating temperatures an<-* (b)
the use of a simple spur gearing power output train at the cooler compressor
end of the rotor.

The use of this gearing arrangement whether on a single or multi-shaft design

results in radial loading of the foil bearing at the turbine end and may
 -27-

TABLE 5

COATINGS AND COMBINATIONS SELECTED FROM STATIC OVEN SCREENING TESTS

Shaft Tribaloy Linde NASA

Cr Kaman
800 2°3 PS106
•Des
Foil (P.S.)* (P.S.) (P.S.)
(P.S)

TiC (Sp.)

(Sp.)

Kaman Des

CdO +
Graphite
(fused)

(Sp.)

Uncoated Foil do)

Cr 2 O 3 (Sp.)
Ag (Sp.)

TiC (Sp.) +
Ag (Sp.)

*Plasma Sprayed
**Sputtered
 -28-

REMOVABLE
HEAT BOX

••>.

REMOVABLE
TEST JOURNAL

ELECTRIC
DRIVE MOTOR

FIG. 15. FOIL JOURNAL BEARING MATERIALS TEST RIG

FIG. 16. THIN COATING SPUTTERING EQUIPMENT i
 -30-

FIG. 17. FORD SINGLE SHAFT VEHICULAR GAS TURBINE

 -31-

necessitate the use of an undesirably large bearing. The use of a planetary

gear system with balanced radial loading would be beneficial to the bearing
designer.

Figure 18 shows the simulator rotor and bearings for the Ford engine during
preliminary testing with foil bearings.

BEARING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ADVANCED GAS TURBINE - CONCLUSIONS

The gas turbine designs of the future are anticipated to continue the trend
towards lower horsepower and smaller size to match smaller cars and have higher
cycle temperatures and rotational speeds to achieve maximum engine efficiency
and performance.

It is evident that there is little possibility ot using cil lubricated bearings

particularly at the hot position(s) unless perhaps a more novel overhung compres-
sor-turbine concept is introduced.

Table 6 gives the suggested bearing operating specifications for a hypothetical

advanced engine.

In comparing these specifications with the progress reported with the compliant
foil air bearing, it is evident that a good base has been established which
makes the foil bearing a very strong contender; however, further technology work
is needed.

Specific areas where further foil bearing system work is necessary to achieve
the targets of optimum Performance, Reliability, and Potential Cost include the
following:

• continued effort to increase bearing load capacity

• continued work on high temperature materials and coatings
• bearing design refinements for increased tolerance to thermal gradients
and rotor distortions
 i
FIG. 18. FORD SINGLE SHAFT GAS TURBINE SIMULATOR
WITH HYDRESIL BEARINGS
 -33-

TABLE 6

SUGGESTED BEARING OPERATING SPECIFICATION

FOR ADVANCED AUTOMOTIVE GAS TURBINE

JOURNAL THRUST
PARAMETER BEARING BEARING

SPEED (MAXIMUM) rpm 80,000 100,000

STEADY-STATE TEMPERATURE °F 1000 (TURBINE) 550

SOAK-BACK TEMPERATURE °F 1200 (TURBINE) 600
BEARING SIZES in. 3/4 to 1-1/2 DIA. 3.0 O.D.

in. 1,0 to 2.0 L 1.0 I.D.

STEADY-STATE LOADING psi 15 20

PEAK LOADING psi 40 40
I
COOLING AIR TEMPERATURE °F 500

TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS °F/±n. 200 100

ROTOR UNBALANCE oz-in. .010 at Tv Planes
 -34-

• simplified, effective, and low power loss seals

• continued cost studies and manufacturing refinements of the bearing
system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special acknowledgment is given to Messrs. D. Ruscitto, J. McCormick, and

B. Bhushan of MTI for their technical contributions to the work presented in
the paper, and to N. Sparks of the Chrysler Corporation for his outstanding
cooperation and technical support.
 -35-

REFERENCES

1. Phillips, P. A., "Design, Development, and Application of Vehicle Gas

Turbine Engines", I. Mech. E. Proceedings. Vol. 181, Part 2A, No. 5, 1966.

2. Gray, S.; Sparks, N.; McCormick, J., "The Application of Gas and Oil
Lubricated Foil Bearings for the ERDA/Chrysler Automotive Gas Turbine",
ASME Preprint, 76-GT-115, March 21, 1976.

3. Licht, L., and Branger, M., "Motion of a Small High-Speed Rotor in 3 Types
of Foil Bearings", J. of Lubrication Technology, Trans, of ASME, April, 197j.

4. Barnett, M. A., et al, "Bearing Foil Anchoring Arrangements", U.S. Patent

No. 3,615,121, October 26, 1971.

5. Waldron, W. D., and VanHuyser, R. S., "Pneumomechanical Critical Speed

Control for Gas Turbine Engine Shafts", Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory
WPAFB, AFAPL-TR-75-86.

6. Shapiro, W., and Colsher, R., "Development of Compliant-Mounted Gas Bearings

for a Small High-Speed 10 kw Turbo-alternatoi", Final Report for U.S. Army
Mobility Equipment — R&D Command, September, 1976.

7. Anderson, W. J., "Analysis of an All-Metallic Resilient Pad Gas-Lubricated

Thrust Bearing", J. of Lubrication Technology, Trans, of ASME, April, 1975.

8. Etsion, I., "A Cantilever Mounted Resilient Pad Gas Thrust Bearing", J. of
Lubrication Technology, Trans, of ASME, January, 1977.

9. Decker, 0., "Where, How, and Why Gas Bearings Compete with Rolling Contact
Bearings", Paper F.J, Sixth International Gas Bearing Symposium, University
of Southampton, March, 1974,
 -36-

10. Swenson, K. R.., et al, "Evaluation of Gas Lubricated Hydrodynamic Bearings

in a Gas Turbine Environment", Wright Paterson AFB, Ohio, AFAPL-TR-72-41,
June, 1972.

11. Gray, S., "Applying Resilient Foil Air Bearings to Turbo-machinery —

Techniques and Challenges", SAE Preprint, 751070, November 17, 1975.

12. Lanning, J. G., and Mann, L. B., "Impact of Ceramic Materials Application
on Engine Design", Vehicular Gas Turbine Forum C/VI, ASME Gas Turbine
Conference, New Orleans, March, 1976.

13. McLean, A. F., and Baker, R. R., "Brittle Materials Design High Temperature
Gas Turbine", AMMRC Report, CTR76-31, October, 1976.
Sessions
 THE DIESEL IS "THE" ENGINE FOR HIGH ANNUAL MILEAGE LIGHT DUTY
VEHICLES

by
C . C . J . French*

ABSTRACT

While the percentage market penetration by the diesel engine into the
private passenger car field in Europe has been relatively small, its use in
taxi service is dominant and the use of diesel engines in the light delivery van
is widespread.

For the late 1970's and 1980's, with emphasis on good fuel economy
and low exhaust emissions, the diesel engine has unique advantages to offer
over all alternatives. Under high annual mileage conditions, the reduction in
fuel costs is sufficient to more than offset the increased first cost, and hence
there are economic advantages to be coupled to the technical and ecological
ones.

This paper supplements previously published data which established the

•superior fuel economy of the diesel engine by additional data on six cylinder
and on turbocharged four cylinder diesel engines of equivalent power output to
typical European gasoline engines.

It examines the disadvantages of the diesel engine and sur;<j 3Sts that
some of these are over-rated and that others are susceptable to treatment.

• Director, Ricardo & Co. Engineers (1927) Ltd.

Bridge Works, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex,
England.
 THE DIESEL IS "THE" ENGINE FOR HIGH ANNUAL MILEAGE LIGHT DUTY
VEHICLES
by
C.C.J. French

The diesel engine has had a long and distinguished career as a power
plant. Engines are in use covering the power range from under 5 horse power
to 50 COO horse power - a much wider range than any other type of prime
mover- In surface transport almost all railways which are not electrified
are now powered by diesel engines, and the World's heavy duty trucks are also
diesel powered.

In Europe and Japan diesel engines are used almost exclusively in the
medium truck field and have been widely used for light duty trucks and vans,
while it is bf-c.oming r a r e r to find a gasoline engined taxi in Europe. Despite
these trends, the diesel engine has failed up to now in the United States to
penetrate downwards below the heavy truck market apart from the agricultural
tractor where the penetration over the past twentyfive years or so has been
spectacular.

With World-wide legislation calling for low levels of exhaust emissions

however and with requirements for improved fuel consumption, arising as a
result either, as in most parts of the World from high fuel prices, or as in
the United States from fuel economy legislation, a new look is being given to
the gasoline engine and to other alternatives.

£1 the Author's view, the results of these investigations have shown that
 certainly for the next ten years, and probably for longer, the only practical
alternative to the gasoline engine and its further developments is the diesel
engine. Work on vehicle transmissions to improve economy is desirable and
may be applied to most types of engines, and work on gas turbines arid on
Stirling engines should certainly be encouraged, but breakthroughs are
required in the following areas: -
Gas Turbines - Efficiency
First Cost
Durability
High Temperature Materials

Stirling Engines - First Cost

Bulk
Control
Sealing
High Temperature/High Pressure Materials

As a result of these problem areas, the Author does not see any signific-
ant penetration of the light duty vehicle market by either of these engines
before the nineteen nineties at the earliest.

We are left therefore with improvements in gasoline engines cr with the

diesel engine as a means of improving the fuel economy of light duty vehicles
in the nineteen eighties. One must certainly not overlook the possibility of
improvements in gasoline engines, and here the most promising area would
appear to be the use of high compression ratios, detonation being suppressed
by ignition timing retard and by the use of weak mixtures when approaching
full throttle operation , or by avoiding full throttle operation entirely.

Such retardation of timing to prevent detonation at current compression

ratios is of course common practice, but there is now an intense interest in
very high compression ratio operation. Values up to 15:1 with 98 Octane
gasoline are currently being investigated, with somewhat lower values for
 lower Octane fuels. References ( l ) , ( 2 ) , ( 3 f .

While the development of a successful gasoline engine of this type would

have an important influence on the future of alternative power plants, its
likelihood is affected by a number of problems. Of these, probably the most
imponderable is future legislation on lead content of gasoline, although this type
of engine may also prove to be very sensitive to deposit build-up in the cylinder
leading to severe detonation, preignition, and failure. In the United States
we already have a requirement for lead free gasoline, and there is growing
pressure in Europe for a reduction in current lead levels. In view of the high
refinery energy requirement for the production of high Octane gasoline in the
absence of lead containing additives, a reduction in lead levels is likely to
lead, as in the United States, to the need to employ gasoline of no higher than
91/92 Octane, and this may well drive down the operating compression r a t i o ,
and hence the fuel economy of "high compression" engines which have to use
this fuel, to a point at which they are no better than the current gasoline
engines. There may also be problems in operating engines of larger cylinder
size , since the chambers may then not be sufficiently compact for detonation-
free operator).

In this scenario we are left with the diesel engine as the only practical
alternative to the gasoline engine for some years to come - a period of ten
years at least, and possibly much more. We thus have to ask, "What are the
advantages of the diesel engine?","What are its disadvantages?", and "If its
advantages are so compelling, why is it not already in much wider use?".

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIESEL ENGINE

So much has already been written about the advantages and disadvantages,
and the Author's Company have carried out and published an extensive survey
into these for EPA ( 4 ) , that it is not necessary to do more than summarise
them here and to discuss how the disadvantages can be overcome.

* Numbers in brackets designate references at end of paper.

 Fuel Economy
The outstandingly good fuel economy of the diesel engine as compared
with the gasoline engine is the main reason for employing direct injection
diesel engines in buses and trucks. In light duty applications wbimB»aR 'tftf&tfte
is required which can operate over the same wide speed range as the gasoline
engine, high speed indirect injection engines are currently universally
• employed. These engines have a disappointingly high fuel consumption at high
speeds, due to high mechanical friction and heat losses, Fig. 1, but as speed
is reduced, and especially at low loads, the absence of intake throttling and
the thermodynamic advantages of the use of a very weak mixture, result in an
increasingly larger gain in fuel economy resulting from the use of the diesel
engine, Figure 2.

It has been suggested that considerable improvements in the fuel consumpt-

ion of current gasoline engines could be made by improvement in combustion
and/or fuel injection, by improved ignition, and by alterations to inlet manifold-
ing and valving. In this way, gasoline engine fuel economies could approach
those of diesel engines. While improvements in all engines are possible and
indeed should be strived for, It has yet to be demonstrated that the gains just
mentioned are achievable in practice. Considerable improvements have been
demonstrated under steady state conditions on the test bed, but the changes in
mixture strength which are necessary to achieve acceptable driveability have
destroyed the improvements.

It has also been suggested by a number of authorities that the improve-

ments in fuel economy which result.from the use of the diesel engine arise
largely from the use of a diesel engine which is of a much lower power than
that of the corresponding gasoline engine, which is as a result heavily
throttled and has a much poorer mechanical efficiency. There have, in the
Author's view, never been any good grounds for this view when considering
vehicles driving over a reasonable duty cycle which includes urban and city
driving as opposed to continuous high speed operation.
 With any acceptable power/weight ratio for a light duty vehicle - a
minimum of about 50 bhp/ton - such a driving cycle involves large amounts
of inefficient low power operation, and this effect is not offset by relatively
minor changes in power/weight ratio.

That this is so has been demonstrated by the fact that the prime factor
which controls fuel economy when driving a fixed duty cycle is vehicle weight,
with power/weight ratio having only a second order effect which is easily
offset by differences in gearing.

While this argument has failed to convince everyone in the past, two
recently published sets of data should be conclusive to all. A recent Ricardo
paper (5) has included data on a Vauxhall Viscount car fitted with gasoline
and diesel engines of the same power - but of a rather low power/weight
ratio. The results - Table 1 - have confirmed a substantial albeit reduced
advantage for the diesel engine.

Fuel Consumption
1 Conditions Litre/100 km (mile/gal)
1.8 litre 3.3 litre 3 . 17 litre
Gasoline Gasoline Diesel
Steady speed
30 mile/h 3rd gear 8.9 (31.7) 9 . 4 (30 • 0) - -
30 rnile/h top gear 7.7 (36.6) - 5 .9 (47. 6)
40 mile/h 9.0 (31.2) 9 . 0 (31 . 2 ) 6 .5 (43. 4 ) '
50 mile/h 10.2 (27.7) 9.5 (29 .9) 7 .6 (37. 3)
60 mile/h 10-7 (26.3) 10.7 (26 .3) 8 . 5 (33. 1)
US Federal emission cycle 13.0 (21.5) 17.8 (15 9) 11 . 1 (25. 4)
US Federal durability circuit 9.5 (29.7) 11.6 (24. 4) 7 .6 (37.3)
Round trip (300 miles) 12.05(23.4) 13.5 (20 9) 8 .5 (33. 1)

Table 1 - Comparisor of Fuel Consumption

The other data concerns the diesel version of the VW Golf car ( 6 ) , Here
the 1.1 litre gasoline and the 1.5 litre diesel engines have almost identical
 performance, and the fuel economy advantages of the diesel engine are in line
with all previous data with a gain of 25%-40% in fuel economy, depending on
the duty cycle.

Of these improvements, some eleven percent arises from the higher

volumetric calorific value of the fuel, but the remainder arises from
improved cycle efficiency.

Currently Legislated Exhaust Emissions

The diesel engine, especially in its indirect injection form, has
inherently low levels of gaseous emissions which may be compared with
those from emission controlled gasoline engines - Table 2.

Anticipated
Diesel Gasoline
Federal Limit
2 litre 1.41it.re* 2 litre**
for 198Q
Unburnt hydrocarbons HC 0.41 0.4 2.8 0.17
Carbon monoxide CO 3.4 1.5 2.9 2.2
Oxides of nitrogen NOx 2.0 1.5 2.8 1.7

Table 2 - Exhaust Emissions a/mile - C.V.S. Cycle

* Standard engine with controlled carburation, ignition, and
crankcase ventilation.
** Engine fitted with exhaust gas recirculation, oxidising catalyst
box and air pump.

Hydrocarbon levels are very low and although it may be necessary to

take additional steps to ensure production compliance, the legislation limit
of 0.4 g/mile should be achievable with a 3500 lb car and a similar target
for a 4500 1b car would appear to be attainable, perhaps with hang-on devices.

Under any conditions where the exhaust smoke would be acceptable, the
CO levels are very low and well within any anticipated legislative limits.
 The problem area is of course NOx. While the current levels for an
uncontrolled exhaust emissions car fitted with an indirect injection diesel
engine are somewhere under 2 g/mile for a vehicle weight of 3500 lb, injection
timing control programmed for load and speed should give production compli-
ance at a legislative limit of 1.5 g/mile, and 1.0 g would appear to be a
reasonable target for the future with some exhaust gas recirculation.

A future target of 0.4 g/mile would however appear to be unattainable

without a technical breakthrough. The problem, which is similar to that
faced by fuel injection, stratified charge gasoline engines, arises from the
presence of heterogeous combustion and from the use of lean mixtures. With
heterogeous combustion, combustion takes place in the fuel/air vapour
around the drops of fuel and tends to stoichiometric and hence to high flame
temperatures under all load conditions. In addition, as a result of the need
to run always with overall lean mixtures, there are very low levels of CO and
HC in the exhaust, which makes it impossible to employ "three-way" catalysts
to reduce the NOx to N2 while oxidising HC and CO.

While research and development work aimed at the achievement of 0.4

g/mile is continuing, it would be unrealistic to base the future of the diesel
engine on the gamble that this will succeed, and the demonstrated fuel
advantages of the diesel engine are such that in the Author's opinion the
diesel engine should not be debarred by unrealistic NOx emission legislation
limits unless medical evidence is available to back these limits.

Other Exhaust Emissions

Distillate fuel as used in the engines currently discussed has a sulphur
content of somewhere in the region of 0.5%. Almost all of this is burnt during
combustion and appears in the exhaust as SO2, although there may also be
small amounts of SO3. If it becomes necessary to reduce these levels, it
would be necessary to reduce the sulphur level in the fuel, which requires to
be done in the refining process. Such a process is possible, but would result
 in an increase in fuel costs, and with the very large quantities involved
the disposal of the resulting sulphur might pose some logistic problems-
All diesel engines emit much larger quantities of particulate material
than do gasoline engines. Typical figures for such emissions are shown in
Figure 3 and occur even when there is no visible smoke in the vehicle exhaust.
It can be seen from this data that the particulate materialsin diesel exhaust
exceed those from equivalent gasoline engines by an order of magnitude or
even more, and there is some evidence that these levels may be further
increased by the use of exhaust gas recirculation. While the reduction of
these levels would be a serious problem if any future legislation set a require-
ment comparable to that of current gasoline engines, recent work has shown
that some reduction is possible by the use of exhaust treatment devices.
Relatively simple filter/afterburners can give a reduction of particulate levels
by 50%, and with development further improvement might well be possible.

The odour of the exhaust from 1 ight duty diesel eng ines is different from
that of gasoline engines. It should not however be confused with that which
was experienced with grossly over-fuelled truck diesel engines at a time when
there was no legislation to prevent the emissions of smoke from these vehicles.

Experience indicates that the steps which are taken to reduce HC levels
also reduce exhaust odour, and that the afterburning devices mentioned in the
previous paragraph also have a dramatic effect in odour reduction. While it is
necessary to ensure freedom from fuel leaks on the vehicle so that the driver
and passenger do not smell liquid fuel, an emission controlled diesel engined
car should not cause annoyance from exhaust odour, provided that its fuelling
quantities are properly set and the engine is well maintained. In this regard
it is no more demanding than its gasoline engined counterpart. That large
numbers of diesel engined taxis and other vehicles are employed in European
cities without complaint is an indication that, with still further improvement,
the odour levels in city streets with increased numbers of diesel engined
 vehicles should be acceptable.

Engine Weight
Unless turbocharging is employed, the diesel engine is appreciably
heavier for the same power output than the gasoline engine. This increased
weight arises not from any increase in mechanical loadings since the peak
cycle pressures are similar, but from the inability of the djesel engine to
burn more than 7O%-75% of the air charge. A diesel engine of about the
same power has therefore to be about 30% larger in swept volume with a
corresponding increase in weight.

This increase in bulk and weight may not however be so large when
compared with United States automobile gasoline engines, since in many
cases these are not rated up to their potential, and it is possible for a diesel
engine of the same swept volume to be rated at the same power as the
gasoline engine.

Turbocharging offers considerable advantages for weight reduction. To

enable an acceptable torque curve shape to be produced, it is essential for
the turbocharger to be matched to the engine at as low an engine speed as
possible. This would result in excessive boost pressure and hence excessive
mechanical loading of the engine at speeds in excess of this, and a wastegate
is therefore employed to "spill" exhaust gas from before the turbine to
maintain a constant boost pressure. Small turbochargers are now becoming
available, suitable for engines of down to about 1.5 litres swept volume, and
the turbocharging of such small diesel engines can be considered.,

Problems arise from turbocharging a gasoline engine due to the need

either to use a higher Octane fuel or to reduce the compression ratio of the
engine to prevent detonation. This can give a penalty in fuel economy at part
load. In the case of a diesel engine however, combustion imposes no such
limits, and it is in fact essential to maintain the same compression ratio as
 10

is employed on the naturally aspirated engine in order to give good cold

starting and acceptable noise levels.at idle and low load, and to prevent
white smoke and excessive odour in the exhaust following a cold start.

Typical performance curves from a turbocharged 2.1 litre Opel engine

are given in Fig. 4 and Tables 3 and 4, and show that when the vehicle is driven
over the United States Emissions cycles, the turbocharged engine gives little
if any change in either exhaust emission levels or in fuel economy.

Fuel Consumption
Conditions
Litre/100 km (mile/gal)
Steady speed N/A T/C
:
30 mile/h 5 .1 (55.0) 5.6 (50.2)
40 mile/h 5 .5 (51.6) 6.0 (47.4)
50 mile/h 6 .5 (43.8) 7.4 (38.4)
i 60 mile/h 7 .4 (38.0) 8.7 (32.6)
JUS Federal Emissions cycle 9 .0 (31.4) 9.2 (30.6)
US Federal Durability circuit 6 .73 (42.0) 6.87 (41.1)
Round trip (300 miles) 9.2 (30.6) 9.7 (29.1)

Table 3 - 2 . 1 Litre Opel Engine Fuel Consumption

g/mile
Conditions
HC CO NOx
Naturally aspirated 0.57 1.25 1.45
Turbocharged 0.21 1.20 1.21

Table 4 - Opel Engine Naturally Aspirated & Turbocharqed

While the torque curve shape is acceptable, there is of course no boost

pressure available at cranking and idling speeds, and in fact the compressor
acts as a "throttle" at very low speeds. If clutch engagement occurs at these
 11

speeds, the torque could be inadequate, and with low levels of power/weight
ratio, hill starting performance of the vehicle would be unsatisfactory. This
would not of course be a problem with an automatic transmission.

It is desirable to have a boost responsive maximum fuel stop to prevent

overfuelling and black smoke. Theoretically, acceleration times are affected
by the inertia effect of the turbocharger which requires time to accelerate when
a higher boost pressure is called for. In practice however, quite extensive
driving of several different turbocharged diesel engined cars has not shown this
to be a problem.

First Cost
The diesel engine is bound to be more expensive than the gasoline engine.
There are two reasons for this. Firstly, as already explained, the diesel
engine is larger and heavier, and cost 'i a function of weight. If turbocharging
is used as an alternative, the turbocnarger is an expensive piece of precision
machinery and the turbine itself is made of expensive material. To a first
order, the cost of the turbocharger in these sizes is approximately equal to the
extra cost of the equivalent, larger engine.

The second reason for increased cost is the fuel injection equipment
which is also an expensive piece of precision machinery and which costs
appreciably more than an emissions controlled carburettor with a set of ignition
equipment. While it is desirable to reduce this cost, for purposes of emissions
control the fuel injection equipment is tending to further complication with a
requirement for timing variation with load and speed, and it is perhaps unreal-
istic to hope for any appreciable cost reduction.

Vehicle Operating Economics

As a result of the increased first cost which could be of the order of 50%
more than the cost of the gasoline engine, it is necessary to take advantage of
the improvement in fuel economy, and hence in vehicle fuel costs, in order to
 12

make an economic case for the adoption of the diesel engine. Fuel cost is
therefore vital, and it is harder to make an economic case in any country such
as the United States whose fiscal policies result in very low unit costs of fuel.
On the other hand, American cars tend to be heavier and to use automatic
transmissions and air conditioning which results in much increased fuel
consumption, and this helps to reduce the balance.

Under all conditions today, the break-even mileage beyond which there
is a saving in total cost due to the use of the diesel engine is somewhere
between 20 000 and 30000 miles} Figure 5. Under stop-start taxi service
conditions with high unit cost fuel, the break-even point is even lower, which
together with high annual mileages accounts for the widespread use of diesel
taxis in Europe.

Cold Starting
The cold starting abilities of the diesel engine are often criticised by
non-diesel users. With high heat losses, the indirect injection engine is not
a very good starter under extremely cold conditions, and the problem is
exaggerated in the small engine by a worsening surface to volume ratio. With
heater plugs however in the combustion chamber, which are essential for
such engines, good starting can be aachieved
< at down to about -20 C, and lower
with ether-containing starting fluids.

The only problem is the 20-30 seconds required for warming up the plugs
before starter engagement, but work is in hand which should lead to the use
of quick warm-up plugs which might be used without preheat and which, if they
were left engaged for a short time after starting has been achieved, should
eliminate white smoke upon cold starting, which results from the passage of
unburnt fuel through the engine.

Noise
While diesel engines are commonly thought of as noisy, in fact the average
 13

drive-by noise of diesel engined motor cars is only about 2 dBA higher than
that of average gasoline engined vehicles. While this will require a greater
effort to reach future noise legislation limits, the driver is not in fact conscious
of the fact that a diesel engine is fitted, apart from when the engine is idling.

•While the idling noise is subjectively loud, its decibel level is low but •
cannot of course be compared with that of the throttled gasoline engine which
is often undetectable. Major modifications to the engine structure and/or a
complete enclosure would appear to be the only way to obtain the required
large reduction in noise when idling, but penalties in first cost and/or
maintenance accessibility might well result.

CURRENT USE OF LIGHT DUTY DIESEL ENGINE

The diesel engined passenger car has a much longer history than is
generally known, dating from at least as far back as Citroen and Mercedes in the
1930's. Over the y e a r s , Mercedes-Benz has been the strongest protagonist,
followed fairly closely by Peugeot. Today, however, there are many others
either in production or about to be produced, as shown in Table 5.

Engines are also widely used in light duty trucks and utility vehicles in
Europe and Japan, and the annual production is certainly in excess of 300 000
and probably of 400 000. With these production numbers, which have been
growing rapidly over the past few y e a r s , it is clear that there is a wide
experience of their use in most parts of the World and that this experience,
together with the excellent reputation of the diesel engine in terms of long life
and reliability, is leading to increased market penetration, and that at times
such as now, with increasing relative fuel costs, this will result in a much
wider use of the diesel engine in high annual mileage vehicles.
 14

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

While the.fuel economy advantages of the diesel engine are thus well-
established, it is clear that there will be further improvements in the fuel
economy of the gasoline engine. The use of higher compression ratios has
already been discussed, but other improvements may also be possible-. One
can ask therefore - "What is the scope for corresponding improvements in the
diesel engine?".

A number of areas are currently being studied, and each would appear
to offer scope for improvement:-

Engine Friction
As has already been explained, the lo ;ses due to mechanical friction, as
shown in Figure 6, are excessive ( 7 ) . B' minimising the size of engine
auxiliaries this may be reduced, but it is also possible that it may prove
feasible to reduce piston and ring frlu^.Oi,, which is the largest single item.

Heat Losses
Heat losses during compression, combustion, and the expansion stroke,
are a drain on the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and strenuous efforts are
being made to reduce them either by reducing gas velocities or by the use of
insulation. The reduction of gas velocities is possible but tends to a less
flexible engine and hence to difficulties in covering a wide speed range, as
described in the next section. Reduction in heat losses would of course give
a further improvement,arising from the reduction in the power of the cooling
fan even as in the case of insulating the exhaust duct where there was no change
in cycle efficiency.

Pumping Losses
These take two forms; Figure 6. Firstly is the charging of the cjiinder
and the exhausting of the spent charge. With valve sizes at their limit and
 15

with little to be gained in this size of engine from the use of four valves per
cylinder, any possible gains in this area seem to be small. In the indirect
Lijection engine however there are also pumping losses which result from
pumping air into the pre or swirl chamber, depending on type. While gains
are possible by changes in the relative volume of or by an increase in the
throat area, this results in a distortion of the torque curve shape which is
undesirable.

Reduction in Compression Ratio

The compression ratio is set in light duty diesel engines by caisiderations
of acceptable cold starting, acceptable noise when starting and at low load, and
by the absence of misfiring when starting and at high speed and light load, both
of which could result in unacceptable hydrocarbon levels and exhaust odour.
Potential improvements in these areas, arising perhaps from ignition aids, could
be taken, or alternatively the compression ratio winch is currently excessive
from the point of view of fuel economy, could be lowered.

The Use of Direct Injection

Direct injection is used almost exclusively in almost all tjpes of diesel
engine, apart from very small or from high speed, light duty engines. Itoffers
better starting, lower heat losses, lower thermal loading, and a better fuel
economy with an advantage of 8-10%. Clearly, it would also be used in light
duty engines if it were at all possible, and the engine performance data of Fig-
7 for such an engine, obtained by Ricardo some ten years ago, are of interest.
The reasons why it is not used are many, but they all arise from the need to
operate the engine over a wide speed range, both in order to match the trans-
mission of a conventially engined vehicle and to obtain an adequate engine
power output without excessive engine size.

Direct injection engines employ a number .of holes in their fuel injectors
since the fuel has to be "taken to the air", and this leads to a fixed hole size.
When a wide speed range has to be covered, with the fuel line pressure varying
 16

as the square of the fuel velocity and hence of the engine speed, pressures
will either be excessive at high speeds or too low at low speeds, depending on
the orifice size chosen. As a result there is considerable difficulty in getting
a good engine performance over a wide speed range.

With indirect injection however, the air is "taken to the fuel", and a
single hole nozzle with a lifting obturator is employed which gives an ability to
have a smaller orifice area at lower speeds,and hence good combustion is
easily achieved over a wide speed range.

Direct injection engines also tend to be noisy, especially at high speeds,

and this difference in noise can be as great as 5 dBA; they have higher maximum
cylinder pressures, and the nozzle holes are small and hence in small cylinder
sizes more prone to blocking and requiring more frequent maintenance.

In general the NOx emissions from direct injection engines tend to be

higher than with indirect injection, as do the hydrocarbon levels, especially
in small cylinder sizes. Some recently published results by AVL (8) with
direct injection have however shown NOx levels approaching those of current
vehicles with indirect injection. No evidence of noise level acceptability or
of injection system life is currently available however.

Clearly, with so much to be gained, a number of companies are invest-

igating the use of direct injection, employing various alternative systems, and
success with one or another of these would be likely to lead to use in service.

CONCLUSIONS

Diesel engines are widely used in light duty service throughout the World
where they have proved acceptable to their operators.

They offer a fuel consumption advantage of 25% to 30% as compared with

 17

gasoline engines in combined urban/city cycles and a greater advantage in

start-stop taxi service.

The cost differential is inherent, but with current fuel costs it is offset
in the first 20 000 to 30 000 miles (less in start-stop taxi service), and
beyond this there is an economic gain to the operator arising from the use
of the diesel engine.

For a 3500 lb inertia class vehicle a NOx limit of 1.5 g/mile should.be
achievable with programming of the injection timing, and 1.0 g/mile with
the use of some degree of exhaust gas recirculation. Heavier vehicles would
give roughly pro rata results.

The imposition of tighter NOx levels than this would effectively bar the
diesel engined light duty vehicle from the market place.

At the required hydrocarbon levels, exhaust odour is not likely to be a

serious problem, but it should be further reduced by exhaust treatment
devices which may have to be developed to meet possible future particulate
legislation.

Engine noise poses problems which are only marginally more severe than
with gasoline engines but subjective noise at idling is intrusive and difficult to
reduce.

Other Alternative Power Plants are too far away in the time scale to affect
the introduction of the diesel engine. The most likely contender is the high
compression gasoline engine which may however prove to have problems of
endurance, under deposit build-up conditions, and which may be no more
efficient than current gasoline engines when operating, as may be essential,
with low or lead free gasoline.
 18

The Author's overall proposition is that "The Diesel is 'THE' engine for
high annual mileage light duty vehicles" - proven, widely used, dependable, •
efficient, and giving a long life with low maintenance costs.
 19

REFERENCES

(1) "High Swirl Combustion Chamber cuts Emissions & Consumption",

Automotive Engineering, June 1976.

(2) "Turbulence Controlled Induction", A.O. Dye,

I.Mech.E. Automotive Engineer Journal, December 1976.

(3) "The Saab-Scania Fuel Economy Engine", P. Gillbrand,

I.Mech.E. Proc. January 1977.

(4) "A Study of the Diesel as a Light Duty Powerplant",

EPA Report No. 460/3-74-011, July 1974.

(5) "Light Duty Diesel versus Gasoline - a Comparison 'Like with Like 1 ",
W.M. Scott, I.Mech.E.Proc. January 1977.

(6) "Advanced Automotive Power Systems, Part 1: Morphological System

and Systems Analysis", P. Hofbauer & B. Wiedemann, SAE Paper 760591,
August 1976.

(7) "Frictional Losses in Diesel Engines", B.W. Millington & E.R. Hartles,
SAE Paper 680590, September 1968.

(8) "The Swirl Supported Direct Injection Combustion System - its Potential
of Meeting Economical and Environmental Requirements", W.P. Cartellieri
et al, I.Mech.E. Proc. January 1977.
 No. of Bore & Stroke Max. Speed Power Output Weight
Manufacturer Capacity Cylinders mm rpm kW kg kgAW kW/1 itre

British Leyland 1.5 4 73 x 89 . 4000 30 185 6.2 20.0

1.8 4 80.2x88.9 4250 ~cS.8 174 4.5 21.5
2.5 4 88.9x101.6 3500 47.7 268 5.62 18.9

Citroen 2.175 4 90 x 85.5 4500 45.9 206 4.49 21..0

Nissan 2.164 4 83 x 100 4000 48.4 186 3.78 22.4

Mercedes-Benz 1.968 4 87 x 83.6 4200 40.5 193 4.77 20.6

2.192 4 87 x 92.4 4200 44.1 195 4.42 20.0
2.404 4 91 x 92.4 4200 48.4 203 4.19 20.1
3.0 5 91 x 92.4 4000 58.8 234 3.98 18.9

2.1 88 x 85 4400 44.1 199 4.51 21.0

3
euqeot 1.357 4 78 x 71 5000 33.5 152 4 .54 24.7
1.948 4 88 x 80 4500 44.7 170 3 .8 23.0
2.112 4 90 x 83 4500 48.4 185 3 .82 23.0

1.5 76.5x80 5000 37 130 3.51 24.7

Rover/MSA 2.28 4 90.6x88.9 4000 46 .2 243 5 .26 20 • nj

3.43 6 90.6x88.9 4000 65 270 4 .15 19 . 0

Ford 2.34 4 93.7x85.6 3600 46 234 5.1 19 . 5

3.54 6 93.7x85.6 3000 59 325 5 .5 16 .7

Fiat 2.45 4 93 x 90 4200 51 .4 215 4 .18 21 .0

3.68 6 93 x 90 4200 77 . 2 275 3 .56 21 . 0

Table 5 - Current Liqht Duty Diesel Enqinss

C C . J . French
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.l Comparative Friction Losses for 2 litre petrol and diesel engine-
Fig.2 Fuel Consumption Maps of (a) 1.618 litre gasoline and (b) 2.11
litre Diesel Engines with calculated Road Load.

Fig.3 Automobile Particulate Emissions.

Fig.4 Opel Rekord - Comparison of Turbocharged and Naturally Aspirated

Performance.

Fig.5 Diesel Break-Even Distance.

Fig. 6 Motoring Breakdown Test, Swirl Chamber.

Fig. 7 Ricardo 4 Cylinder 90 x 83mm D . I . Conversion - Performance

Comparison.

C . C . J . French
1000 2000 3000 4000 SOOO
Engine speed rav/mln
 Top gear road speed Top gear road speed
30 CO 50 60 70 80 90 mph 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
80

-120
1000 2000 3000 I. 00 5000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed rev/min Engine speed rev/min
EXHAUST FILTER
COLOUR
Light Grey j 2 litre GASOLINE-unleaded fuel
Off-White | 2 litre GASOLINE - premium fuel
Cream H WANKEL -premium fuel
Light Cream 1 WANKEL-synthetic fuel
Brown-Black r . i Worn 1-2 litre GASOLINE degraded oil
Black ; \ DIESEL vehicle-
Grey-Black j '....'"! DIESEL vehiclp with anti-smoke additive
Light Brown-Grey \ J 1 litre 2-stroke GASOLINE
Brown-Grey [. I 350cm 3 2-stroke GASOLINE (motor cycle)
i i i i i i i i i i i i i

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Particulates g/mile
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 30
Engine speed rev/s
1000 2000 3000 4000 4500
Engine speed rev/min
 Diesel fuel economy ratio
60 V. 75V.
$400
diesel cost difference
$250

km miles
80-50
70-
40 —
60-
30 r*

I 30-20
5 20-
•10
10
0-"-0
miles /US gall
25 20 ;5 10
10 15 20 25 30
I/100km
Gasoline fuel consumption
 «0r

35- / Pumping

30

Compression
25

£•20

•1-5

10

05

1000 2000 3000 4000

rev/min
 D.I.
3j Comet

350
4000 rev/min
s
I 300 "——
Q.

|250
S
350 3000 rev/min
-2 300
O
^250 ' .'
S.
in
2000 rev/min
I 300
250 • — — .
• — - 1
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
lb/in2

3 5 4 6
bar
Brake mean effective pressure
 GASEOUS EMISSIONS CONTROL FOR HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINES
WORK DONE BY FIAT RESEARCH CENTER

Paper for Presentation at the

NATO/CCMS Fourth International Symposium on Automotive Propulsion Systems
to be held in Washington D.C. - April 17-22, 1977

by
C.Lombardi and L.Conti

Research Engineers
Fiat Research Center
Strada del Drosso, 145
Turin - Italy
34 61 34 (262)
 GASEOUS EMISSIONS CONTROL FOR HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINES
WORK DONE BY FIAT RESEARCH CENTER
TO MEET THE PROPOSED LIMIT OF 5 GR/HP.h FOR N 0 2 + H3

Paper for Presentation at the

NATO/OCMS Fourth International Symposium on Automotive Propulsion Systems
to be held in Washington D.C. - April 17-22, 1977

by

C.Lombardi and L.Conti

Research Engineers
Fiat Research Center
Strada del Drosso, 145
Turin - Italy
34 61 34 (262)
 INTRODUCTION

The adoption of very stringent levels for heavy duty Diesel engine emissions, par-

ticularly the 5 gr/HP.h of NO2 + IE of the California legislation for 1977, requi-

red a great research effort to find out methods suitable for exhaust contaminant

abatement.

The research in this field by Fiat Research Center started in 1971. The first part

of the study was released at the 1975 SAE Off-Highway Vehicle Meeting (l).

Results of a number of test methods were presented including such individual varia-

bles as : —

- Injection timing retard.

- Exhaust gas recirculation (E.G.R,).

- Exhaust gas treatment by catalytic converter.

- Fast injection rate.

- Fast injection rate plus injection timing controlled by both engine speed and

load.

- Fast injection rate plus modulated E.G.R.

Though nothing final can be said about the reliability of these methods, the last

two have met the proposed 5 gr/HP.h MO2 + IE limit but at low running hours.

This paper reports the second part results of the Fiat Research Center (F.R.C.)

study on heavy duty Diesel engine emissions.

In the time elapsed between the start and the end of the research, California A.R.B.

allowed a choice between two targets for HC and NO2.

One choice is HZ = 1 g/HP.h, NO2 = 7»5 g/HP.h; the other is the previously stated
one : IK + NOg = 5 g/HP.h. F.R.C. selected as target for the research what was felt
to be the more stringent : 5 g/HP.h NO2 + fC emission level.
 2.

The emission control methods reported here are : -

— Exhaust gas recirculation : a deeper investigation.

— Exhaust gas recirculation plus supercharging to the original power level.

- Variable compression ratio.

- Dual fuel (gasoil and methanol).

The work was performed on different direct injection engines, both naturally aspi-

rated and turbocharged, whose characteristics are given on Table 1. Test methods

used are in accordance with SAE Standards (2, 3» 4 ) •

The HCs were measured with an F.I.D. having a sampling line heated to 170° C.

For the CO and NO measurements an N.D.I.R. analyzer was used and the smoke level

was measured with a Hartridge MK 3 smoke meter or a Bosch smoke meter (using a pho-

toelectric cell). The test procedure is in accordance with the U.S.A. gaseous

emissions control legislation (5)«

Specifications of the fuel used for the tests are shown in Table 2.
 3.

EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION

As is well known the air charge dilution with an inert gas (N2 > CO2, H2O vapour,

etc.) greatly reduces N0 x emission in both spark and compression ignition engines.

Exhaust gas reclrculation (E.G.R.) is the easier technique to obtain intake air

charge dilution; this technique, in fact, is fully applied on spark ignition engi-

ne emission control systems.

To make a detailed investigation of the possibilities offered by E.G.R. the Fiat

8060 engine was selected (see Table l ) , since it could be expected that this stan-

dard engine having low HC + NO2 emissions, would meet the target with E.G.R. alone.

In fact the 8060 engine, with carefully tuned injection system and, in particular,

with reduced nozzle sac volume shows the following emission levels (l3-mode Cali-

fornia cycle) : —

CO = 5. 6 g/HP.h
N0 2 = 7. 4 11

HC = .8 tl

u
JE + NO-, = 8. 2

During the tests, the intake charge (air + recirculated exhaust gas) was kept con-

stantly at 40*45 °C to separate the temperature effect from the charge dilution

effect. The emission and performance results are expressed versus E.G.R. weight

fraction, i.e. the recirculated exhaust gas mass flow divided by intake charge

(air + exhaust gas) mass flow :

Gr
Q Ga + Gr
Q= E.G.R. weight fraction

Gr = recirculated exhaust gas mass flow (kg/h)

Ga = air mass flow (kg/h)

Obviously : ?! E.G.B. = Q • 100

 4.

The tests were performed increasing E.G.R. at two different engine speeds : inter-

mediate (1900 R.P.M.) and rated (3200 R.P.M.). At each speed, four constant

loads - 2%, 25%, 50$ and 75$ of the maximum load without E.G.R. - were selected.

Other tests were performed at full load irersus E.G.R. with the smoke kept constant

at the original level.

The purpose of the research work was to : -

- Evaluate N0 x reduction achievable as a function of $ E.G.R. and the influence of

E.G.R. over CO, HCs, smoke, fuel consumption and performance.

- Establish by balancing positive and negative effects, the best % EGR for the

13 modes of the California cycle.

- Compare the E.G.R. approach with other N 0 x control techniques.

Influence of E.G.R. on emissions and performance

The results of the tests at constant loads of 25$ and 75$ of maximum load are shown

in Figs. 1 and 2. The results are roughly the same for the other loads.

By increasing $ E.G.R., at every speed and load, it is possible to identify the

following trend : -

- Strong N0 x reduction.

- Notable increase of HC, particularly at low loads.

- Notable increase of smoke, particularly at high loads.

- Small increase of specific fuel consumption.

The N0 x reduction, at constant % EGR, is influenced mainly by the load. At both

speeds, with E.G.R. = 15$ the percent reductions of N0 x are 60$ at 75$ of maximum
load, 42 * 43$ at 25$ of maximum load (see Figs. 1 and 2 ) . It is possible to gi-
ve an explanation of this phenomenon considering that as the load is decreased
the air to fuel ratio increases.
 5.

As a consequence, at the same % E.G.R., the inert gas fraction, responsible for

the N0 x reduction, is smaller at low load. A mathematical model was developed

to work out the composition of the exhaust gas and of the intake charge (see ap-
pendix A ) . This way, it is possible to correlate N 0 x reduction not only against

°/o E.G.R. but also against °/o O2 in the intake charge (the % 0^ is, in some way, in-

versely proportional to the inert gas fraction in the intake charge).

As shown in Figs. A3 and A4, if N 0 x reduction is plotted against "Jo O2 the correla-

tion is better.

The trade-off between HUs and % E.G.R. is influenced by speed and load : in parti-

cular, the HCs increase, as % E.G.R. increases is stronger at higher speeds (set;

Figs. 1 and 2 ) .

Because of U;.e excess air available smoke and CO are not influenced by E.G.P.. at

low loads, but they are strongly influenced at higher loads. This fact is clearly

shown in Fig. 3 where smoke is plotted against air-to-fuel ratio at 25^ and 75%

of maximum load, varying % E.G.R. over a wide range. The replacement of air with

exhaust gas has no influence on smoke at lower loads (excess air still high), but

has strong influence at 73% of maximum load (approaching stoichiometric air-to-fuel

ratio). The same considerations may be made for CO as well as smoke emissions.

Maximum available power in Diesel engine is smoke-limited, as known.

The smoke constraint in presence of E.G.R. at full load involves serious power

drops as shown in Fig. 4. In this figure are indicated the results of the tests

performed at full load and constant smoke level versus % E.G.R. The 70 N0 x reduc-

tion obtained with °/o E.G.R. at par is of the same magnitude for both speeds; for
example, with Q = 0.10 it is 55%. However, the negative effects induced by E.G.R.

are worse at higher than at lower speeds as can be seen in Fig. 4. In particular,

with Q = .10 the power drop is 10$ at the intermediate and 20^4 at the rated

speed; the fuel consumption is not influenced by E.G.R. in the first case whereas

it increases sharply in the second.

 6.

•Study of the optimum % EGR for the 13-modes of the California cycle

As stated before the aim is to meet the N 0 2 + HC 5 g/HP.h standard for '77.
The % E.G.R. for every mode must then be chosen with the purpose of minimizing

N 0 2 + HC.

The specific mass emissions of HC + NO are plotted in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 against

E.G.R. % for all the modes of the 13-mode cycle« There is no mention of the idle

condition since E.G.R. at idle is not useful from the point of view of N0 x + HC

emissions as found in a previous study (6).

As pointed out for N0 2 , with regard to N 0 2 + HC reduction the usefulness of E.G.R.

increases with the load (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 ) .

Moreover due to the fact that as E.G.R, is increased N 0 2 decreases but HC increases,

at the rated speed and low load, the minimum NO,, + HC emission is achieved with

E.G.R. = 20% (see Fig. 6 ) .

With regard to CO, this is influenced by E.G.R., see Figs. 1, 2 and 4, but the CO

emission of the standard 8060 engine (5.6 g/HP.h) is well below the 25 g/HP.h

limit. Therefore, some increase in CO emission, induced by the E.G.R. technique,

can still be accepted and yet meet the '77 California limits. Then, the choice

of the optimum % E.G,,R. can be independent of CO emission.

The smoke level is, on the contrary, a constraint to the maximum N 0 2 + HC reduc-

tion achievable by E.G.R. in two modes : -

- At rated speed, 75$ of max.. BMEP, % E.G.R. has to be £ 12% (see Fig. 2 ) .

- At intermediate speed, 75% of max. BMEP, % E.G.R. has to be £ 28% (see Fig.2).

Finally, as shown previously, E.G.R. at full load and constant smoke level brings

forward power reductions proportional to the pre-set % E.G.R. (see Fig. 4 ) .

 7.

13-wode California cycle results with modulated E.G.R.

The above considerations allow the definition of the % E.G.R. as a function of

BMEP with the aim of minimizing HC + NO emissions without worsening the smoke
level. This function is plotted in Fig. 7 for the two speeds of the cycle*

The smoke level constraint leads to an unavoidable choice : -

- if the same power curve against H.P.M. of the standard engine is desired E.G.R.

has to be cut off at full load.

- If the maximum reduction of NO + HC is desired, it will be necessary to have

E.G.R. also at full load, but in this case a power drop proportional to the %

E.G.R. must be accepted (see Fig. 4 ) .

With this in mind, six California cycles were worked out by calculation with the

following assumptions : -

Cycle 1 : modulated E.G.R. for maximum NO + HC reduction at every mode :

E.G.R. cut-off at full load.

Cycles • 2, 3» 4> 5> 6 : modulated E.G.R, for maximum NO + HC reduction at every

mode; E.G.R. at full load (constant smoke level) and power drops of 3%, 10$,

15%, 20%, 25% respectively.

Emission results, performance and°/oE.G.R. fixed at full power are plotted in

Table 3 : the possibility of meeting the 5 g/HP.h NO + HC standard using E.G.R.

is evident.

As % E.G.R. increases at full load, the IE + NO emissxons remain practically con-

stant at 3.8 + 3.9 g/HP.h up to a given extent (cycles 3, 4, 5 ) ; at higher %

E.G.R., NO + HC shows a tendency to increase (cycle 6 ) .

The results of cycles 1 and 3 are worthy of note : cycle 1 shows that it is pos-

sible to achieve a 45J» H2 + NO reduction with regard to the emissions of the

standard engine (without power loss or smoke and fuel consumption increas§"-at
full load) while cycle 3 shows that the maximum obtainable advantage with the
 8.

E.G.R. technique applied to the 8060 Fiat engine is an emission of about 3«8

g/HP.h of NO + IC over the 13-mode cycle. In fact higher % E.G.R.s, whether

at intermediate or at full load, bring forward higher NO2 + IK emissions and

further power losses.

Comparison of E.G.R. with injection retard technique for NO? control

As known, injection timing retard is a useful technique for achieving N0 x emis-

sions reduction. On the 8060 engine this technique gave the best results with

9 crankshaft degrees retard. Such results are shown in Table 4 (13-mode Califor-

nia cycled and are compared with those obtained by the fully modulated E.G.R. in

the assumption of obtaining the same power cur\. "ith both techniques.

Table 4 shows that with E.G.R. it is possible to achieve a further HC + NOp reduc-

tion of 30> over the injection timing retard technique. Carbon monoxide emissions

are the same, fuel consumption is better with E.G.R., particularly at rated speed

(see Table 4 and Fig. 8 ) . On the other hand, E.G.R. shows substantial smoke le-

vel increases at part loads (see Fig. 8 ) .

 9.

EXHAUST GAS RBCIRCULATION AND SUPERCHARGING

The exhaust gas recirculation technique offers the possibility of obtaining a

remarkable reduction of NO emissions without negative effects on smoke and ef-

' ficiency provided the air-to-fuel ratio ( (X ) is greater than 20+22 (see

Fig. 3 ) .

The 8060 engine test results, reported in the previous paragraph, show that it

was necessary, for maximum N0£ + HC reduction to modulate E.G.R. at all operat-

ing conditions. In particular, it is necessary to fix a % E.G.R. of. 25-30^ at

full load, with remarkable power losses (Fig. 4 and Table 3 ) •

Consequently, if it is desired to take full advantage of the E.G.R. method with

no adverse effects on smoke and efficiency, a drop in specific power of 25+35^

has to be accepted. E.G.R. plus supercharging then looks particularly interest-

ing : operation at high air-to-fuel ratio should assure an effective control of

smoke and should allow the use of higher % E.G.R. at full load without power losses.

It was decided to investigate this on the Fiat 8210 engine whose characteristics

are shown in Table 1. This engine has higher NO2 + HC base line emissions than

the 8060. Therefore, more sophisticated methods have to be used in trying to

meet the 5 g/HP.h NO2 + HC California limit. The baseline exhaust emissions of

the 8210 engine according to the 13-mode cycle are :

CO = 5.4 g/HP.h
NO = 12.6 II

HC .9
NO + HC = 13.5

To study the effect of supercharging + E.G.R. an independent compressed air sup-

ply was used. Therefore, the easier and cheaper way to perform the tests at ve-
ry high °/o E.G.R. was to increase the absolute back pressure well over the abso-
lute intake pressure.
 10.

For this reason, some tests were made to study the influence of the back pressu-

re on exhaust emissions, performance and smoke. These tests were performed at

both intermediate and rated speeds, at full load and with an absolute intake pres-

sure as adopted for the following test with E.G.R. The back pressure was increas-

ed, by means of a throttle, over the barometric pressure up to the absolute pres-

sure necessary to obtain a % E.G.R. of 3O-35%« The results shown in Figs. 9 and

10 bring to light the following points :

- The influence of the back pressure on HC + NO emissions is very small.

- Smoke and CO increase considerably as back pressure increases.

- The back pressure increase from a value as that obtainable with a turbocharger

up to the value adopted for these IJ.G.R. tests makes specific fuel consumption

worse : 10$ higher at the rated speed and &/o higher at the intermediate speed

(Fig. 10).

In conclusion this test procedure — E.G.R. obtained by increasing the back pressu-

re — is more severe than recirculation at the intake of the compressor when using

a turbocharger. In fact, results are worse from the view point of efficiency,

smoke and CO but practically the same for NO + HC.

The aim of the research was to bring to light the influence of °/o E.G.R. on emis-

sions, fuel consumption and smoke at different intake pressure levels and diffe-

rent injection timing.

The work was performed over a wide range of speeds and loads, including those of

the 13-mode cycle, the purpose beii g to work out, for the more interesting solu-

tions, th^ emission results according to the California cycle.

 11.

Influence of inlet pressure on emissions, performance and smoke when operating

with high E.G.R. rates

The tests were conducted at very high load (20$ more than the max. BMEP of the

standard 8210 engine) and at the intermediate speed, with three different levels

of inlet pressure (l.50, 1.75 and 2 kg/cm2 absolute). The % E.G.R. was progres-

sively increased up to 20*251$, measuring fuel consumption, emissions and smoke.

The results are shown in Fig. 11 : at the same % E.G.R., increasing the inlet-

pressure, smoke, CO and specific fuel consumption are reduced while NO + H3 is

increased. However, at the same smoke level (for example, 2.5 Bosch units) mi-

nimum NO2 + HC emissions are reached at the highest :fnlet pressure. In fact, at

this pressure value it is possible to increase ';be % E.G.R. without the smoke

level getting worse. The smoke constraint at 2.5 BU imposes a maximum % E.G.R.

of only 1% at 1.5 kg/cm2 absolute inlet pressure instead of ZCP/o E.G.R. at 2

kg/cm2 absolute inlet pressure.

When the inlet pressure is increased to the first step (from 1.5 kg/cm to 1.75
2
kg/cm ) there is a big gain on NO + HC emissions, whereas with the second step

(from 1.75 kg/cm2 up to 2 kg/cm2) the gain is lower. This means that, in terms

of maximum NO + HC reduction induced by E.G.R., it is convenient to operate at

an equivalence ratio (0) of about 1.5? as is clearly shown in Fig. 12.

Above 0 = 1.4*1.5 there are no smoke problems and the E.G.R. can be increased

achieving substantial NO + HC reductions.

•A
 12.

Influence of E.G.R. on emissions, performance and smoke when operating with dif-

ferent injection timings

The tests were run at the speeds and loads of the 13-mode cycle with absolute in-

let pressures of 1.5 kg/cm^ (intermediate speed) and 2 kg/cm (rated speed),

At 2% and 25% of maximum BMEP, much lower inlet pressures were imposed, consider-

ing that the equivalence ratios are still high enough, for the purpose of simulat-

ing the operation with a turbocharger. Exhaust back pressures were fixed in such

a way as to obtain the disired °/o E.G.R. and keep constant the ratio between the

absolute intake and back pressure at both speeds.

The injection timing was changed around the optimum setting for % E.G.R. = 0 at

every speed and load,; % E.G.R. was increased until 2.5 - 3 Bosch units were rea-

ched or no further reductions on NO + H3 emissions occurred.

In Figs. 13, 14 and 15 the results of the tests performed at 75$ of full load are

shown. Similar results, only quantitatively different, have been obtained with

the other test conditions.

It is possible to operate with °/o E.G.R.s as high as 1^.0%*50% (particularly at p

load) with acceptable smoke levels : NO reductions are very high in this case.
Hyirocarbon emissions and specific fuel consumption are very little influenced

b/ E.G.R,,, while carbon monoxide emissions increase, as % E.G.R. increases, but

still attain low absolute levels.

The influence of injection timing on the trade-off between NO emissions and °/o

E.G.R. is remarkable. By advancing the injection timing, NO emissions increase

(see Fig. 13) but it is still possible to set higher % E.G.R. without the smoke

getting worse (see Fig. 14). Therefore, the evaluation of the influence of E.G.R.

and injection timing on NO + HC emissions must be made at constant smoke level.

For this reason, NO + HC versus °/o E.G.R. has been plotted in Figs. 16 and 17,

at constant injection timing and smoke level. In these graphs, following a line

at cbnstant smoke level,- for example 2.5 BU, it is possible to see how the NO +
HC emissions decrease by advancing the injection timing and at the same time in-

creasing the % E.G.R. : this trend is more remarkable at the rated speed (Fig.17),
 13.

but less at the intermediate speed (Fig. 16). In conclusion, for every operat-

ing condition (identified by speed, load, inle't and exhaust pressure etc ) and

for the constant smoke condition, there is a pair of values for injectior. timing

( (E>o ) and % E.G.R. which minimizes NO + HC emissions. If is the injec-

tion timing optimized for the naturally-aspirated engine without E.G.R., it will

be Q) > qp whatever the load, the speed, etc. With this injection tim-

ing ( (p ) the negative effects on CO and fuel consumption, are very small

(see Fig. 15) compared with condition E.G.R. = 0.

13-mode California cycle results with modulated E.G.R. and supercharging

The latter results allow the calculation of emissions (according to the 13-mode

cycle) to be performed with different % E.G.R.s, injection timing and inlet pres-

sure laws versus speed and load.

The calculations were worked out at the same power of the N.A. engine and at 2.5+3

BU smoke level, and the more significant results are shown in Table 5.

Supercharging and modulated E.G.R., for minimum NO + HC emissions, with both mo-

dulated injection timing as a function of speed/load and injection timing as a

function only of speed, is an effective way to meet the '77 California Standard

(see cycles 1 and 2 of Table 5 ) .

The following considerations can be drawn from the emissions and performance re-

sults reported in Table 5 and Fig.l8 :

- There is little to gain with injection advance as function of both speed and
load. A proper choice of injection advance as function only of the speed allows
satisfactory results to be obtained.
- Further emission reductions can be ensured by increasing the inlet pressure

(see cycle 3, Table 5 ) .

— Adoption of a suitable turbocharger can improve specific fuel consuinption by

the figure given in Table 5 as evidenced in Fig. 10,,,

 15.

VARIABLE COMPRESSION RATIO

An investigation was conducted on high specific power and limited bulk Diesel en-

gines and it included the evaluation of an 8210 turbocharged engine fitted with

variable compression ratio pistons developed by Teledyne Continental Motors on a

patent by B*I.C.E.R.I. (British Internal Combustion. Engine Research Institute).

A schematic of said piston can be seen in Fig. 19 and its working principle (Fig.

20) can be easily understood by observing that the position of piston shell A

(outer member) and piston pin carrier B (inner member) relative to each other is

controlled by the amount of oil in the upper and lower chambers. Such control

is a consequence of the balance between peak firing pressure and relief valve open-

ing pressure.

Movement between A and B in the exhaust and intake strokes is controlled by a

fixed orifice 0. Oil discharged from both relief valve and control orifice

returns directly to the sump. So, as the peak combustion pressure increases over

a pre-fixed value (in our application : 125 kg/cm^) the compression ratio will

reduce from a maximum to a minimum (in our case, 18:1 and 12:1 respectively).

Though the primary target of the work was a system evaluation, tests were also made

on gaseous emissions both at maximum performance and retarded injection timings.

Results of this investigation can be seen in Figs. 21 and 22 which show absolute

emission levels for both California 13-mode cycle engine speeds. As can be seen,

NO emission levels against b.m.e.p. are more or less constant (2200 R.P.M.) or

are decreasing (l600 R.P.M.) commencing when the compression ratio reduction has

just started.

Fig. 23 shows the effect of injection timing reduction : 4.8 gr/BHP.h for NO + HC

are reached with 18° crankshaft static injection timing. As readly apparent, to

get this result a substantial loss of power (about 20$)"must be accepted, but the

performance is still gaining over the original engine with invariable compression

ratio.
 16.

These results have been obtained using a compressed air supply because a suitable

turbocharger was not at hand.The limitation of maximum combustion pressure, and

indeed peak combustion temperature, is responsible for the effective control of

NO emissions encountered, but some role could be possibly attributed to combu-

stion chamber geometry, outer piston material (steel) and the injection law re-

sulting from the very high quantity of fuel injected. The influence of these pa-

rameters has not been investigated but it seems realistic to consider them as se-

condary with respect to compression ratio variation.

From the above considerations, it may be concluded that V.C.R., though originally

devised for other purposes, shows promising prospects in emission control pro-

vided the increased construction complexity and maintenance are not problem areas.

Naturally, because of our limited V.C.R. experience deeper investigation is need-

ed in this direction; at this stage the intent of our report is only to point out

the added potential of this solution.

 17.

GASOIL-METHANOL DUAL FUEL OPERATION WITH SUPERCHARGING

The. possibilities both for gasoil consumption reduction and exhaust emission

control, by means of gasoil-methanol dual fuel feeding, have been investigated

on a 8210 supercharged engine. Methanol's high heat of evaporation is the phy-

sical factor which has been considered of main interest because :

- It avoided using the heat exchanger which is normally needed for reduc-

ing the high temperature of the compressed air.

- It could allow some benefit for NO2 emission control through some limi-

tations of the peak combustion temperature, as a consequence of the re-

duced temperature of the inlet air.

Moreover, having the dual fuel operation shown very effective possibilities for

smoke abatement (ll), a further benefit for NO reduction could be obtained by

injection timing retard without incurring in power losses due to smoke limits.

Fig. 24 shows a simplified scheme of the methanol feed system, while gasoil was

injected by the original equipment injection pump of the engine.

The tests were performed with the following aims :

— Establish the maximum percent of methanol to be adopted without incurring in

engine malfunction and/or unacceptable HC emissions.

- Verify how far the controlled emission limits may be lowered using the metha-
nol-gasoil fuel combination plus injection advance retard, wiW >ut unaccepta-
ble smokiness.

The dual fuel operation was actuated by reducing gasoil delivery and adding metha-
nol up to the original power level. Results of one of such tests can be seen on
Fig. 25, where gaseous emissions, smoke, exhaust gas temperature, peak combustion
 16.

pressure, etc. are plotted against the percentage of load obtained with methanol.

Here, the maximum allowable load with methanol is about 28%, beyond which there

is notable increase in IE emissions.

Fig. 26 shows the engine power curve at 28% load by methanol at the highest speed

and holding the carburettor throttle in the same position even for lower speeds :

for comparison, performance with gasoil alone is also indicated : smoke and exhaust

gas temperature are reduced by a wide margin and total efficiency is slightly im-

proved.

The load is reduced from 100% to 7 2 % by excluding methanol only, so operation at

loads lower than 72% is at gasoil alone.

Fig. 27 shows smoke, emissions, exhaust gas temperature, gasoil and methanol deli-

very, bhp and total efficiency versus static injection timing at 200 R.P.M. (rated

speed). With dual fuel operation, optimum injection timing for emission reduction

is 12° b.t.d.c. : NO + HG of 4,8 gr/bhp.h according to the California cycle is

reached without power loss and with a slight smoke increase, while on gasoil alone

5.7 gr/bhp.h of NO2 + HC with a power loss of about 15% was obtained.

The histograms (Fig. 28) give a direct comparison between the more significant

results obtained with gasoil alone and with dual fuel under both maximum performance

and minimum emission injection timing conditions.

While from an experimental point of view the above results may be considered of

grecit interest, for practical applications some problems arise.

Of these problems, the hardest to solve - not considering intake system design

changes, which are possible — is ensuring the necessary uniform distribution of

methanol to the cylinders s as evidence of how true this is, some combustion cham-

ber erosion in piston n. 1 were experienced.

Additionally, as for the other experiences described here, not much can be said on

long term testing reliability and repeatibility.

 19.

C O N C L U S I O N

The results of the investigation presented in this paper allow the following con-

clusions to be drawn with regard to the possibilities of meeting the 5 g/HP.h emis-
sions limit of NO + HC for the different types of engines tested.

8O6O Engine

- Modulated E.CR. is an effective method for ensuring an emission level of 4.5

g/HP.h with little losses in performance and fuel consumption (see Table 3) •
Further NO + HC reductions are possible but with remarkable power penalties.

— The modulated E.G.R. technique is,on the whole, more effective than the injection
timing retard method (see Table 4 and Fig. 8 ) .

8210 Engine

This engine shows higher NO + HC baseline emissions : more sophisticated techni-

ques are needed. Fig. 29 shows the methods allowing the 5 g/HP.h NO + HC emis-

sion level to be met. ^ome data are taken from a previous paper (l) reporting the

results of the first part of ou. research program.

As shown in Fig. 29, the best results can be obtained with modulated E.G.R. plus

supercharging. However, the E.G.R. technique presents many problems, particularly

as ngards reliability and the E.G.R. modulation is not easy to handle.

On the balance of the positive and negative effects the more reliable method to

meet the NO + HC standard is to increase the injection rate in conjunction with

modulated injection timing.

Such a possibility is offered by the adoption of a pump with high injection rate,

such as the Fiat DRF (Distributore Rotante Fiat) pump with its electronic control

for injection advance. A picture of this distributor type pump is shown in

Fig. 30; its operation was explained in the previously quoted paper (l).
 20.

8210 turbocharged engine with variable compression ratio

By means of compression ratio variation controlled by the peak combustion pressu-

re, both ivery high specific outputs and low NO + HC emissions are obtainable (see

Fig. 23).

Dual fuel (Gasoil-methanol) operation on 8210 turbocharged engine

NO + HC emission levels lower than 5 gr/HP.h without performance losses and with

smoke still at fully acceptable levels were reached using the two fuels. With

gasoil only, a minimum of 5«7 g/HP.h NO + HC emiss

emission level was possible but with

a b.h.p. loss of about 15 percent. (See Fig. 28).

As mentioned earlier, all results are experimental and were recorded from basic la-

boratory work.

Only after a more specific research on emission variations against operation time

will it be possible to state what emission levels are needed at low hours to stay

within the specified limits even after long term testing.

Since single units of the same engine can give notable difference in emission levels,

more specific work is needed on engines of the same family to evaluate emission va-

riations and associated affecting parameters.

 21.

APPENDIX

A very simple mathematical model to work out the composition of the intake charge
has been developed for a better understanding of the E.G.R. technique.
The mathematical model has been developed with and without intercooling of the
recirculated exhaust gas. For the sake of briefness, the explanation of this mo-
del is referred to the set-up without intercooler.
In Fig. A—1 a scheme of the E.G.R. system is shown. The mola_ flow of the diffe-
rent components through sections 1 and 4 are (assuming the air to be composed only
of 0 and N and in the hypothesis of complete combustion) :

Section 1 : through this section passes air flow G (kg/h) comp .sed of :
- a (moles/h) 0
- a . 3.76 (moles/h) N
- x (moles/h) H 0 (due to ambient humidity)

Section 4 s the flow of recirculated exhaust gas G (kg/h) is composed of :

- b (moles/h) CO
- c (moles/h) HO
- d (moles/h) 0
- e (moles/h) N

In the hypothesis of complete combustion the equation of combustion i s :

(EQ.l) WCHj + (a + d) 0 + (a 3.76 + e) N + b CO + (c + x) HO =

(n + b) C02 + fitX + (c + x)J H20 + f a + d - (2n +7}X) \j 0 +

(a 3.76 + e) N2

where n is the molar fuel flow (moles/h) and /, is the atom ratio H/C of hydro-
carbon CHi .
 22.

The molar fuel flow can be expressed as a function of mass fuel flot* C (kg/h):

(EQ.2) n =

12.01 + 1.008 yl

Howover, the intake oxygen flow (moles/h) can be expressed as a function of C

and x :

os a C - x 18
.3) a =
32 + 3.76 • 28.016

Where &. is the air-to-fuel ratio and x is a function of absolute humidity m

(kg.H20/kg dry air) :

(EQ.4) x = qc ,m m
18 1 + m

The mass fractions of the intake charge components in section 2 can be expressed
as :

(EQ.5) f(HO) = (1 -9) (x + c) 18

c:a
(EQ.6) f(oo2) - (1 -Q) b 44
c:a
(EQ.7) f(o ) = ( 1 -Q) (a + d ) 32
ca
r
(EQ.8) f(K ) - i - / f(H2°> + f (co ) +
 23.

The values of b, c and d in previous equations 5> 6, 7 and 8 can be calculated

from the following :

(EQc9) b= n ft)
1-6)

(EQ.1O) c = nAfi)+ 2x0)

2 (1 -ft))

(EQO11) d= ft) (4a - 4n -

4 (l -ft))

In equations 9, 10, and 11 : ft) = (X Q and x has to be calculated from

a + 1 Q
EQ.4. '
This way, it is possible to work out from EQ.5S 6, 7 and 8 the exhaust gas compo-
sition (in the hypotesis of complete combustion) as a function of fuel flow (c),
°/o E.G.R. ( Q ) , air-tofuel ratio ( Q ) and ambient humidity (m) for a given fuel

( X ).
Fig. A-2 shows the results of this calculation for the 8060 engine. At the same
°/o E.G.R. the inert gas fraction f~± - f (0 ) 7 at the intake increases as the load
is varied from 25# to 75$ of full load.
Plotting the % NO reduction as a function of f(^->) (Fig* A-4) the variation induc-
ed by the load is very much lower than plotting % NO reduction versus fo E.G.R.
(Fig. A-3).
This fact proves that thj main parameter controlling NOx is the inert gas fraction
at the intake and that it is better to study E.G.R. technique as a function of % 0
at the intake rather than as a function of % E.G.R.
 24.

REFERENCES

1) V. Montanari, A. Antonucci, P. Rivolo and C. Lombardi

"A New Diesel Injection Pump with High Injection Rate, its Influence on Smoke
and Emissions".
SAE Paper 75077'4.

2) "Measurement of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide and Oxides of Nitrogen in Die-

sel Exhaust".
Technical Report SAE J 177.

3) "Continuous Hydrocarbons Analysis of Diesel Emissions".

Technical Report SAE J 215.

4) "Measurement of Intake Air and Exhaust Gas Flow of Diesel Engines".

Technical Report SAE J 244.

5) U.S.A. Federal Register Vol. 37 No. 221 (l3-mode cycle).

6) "Emissions control in Diesel Engines".

Internal Report of the Fiat Research Center No. 0024/74.

7) W.A. Wallace - F.B. Lux

"A variable Compression Ratio Engine Development".
Paper No. 762 A.

8) W.A. Wallace - F.B. Lux

"V.C. Ratio Engine".
SAE Journal - Jan. 1964.

9) J.R. Grundy, L.R. Kiley, E.A. Brevick

Teledyne Continental Motors.
"A.V.C.R. 1360-2 High Specific Output V.C.R. Diesel Engine".
SAE Paper 760051.

10) Teledyne Continental Motors

"Light Weight Automotive Diesel Engine For Passenger Cars".
ERDA Meeting _ Nov. 17, 1975.
 25.

11) G. Antonucci — L. Zandona

"Heavy-Duty Dual-Fuel Diesel Engines for Smoke Reduction i n City Bus Service"
SAE 740121, Feb. - March. 1974.
 KIG. 1 - Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of
% E.G.R. at 25$ of max. BMEP. (8060 engine, inj. system tuned for
low emissions),

FIG. 2 - Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of

% E.G.R. at 75$ of max. BMEP. (8060 engine, inj. system tuned for
low emissions).

FIG. 3 — Smoke as a function of equivalence ratio and % E.G.R. (8060 engi-

ne, inj. system tuned for low emissions).

FIG. 4 - Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of %

E.G.R. at full load and constant smoke level. (8060 engine, inj.
system tuned for low emissions).

FIG. 5 - N(?2 + HC2 specific emissions on the modes of the California cycle
as a function of °/o E.G.R. (intermediate speed). (8060 engine, inj.
system tuned for low emissions).

FIG. 6 — NO2 + HC specific emissions on the modes of the California cycle

as a function of °/o E.G.R. (rated speed). (8060 engine, inj. syrtem
tuned for low emissions).

FIG. 7 - Modulated E.G.R. over the California cycle : % E.G.R. as a function

of load and speed (8060 engine).

FIG. 8 - Specific fuel consumption and smoke with two different techniques
for N 0 x emission control (8060 engine) :

. inj. timing retard

. modulated E.G.R.

KIG. 9 — The effect of exhaust back pressure on emissions and smoke (8210 en-
gine, full load).

FIG. 10 - The effect of exhaust back pressure on specific fuel consumption

(8210 engine, full load).

FIG. 11 - The effect of inlet pressure on emissions, smoke and specific fuel
consumption with E.G.R. (8210 engine).
 FIG. 12 - Equivalence ratios at full load as a function of inlet pressure
and °/o E.G.R. (same operating conditions of Fig. ll).

FIG. 13 - HC and NO., emissions as a function of °/o E.G.R. and inj. timing
(8210 engine, rated speed, 75% of full load).

FJG. 14 — Smoke and HC + NO^ emissions as a function of % E.G.R. and inj.

timing (8210 engine, rated speed, 7Sf> of full load).

FIG. 15 - BSFC and CO emissions as a function of E.G.R. and inj. timing

(8210 engine, rated speed, 75% of full load).

FIG. 16 - The effect of % E.G.R. and inj. timing on HC + NO and smoke (8210
engine, intermediate speed - full load).

FIG. 17 - The effect of % E.G.R. and inj. timing on !C + -\02 and i.joke (8210
engine, rated speed - full load).

FIG. 18 - "adulated E.G.R. over the California cycles reported in Table 5 :

°/o E.G.R. as a function of load and speed (8210 engine).

FIG. 19 - Variable compression ratio piston.

FIG. 20 - V.C.R. engine - Compression ratio and'peak combustion pressure as

a function of BMEP.

FIG. 21 - The effect of inj. timing on no absolute emissions at intermediate

speed. (T.C. 8210 engine with V.C.P.).

!• IG. 22 - The effect of inj. timing on no absolute emission at rated speed,

(T.C. 82.10 engine with V.C.R.).

FIG. 23 - The effect of injection timing on NO2 * HC specific omissions,, smoke,

B.S.F.C. and B.H.P. (T.C. 8210 engine with V . C R . ) .

FIG. 24 - Scheme of the methanol feed system. (T.C. 8210 engine).

F^Ci. 25 - The effect of methanol on emissions, .si.ioke, exhaust tenperature,

peak combustion pressure, head vibrations. (T.C. 8210 engine).
 FIG. 26 — Performance, smoke, fuels delivery total efficiency with both gas
oil and dual fuel. (T.C. 8210 engine).

FIG. 27 - The effect of injection timing on omissions, smoke, exhaust gas

temperature, total efficiency at rated ^peed. (T.C. 8210 engine).

VIC,. 28 - The Table shows the results of the 13-mode cycle with standard and
retarded injection timing. (T.C. 8210 engine).

FTG. 29 - Comparison of different methods of CIVII -3 si on control on the N.A. 8210

engine, (l3-uode California cycle).

FIG. 30 - Isometric view of the Fiat DRF pump.

FIG. A-l - Scheme of the E,G.R. system.

FIG. A—2 — Intake charge composition as a function of % E.CR. (8060 engine,

intermediate speed).

KIG. A-3 - NO reduction in percent is a function of °/o K.G.R. (8060 engine).

Y !.G0 A-4 — NO reduction in percent fls a function of °'e 0^,. (8060 engine).
 -!20

1 -JOB
5 —o- -o-"
- 280

HrERM.SPEEB — . »
MTED SPEED —

-MB

10- -8Z0"

-200

-B
CO ,.—°
cr" J
o—o

»s
6
t

tO IS 20
% E.G.R.

FIG. 1 — Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of

% E.G.R. at 25!$ of max. BMEP. (8060 engine, inj. system tuned for
low emissions).
 -lit

-fen!
-i
»«IFO SHED
IHTEkM. SPEED

FIG. 2 - Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of

f» E.G.R. at 75$ of max. BMEP. (8060 engine, inj. system tuned for
low emissions).
 INTERMEDIATE SPEED
s
1<
n
°UX \y?^l
of mtx.hm.tp.

& 10 -*-*- 50 HI 70
el !*ir to (ml mm ntio)

of max.bmap.

RATED SPEED

-4—"—Ik—' i ' A—^T!

CA (air to fual nun* ratio)

FIG, 3 - Smoke as a function of equivalence ratio and % E.G.R. (8060 engi-

ne, inj. system tuned for low emissions).
 broep °lo reduct.

-a

f-
to IS 20 25 30
% tan.

FIG, 4 — Emissions, smoke and specific fuel consumption as a function of °/o

E.G.R, at full load and constant smoke level. (8060 engine, inj.
system tuned for low emissions).
 90 IMTERHEDIkTE SPEED

?'/• of max. b.m.«.o.

85 W max. b.me.p.

7 5 W max. b.ro.p.a

10 IS 20
% E.G.*.

FIG. 5 - NO2 + Ho specific emissions on the modes of the California cycle

as a function of % E.G.R. (intermediate speed). (8060 engine, inj.
system tuned for low emissions).
 RATED SPEED

!* 2'/.of max. b.m.ep.

50

2Stl/oOf m«x.b.m.e.p.

75% of nnx.b.m.e

~4 5 iS is sts si iir
o/o E.E.R.

FIG. 6 - NC>2 + HC specific emissions on the modes of the California cycle

as a function of % E.G.P. (rated speed). (8060 engine, inj. system
tuned for low emissions).
 530V

IIITERMEDIHE SPEED
Smoke S<,1 Bosch units

15*

104

DATED SPEED
Smoke S4 Bosch units

5 6

BMEP(kg/cm2)

FIG. 7 - Modulated E.G.R. over the California cycle : °/o E.G.R. as a function
of load and speed (8060 engine).
 meciion ummg maraea
iF6° en. degrees • reduced
sac volume nozzle

3 4 5 6 7
B.m.e.p. (Kg/cm 2 )

FIG. 8 — Specific fuel consumption and smoke with two different techniques
for N0 x emission control (8060 engine) :

. inj. timing retard

. modulated E.G.R.
 absol. inlet pressure:JO(Kglcm?)

L
BUCK PRESSURE
OF THE TCSTS WITH
£.6.8.

1.8 U 10 U U 25 18 ] ?

; |
^.- ^_^^ = u i inletpress.:1.5(Kg|cm2T 9s J,

<; INTERMEBMTE SPEEB

BACK PRESSURE <S/

OBTAIJUBLE WITH •/-'
TURB8CHARCERS

BACK PRESSURE
OF THE TESTS WITH
E.G.R.

1.1 1.2 U U 15 IB 17 1.8

BACK PRESSURE (ABSOLUTE - K g l c m 2 )

FIG. 9 - The effect of exhaust back pressure on emissions and smoke (8210 en-
gine, full load).
 // «bsol. inlet pressure,!!) (kg/cm?)

200

.
195

190

IBS

BACK PRESSURE
- IM
OF THE TESTS WITH LG.R.

1
1 12 U 1JSX>18 2 2 1 ^ 2A

INTERM. SPEED X , .en. , _ 2 i

/ • b s i n p r e s s . : 15(kgicni)

BACK PRESSURE / /
OBTAINABLE WITH ^?'-
TURiOEHARStCS
162 -

1&C • BACK PRESSURE

OF THE TESTS WITH E.G.R.

158

156
1.1 1.2 U M 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
BACK PRESSURE (»8S0LUIE-Kg(cm2)

FIG. 10 - The effect of exhaust back pressure on specific fuel consumption

(3210 engine, full load).
 MTEUEDUTE IKED
HEP:IJ4(>g/enO
•it (ma nuuiu*nui)ut

" I -

SI Z5

FIG. 11 - The effect of inlet pressure on emissions, smoke and specific fuel
consumption with E.G.R. (8210 engine).
 INTERMEDIATE SPEED

B«EP:9.54(Kg/crrf)

!(Kg/cnf)»BS. inlet pressure

PLU5Cl(g/cni)

i i i i I

FIG. 12 - Equivalence ratios at full load as a function of inlet pressure

and % E.G.R. (same operating conditions of Fig. ll).
 oi
absol inlet p r e s s . :2kg/cn?
inlet temr?. U S °C '
Cback p r e s s / i n l e t p r e s s ) : 1.25

RATED SPEED
STATIC INi.TIMIHG
z32° Start inj.b.tdc.
x35° . • •
•38° • • •
.41° • . »

FIG. 13 - HC and NO- emissions as a function of °/o E.G.R. and inj. timing
(8210 engine, rated speed, 1% of full load).
 •bsol. into prflJt.: 1 kg/cm2
inlet t«mp*rature:45'C
back pnujinttt prei*..l,25

STATIC IHJ.TIMIHB
z32* Start inj. b > t d c

¥
SM

« '

FIG. 14 - Smoke and HC + NO^ emissions as a function of °/o E.G.R. and inj.
timing (8210 engine, rated speed, 75% of full load).
 abtol.inltt prm.:2 kg/cm2
SWTIC IW.TIM1HG
Inlat t«mp.r«tur«:4S°C
i32°St«rt inj.btdc
back pranf inttt pr«»».«U5
.35° . .
•3«° . .
.41° .

FIG. 15 - BSFC and CO emissions as a function of E.G.R. and inj. timing

(8210 engins, rated speed, 75% of full load).
 25 Intermediate Speed
Full Load

z
a
- V\
215 L ^ Inlet PreBS.Iabs.):1.5kg/cmZ
Back Press./ln.Press.:l,15
u
X N Inlet lemp.: 42 °C
V\ :const. smoke
o \ \vv linas(Bosch unit)
^^^^5~> :const.static inj.
5 timing lines
("crank. b.td.c.)
0
! 1 1
15 20 25 30 35
% EBR

FIG. 16 - The effect of % E.G.R. and inj. timing on HC + NO and smoke (8210
engine, intermediate speed - full load).
 .'Diet
Back Press.) Inlet Press.:1,25
Inlet Temp.: 45°C

: const, static inj. timing line j(°orank. b.t.d.cJ

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
V.B.R.

FIG. 17 - The effect of % E.G.R. and inj. timing on VC + N 0 2 and smoke (8210
engine, rated speed - full load).
 fig.lBc

30

10

fig.tib

.MKMKDMTE SPEED
fig.ll*
.HIED SPEED

I I I I I I I I I I
0 1 i J 4 5 I 7 H
2
B.m.*.p. (Kg/cm )

FIG. 18 - Modulated E.G.R. over the California cycles reported in Table 5

% E.G.R. as a function of load and speed (8210 engine).
 RELIEF
VALVE

LflJtEi/
iCHAMB. /
OIL

FIG. 19 - Variable compression ratio piston.

 PEAK CYLINDER PRESSURE COMPRESSION RATIO

FIG. 20 - V.C.R. engine - Compression ratio and peak combustion pressure as

a function of BMEP.
 INTERMEDIATE SPEED

3000

33» crank b.t.d.c.

s t a t i c injection
aiming

10 19 20
BMEP(kg/cm2)

FIG. 21 - The effect of inj. timing on no absolute emissions at intermediate

speed. (T.C. 8210 engine with V.C.R.).
 RATED SFEEO

33°-:ranl(.b.Uj:.
static injec.timing

500

10 15 20
BMEP ( k g / c m 2 )

FIG. 22 - The effect of inj. timing on no absolute emission at rated speed.

(T.C. 8210 engine with V.C.R.).
 inne micmi miu (°cnnii.htiic)

FIG. 23 - The effect of injection timing on N 0 2 + HC specific emissions, smoke,

B.S.F.C. and B.H.P. (T.C; 8210 engine with V.C.R.)-.
 TURBOCHARGER

\ 2
rfr-, -

1 L. 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 U-J L
— LiJ KVEHTUHI \

P
\
CARBURETO

A
SIR FILTER

FIG. 24 - Scheme of the msthanol feed system. ( i . e . 8210 engine).

 10 20 30
%Load by methanol

FIG. 25 — The effect of methanol on emissions, smoke, exhaust temperature,

peak combustion pressure, head vibrations. (T.C. 8210 engine).
 ISOO I7DO
Speed (rpm)

FIG. 26 - Performance, smoke, fuels delivery total efficiency with both gas
oil and dual fuel. (T.C. 8210 engine).
 5 ID IS 20
Static injaction timing(<*cr>iik. b.t.d.c.)

FIG. 27 - The effect of injection timing on emissions, smoke, exhaust gas

temperature, total efficiency at rated speed. (T.C. 8210 engine),
 350 OUU FUEL DIESEL DUIL FULL DIESEL

300

200
20 J
ID
iso

I.E. HC I.E.
IE.

I
£ 5-
U
i

24" 24° 12° 12°

Static injection timing
SEI FOR MAI. PERFORMANCE SET FOR MID. EMISSIONS

FIG. 28 - The Table shows the results of the 13—mode cycle with standard and
retarded injection timing. (T.C. 8210 engine).
 INJECTION HIGH IHJECTICN HIGH INJECTION SUPERCHARGING
TIMINS RATE AND RATE AND AT THE SAME
REDUCTION MODULATED E.G.8. POWER LEVEL
INJECTION AND E.G.R.
TIMING

FIG. 29 - Comparison of different methods of emission control on the N.A. 8210

engine. (l3-mode California cycle).
-t->
to

ee

1
 5* 10* 15* n« 25* 30* 35*

FIG. A—2 — Intake charge composition as a function of E.G.R. (8060 engine.

intermediate speed).
 = 100 RATED SPEED

•D 8(

max.BMEP

INTERMEDIATE SPEED

FIG. A-3 - NO reduction in percent as a function of # E.G.R. (8060 engine),

 SIM'
. b.nutp.
110

I""
IHTERH SPEED
40-

20

as-

20-

22 23

FIG. A-4 - NO reduction in percent as a function of % 0 2 . (8060 engine),

TABLE 1 : Specifications of the Fiat D.I. Diesel Engines Dsed

821 821
8060 ° °
NAT.ASPIRATED TURBOCHARGED

Displacement (cm3) 5.183 13.798 13.798

Bore (mm) 100 137 137
Stroke (mm) 110 156 156
N° of cylinders 6 6 6
Compression ratio 17:1 16:1 15:1
Speed of Max. BMEP (R.P.M.) 1.800 1.300 1.600
Max BMEP (kgvcm2) 7,8 8,3 12,0
Rated speed (R.P.M.) 3.200 2.200 2.200
2
B.M.E.P. at rated speed (kg/cm ) 6,7 7,4 10,6
TABLE 2 : Specifications of the Fuel Used

CEC FEDERAL REGISTER GASOIL

RF-O3-T-74 (June 30, 1975) USED FOR TESTS

Gravity, 15 °C 0.830 + 0.005 0.8251 + 0.8063 0.832 .

Distillation range

50 percent point £45 min. °C 195.8 + 234.7 °c 265 °C

90 percent point 330 + 10 °C 223.6 * 256.9 °c 331 °C
E.P. 370 max. °C 348 °C
Cetane 54 + 3 48 + 54 55.5
Viscosity at. 37.8 °C 3 + 0.5 cst 1.6 - 2.0 cst 2,80 cst
Total sulfur 0.4 + 0.1$ wgt 0.05 + 0.20 % 0.50 %
Flash point 55 min. °C 34.7 °C 64 °r.
Cloud point -7 max. °C
Aniline point 69 + 5 °C 70 °c
Conradson residual on the percent 0.2 max. % wgt 0.08 °/«
Ash content 0.01 max % wgt 0.01 °/o
H O content 0.05 max % wgt 0
Copper foil corrosion at 100 °C 1 max. 0
Acidity nil mg KOH/g
 13 MODE INTERMEDIATE
RATED SPEED
CALIF. CYCLE SPEED

C/3 03
B -fi g 8 CO
en
en en O EC 5
a 90

9
3* ffq 8
EC
"0
* H H
3"
s

5 engine
Effect
CO 00
CO O ui Ul
ro co .p- •kO Ul 0
o o o 3. "5

rt
P3
m
•o H- o
H 3 a
CO W O> CO EC m' •

ction sys1
-P- CO

over the
00
O -p- -P- O O (ft * " Ul
ui I-1
Ul b
so

WITH
CYCLE
CD i-*
CO 3 I
•p- 1\) CO OJ U) Ul *» *-
1 D
C
co Ul Ul I- b 3 D
a to n>
a O
• D

s
CYCLI
0 ^.

I-1 EC

rni
CO C\
M CO
O LO -P- b
E.G,

00 Ul CO E

a
o
i 0
H-
w 3
•
WITH E.G,

H-
CYCLI

D
0
3
CO
U) (-» CO CO .p- M Ul to -P-
00 O\ Ul &!
to -J o o
a -p-

o
3
TH E.G,

OJ O t \ J . p - U l O W )> \ I w
CTi Ul Ul I- 1 •£- 21
o
a Ul

o
H

U) N)
l-»
CO
VO
CTi -P-
CO
VO
M
CO
EC
i
E.G,

CO O "en
a CA

Ul Ul
CALIFORNIA 1977 LIMITS
TABLE k : Comparison of Different Techniques for N 0 2 + HC Emissions Control
over the 13-Mode California Cycle (8O6O Engine)

8060 engine with injection system tuned for low emissions

6° INJ. FULLY
RETARD MODULATED
E.G.R.
MEDIATE

B.H.P. 82,3 82,1

SMOKE (BOSCH UNIT) 3,7 4,1
SPEED

. (g/BHP.h) 171 165

E.G.R. 4

11?., 6 112,4
E.H.P.

SMOKE (BOSCH UNIT) 4,1 4,0

B
H

s B.S.F.C . (g/BHP.h) 198 183 O

IX CO 4

CO (g/BHP.h) 8,25 8,39 25

N02 4,13 2,76
HC 1,93 1,51
HC+NO2 (g/BHP.h) 6,06 4,27
TABLE 5 : The Effect of E.G.R. and Supercharging over t h e 13-Mode California Cycle (8210 Engine)

CYCLE N° 1 CYCLE N° 2 CYCLE N° 3

- FULLY MODUL. E.G.R. - FULLY MODUL. E.G.R. - FULLY MODUL. E.G.R.
(see Fig. 18a) (see Fig. l8b) (see Fig. l8c)
- INJ. TIMING CONTROLLED BOTH - INJ. TIMING CONTROLLED BY - INJ. TIMING CONTROLLED BY
BY SPEED AND LOAD SPEED ONLY SPEED ONLY
- INLET PRESSURE : - INLET PRESSURE : - INLET PRESSURE s
1,5 kg/cm2 ABS. 1,5 kg/cm2 ABS. 2,0 kg/cm2 ABS.
AT INT. SPEED AT INT. SPEED 'AT INT. SPEED
2,0 kg/cm2 ABS. 2,0 kg/cm2 ABS. 2,0 kg/cm2 ABS.
AT RATED SPEED AT RATED SPEED AT RATED SPEED

M B.H.P. 160,9 160,3 159,6

H
3 B.S.F.C. (g/BHP.h) 169 168 173
I o SMOKE (BOSCH UNIT) 2,8 2,6 3,0
^ S EX. GAS TEM. (°C) 535 520 455
B.H.P. 239,8 242 242
| B.S.F.C. (g/BHP.h) 196 194 194.
a SMOKE (BOSCH UNIT) 2,4 2,7 2,7
< EX. GAS TEM. ( ° C ) 540 520 520

g CO (g/BHP.h) 4,99 4,72 4,93

HC 0,68 0,66 0,65
N0
2 3,64 3,93 3,58
fC+NO^ 4,32 4,59 4,23
 Paper for the Fourth International Symposium on Automotive Propulsion

Systems/Low Pollution Power Systems Development.

Washington, D.C. April 17-22, 1977

"Turbocharging the "Squish Lip" Low Pollution Diesel Engine."

by

Christopher Goodwin, B.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D.

Project Manager, Medium Engines

Research and Product Development

Perkins Engines

Peterborough PE1 5NA

United Kingdom

Abstract •

The oxides of nitrogen emitted by diesel engines can be reduced by

retarding injection timing. However, with conventional direct injection

engines, this results in serious degradation in smoke and specific fuel

consumption. The application of the "Squish Lip" combustion system to a

naturally-aspirated engine has been shown to allow significant injection

retard without such penalty. It is now confirmed that a similar trend

occurs for the "Squish Lip" system applied to engines turbocharged for

higher output.

The development is described of a four-stroke, six-cylinder engine of

5.8 litre (354 cu-in.) capacity, turbocharged and charge-cooled, to meet

U.S. Federal Heavy Duty Vehicle Emissions Legislation The engine is

based on a new unit for World-wide manufacture, the turbocharged vehicle

version being optimised for smoke and fuel consumption, With "Squish Lip"

combustion,injection retard of up to 20 degrees crank angle is possible

within acceptable smoke limits, reducing NO by 7O'!c over the 13-mode cycle.

Lightload advance is required to eliminate misfire and attention to injector

nozzle geometry further reduces unburnt hydrocarbons. The

 - 2 -

retarded timing reduces maximum cylinder pressure by 40/' with benefit to

mechanical loading and engine noise.

Introduction

The demands on prime movers, particularly for automotive applications,

have never been greater. The requirement for units giving high power

from small package size, driveability and reliability has been met by

reciprocating engines using gasolene or diesel fuels. The more durable

diesel engine became predominant in heavy duty applications, particularly

where efficient use of fuel was demanded, in those countries with no

national oil resources,notably Europe* With the dramatic increase in World

oil prices since 1973 and concern over World oil resources, fuel

consumption has become a premium in all countries.

The very success of these engines in automotive applications has led

to concern for the environment, particularly in the urban arena where

vehicle and human population density is highest. Visual and audio

emissions are immediately obvious and vehicle smoke and noise have been the

subject of legislation in the developed countries for many years. Kore

recently, attention has been given to the toxic gaseous emissions of

unburnt hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monbxide resulting in

stringent legislation primarily in the U.S.A. Some emissions, notably

exhaust odours are not as yet regulated owing to the difficulty in

analysing their complex nature and devising appropriate instrumentation.

The Case for the Diesel Engine.

Vehicles today require a low pollution propulsion system with minimum

fuel consumption without compromising the performance, package sise,

reliability and durability. Both gasolene and diesel engines have been

demonstrated to comply with exhaust emission limits,, However, the

thermodynamic advantage of the compression-ignition engine at part load

allows the diesel engine to return fuel consumption 25-50?= better than the
 - 3-

equivalent spark-ignited gasolene engine. (Ref.i)* The wide spread of

results corresponds to the vehicle duty cycle and the percentage of part

load running (when the gasolene engine is throttled). The lower figure

stems from a high proportion of highway operation and the greater saving

from stop-start urban driving such as city <--£*»^-^ itiiPire.

In this situation, the higher first cost of the diesel engine is

quickly repaid. It is also worth noting that a proportion of the cost

differential is not endemic to diesel operating characteristics but ste-ns

from premium features inherited from its heavy duty ancestry. The diesel

engine has a longer life expectancy,which,if adopted across the board for

mobile applications, would bring significant savings to national and World

material resources. In addition, refining crude oil for diesel engine

use optimises oil resources, in that 1.08 gallons of crude are required

for every gallon of diesel rather than 1.21 gallons for gasolene (2).

For all reciprocating engines, the overall engine size is closely

related to swept volume and so competitive power units may be compared on

specific power, kW/litre ( HP/cu.in.). The combustion mode adopted

dictates the maximum air utfisation and engine speed. The conventional

gasolene engine operates at around stoichiometric, unity equivalence ratio,

giving an inherent advantage over the diesel operating at a maximum of 0.85

ratio. Despite this differential, the indirect injection diesel, which

can match the gasolene engine operating speed range, is finding increasing

application in light vans and automobiles replacing gasolene engines.

For the intermediate area of medium trucks, the differential on specific

power between gasolene and direct injection diesel engines is wider and

more problematic, owing to the speed limitation of the conventional D.I.

diesel, at about 3000 rev/min. In countries where fuel costs have always

been high, the diesel is paramount, although in the U.S.A- gasolene engines

* Numbers in bracketsdesignate References at end of paper.

 are still predominant in Class 4-8 trucks (14001-33000 lb. gross vehicle

weight). However, the specific power of the naturally-aspirated diessi

engine can be enhanced by turbocharging, leading to an attractive

alternative to the gasolene engine if low pollution standp.'ds can be

maintained.

The Direct In.iection Diesel Engine

Perkins Engines markets D.I. diesel engines within the power range

30-225 kW (40-300 HP) for vehicle, agricultural, industrial and marine

applications World-wide. For light and medium trucks, a family of four-

' and six-cylinder engines is available, having 0.97 litre/cyl. (59 cu.in/

cyl.)» 98.4 mm.(3.875in.) bore and 127mm.(5in.) stroke. The six-cylinder

engine, 5.8 litre (354 cu.in.), gives 89.5kW (120 HP) at 2800 rev/min in

naturally aspirated form, and 116 kW (155 HP) at 2600 rev/min

when turbocharged and charge-cooled. (Table 1)

The engines are optimised for minimum fuel consumption and smoke to

meet U.K. and 3uropean Regulations (3)(4). Toroidal bowls (Figure 1) are

used in the pistons to intensify air swirl from directed inlet ports and

to promote squish from the minimum piston crown/cylinder head clearance.

To cope with the increased loadings, the turbocharged version incorporates

•premium features such as nitrided crankshaft, larger gudgeon pin, and valve

seat inserts. The thermal loading on components is eased by piston jet.

cooling and charge cooling of the inlet air. The air-to-air charge

cooler mounted ahead of the vehicle radiator reduces compressor outlet air

temperature to 45°C (i13°F) at the inlet manifold for 20°C (68°F) ambient

temperature (Fig«2). The charge cooler also acts as an emission control

feature in that smoke, NO and fuel consumption are all reduced by the

cooler charge air.

Although optimised for smoke, the gaseous emissions as .measured on

the 13-mode Heavy Duty Vehicle cycle specified by the U.S. Environmental
 - 5-

Protection Agency are unfavourable, apart from the carbon monoxide, Tha

high NO levels stem directly from the smoke optimisation. Soot is

formed in diesel combustion (Fig.3) during the diffusion burning phase,

increasing with temperature and with the amount of fuel burnt during this

phase, but reducing with increase ir.. diffusion burning ratej[5i The high

swirl D.I. engine'utilises an advanced timing giving a relatively long

ignition delay and hence a large amount of fuel is introduced into the

cylinder during this period. Mixing is rapid owing to the high swirl and

squish, and a large proportion of the fuel burns pre-mixed and smoke-free.

The violent combustion during pre-mixed burning also generates a high rate

of pressure rise and combustion noise. Ignition delay is shorter on the

. turbocharged engine owing to the raised compression pressure and temperature,

and more advance is required to reduce smoke. As expected the high swirl

D.I. engines emit high NO , 13-mode mean values being 17.5g/k'ih (13 g/

BHP.h) for the naturally-aspirated engine and 34 g/kWh (25 g/BHP.h) when

turbocharged.

The situation with regard to emission of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) is

reversed with 13-mode values of 3.4 and 3.1 g/kWh. (2.5 and 2.3 g/BHP.h)

for naturally-aspirated and turbocharged engines respectively. This is

readily understood as the primary cause of HC is from fuel issueing from

the injector nozzle sac when the cylinder gas temperature is too low for

combustion. With similar 3ac volumes (0,8 cu.mm.), the turbocharged

engine has lower specific HC because of higher brake power. Further, minor

advantage is obtained from the higher compression temperature.

The Perkins "Squish Lip" System

At the 2nd. NATO/CCMS Conference on Low Pollution Power Systems in

1974, Bertodo described initial developments of a new low pollution system

devised at Perkins Engines termed the "Squish Lip" Combustion System (6).

On a three-cylinder engine of 2.5 litre (152 cu.in) capacity, the addition

 _ 6 -

of re-entrant lips to the piston bowl allowed considerable injection

timing retard without degradation in smoke or fuel consumption. With

retarded timing, NO emissions drop dramatically. Subsequently, the

system has been tested on 4.6 and 8-cylinder engines (7) varying from 0.8

- 1.3 litre/cylinder (50-80 cu.in./cyl.) with detailed investigation of

the controlling parameters (8). It is recorded that the naturally

aspirated six-cylinder engine referred to above achieved 13-mode emission

levels of 4.91 g/kWh (3.66 g/ HP.h.) NO and 1.82 g/kWh (1.36 g/ HP.h.)

EC with peak smoke values less than 5f° capacity measured on the USPHS meter.

These development engine figures serve to illustrate the ability of the

'Squish Lip"system to reduce high swirl D.I. engine emissions under naturally

aspirated conditions.

It is apparent that combustion is significantly changed in the 'Squish

lip"engine, despite the fact that the fuel injection equipment is not

substantially altered and indeed has remarkably little effect compared to

experience on toroidal bowl engines. However, the air motion and

consequently the mixing of fuel and air is radically changed by the piston

bowl shape. The inward radial squish velocity generated in the clearance

between piston crown and cylinder head is greatly increased by the extended

bowl lips, approximately in proportion to the squish area. Swirl from the

directed inlet port is unchanged during induction, but the rotational

velocity is increased on transfer of the air to the piston bowl owing to

the reduced radius Of gyration. With current "Squish lip"designs, swirl

velocities at TDC are 10-20%' higher than their toroidal counterparts. The

nett result is a vigorous rolling toroidal vortex of high turbulent

intensity into which fuel is sprayed from the 4-hole nozzle.

With injection retarded back as far as TDC, the ignition delay is

extremely short - difficult to measure accurately but certainly less than five

degrees crankangle. The quantity of fuel injected during the delay period is
 - 7-

small and the initial pre-mixed peak of the heat release diagram is often

difficult to determine. Characteristic of the"Squish Lip" system is the

following diffusion burning period (Fig.?) whicli is very rapid being

dependent on the air/fuel mixing rate. It is the high rate of diffusion

burning that precludes the soot formation normally associated with such

retarded timings in D.I. engines. It is also likely that the vigorous

air/fuel mixing retained in the piston bowl contributes to a reduction of

the combustion tail (Pig.3) which can contribute to smoke when combustion

again becomes kinetic rate-controlled as the temperature reduces later in

the cycle.

The fast diffusion burning rate also enables the system to retain

efficiency at retarded timings, although some degradation is experienced

at the high rotational speeds of vehicle ratings and the very retarded

timing associated with very low NO emissions. The retarded timing

increases the tendency towards light load misfire and consequent HC emission,

narticularly with fuel pumps of constant end of injection (CEl)

characteristics. A light load advance device (LLA) is required to limit

HC. In addition, atartability may be affected as the timing at cranking

speed is now retarded from optimum, particularly if the conventional 3peed

advance is retained for a wide vehicle engine speed range. The "Squish Lip"

system then requires conventional fuel injection equipment but with a complex

timing plan, which may demand speed advance, light load advance and start

advance.

Further characteristics of the system include a smoother pressure

diagram with much reduced rats of pressure rise. Combustion noise is

reduced to a minimum, and bare engine noise can be dramatically reduced

depending on the ranking of the noise sources. Lower peak pressure reduces

mechanical loading and gives potential for lighter, lower friction

components. Although mechanical loading on the piston is lower, the bowl

 _ 8 -

lip geometry leads to higher mechanical and thermal stresses requiring

particular attention and often compromise between performance and stress

optimum desifpas for a given piston material.

Turbocharging the"Squish Lip"Engine

As can be seen from the previous discussion, initial'Squish Lip"

development has been concentrated on naturally aspirated engines. In any

case, the relevance of the'Squish I*ip"system to the turbocharged engine

which already has a high degree of turbulence is not immediately apparent.

Also the very high NO emissions experienced with the toroidal bowl piston

implied that considerable derate might be required to bring these under

control. However, the attraction of turbocharging with its increased

specific power led to development trials with the aim of producing an

efficient, low pollution power system as an alternative to the gasolene

engine in medium trucks, primarily for the U.S. market. The response of

the turbocharged engine to the 'Squish Lip" system was so encouraging that

development of production specifications was undertaken to comply with

current and 1979 U.S. Federal Heavy Duty Vehicle Regulations. A Federal

certificate has been obtained for current legislation using a first

generation'Squish Lip"system a nd development is well advanced for 1979 using

a second generation system. The target rating was fixed at 104 kW (140 HP)

at 2600 rev/min (10$ derate from the toroidal specification), but with

torque back-up increased from 15 to 25$ (Fig. 4) to suit the characteristic

of Class 6 trucks at 8850 - 11800 kg (19501 - 26000 lb.) gross vehicle

weight.

First Generation "Squish Lip"System

Current U.S. Federal legislation requires the combined emissions of

NO and HC not to exceed 21.4 g/kWh (16 g/ HP.h.) on the 13-mode cycle.

In addition, limits are placed on the acceleration, peak and lugging smoke

achieved on the transient Federal smoke cycle of 20, 50 and 15^ opacity
 - 9-

(USPHS meter) respectively. For the production turbocharged engine,

reduction of 50^ was required in combined NO and HC . Whilst the

steady state -smoke was comfortably inside the limit, careful attention

would fce required for the transient operating mode owing to turbocharger

lag on acceleration. Action had already been required on the

specification to meet European E.C.E. regulations (4) for free acceleration

smoke, and a boost control device used to limit fuel delivery below

maximum torque speed.

In 1975, production fuel injection equipment incorporating the

known requirements of a'Squish Lip"system, namely light load advance and

start advance, was not available. It was evident that compromise would

have to be made and that with the interim specification it would not be

possible to meet in production the lowest emission levels then projected.

Direct control of HC would not be possible with unchanged injector nozzle

geometry and the full retardation potential of the "Squish Lip"1 system could

not be used without promoting excessive light load misfire and adverse startability.

The piston bowl chosen had the mild re-entrant features shown in Pig.

1 of 67 flank angle and throat/bore diameter ratio of 0.48. The system

allowed retardation at rating back to 10° BTDC compared to 25° BTDC for the

toroidal specification without impairing smoke contro1. At this timing,

the NO emission dropped from 1750 ppn to 650 ppm, substantially the same

reduction that would be expected from retarding the toroidal specification.

The fuel injection pump used was a 1 x 11mm plunger distributor

type having constant beginning of injection (CBl) characteristics, and

excess fuel for starting. Startability was retained by deleting the normal

speed advance of 8° crank angle, and this deletion together with CBI

prevented light load misfire. The resultant HC emission over the 13-mode

cycle was unchanged at 3.1 g A W h (2.3 g/ HP.h.). NO emissions were down

to 10.6 g/kWh (7.9 g/ HP.h.), a reduction of 70^ from the toroidal

 - 10 -

specification. Compression ratio had only minor effects within the range

15-18:1 and of the nozzle variables only protrusion had significant effect.

Final values of 16:1 compression ratio and increased protrusion of 2.5 mm

were used.

The desired increase in torque back-up reduced the lugging smoke

margin at maximum torque speed, and the turbocharger match was reconsidered
2
to give more boost at lower speeds, turbine area reducing from 14.5 cm

(2.24 in ) to 10.3 cm (1.6 in ) . Further gains in boost were obtained by

the adoption of a new single-pass charge cooler design, styled for Class 6

trucks, reducing the maximum pressure drop from 25 kN/m" (3«5 lbf/in ) to

less than 7 kN/m2 (1 X) lbf/in 2 ).

With the turbocharger matched lower down the speed range, inevitably

the pumping losses at full speed are increased and some fuel consumption

penalty is experienced at rating. This was partially offset by the inclusion

of the centra] pip in the piston bowl eliminating a relatively stagnant area,

the overall penalty becoming Jy' at rating (Fig.4), but very small in actual

truck operation. In comparative tests in a Claas 6 truck, the 'Squish lip"

engine returned 34/-' better fuel consumption than an equivalent V8 gasolene

engine, as detailed in Table II. Acceleration and hill climbing were also

improved.

Peak pressure loading on the engine is reduced from 13.4 MN/m (1950

lbf/in2) to 11.4 MN/m 2 (1650 lbf/in 2 ), Fig.5l Following finite element

calculations, the piston was unchanged apart from the bowl modifications

and no lip cracking problems have been experienced. The performance of the

ring pack is unaltered, the three rings above gudgeon pin giving an oil

consumption at rated speed of 0.4-0.5?= of fuel.

The resulting engine specification give's moderate emissions (Table

III) with little penalty in truck performance or economy. There was no

increase in component complexity from the production specification

 - 11 -

optimised solely for smoke and fuel economy. However, it was apparent

that this situation could not be maintained as exhaust emission legislation

tightened. A second generation 'Squish Iip"system would be required with

considerable increase in complexity, particularly in fuel injection

equipment.

Second Generation'Squish Litf System

For 1979 model year, U.S. Federal legislation tightens to 13.4 g/kV/h

(10 g/ HP.h) combined NO + HC of which HC must not exceed 2.01 g/kWh (1.5

g/ HP.h.) xcak acceleration smoke reduces from 50 to 35f- opacity. The

results from the first generation specification indicate that specific

controls are required for HC and furthe..- retardation to provide

production margin for WO emission.

It was already known from naturally aspirated engine tests that further

retaliation maintaining' smoke control was possible by decreasing flank angle

and throat/bore diameter ratio (8) effectively increasing the air/fuel mixing

rate. Initial development was ••ndartaken on a 40 bowl offset 4.4 mm.

(0,175 in.) with throat/bore diameter ratio 0.36. The parallel programme

of piston stressing and proving described below showed that a 50 central

bowl was advantageous for lip stresses and this compromise was adopted(Fig.1).

At rating, optimum dynamic timing for economy was 9 BTDC but further

NO reduction was possible by retarding back to TEC maintaining smoke

control. Despite a remarkable retardation of more than 20 crank angle

from the toroidal bowl timing the smoke level is still below 5f- opacity

(Fig.6)a It can be seen that there is increasing fuel consumption penalty

for low NO particularly at the highest speed, 2600rev/min shown. A central

pip to the bowl had little effect in this case. However, the"Squish lip"

piston has effectively solved the rival demands of low smoke and low WO.
 - 12 -

3y 1976, improved turbochargers and fuel injection equipment were

available. The new turbocharger with higher compressor efficiency

allowed relaxation of turbine area to 12.5 cm (1.93 in ) . With improved

boost bontrol on the fuel pump and attention to fuel delivery levels,

acceleration smoke has been reduced to 10-1 2;''• opacity with peaks of 25?'.

The fuel pump itself retained the same pumping action and CB1

characteristic, but was now available with mechanical governor, and

facility for light load' advance and start advance. Injection rate was

increased by using a 12 mm. plunger.

The 'control of EC was approached in two complementary ways :

optimising injector geometry and operation; and devising a timing- plan

"or the fuel pump. Injector optimisation will aim for a clean, sustained

injection, free from dribble or secondary injection with a minimum of fuel

left in the nozzle sac. The injectors chosen had low inertia needles, and

an opening pressure of 250 bar (3600 lbf/in ) was used to give sharp cut-

off and maintain a high injection rate. Due to the crucial importance of

nozzle geometry, considerable work was carried out with sacless noszles

(lig.7) but because tb<? volume of the holes is still high, comparable

results could be obtained with conventional nozzles at a reduced sac volume of

0.51 mm • The latter were chosen owing to the unproved durability of the

sacless nozzle.

The derivation of an optimum timing plan demands painstaking

exploration of the whole load-speed spectrum at a succession of injection

timings. A theoretical timing plan can then be put together manually or

by computer to be married up with the fuel pump capability in terms of speed

advance and light load advance. The resulting compromise must ;--ive the

final plan (Fig.8) consistently with minimum scatter. By these two

control methods, development HC results can be as low as 1 ,,07 g/kWh (0.8

g/'HP.h) on the 13-mode cycle, although further compromise for WO leads to

 - 13 -

a realistic production mean of about 1.5 g/kWh (1.1 g/flP.h.). The

equivalent mean for NO emission using the timing plan is 8.7 g/kWh (6.5

g/HP.h.), as shown in Table II.

The specification is again relatively insensitive to compression ratio

and nozzle variables (excepting sac volume and protrusion). The major

influencing variable is injection timing, but development well inside the

legislative limits allows normal static timing (- 2 crank angle) to be

retained, avoiding the complications in production and service of dynamic

timing. The sensitivity to diesel fuel quality and Cetane Number is less

than the toroidal specification, and exhaust odour is lessened by the

reduction in unburnt HC» Further reduction in diesel odour will require

major breakthroughs in the understanding of the chemistry and measurement

tecliniques of the many trace compounds involved (9).

Mechanical Loading

The retardation has dramatic effedt on the poak cylinder pressure

(ELg.5). The toroidal maximum pressure of 13.4 Klj/m (1950 lbf/in2) is

reduced to 8.3 MN/m ' (1200 lbf/in ). This is lower than that of the

naturally aspirated engine, consequently the peak loading is reduced on all

drive-train components leading to increased 3afety factors on piston boss/

gudgeon pin, connecting rod, bearings, crankshaft, danper and gears.

It can be seen from the pressure diagram in figure 5 that a much

smoother cycle results from the combustion start after TDC. The maximum

rate of pressure rise reduces from 1000 kll/m per °CA (1 50 lbf/in ) to 300

kK/m per CA (45 lbf/in ) giving significant reduction in combustion noise.

The effect on bare engine noise levels depends on the ranking of combustion
 - 14 -

to mechanical and other noise sources, and the measures taken to reduce

transmission through, and radiation from the engine structure. In the

present case, bare engine noise attenuation at 1 m. under anechoic

conditions was 3 d3A at 2600 rev/min, 7 dBA at 2000 rev/min, and 8 dBA at

1000 rev/iain from the conventional engine.

Piston Integrity

The thermal loading on the engine components is generally lower,

apart from the piston bowl lips. (The turbocharged engine does not

experience increased cylinder head temperatures nor valve sinkage as has

been found on naturally aspirated "Squish lip"engines owing to the improved

air/fuel ratio). The piston bowl lip is critical owing to the combination

of thermal and mechanical stresses (ri^.9) peaking just under the lip on the

thrust-non-thrust axis.

Two- and three-dimensional finite element temperature and stress

calculations followed by piston fatigue life predictions allowed optimisation

of the piston geometry. Adoption of the 50 flank angle central bowl

limits the maximum temperature to 325 C and the maximum thermal stress to

46 Mir/m (3 ton/in ) . Mechanical stresses are also reduced by the central

bowl, and the bowl undercrown was thickened to reduce the tendency of the

piston to bend about the gudgeon pin promoting tensile stress at the lip on

the gudgeon pin axis and cor.pressive stress on the thr"3t-non thrust axis.

Computer predictions of piston life showed that a monolithic piston in

conventional aluminium alloy would be acceptable, using a 0.0017p failure

rate to first visible crack from 100,000 miles of urban driving as the

acceptance criterion.

The predictions have been backed up by conventional test bed and

vehicle endurance programmes together with thermal cycling rig tests and

accelerated engine tests specifically for piston bowl cracking. The

 - 15 -

accelerated tests are conducted on a special test bed shown in Jig. 10 on which

the six-cylinder engine fitted with the "Squish Lip" system alternatively

drives and is driven by the V8 engine. The test engine runs at rated

speed, fuel delivery alternating between maximum and zero on a 5 second/

5 second cycle. The V6 engine alternatively motors the. test engine and

absorbs the power using an exhaust brake. In 750 hours of cycling, the

pistons experience more thermal load cycles than would be achieved in a

truck engine in 100,000 miles of urban driving. Because of turbocharger

lag following the rapid fuel increase, the test cycling conditions are

about three times more severe on piston fatigue life than cycles up to the

steady state loading at rating. Piston designs and materials can be

evaluated and crack propagation studied in a matter of weeks.

Conclusions

1. The'Squish Lip" system can be applied successfully to turbocharged

high swirl direct injection engines.

2. The turbocharged'Squish lap" diesel presents a low pollution power

system of comparable specific power to the gasolene engine but with

superior fuel economy.

3. Comparative tests against the original gasolene engine in a U.S.

medium truck showed 34$ better fuel consumption and improved

accsleration a.-'d hill-climbing.

4. U.S. federal Heavy Duty Vehicle emissions limits can be met in

development and in production.

5. Injection retard of more than 20° crank angle reduces NO emissions

by

6. Peak cylinder pressure is reduced by 40/t, and rate of pressure rise

by 70/'', giving engine noise attenuation of 3-8 dBA over the engine

speed range.

7. A complex timing plan is required to limit HC emission. The fuel

injection pump requires speed advance, light load advsnce, start

 - 16 -

advance and boost control.

8. Piston bowl geometry requires optimisation for performance and stress

to achieve a durable, economic design.

Future Prospects

1c Significant economy improvement is expected if a limited speed range

is adopted for the engine with increased torque. Further gains are

likely if injection rate can be increased and when the air motion

and air/fuel mixing are fully understood from theoretical and

practical studies.

2. Higher ratings, normally limited on turbocharged engines by peak

pressure limitations, are possible for the 'Squish ldp"diesel, but

increases in piston bowl lip temperatures and stresses may require a

change from a monolithic aluminium alloy piston to an inserted-lip

design.

3. For lower NO emission levels, dynamic injection timing will be

required in production .ind service. Further retardation potential

is available and exhaust gas recirculation may be applied, both at

the expense of fuel economy.

4. The minimum level of HC emission that can be met in production from

a bare engine are being rapidly approached. Severe penalties would

result from the addition of downstream reactors/convertors.

5. There is unlikely to be further scope for reduction of combustion noise

at source, arid attention must be directed to the vibration transmission

paths and noise radiation from the engine structure.

6. Kxhaust odour will no longer reduce with further reduction in HC,

Farther research into the chemistry and measurement of the trace

compounds involved is required, before odour can be controlled.

7. It is clear that the socio-economic limits of vehicle pollution

control are at hand. The feasibility of volume production of power

systems to meet the emission levels proposed for the next decade is
 - 17 -

in doubt. However, there can be no doubt that the penalties

involved, in terms of limited fuel, material, and human resources,

will be large. A reappraisal of society's requirement for low

pollution power systems; seems overdue in relation to national and

World resources.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank the Perkins Engines Group for permission

to publish the findings of the work. The help and assistance of numerous

colleagues is gratefully acknowledged.

References

(1) Barnes-Moss, H.'.V., "The light Duty Diesel Sngine for Private

Transportation". SAS Paper No. 750331.

(2) Herendeen, It.A., "The Energy Costs of Goods and Services". Oak

Ridge National Laboratory Report.

(3) British Standards Institution, BS AU 141(a) 1971.

(4) European lijonomic Commun.ty Council Directive 72/306/3EC 1972O

(5) Khan, I.K., Greeves, G., and Wang, C.H.T., "Factors affecting Smoke

and Gaseous Emissions for Direct Injection 3ngines and a Method of

Calculation," SAS Paper No. 730169.

(6) Bertodo, R., "Development of the Perkins Squish Lip Combustion

System," 2ndo NATO/CCKS Symposium on "^ow Pollution Power Systems

Development," Dusseldorf, Nov. 4-8, 1974.

(7) Bertodo, R., et al, "A Method of Direct-Injection Diesel Emissions

Control," I. Mech. S. Paper C86/75.

(8) Bertodo, R., Kiddlemiss, I.D., and Cowling, 3.J., "Diesel Pollution

Combustion Control," Transportasian 75, 2nd. Automotive Conference,

Melbourne, Nov. 10-14, 1975.

(9) Tipler, W., "The Next Generation of High Speed Diesel Engines,"

I. Mech. E. Paper No. 012/77.

 TABLE I Author - C. Goodwin

HIGH SPEED D.I. 3NGIN33 OPTIMISED FOR 3H0KE AMD KIEL

CONSUMPTION

TURBOCEARGED AND
NATURALLY ASPIRATED
CHARGE-COOLED

No. of Cylinders 6

Swept Volume litre/cu.in. 5.8 (354)

Bore mm. (in.) 98.4 (3.875)

Stroke mm. (in.) 127 (5)

Combustion System Toroidal

Hating W (HP) @ rev/min. 89.5(120) 3> 2800 116(155) 3 2600

Fuel Pump Rotary CEI Rotary CBI

2x9mm Plungers 1x11mm. Plunger

Peak Pressure klf/m (lbf/in ) 10(1450) 13.4 (1950)

NO 17.4 (13) 34 (25.2)

CO 13-mode 3.5 (2.6) 13.7 (10.2)

g/kWh
HC (g/ HP.h.) 3.4 (2.5) 3.1 (2.3)
WO + HC 20.8 (15.5) 36.9 (27.5)
r TABLiS II Author - C. Goodwin

LIP "AMD GASCL5HS 3N&IN3 TRUCK PERFORMANCS

ACCELERATION TIMB (SBC) MAX. SPS3D FUEL

ENGINE CONSUMPTION
0-48 Kin/h 0-96 Km/h Kin/h (ifiPH) l i t r e / 1 0 0 fin
(0-30 I-IPH) (0-60 1-JPH) O-l/U.S. GyiL)

7 8 GASOL3NE
103 42.0
5.4 l i t r e 19.6 96.7
(64) (5.6)
(330 c u . i n . )

T6"SOUISH LIP"
DISS2L 103 27.6
11.6 86.7
5.8 litre (64) . (8.5)
(354 cu.in.)

PORD P-600 Truck

9800 Kg (21,600 lb) gross vehicle weight
ROUTE FARMINGTOIJ - BAY CITY - FARMINGTCN, MICHIGAN
 TABL3 I I I Author - Ce C-oo&win

TUaBOCKAitOgP j HUSSIONS

NOX CO HC NO, + HC

TOROIDAL BOWL 34 (25.2) 13.7(10.2) 3.1(2.3) 36.9(27.5)

1st GENERATION"SQUISH LIP1 10.6(7.9) 4.4(3.3) 3.1(2.3) 13.7(10.2)

1 4
2nd GENERATION"SQUISH LIP 8.7(6.5) 3.9(2.9) 1. 5(1. 1) 10.2(7.6)

13-mode cycle results - g/kWh (g/ Hp.h)

 CJ.V'^KC 3 ,1 TJi I ;:> ff? A WOKS

M.f.1 Piston 3owl Profiles

i'Me.2 Charge Cooler System

Fi£.3 Heat Roleace .in Sicrael Combustion

.•^1^.4 Tui'bochar^ed 3)i^ine Power Curves

Fig.5 ?urboch.aix"e^- ^Ji^'ins Cylinder ?ros'->ure

Pig.6 E f f e c t of Timing on "oquish J.i])'Terfornance

Pig.7 Reduced Sac and S a c l e s s Wozales

•Pitz.8 ?\!el Punip Tirdng .Plan

-?i;;.9 T
!J..n.iish l i p ' T i s t o n Tonpsratui-e and Stresses

'•'ij. 10 /.cceloratji "n^ine Cycling Tosts

 THROAT DIA.
BORE DIA.
TOROIDAL
BOWL 068

67
1st. GENERATION
"SQUISH LIP" 0-48

2nd. GENERATION
l
SQUISH LIP" 0-36

p
b
o
o K.go1 Piston Bowl Profiles
o
 HOT AIR COOLED AIR
TO COOLER TO ENGINE

COOLING
TURBOCHARGER AIR,
RADIATOR
CHARGE AIR COOLER

Pig.2 Charge Cooler System

C.GOODWIN
 200

160-
o .PREi DIFFUSION RATE-
o
WlXED1 * BURNING CONTROLLED1
UJ
_J

120-
LU TOROIDAL BOWL
cr
LU
CO
LU
80-
LU
or rSQUISH LIP"
<
UJ

•10 TDC 10 20 30 50
°CRANK ANGLE

Jig.3 Heat Release in Diesel Combustion

C.GOODWIN
 TORQUE
Nm Ibfft

POWER
bhp kW

TOROIDAL BOWL
1st."SQU!SH LIP"
2nd."SQUISH LIP"

SMOKE
BOSCH % OPACITY

BSFC . / /
g/kWh lb/bhp;h
2801-CK5//
260-
240-
220-
0-35
1000 U00 1800 2200 2600
ENGINE SPEED rev/min

Jlg.4 Turbocharged Engine Power Curves

C.GOODWIN
 TOROIDAL BOWL
12 CYLINDER
PRESSURE
1st. GENERATION
"SQUISH LIP"

2nd. GENERATION
"SQUISH LIP"

p
b
o
o
i TDC
° CRANK ANGLE
40

RLg.5 Turbocharged Engine Cylinder Pressure

 32
TOROIDAL 2nd. GENERATION
BOWL """SQUISH LIP"

NO-

— CO
HC, CO
HC
g/kW h

OPACITY
•5
SMOKE SMOKE -•*
r(K75
0
280-
0450 BSFC
BSFC
260- •0425 BSFC

g/kWh
-0400 FULL LOAD -
Ib/bhp h RATED SPEED 2600 rev/min

25 20 15 10 5 TDC
DYNAMIC INJECTION TIMING
°CRANK ANGLE BTDC
K.g.6 Effect or Timing on'Squish Li ^''Performance

C. GOODWIN
 SAC LESS

n
\ / /

REDUCED SAC

Fig.7 Reduced Sac and Sacless Nozzles

C. GOODWIN
 2600

2200
ENGINE
SPEED rev/min
1800

1000
+20i
DYNAMIC
TIMING
°CA.

TDC-
START NEEDLE LIFT
-10- INJECTION PERIOD
p END NEEDLE LIFT
b
o
o -20-
0 25 50 75 100
i % LOAD
Pig.8 Fuel Pump Timing Flan
 MECHANICAL THERMAL
HOOP STRESS HOOP STRESS
300 r-50
.260 MN/m2

+20- -+50

3D FINITE !SO-
ELEMEN THERMALS
GRID

Pig«9 'Squish Lip"Piston Temperature and Stresses

C.GOODWIN
g.10 Accelerated Snsine Cycling Tests
 A FLASH RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE APPLIED TO
FUEL INJECTOR SPRAYS

Harry C. Vantine
University of California
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
Livermore, California

Prepared For: FOURTH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON

AUTOMOTIVE PROPULSION SYSTEMS/
LOW POLLUTION POWER SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Washington, D. C , U.S.A.

April 18-22, 1977

This work was performed under the auspices of

U.S. Energy Research and De"?lopment
Administration, Contract No. W-7405-Eng-48.
 Abstract

A flash radiographic technique, using 50 ns exposure times,

has been used to study the pattern and density distribution of a
fuel injector spray. The experimental apparatus and method are
described. An 85 kVp flash X-ray generator, designed and~"fabric-ated
at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, is utilized. Radiographic
images, recorded on standard X-ray films, are digitized and computer
processed.
 INTRODUCTION

The motion of a spray of fuel droplets is an important area

in stratified charge, diesel, and gas turbine engine design. Sprays
of interest for these combustors are often thick. (In a thick spray
the processes of vaporization, drag, nucleation and break up of a
drop are strongly coupled to those of neighboring drops. In a thin
spray the interactions between neighboring drops are much weaker).
In many cases optical techniques cannot be used to study thick sprays
because the spray is optically dense or the environment is thermally
non-uniform. Some of the limitations of optical techniques can be
overcome by moving up the electromagnetic spectrum and using soft
x-rays as the probing medium. X-rays can easily penetrate the most
dense sprays and are not affected by thermal gradients. Submicrosecond
exczsare times are available that can "stop the motion" of high velocity
sprays.
 Experimental Apparatus

The flash x-ray source chosen for this study was designed and
fabricated at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. The generator is a
triaxial transmission line similar in circuit design to the voltage
vector inversion pulsers of Blumlein1. The generator consists of
three basic parts: a transmission line, a low-inductance detonator
switch at one end, and an evacuated diode at the other end. A peak
cathode current of 37 kA and a peak anode voltage of 85 kV have been
measured. The current pulse width is 50 ns (FWHM). The x-ray spectrum
consists of the K lines of copper superimposed on a bremsstrahlung
background. The effective source spot size is about 1.1 mm in diamater.

A simple diagram of the apparatus used in this experiment is shown

in Figure 1. The diode tip of the x-ray source is labeled a in Figure
1. A 25.4 pm (0.001 in) thick Mylar window, labeled b, is used to
separate the vacuum surrounding the x-ray diode from the experimental
chamber. (The vacuum chamber is necessary to minimize x-ray absorption.)
The fuel injector nozzle, labeled c, injects into air at standard
temperature and pressure. A film cassette, labeled dt is made from a
standard cardboard film holder whose front is cut out and replaced with
black polyethylene 50.8 urn (0.002 in) in thickness. The film used is
Kodak Type AA*. No screensare used with the film in order to enhance
the response to low energy x-rays. The source to object distance is
838 mm and the object to film distance is typically 19 mm.

* Reference to a company or product name does not imply approval or

recommendation of the product by the University of California or
the U. S. Energy Research and Development Administration to the
exclusion of others that may be suitable.
 The fuel injector used for these measurements is a shower head
type with a fixed area pintle and is designed for a nominal opening
pressure of 2.6 MPa (370 psi). Fuel is supplied to the nozzles from a
ROOSA MASTER jerk pump. The jerk pump is turned by a 1/3 hp dc motor
rotating at 1000 rpm. A magnetic pickup on the shaft between the motor
and pump is used to time the x-ray source.

A stainless steel tube connected to an air-driven ram collects

the spray pulses until the picture is to be taken. The ram is pulled
just prior to the spray pulse that is to be photographed. This
apparatus is used so that prior sprays do not wet the x-ray film. It
also assures that a combustible mixture does not build up in the
experimental vault (safety precaution).

Experimental Method

The geometric resolution of the apparatus is related to spot size

by the relation
R = sdA
where R = geometric resolution (mm)
l = source to object distance (mm)
s = object to image distance (mm) and
d = spot size (mm).
For these experiments R is typically 0.03 mm .
 The liquid fuel used in these experiments is a 75% diesel - 25%
trichloroethylene mixture. This liquid is chosen because it has a high
x-ray absorption cross section. The trichloroethylene content was
varied from 10 to 25 percent and this does not affect the spray properties.
An alternate procedure is to use a leaded or iodized fuel, such as a one
percent solution of iodine in gasoline or diesel fuel. Preliminary tests
show that this fuel, yields excellent radiographic pictures (but is more
hazardous than the trichloroethylene mixture).

One radiograph may be taken per spray pulse. The timing of this
radiograph is varied so that a series of spray pictures ordered in time,
is obtained.

Experimental Results

Figure 2 shows a magnified copy of a typical flash radiograph.

( Sorre of the sharpness of the original radiograph is lost
in the copy.) The picture is taken 0.1 ms after the pintle opet^s. Several
spray streams can be seen emerging from the nozzle.

The original radiograph is scanned by a PDS Scanning Microdensi-

tometer using a 50 ym square collimated light beam. The specular density
versus x-y position is digitized and processed on a CDC 7600 computer with
a program called TIXY. This program produces plots and data files of film
density as a function of position. The user controls contour levels and
displayed area. Each output scan is a close approximation to a single scan
of the original radiograph.
 For comparison with calculations one may not need all the infor-
mation in the original radiograph. In this case the digitized data
may be Fourier analyzed to remove the high frequency structure in
the data. The resulting data may then be processed with TIXY. Figure
3 is a plot made by TIXY with the smoothed data revealing contours of
constant film density. In Figure 3 there are 5 equally-spaced contour
levels.

A "scan rectangle" is also shown in Figure 3. The film density in

this scan rectangle is averaged in the y-direction and plotted versus
the-scan direction (x-direction); see Figure 4. The width and orientation
of the scan rectangle are chosen by the user.

In Figure 4, regions of low film exposure correspond to thick spray

regions. The exact film calibration is obtained Dy exposing droplets of
known size to the x-ray beam. In this way the film density may be related
to fual density; this calibration (shown in Figure 5) may be used to
interpret the data in Figures 3 and 4. Recall that the x-ray beam is
absorbed by fuel that is in either the liquid or vapor state. For calibra-
tion purposes we relate the film density to the equivalent thiciness of
liquid fuel that would cause the same absorption. This technique does not
distinguish between liquid and vapor fuel.
 Conclusions

Flash radiography can yield information about the density, pattern,

and droplet distribution in sprays. In many cases radiographs yield
data which cannot be obtained with optical techniques because the spray
is optically dense or the environment is thermally non-uniform. Sub-
microsecond exposure times that can easily stop the spray motion are
available.
 Figure Captions

Figure 1. Experimental arrangement: (a) Flash x-ray generator,

(b) 25.4 pm mylar window, (c) fuel injector nozzle,
(d) film cassette.

Figure 2. Magnified copy of a typical flash radiograph. The spray

from a pintle nozzle is shown .1 ins after the pintle opens.

Figure 3. Isodensity plot of computer processed radiograph. Contours

of constant film density are plotted. Five equally-spaced
levels are shown in this plot.

Figure 4. Dansity scan of computer processed radiograph. The film

density in the scan rectangle (shown in Figure 3) is plotted.
Film density is directly related to the spray thickness.

Figure 5. The x-ray film density is related to tha thickness of a

liquid fuel column that would cause the same absorption. This
calibration may be used to interpret Figures 3 and 4.
K\\\\WW\\W\\\W\\W\\\\\\W\W\\
i
a•

> A \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \XXXXX\\\X\X

787 mm 19 mm

Figure 1. Experimental arrangement: (a) Flash x-ray generator,

(b) 25.4 um mylar window, (c) fuel injector nozzle,
(d) film cassette.
Figure 2. Magnified.copy of a typical flash radiograph. The spray
from a pintle nozzle is shown .1 ms after the pintle opens.
 [DENT: PINTLE-1-1B-77 #1
FILE: PINTLE»IF 401 ROWS OX= 50 MICRONS SCAN RECTANGLE:
28) COLUMNS DY= 50 MICRONS INITIAL ROW: ISO INITIAL COLUMN: 30
I126BI POIN1S FINAL ROW: 125 FINAL COLUMN: 274

CONTOUR INTERVAL: 0.200 DENSITY RANGE: S 0]/at/-'7 I2:BB:O5

COLUMN NUMBER L0WE3 CONTOUR: 2.000 MAXIMUM: 3.615 PROGRAM: T1XY
CONTOUR MAP OF DENSITY UPPER LIMIT: 3.001) MINIMUM: 0.040 TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY GROUP

Figure 3. Isodensity plot of computer processed radiograph. Contours

of constant film density are plotted. Five equally-spaced
levels are shown in this plot.
 [DENT: PINTLE-1-18-77 «1
FILE; PINTLE-IF ^.01 ROWS DX« 50 MICRONS SCAN DIRECTION: >X ROMS AVERAOEO: 6
881 COLUMNS DY = 50 MICR0N5 INITIAL COLUMN: 30 INITIAL ROM: 120
118681 POINTS FINAL COLUMN: STl FINAL ROW: 155

S 0 I / 2 W 7 7 15:^8:05
X, MICRONS PROGRAM: T J XY
SCAN OF OENS!TY TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY GROUP

Figure 4. Density scan of computer processed radiograph. The film

density in the scan rectangle (shown in Figure 3) is plotted.
Film density is directly related to the spray thickness.
 I/)
a;
c
u
•r—
•«->

ZJ
4-
•o
•r-
cr

cu

1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.0

Film density

Figure 5. The x-ray film density is related to the thickness of a

liquid fuel column that would cause the same absorption. This
calibration may be used to interpret Figures 3 and 4.
 ERDA NATO/CCMS
Fourth International Symposium
Automotive Propulsion Systems
Washington, D.C.
April 18-22, 1977

AN ADVANCED,
LOW EMISSION
DIESEL ENGINE CONCEPT

Stephen H. Hill
Project Engineer

Joseph L. Dodd
Senior Reliability Engineer

-?<S*TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL MOTORS

General Products Division

A new automobile diesel engine concept has been developed

to the preliminary engine design level and demonstrated by
simulating vehicle tests with a computer model Uf' g steady
state engine dynamometer data. The preliminary design is a
six cylinder, swirl chamber diesel of 209 CID and 130 GHP.
This concept engine weighs 495 pounds and employs
turbocharging, variable compression ratio, high prechamber-
main chamber volume ratio and exhaust gas recirculation. An
existing automobile diesel was modified to simulate the
concept engine and steady state engine tests were conducted.
Test results were converted to urban cycle results for a 3000
pound GVW vehicle through the use of a computer model.
Emission results (Grams/Mile) are .21 NOx, -24 HC, and 1.24
CO. Fuel consumption (Miles/Gallon) is 30.3 urban cycle and
36.4 highway cycle. Vehicle cycle results at 3700 pounds GVW
meet all emission requirements and exceed the future 27.5
MPG requirement by ten percent. Multifuel capability and 175
PSI BMEP power levels were also demonstrated.
 AN ADVANCED, LOW EMISSION
DIESEL ENGINE CONCEPT

Stephen H. Hill

Joseph L. Dodd

INTRODUCTION

Current and forecasted energy shortages have created a need The solution to these problems was envisioned to be a
for a more efficient power plant for light duty vehicles. This Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) diesel engine which
power plant must also be capable of meeting strict exhaust maintains the fuel economy and durability of the diesel while
emission standards in order to maintain air quality levels. The providing excellent performance, lightweight, reduced bulk,
twin, and frequently contradictory, requirements of high fuel low cost, excellent cold starting, reduced noise level and very
economy and low emission levels have focused attention on an low emission levels. This engine could also have the
engine which has served reliably and economically in heavy capabilities of being converted from an existing gasoline
duty applications—the diesel. engine using the same basic engine structure and burning a
broad range of fuels.

Although previous diesel installations in passenger cars Recognizing the need for such an engine and the potential of
have demonstrated the fuel economy and durability a VCR diesel to satisfy that need, the Energy Research and
advantages of this combination, these vehicles have suffered Development Administration (ERDA) awarded a contract to
from low power, excessive bulk, high cost, poor cold starting, TCM/GPD to further investigate the feasibility of a light duty
high noise levels and excessive emissions, particularly oxides diesel, to design such an engine and to demonstrate its
of nitrogen potential in a 3,000 pound vehicle. The following goals,
continued on Page 2, were established by ERDA:

Copyright C Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 1977

All rights reserved.
 Fuel Consumption 25 - Urban cycle minimum The arrangement of this paper will follow the major
(Miles/Gallon) 35 - Highway cycle minimum steps of the study with conclusions and recommenda-
tions following Section V.
Exhaust Emissions 0.41 HC maximum
(Grams/Mile) 3.40 CO maximum
0.40 NOx maximum

Acceleration 17.5 seconds maximum

(0-60 MPH)

Distance traveled 440 feet minimum

from a standing
start in ten (10)
REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS
seconds

Merge Maneuver 20 seconds maximum

Model Formulation
(25-70 MPH)
The TCM/GPD Mobility Model was originally developed to
Pass Maneuver 17 seconds maximum
investigate the dynamics of vehicle performance, especially
(50-80 MPH)
the transient behavior of military vehicles with particular
emphasis on the dynamics of engine and drive train
Engine Specific 4.5 pounds/HP maximum
performance.
Weight including accessories
This model was modified to simulate a turboeharged diesel
in a compact car operating in the following modes:

The study which addressed these goals was performed as A. Acceleration from a standing ."•oint.
follows:
B. Acceleration in merging traffic.
I. Requirements Analysis—A computer model was
adapted to translate vehicle performance goals to engine C. Acceleration, DOT high speed pass maneuver.
requirements. The model was then verified with test
data. Model parametric studies and background D. Federal Urban Driving Cycle - Exhaust Emissions
research were used to define and evaluate alternate and Fuel Economy.
configurations.
E. Federal Highway Driving Cycle - Fuel Economy.
II. preliminary Engine Design—Using the requirements
analysis results, the preliminary design of a 209 CID The model calculates the response of the vehicle system by
diesel engine was completed. assuming that torques and rates of acceleration remain
constant for a short increment of time during which the
III. Emission Testing—An Opel passenger car diesel engine incremental change in speed can be calculated and added to
was modified to simulate the 209 CID concept engine and the valuu of the previous increment.
engine dynamometer development testing was con-
ducted to 'leTionstrate emissions and fuel consumption The model is organized to accept a variety of vehicle, engine
potential, M exhaust gas recirculation system was and transmission characteristics stored in external files. In
constructed and additional testing was conducted to this manner, the parameters of the vehicle and engine under
very low emission levels. study can be quickly changed without affecting the basic
model. A flow diagram of the model is shown in Figure 1.
IV. Vehicle Cycle Simulation—Engine dynamometer test
data was evaluated against vehicle performance goals All the values- calculated by the mode! can be stored in a
using the computer model, and parametric studies were separate file and recovered at a later time. This makes it
conducted to select the optimum configuration. possible for the analyst to provide a variety of reports from
each run of the model and with plotting routines, produce a
V. Multifuel and High BMEP Testing-Additional testing variety of graphic as well as usbular outputs. This flexibility
was conducted on unleaded gasoline to demonstrate enables the user to quickly review the results of design
multifuel capabilities. High BMEP testing was con- changes and make decisions which will result in improved
ducted to demonstrate full power potential. vehicle performance.
 Model Verification
FUEL PUMP GOVERNOR
The accuracy of the computer model was verified by
comparing vehicle test results to computer model outputs
>
generated from engine dynamometer test data. A Mercedes
EN GINE
300D was instrumented and all the acceleration tests were
performed. Chassis dynamometer tests were performed for
ENGINE ENGINE
fuel consumption, emissions and wheel horsepower baseline
COMBUSTION DYNAMICS data. The engine was dynamometer tested to determine the
engine performance characteristics. Engine and drive train
J
polar moments of inertia were measured.
i

CLUTCH/
Data from the above tests was used to verify the computer
1 CONVERTER model. Figure 2 presents the computer simulation of the
rRANSMISSION
Mercedes 300D wide open throttle acceleration. The car test
-J COMPRESSOR TURBINE
I results are superimposed on the computer plotted prediction.
Excellent corelation of results is demonstrated.
L
1c VEHICLE
C
T/C DYNAMICS
DYNAMICS
L l_ .. . J
emissions and fuel economy data correlation with the
TUBBOCHARGEH
model simulation is shown in Table 1. Test data shown
includes chassis dynamometer results from an independent
Figure 1—Flow Diagram of Turbocharged Diesel Engine laboratory and EPA published results.
Simulation Model.

+ = ENGINE OUTPUT SPEED

X = DISTANCE TRAVELED (FEET)
4 = ENGINE GROSS HORSEPOWER
X = VEHICLE SPEED-MPH
•1200.00
X = VEHICLE ACCELERATION < F T / S e C " 2 )
• =CAR TEST RESULTS
-1100.00 160.00

1000,00 140.00

900.00

600.00 uj g 100.00

g
§ 28.00

24.00
r

20.00

16.00

12.00'

e.oo-

4.00'

.00-
3.0 e.O 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0 21.0 24.0 27.0
TIME (SECONDS)

Figure 2—Performance Mode! Verification.

 Table 1—Mercedes 300D/Model Verification

1. Wide open throttle acceleration of 0 to 60 MPH in 17.5

Mile/Gallon Grams/Mile seconds, i.1 3400 LB GVW requires only 95 GHP
Urban Hwy. Urban N0\
(Figure 3).
Vehicle Test 22.2 27.7 2.01
2. Wide open throttle acceleration from 0 to 440 feet in 10
seconds, 3400 LB GVW requires almost 130 GHP
F,PA 1975 24 31 1.6
(Figure 3).

EPA 1976 22 28 1.8

3. The merge maneuver acceleration from 25 to 70 MPH
in 20 seconds, at 3400 LB CVW requires 100 GHP
Model Simulation 22.6 27.4 1.73
(Figure 4).

The model was verified a second time using turbocharged

4. The pass maneuver acceleration from 50 to 80 MPH
Opel 2100D data. Steady state engine data was input to the
and pass in 17 seconds, at the maximum GVW of 3700
model. The simulation results are compared to acttJal vehicle
LB requires only 85 GHP (Figure 4).
test results in Table 2.
The DOT acceleration requirement ot 440 feet in 10
seconds, from a standing start, is the most severe. This one
Table 2-Opel 2100D Turbociiarged/Model Verification. specification had the greatest influence on the size and the 130
GHP performance rating of the AD-209, Automotive Diesel
Engine.
Urban Cycle Results
Grams/Mile
MPG NOJJ ; HC CO

Vehicle Test 25.6 1.21 .22 1.21

Model Simulation 26.3 1.22 .22 1.18 20

TIME TO 60 MPH

18
REQM'T
Parametric Studies
w
a 16 500
During this phase of the program, TCM/GPD conducted
z
o
o
trade-off studies on the ERDA specified compact passenger UJ flEQM'T
car. These studies were used to quantify the relative impact (0 UJ
UJ [•I
due to each parameter on vehicle performance, start-up, 14 400 i t
acceleration, vehicle range, emissions and fuel economy. s UJ
o
The studies resulted in the optimization of the specification 12 300
for the various system components to assure compliance with
thy total system requirements defined by the "Preliminary DISTANCE AT 10 SECONDS
Prototype Vehicle Specification for Compact Passenger Car"
dated March 1975. 10 200

Parameters for four engine sizes with performance ratings

of 85, 100, 115 and 130 gross horsepower were entered into
the computer mobility model for simulation in the 3,000 pound 85 100 115 130
compact car. Four DOT acceleration and pass maneuver GROSS HP RATENG
cycles were conducted at each of. the four engine ratings.
Interpolation curves over the performance range of 35 to 130 Figure 3—Acceleration from a Standing Start.
gross horsepower indicated the minimum power required to
meet each specification. The results, as shown in Figures 3
and 4, indicate the following:
 70
% = RATIO OF 80%
PRECHAMBER
60 TO TOTAL /
CLEARANCE
O
VOLUME
< SO
50%

/
30%
/ —
/
y ^-
~P.EQM'T <^
(. 9~ _^- 50-80 MPH
PASS 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
MANEUV OVERALL AIR/FUEL RATIO

Figure 6—Prechamber Versus Overall Air/Fuel Ratio.

100 11.,
GROSS HP RATING Various prechamber-main chamber volume ratios up to
80:20 were programmed into the computer model. Figure 7
Figure 4—Acceleration, Merge & Pass Maneuvers. shows the three NOx versus prechamber air/fuel ratk jjrves
introduced into the computer. Curve Number 1 is the mean of
the shaded curve from Figure 5. It represents NOx ^ a t a ^ rom
Emissions Evaluation current IDI diesel engines with preehamber ratios from 40%
to 70%, optimised for best smoke and fuel consumption only.
A comparative analysis of indirect injection diesel engines
was nducted to determine the N0^ emission characteristics
Curve Number 2 in Figure 7 represents projections with
of these engines. Excellent coreiation was found among many
different engines when the emissions were compared to the optimized injection characteristics, timing for emissions and
air/fuel ratio in the precham '>er. Figure 5 shows the results of approximately 5% exhaust gas recirculation. Curve Number 3
this study which demonstrates that the higher the air/fuel is ,he same as Curve Number 2 except with additional EGR,
ratio in the prechamber, the lower the NOx emissions. It is I'P to a lotai if approximately 15%.
also apparent that for any given overall air/fuel ratio in an
engine, the air/fuel ratio in the prechamber increases as the
ratio of prechamber-main chamber volume increases. This is
demonstrated in Figure 6.

•ATA
1
CON\ RANGE ftL IDl'S
ENTION
/

I -6 \
f
V
< .5

\
\
™> 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
PRECHAMBER A/F RATIO

TTTTT
1 Ml 1
Figure 7—Specific NOx Emissions.
10 SO 30 40 50
A / F RATIO P R E C H A M B E R The vehicle performance model was utilized to run the
Federal Urban and Highway cycles with the following
Figure 5—NOx Emissions, Conventional IDI Engine?. variables.
 Car Weight

Prtchamber Volume Ratio

Rear Axle Ratio

Curves Shown in Figure 7

The projected NO-j versus prechamber air/fuel ratio

profile established (Curve 3, Figure 7) is shown in Figure 8 in
comparison to the range for conventional IDI engines.

The parametric studies resulted in the following fuel

economy and emissions predictions for the 130 horsepower
engine in the ERDA compact car:

10 20 30 40
Fuel Economy - 28.4 Urban & 35.9 Highway MPG
PRECHAMBER A / F RATIO

Emissions - .39 Grams/Mile Urban Figure 8—Projected NO^ Profile.

PRELIMINARY ENGINE DESIGN

HIGH COMPRESSION RATIO

Based on the results of the requirements analysis task, the

preliminary design was completed for an engine that can meet OIL DISCHARGE VALVE
the goals for fuel consumption, emissions and specific weight.

Features required to meet the program goals are as follows:

A. Variable Compression Ratio. VCR is required to

maintain a high compression ratio at light load for
hydrocarbon control, with lower compression ratios
at high load for controlled cylinder pressures.
Controlled cylinder pressures permit operation at
high power levels with lightweight construction for
reduced weight and bulk. The use of high
compression ratio at light load also reduces noise
level, improves cold starting and enhances multifuel
capabilities. A VCR piston schematic is shown in
Figure 9 and an explanation of the VCR principle is
placed in the Appendix.

B. Swirl Type Prechamber with a High Percentage of

the Total Clearance Volume in the Prechamber. This
combustion system gives low emission levels and
broad fuel tolerance with reduced noise levels and
cylinder pressures. Providing a high percentage of
the total clearance volume in the prechamber results MAIN OIL SUPPLY
in higher air/fuel ratios at initial combustion and
reduced Figure 9-VCR Piston Schematic.
 C. Tin'bocharging. Turbocharging maintains high air/
fuel ratios for NOx control and provides additional
combustion air for high power operation. Table 3 - A D 209 Specifications.

D. Exhaust Gas Recirculation. EGR is required to Bore 3.622 In (92MM)

achieve very low NOx levels. Stroke 3.386 In (86MM)
Displacement 209In3(3.4L)
E. Variable Injection Timing, variable injection timing Compression Ratio 24:1/12:1
is required to optimize HC and NOj( emissions while Rated HP . 130 GHP at 3200 RPM
maintaining good fuel economy. Peak Torque .235LB-FTat2000RPM
Weight, dry 495 LBS (Estimated)
F. Lightweight Castings. Lightweight castings are (Includes fan, starter
required to meet the weight goals. & alternator)

Basic engine specifications and appearance are

shown in Table 3 and Figure 10 respectively.

F'gure 10-AD-209 Engine Concept.

Engine Sirs & Weight Conventional practice is to include the starter, alternator
and fan in the engine weight. On this basis, the specific weight
rhe weight of the AD-209 engine was estimated by a sectional of the engine is 3.8 pounds per horsepower.
ma'ysis of the various castings and catalog weignt estimates
or accessories. The bare, dry engine weight is estimated to be The ERDA specifications identifies the engine weight as
149 pounds. The specific weight (pounds per gross including the additional engine auxiliaries noted in Table 4. On
lorsepower) is presented in two ways in Tabie 4. this basis, the specific weight of the engine is 4.48 LB/HP. The
EEDA goal is 4.5 LB/HP.
 Table 4-Engiue Weight Estimate. Steady state dynamometer tests were conducted to develop
performance data and guide further modification. Data from
promising configurations were later evaluated against vehicle
Bare, Dry Engine [Incl. Flywheel] «-*9 LBS.
performance ^oals through the use of the TCM/GPD
Auxiliaries
computer model.
Starter 32 LBS.
Alternator 10 LBS.
The Opel 2100D engine was selected for modification and
Fan 4 LBS.
test for three reasons:
Subtotal 495 LBS.
Specific Weight 3.8 LB/HP 1. It is typical of current, state-of-the-art automobile
diesels.
Battery 30 LBS.
Air Cleaner 5 LBS. 2. It uses the same combustion system (Ricardo Mark V)
Radiator 20 LBS. and is similar in bore and stroke to the AD-209 concept
Oil 10 LBS. engine.
Water 20 LBS.
Belts 2 LBS.
3. It can be successfully turbocharged (1)*.

ERDA TOTAL 582 LBS.

Specifications for the Opel 2100D engine are placed in the
SPECIFIC WEIGHT 4.48 LB/HP Appendix (2) (7).*

Baseline tests were conducted c:i the engine as received.

A size comparison of the AD-209 engine with comparable The engine was then turbocharged and modified for increased
gasoline engines in compact cars was made. Table 5 compression ratio and prechamber-main chamber volume
summarizes the results. Note that the AD-209 is not as wide ratio. Static injection timing was varied manually from TDC
nor as high as the comparison engines, the length dimension of to 18" ATDC. Testing was conducted from 600-3200 engine
35.98 inches is longer; however, this dimension can be reduced RPM at loads of 0-100 PSI BMEP. Test variables were
by changing the fan adaptor shown in Figure 10. evaluated by replacing or modifying engine components. The
range of variables tested during this phase is listed in Table 6.
EMISSION TESTING
A discussion of the effect of selected test variables on
The objective of the emission testing phase was to develop emissions and/or fuel consumption follows.
emissions and fuel economy data that would define the
performance and potential of the AD-209 diesel engine
concept. This objective was accomplished by modifying an Numbers in parentheses designate references at end of
existing automobile diesel engine to simulate the AD-209. the paper.

Table 5—Size Comparison With Current Gasoline Engines.

AUTOMOBILE Disp. [In3] L W H

Dart, Duster, Scamp 225 33.20 24.50 32.20

Gremlin, Pacer 232 34.47 23.69 25.84

Nova, Camaro, Omega, Ventura 250 33.00 28.00 27.00

Maverick, Granada, Monarch, 200 35.91 25.11 27.66

Comet

ERDA Car with Diesel 209 35.98 22.02 22.30

 Table 6—Test Variables.

VARIABLE EANGE

Hot Compression Ratio 23.0:1 - 29.5:1

Preehamber-
Main Chamber Volume Ratio 57:43 - 77:23
Prechamber Throat Size . . . Standard & 15% Oversize
Turbocharger Turbine Housing
A/R Ratio** 25, .36 & .48
Injection Pump Plunger Diameter 9 and 11 MM
Injection Line Inside Diameter 063 & .084 Inch
Piston Rings Standardr Head Land
& Improved Oil Control
EGR 0-55 Percent

**NOTE: A/R ratio is an expression of relative size.

A/R ratio is calculated by dividing the area of
the volute by the radius of the volute.
Effect of Turbocharging

Turbocharging supplies additional combustion air resulting in Turbine housings with A/R ratios of .25, .36 and .48 were
higher air/fuel ratios for NOx reduction and permitting the evaluated during the test program. A/R ratio should be sized
addition of more fuel for higher power output. In addition, it so as to maximize the pressure drop across the engine,
was anticipated that the increase in air motion and thereby minimizing negative work or creating positive work
temperature provided by turbocharging would improve in the pumping loop and decreasing fuel consumption. The
hydrocarbon control and fuel economy through better effect that turbine housing A/It ratio had on fuel consumption
combustion. and NOx i s shown in Figures 12 and 13. The .36 A/R ratio
turbine housing resulted in the best overall fuel consumption
The turbocharger utilized is the wastegated AiResearch T-3 and NOx ove T t n e e n g'n e speed and load range tested.
unit in compressor trim "C". Turbocharging did increase
air/fuel ratio at the same power level as shown in Figure 11. o
\ • 2000 RPM
\
\ • ' .36A/RHsa
O •O .25 A/R Hsg.
• 2000 HPM
V
\
100
T/C \ \
N.A. o' N
\ \

/ /
GO
L
*. BSFC~

10

20

20 15 20
BHP BHP

Figure 11—Effect of Turbocharging. Figure 12-Effect of Turbine Housing Size.

10

Effect of Injection Timing Test results showing the effect of injection timing on NOx
and HC emissions are show" in Figures 14 and 15. NOx ' s
One of the primary techniques for NOx control is injection substantially reduced with injection timing retard. At high
timing. Late injection timing redi es peak cylinder pressures loads, the increase in fuel consumption as a result of retarded
and temperatures, and residence time of the combustion gases timing causes an increase in NOx a s a res ponse to air/fuel
at high temperatures. Reduction of temperature and tirre ratio. HC are affected very little by up to 10° of injection
available for reaction slows NOx formation rate. timing retard. However, additional retard causes a large
increase ir- hydrocarbons particularly near no load and full
load.

. 1600 RPM
5.5° ATDC STATIC TIMING
) 10.5° ATDC STATIC TIMING
1
ATDC STATIC TIMING /
—• .36A/RHsg
-O .aSA/RHsg

".600

12 16 20 24 26
BHP

10 15 20 25 30 35 Figure 15—Effect of Injection Timing on HC.

BHP

Figure 13—Effect of Turbine Housing Size. Effect of Compression Ratio

Prior test results indicated that improved hydrocarbon

control would be essential to meet the desired emission goals.
The control technique utilized had to be effective at the late
injection timings dictated by NOx requirements and u.ider
the low engine speed, light load conditions prevalent in the
light duty vehicle test. Within the f.amework, it was felt that
5.5° ATDC STATIC TIMING
10.5° ATDC STATIC TIMING
increased compression ratio should be evaluated.
I 15.5° ATDC STATIC TIMING

Compression ratio changes were accomplished with the

2 40 following special components:
a
I.
1. Thinner head gasket.
2. "Head Land" piston rings.
2. Pi-tons without swirl cavities in the dome.
4. Increased volume prechambers (swirl chambers).

12 16 20 24 28 As predicted, an increase in compression ratio did give

BHP be! ,er hydrocarbon control as indicated in Figure 16. The
incf-ised compression ratio also decreased NOx ' e v e 's at
Figure 14—Effect of Injection Timing on NO\- ceri n engine speeds and loads as shown in Figure 17. This
decrease in NOx ' s primarily due to an increase in air/fuel
ratio as a result of lower fuel consumption (See Figures 18 and
19.)
 11

• 2000 RPM
- 29.5:1 C.R. 71/29 PC/MC
26:1 C.R. 63/37 PC/MC
1 C.R. 70/30 PC/MC
• 2000 RPM
23.5:1 C.R. 71/29 PC/MC
26:1 C.R. 63/37 PC/MC
23.5:1 C.R. 70/30 PC/MC

15 20 25 30 35
BHP
' N O T E - P O I N T OF IGNITION FOR ALL POINTS EQUALS 11-13° ATDC

Figure 18— Effect of Compression Ratio on

NOTE—POINT OF IGNITION FOR ALL POINTS EQUALS 11-13° ATDC
Prechamber Air/Fuel Ratio.

Figure 16—Effect of Compression Ratio on HC.

• 2000 RPM
29.5:1 C.R. 71/29 PC/MC
i 2S:1 C.R. 63/37 PC/MC
> 23.5:1 C.R. 70/30 PC/MC

o—•—O
A— &
• 2000 RPM
5:1 C.R. 71/29 PC/MC
26 1 C.R. 63/37 PC/MC
23 5:1 C.R. 70/30 PC/MC
/
//
/ /

1
/ 7/
/ .40
0 5 10 16 iO 25 30 35
a
I 30

J'
NOTE—POINT OF IGNITION FOR ALL POINTS EQUALS 11-13° ATDC

Si 4 7
Figure 19-Effect of Compression Ratio en BSFC.

The increase in NOx a t "g n t '°ads is a consequence of the

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
shape of NOx response to prechamber aii-/fuel ratio. It is
BHP
NOTE—POINT OF IGNITION FOR ALL POINTS EQUALS 11-13° ATDC
assumed that the increased compression ratio resulted in
higher combustion pressures and temperature* which took
precedence over the air/fuel ratio effect at light load,
Figure 17—Effect of Compression Ratio on NO\- resulting in an increase in NOx- The improved hydrocarbon
control and fuel consumption resulting from the increased
compression ratio permitted additional injection timing retard
further decreasing NOx-
 12

Effect of Precht. iber-Maia Chamber Volume Ratio The effect of prechamber-main chamber volume ratio on
prechamber air/fuel ratio and NOx is shown in Figure 20. The
Variations in prechamber-main chamber volume ratios affect 77/23 PC/MC build was accomplished by installing a larger
NOx levels by varying air/fuel ratio in the prechamber where prechamber. Prechamber throat size and injection nozzle
most of the combustion occurs. For the same compression location were the same as the smaller standard prechamber.
ratio and fuel consumption level, an increase in prechamber- Use of this non-optimized prechamber resulted in an increase
main chamber volume ratio will increase (lean) the air/fuel in overall air/fuel ratio. Therefore, the test results do not
ratio in the prechamber. Changes in precharr.ber-main indicate the magnitude of prec!.umber air/fuel ratio increase
chamber volume ratio were accomplished by installing a and NOx decrease that would be expected for a
larger prechamber and/or decreasing main chamber by one of prechamber-main chamber volume ratio increase of 22
the methods used to increase compression ratio. percent. However, the trend is as predicted.

Use of the large, non-optimized prechamber had a very

negative effect on fuel consumption and HC as shown in
10
COMPRESSION 1ATIO = 26:1
Figure 21. It was felt that a portion of the fuel consumption
• 2000ft >M / increase was due to the additional work required to pump
60 • • 77/ 23 PC/MC more air into the larger prechamber through the standard size
O——-O 63/ 37 PC/MC / throat. Therefore, a large prechamber with a 15 percent
increase in throat size was evaluated.

/
50

40 \ Effect of Large Prechamber Throat

7
.A Typical test results with the large throat prechamber are

20 K . A/F

3
— ~ _
shown in Figure 22. Fuel consumption has decreased
significantly and some reduction has been madp in NOx-
particularly at high load. At light load, NOx n a s increased
slightly. However, fuel consumption and NOx a r e s t ' " w e "
10 above results obtained with the small (63/37 PC/MC)
prechamber. These test results indicate the importance of
n
extensive performance development to optimize new
10 15 20 25 30 35 prechamber designs. Although the large prechamber did give
BHP
indications of NOx reductions, the test program time
framework 'id not permit the additional development
Figure 20—Effect of Prechamber-Main Chamber required to realize this potential.
Volume Ratio.

i
> 1200 RPM
- • 63/37 PC/MC

0 O 77/23 PC/MC
1
1
\

BSFC
-o—z
^ -
/
j
| 40 J..'
1
\
a p'
"30 s

10 12 14

Figure 21—Effect of Large Prechamber. Figure 22—Effect ol Large Preciiamber Throat.

 13

Injection Rate Effect of Secondary Injections

Although a swirl chamber engine is relatively insensitive to The Opel injection system gave satisfactory performance
injection system variations, other investigators (3) have found when used with the standard, engine. However, after engine
some effect on emissions as a result of changes in injection modification and at retarded injection timings, pressure cards
rate. Injection rate was varied here by replacing the 9 ' lade during development testing indicated that secondary
millimeter plunger diameter injection pump with a unit fuel injections were occurring, particularly at high load. A
having a plunger diameter of 11 millimeters. Test results typical pressure card is shown in Figure 24. A secondary
generated at the same static injection timing are shown in injection is an untimed injection nozzle opening or fuel
Figure 23. Air/fuel ratio is also plotted to indicate that the injection as a result of reflected pressure waves. In Figure 24,
change in NOx is not due to a change in air/fuel ratio. NOx is the secondary injection is occurring at approximately 36°
increased although the effect on NOx becomes less as speed ATDC. Secondary injections are known to be a significant
and load decrease. source of emissions.

To decrease secondary injections, the fuel injection line

inside diameter was reduced from .084 inch (2.3 MM) to .06J
inch (1.6 MM). This change eliminated virtually all secondary
injection indication on needle lift traces throughout the engine
speed and load range tested. The effect on HC emissions is
shown in Figure 25. Largp reductions in HC resulted even in
areas where secondary injections were not detected from the
needle lift trace.

• 2800 RPM
X X .084 INCH I.D. INJECTION LINES X
. • .063 INCH 1.0. INJECTION U N c S /

Figure 23-Effect of Injection Rate.

fc. - J
.

15
BHP

PEAK CYLINDER PRESSURE

Figure 25—Effect of Secondary Injections.

POINT OF IGNITION
MAIN
CHAMBER Reduction in ii.,,ection line inside diameter should not be
PRESSURE
TRACE NEEDLE LIFT construed as a cure-all for injection secondaries. Each
SECONDARY
TRACE INJECTION injection system must be individually, hydraulically balanced
for the fuel delivery schedule required. The fix used here was
POINT OF verified on an injection test bench before being installed on
'' INJECTION
the engine.

30B 20B 1CB

V| TCC 10A MA 4CA Exhaust Gas Recirculatiun
K DURATION OF -
INJECTION I
EGR reduces NOx DV increasing the heat capacity of the
intake charge and thereby decreasing peak cycle tempera-
Figure 24—Pressure Card. tures and NOx formation. EGR also decreases the oxygen
 14

content of the intake charge, thereby decreasing the amount

of oxygen available for NOx formation at combustion. EGR
\
has an additional benefit in a diesel engine which affects all
mass emission rates. Since a portion of the exhaust flow is %EXCES i AIR'
\
directed back into the engine cylinder, exhaust mass flow out
the tailpipe is decreased. A comparative analysis (Figure 26) NC
\
\
of prechamber fuel-air ratios versus BHP at constant 2000
RPM indicates the limitations of diesel cycle lean range EGR
KE
\/
application. The prechamber fuel-air ratio is very lean at low 60 <
to
Bl Ps and becomes richer with increasing HP and increasing L SM(
2
fuel flow because airflow remains virtually constant. At any
BHP level the prechamber fuel-air ratio may be increased as
10% OPACITY
VI
\ If
high as stoichiometric, approximately .062 (16 to 1 air-fuel
ratio) by the substitution of EGR for excess air. At or above a
fuel-air ratio of stoichiometric, EGR may not be applied for
there is no excess air in the combustion process. Diesel
4
V y\
\ !.R
operation in the extreme rich fuel-air ratio range above \
stoichiometric produces excessive fuel consumption and
smoke.

.01 .02 .03 AM .05 .06 .07

PC F/A RATIO
CONSTANT F U U FLOW, 15.3 HP AT 2000 RPM

Figure 2'-Opel 2100D Effect of EGR

on N O \ vr Smoke.

.62—INCH I.D.
STAINLESS TUBING

1.75—INCH O.O.
STAINLESS TUBING

1 . 5 - I N C H GASVf.LVE
(HARDWARE ITEM)

10 15.3 20 30
BHP AT 2000 RPM
INDUCTION AIR
FROM COMPRESSOR

Figure 26-Opel i!i00D EGR Limits.

Figure 28-EGR Schematic Lab System.

A further comparative analysis (Figure 27) of smoke versus As EGR is applied, excess air is reduced and prechamber
NOx reduction with varying amounts jf EGR at the 15.3 BHP fuel-air ratio rises toward .062 (stoichicmetric). NOx
point of Figure 26 reveals that with no EGR there is 70°/o emissions fall steeply at first and then gradually toward the
excess air. Smoke is approximately 2 5% opacity. The last, whereas smoke rises gradually at first and steeply
prechamber fuel-air ratio is noted to be .036 and tow?rd the last. This dual curve characteristic yields an
emissions are 29.5 grams per hojr. extreme early reduction in NOx emissions with EGR before
 15

smoke rises eventually to the 10% opacity point. This ease

shows EGR may be limited to approximately 38% for 10%
opacity smoke with a reduction in NOx frorn nearly 30 to
about 7.5 grams per hour, or by 75%.

A schematic of the EGR system used in testing is shown in

Figure 28. With this system, EGR rate is governed b} the gas
valve position and the pressure differential between the
exhaust manifold and the intake manifold or compressor
discharge. At light loads when air/fuel ratio is high, exhaust
pressure is significantly higher than intake manifold pressure
and high rates of EGR occur. As engine load becomes greater
and air/fuel ratio becomes lower, intake manifold pressure
increases faster than exhaust pressure and EGF rate
decreases until it reaches zero when exhaust and intake
pressures are equal. Therefore, the EGR rate characteristics
provided by this system are exactly what is required for a
diesel engine. In a vehicle, this system could consist of a
connector between intake and exhaust manifolds containing a
properly sized orifice to limit maximum EGR rate, and a check
valve to prevent back flow.
Figure 29-Effect of EGR on NOx-
The effect of EGR on NOx a n d H C i s shown in Figured 29
and 30. Note that NOx a n ( i H ^ are plotted on a mass basis so
that both the concentration level and reduced exhaust flow
effects are indicated. NOx drops sharply with increasing EGR
rates. HC levels decrease slightly and then increase rapidly
with increasing EGR rates except at higher loads, where HC
levels increase with increasing EGR. Fuel consumption was
unaffected by EGR except for a slight decrease at a small
number of test points. Note that EGR was not used at high
loads. Since the driving force for this EGR system is exhaust -
intake pressure differential, no EGR can occur at high loads.
The use of EGR at load levels requiring low (rich) air/fuel
ratios would be expected to have a very negative effect on HC
and fuel consumption.

The EGR system used in initial development testing was

constructed to allow maximum flexibility in testing and, as a
result, was qr ; te large and bulky. The large amount of surface
area resulted in a significant amount of heat loss through
radiation and a consequent reduction in EGR temperature.
Maximum heat loss was calculated to be 8000 BTU per hour, a
level which c^uld be achieved easily with a small heat
exchanger in a vehir'e. In order to evaluate the effect of EGR 10 12
temperature, a new, smaller EGR system was constructed.
This configuration resulted in EGR temperatures near
exhaust temperatures. The effect of this EGR temperati •? Figure 30-EKect of EGR on HC.
change is Jiown in Figures 31 and 32. These figures depict
test points with the small EGR system data plotted over the
effect of EGR plots s!; . vn previously in Figures 29 and 30. light load, HC levels decrease with thirty-eight percent EGR
NOx data shows n< .ignificant change. HC data with zero and decrease further with fifty percent EGR. It is assumed
EGR has increased considerably as a result of oil consumption that these changes in HC response to EGR are the result of
problems. At higher load, the increase in HC as a result of increased intake manifold temperatures with the small EGR
thirty percent EGR is as expected. At medium load, zero and system. Fuel consumption was also affected more frequently
forty-two percent EGR give the same HC result. With with this EGR system. At light load test points, small
forty-eight percent EGR, HC in< rease is less than expected. At decreases in fuel consumption were most frequent. At higher
 16

loads where EGR was available, small increases in fuel

consumption were s"en. The overall affect on fuel
consumption is judged to be slightly favorable.

24
• 1600 RPM °A
& EGR POINTS WITH SHORT
PATH EGR S S T E M -
(T NUMBERS NF«R POINTS
ARE EGR RATES. ^ S * - ^
i 16
r 0
a

X 12
O
z

"0

36 31A
40% EGR
53—^__Z
50% 46
r Figure 32-Effect of EGR Temperature on HC.

Figure 31 - Effect of EGR Temperature on NOx.

Table 7-Modifications to Opel 2100D Engine.

In summary, the following list of EGR advantages is
presented:

CYLINDER HEAD
1. With fixed injection timing, EGR can reduce
drastically with little effect on other emissions or fuel Valve stem seal • Sealed Power P/N ST-2010
consumption. Cylinder head gasket - McCord P/N X-8077

2. The use of EGR reduces the amount of injection timing PISTONS

retard required to control NOx thereby decreasing
other emissions and fuel consumption. Modified for head land piston ring
(See iiJustration in Appendix)
3. EGR reduces mass flow through the engine thereby Swirl cavities filled with weld
decreasing manifold pressure, peak cylinder pressure
and all mass emission rates. PISTON RINGS (Sealed Power)
Top (head land) groove - P/N XCCC-158
4. The increase in intake manifold temperature with EGR
Second & fourth grooves - P/N CF-3556
decreases ignition delay. Decreased ignition delay
Third groove - none
should assist light load hydrocarbon controi anci
Bottom groove - side rails (2) - P/N XCF-3558
decrease rates of pressure rise and noise levels.
Expander - P/N XCF-3557

5. The same techniques by which EGR reduced NOx

formation should also decrease the formation of other FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
oxides thereby decreasing diesel odor. .063 inch inside diameter injection lines

TURBOCHARGER
Lew Emission Configuration AiResearch Model T-3 wastegated in compressor trim "C"
with .So A/R turbine ho—ing
The best overall emissioi results were obtained with an
engine configuration employing turbocharging, 29.5:1 com-
EGR
pression ratio, 71:29 prechamber-main chamber volume ratio,
improved injection system and piston ring package, and EGR. Exhaust gas recirculation from 0-50 percent
Modifications to the standard Opel 2100D to obtain this
configuration are listed in Table 7.
 17

engine data by the model. The computer model notes the

instantaneous BHP required. It then reduces this BHP
requirement to a level of 126/209, at the same engine speed, to
find data at an equivalent BMEP as would be realized with the
larger engine. The computer model then goes into the 126 CID
memory files for the data required. It applies this data to ths
program logic to find the interim emissions. Tt'fise interim
emissions are then multiplied by 209/126 to bring the
emissions to the level which would be seen with the larger
engine.

Simulation results at two injection timings, with and

without EGR, are shown in Table 8.

20 30 40 Table 8—Simulation Results.

PRECHAMBER A/F RATIO

Figure 33—NOx Test Results Compared to Prediction. TIMING EGR MPG GMS/MI
°ATC JFUEL ECO!N NOX HC CO

Placed in the Appendix are piots of NOx, H C CO and BSFC 0.5 NO 33.3 .73 .15 .83
at three engine speec1 for: (a) the baseline as received
configuration; (b) the low emission configuration at 5.5° 5.5 NO 31.1 .64 .28 1.23
ATDC static injection timing; and (c) the low emission
configuration with EGR at 0.5° ATDC static injection timing. 0.5 YES 33.2 .17 .18 .89
EGR rate was selected by fixing the control valve in the
seventy percent open position resulting in EGR rates from 5.5 YES 31.1 .41 .29 1.28
zero to forty percent.
3000S GVW, 209 CID, 71% PC, 29.5:1 CR, 3.23:1 Axle Rat •>
When compared to baseline data, the low emission
configuration modifications result in substantial reductions in
The use of a 3.23:1 axle ratio resulted in several occurrences
NOx '• particularly in the important low speed and load areas.
of low prechamber air/fuel ratio and associated smoke. The
HC and CO are similar to baseline results except at high speed effect of axle ratio on prechamber air/fuel ratio is showr. in
where some increase occurs. Fuel consumption has increased Table 9.
as much as ten to fifteen percent at high loads as a result of
retarded injection timing.
Table 9-Effect of Axle Ratio on P.C. Air/Fuel Ratio.
The application of EGR reduces NOx further in the low
spned and load areas. This decreases the amount of injection Number of Seconds [In 1369 SecMds], When P.C. Air/Fuel
Ratio is at/or Below.
timing retard required thereby decreasing NOx a ^ m S ' 1 ' o a d,
and HC, CO and BSFC everywhere. An exception is the AXL^ 14/1 16/1 18/1 20/1
increase in HC and CO at 1200 RPM - mid load with EGR, RATIO [.07F/A] [.06 F/A] [.055 F/A] [.05 F/A]
indicating that EGR rates should be decreased in this area.
Fuel consumption with EGR is similar to baseline results
3.23 0 3 10 23
except at 2800 RPM where it is five percent greater.

3.55 0 2 7 14
Figure 33 is a plot comparing actual test data to the
projection shown in Figure 8. The emission levels achieved in
3.905 0 0 5 11
testing are well below the projected level required to meet
the NOx g° a '-
4.30 0 0 4 7

10% Dpacity Smoke

VEHICLE CYCLE SIMULATION
Steady state engine dynamometer data was entered in the
computer model input files for vehicle simulation over the The effect of axle ratio on urban cycle emissions and fuel
urban cycle. The 126 CID engine data is converted to 209 CID economy is shown in Table 10. Optimum axle ratio is 3.905:1.
 18

Table 10-Effect of Rear Axle Ratio. Since time did not permit surveying a variety of fuels,
testing was conducted with unleaded gasoline, generally
acknowledged as the worst case, commonly available fuel for
AXLE MI/GAL. GMS/M 1 diesel usage. The test engine was not modified from the low
RATIO FUEL ECON. NO X a c CO SMOKE emission configuration with the exception of static injection
timing which was advanced five degrees. This change was
3.23 33.2 .17 .18 .89 necessary to compensate for t h e different pumping
bo characteristics and longer ignition delay of the less viscous
3.55 31.8 .19 .20 1.04 c gasoline. Advancing static injection timing five degrees
8 advanced the point of injection approximately three degrees

Deere
3.905 30.3 .21 .24 1.24 when compared to DF2 test points.

4.30 28.7 .24 .29 1.47 The Opel 2100D injection pump plunger is lubricated by the
3000# GVW, 0.5° ATC, 209 CID, fluid being pumped. The pump manufacturer indicated that
7 1 % P.C. 29.5:1 CR with EGR gasoline did not provide sufficient lubrication to the plunger
and seizure might occur in an hour or less of running. In order
The effect of increasing vehicle weight is shown in Table 11. to generate sufficient data for analysis, it was decided to
Note that the 3700 pound vehicle easily meets the future 27.5 conduct a majority of the testing on a mixture of 95%
MPG requirement. unleaded gasoline and 5% lubrication oil (Shell Rimula •
20W20). Previous testing with this mixture by other
Table 11-Effect of Vehicle Weight-Ui bar. Driving Cycle. investigators had shown no significant decrease in injection
pump plunger life. It was also desired to evaluate
performance with a mixture of 90% unleaded gasoline and
TEST WEIGHT MI/GAL. GMS/MI
N 10% DF2, such as might occur if a diesel vehicle were fueled
POUNDS FUEL ECON. <>X HC CO
with gasoline in an emergency. The last fuel to be tested was
3000 3C.3 .21 .24 1.24 straight unleaded gasoline for comparison to test results with
3400 the two mixtures. A summary of the test points and fuel
29.1 .24 .24 1.23
mixtures is in Table 12. Cetane number was determined from
3700 28.3 .26 .24 1.23 advertised octane number and charts of the octane-cetane
209 CID, 29.5:1 CR, 7 1 % P.C. relationship for unleaded gasoline (4). Cetane numbers for
3.905 Axle Ratio, W/EGR 0.5° ATC mixtures were interpolated from a chart on the effect of
additives to leaded regular grade gasoline (5).

The best overall results with a 3000 pound test weight, 3.905:1
axle ratio, 0.5° ATDC static injection timing and EGR meet all
requirements as shown below:

MPG GRAMS/MI
URBAN HIGHWAY NOX HC CO

Result 30.3 36.4 0.21 0.24 1.24

Goal 25 35 0.40 0.41 3.40

MULTIFUEL AND
HIGH BMEP TESTING
Multifuel Testing

Multifuel capability is a. very desirable feature in an engine

since it permits most efficient and economical utilization of
fuel resources. In a die.sel engine, the multifuel capability
allows substitution of moie readily available fuels in areas or
circumstances where diese! fuel is uneconomical or
unavailable. Figure 34—Performance with Gasoline.
 19

Use of the standard Opel glow plugs was required to start 750

the engine ••> the 50°F ambient air. The engine successfully 650
u
completed the test schedule outlined in Table 12. Typical test
550
results are compared with DF2 test results in Figures 34 and
450
35. Fuel consumption has increased approximately 10 - 20%.
NOx is unchanged. CO has increased by a factor of 2 - 3 and 350

HC has increased greatly at the extremes of the load range

with a 100% increase at mid range. Turbine inlet
temperatures have increased slightly. Ignition delay is
unchanged except at high load where a slight increase is
indicated. Smoke is reduced by 50%.

Results from two test points on straight unleaded gasoline

are also plotted with similar characteristics except for a large
| »• 5.0
increase in mid load HC, and an increase in smoke levels to SMOKE
near DF2 results. Some increase in noise and vibration was -X
observed although no measurements were made. 10 15 20 25 30
BHP
The significance of these results is not the performance
described in the figures but the (act that th3 schedule outlined Figure 35—Performance with Gasoline.
in Table 12 cr,uld be successfully completed indicating the true
multifuel capability of this combustion system.

Table 12-Multifuel Test Schedule.

<^BHP

y
RPM

3200
2800
BHP

24.3
28.7
FUEL

95% Unleaded Gasoline

&
CETANE NO.

17.5 /
- ^
2800 24.5 5% 20 Weight Lube Oil Bl
2800 14.6
// IEP
2800
2800
2400
2000
7.7
1.1
10.5
22.6 / /
1
I/
J
2000 15.2
2000 7.6
2000 1.1
1600 12.0 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
ENGINE SPEED - RPM
1200 12.0
1200 9.1
1200 4.3
Figure 36—Proposed Full Load Curve-Low
1200 0.4
Emission Configurations.
600 ' 0.2
3200 23.7 90% Unleaded Gasoline 17 High BMEP Testing
2000 11.8 &
2000 7.8 10% DF2 The objective of high BMEP testing was to define the high
1200
3200
9.1
22.4
t
Straight Unleaded Gasoline 15
power capabilities of the low emission configuration of the
Opel 2100D engine. The test engine was in the low emission
3200 15.2 ) configuration with two exceptions: (1) an eleven millimeter
2800 27.4 diameter plunger injection pump was installed to furnish the
2800 20.5 additional fuel required to achieve high power levels and (2)
1200 9.4 \ the pistons were modified by removing .080 inch from the top
surface to simulate low compression ratio with VCR. The
piston modification resulted in a compression ratio of 17:1 and
a prechamber-main chamber volume ratio of 40:60. A possible
 20

full load performance curve is shown in Figure 36. Higher larger plunger decreased HC, fuel consumption, and smoke at
power levels were reached at some speeds (175 PSI-BMEP at medium and high loads. At light loads, the larger plunger
2400 RPM), but are omitted in Figure 36 to produce a smooth caused slight increases in HC, fuel consumption and smoke.
power curve. The overall reduction in HC suggests that injection timing
could probably be retarded further resulting in a very small
The eleven millimeter diameter plungsr injection pump was Penalty for the use of the eleven millimeter plunger.
used for high power tests as a matter of expediency. It has
already been shown that the use of this pump will increase In order to determine what emission levals could be
light duty NOx levels Because of time limitations, an expected in heavy duty applications, emission results were
optimized pump giving the best emissions and adequate high calculated for the Ihirteen-mode heavy duty emission test.
power fuel delivery was not available for test. The injection Thirty-two hundred RPM was used as the rated speed and
pump manufacturer indicated that the nine millimeter twenty-four hundred RPM was used as the peak torque speed.
plunger diameter pump could probably be modified to meet Emissions were calculated with and without EGR. Results are
the fuel delivery requirements. shown in Table 13.

A short test was conducted to quantify the effect of the

eleven millimeter plunger on emissions. Consecutive tests Table 13—Thirteen Mode Gaseous Emissions.
with the nine millimeter and eleven millimeter piungers were
conducted on the 29.5:1 compression ratio engine. One
hundred, fifty and two percent load points were run at speeds GRAMS/HP-HR
N HC C0
of 1200,1600,2000, 2400 and 2800 RPM. Seventy-five and five °X NOx + HC
percent loads were evaluated at 600 RPM. All points except
With EGR 2.26 0.46 2.85
the 100% load points were evaluated with and without EGR. Without EGR 2.74 0.49 2.68
Injection timing was varied manually to give the same point of Current Standard 16 — 40
ignition. With the eleven millimeter plunger, NOx increased Proposed Standard —- 10 1.5 25
twelve percent (+12), CO increased four percent (+4). and
HC decreased thirty-one percent (-31). A significant part of
the decrease in HC resulted from the elimination of trace The engine easily meets current or proposed standards and
secondary injections occurring at 2400 RPM with the nine EGR would not be required.
millimeter plunger. Ignoring this point gave a sixteen percent
decrease (-16) in HC with the eleven millimeter plunger. The
 21

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions engined cars of 110-150 BHP and 3000 - 3500 pounds curb
weight, and the AD-209 engine in a S200 pound curb weight
Conclusions concerning the potential of the AD-209 vehicle. All vehicles use automatic transmissions. When
lightweight diesei concept will be discussed in the areas of compared to the average of the five gasoline cars, the AD-209
emission, fuel economy, durability, size and *"ight, and results in a 95% improvement in urban fuel economy and a
producibility. 65% improvement in highway fuel economy. When compared
to the best gasoline engine results, the AD-209 results in an
Emissions 80% improvement on the urban cycle and a 50% improvement
on the highway cycle.
The AD-209 concept has demonstrated the ability to meet any
current and known projected limits on gaseous emissions. The In previous comparisons to gasoline engines, the diesei has
techniques used to achieve emission reduction are sufficiently been penalized due to the higher energy content of (Jiesei fuel.
flexible to permit tailoring an engine to less strict emission This penalty is not appropriate to real world circumstances.
requirements. At the one gram per mile NOx level, a On a volume basis, diesei fuel is iess expensive to buy and
minimum improvement of ten percent in fuel consumption requires less energy to produce tt.an gasoline. At current
would be realized. Because the engine employs lean air/fuel prices, the diesei user will pay ten to fifteen percent less per
ratios and modulated EGB, it is believed that the level of gallon than the gasoline user. Viewing the situation from an
unregulated emissions such as smoke, sulfates and odor, could energy standpoint, the production of diesei fuel requires five
also be low. percent of the energy in the crude oil, whereas the production
of gasoline requires ten percent (6). Using either viewpoint,
LEGEND any penalty should be attached to gasoline. In addition, the
NO. ENGINE-BHP VEHICLE CURBWT multifuel capabilities of the AD-209 should permit the use of
low cost, broad cut fuels. The improved fuel consumption of
1 304-120 AMC-GREMLIN 3010
2 260-110 BUICK SKYLARK 3100 the diesei engine provides a secondary benefit. The use of
3 s:B-150 DODGE DART 3225
4 302-134 FORD MUSTANG 3070 diesei engines will permit compliance with legislated fuel
5 350-1-10 OLDS OMEGA 3550
6 209-130 ERDA 3200
consumption standards while maintaining more adequate-
vehicle size for family use.
NOTE. 1-5 ARE 1976 CARS.
ALL CARS HAVE AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION.
U - U R B A N CYCLE Durability
H—HIGHWAY CYCLE

The reliability and long life of diesei engines is well known.

VCR pistons have accumulated over 30,000 hours of testing on
32
the AVCR-1360 engine including six successful 400 Hour
U NATO Endurance Tests. A reduced cost version of the VCR
28 piston is currently under development and has successfully
O
a. completed over 200 hours of endurance testing.
S
H
H Size & Weight
24 H

«- H
The AD-209 has been shown to be equivalr nt or reduced in
... 20
size when compared 1o six cylinder gasoline engines of
U U
i U - comparable displacement. The AD-209 projected weight is

fi n
U
16 U less than current gasoline engines of comparable power. The
n1 2 3 4 5 6
unique characteristics of VCR make this light weight possible.
The use of VCR permits operating at high power levels with
controlled peak cylinder pressure, thereby allowing the
engine basic structure to be very light compared to
Figure 37—Fuel Consumption Comparison. conventional diesei engines.

Producihility
Fuel Economy
Because the AD-209 engine ij similar in construction to
A comparison of urban and highway cycle fuel economies is current gasoline engines, extensive modification to existing
shown in Figure 37. The vehicles listed are five 1976 gasoline production lines would not be required to produce the AD-209.
22

The unique advantages of VCR world also permit converting 2. Convert an existing gasoline engine to a VCR diesel.
an existing gasoline engine to diesel operation. Because of the
simplicity of conversion to diesel production, an engine 3. Define unregulated emission levels. If required,
utiliz-ng the AD-209 concept could be introduced much more conduct development testing to reduce unregulatM
quickly and cheaply than other alternate eng'^es now under emissions.
consideration. The similarity of the diesel engine to gasoline
engines would limit the vehicle changes required to a very few 4. Conduct long-term durability testing.
minor items.
5. Conduct cold start tests.
Recommendations
6. Conduct more extensive multifuel testing and develop
It is recommended that additional work be conducted in the emission control systems for use with these fuels.
following areas to further develop and demonstrate this
engine concept: 7. Conduct cost studios to determine production costs.

1. Design, develop and procure VCR, EGR and injection

;,urnp hardware to permit engine installation and test
in a vehicle. Conduct vehicle tests to further verify
simulation results.

APPENDIX

SEALED POWER
HLAD LAND RING

84.12
84.28

.012
.038 1.59

0.25 X 45°
MAX

PISTON MACHINING
FOR HEAD LAND RING
HEAD LAND RING
CROSS SECTION
(CHROME PLATE FACE)
 23

VCR PISTON PRINCIPLE

The Continental® piston is an automatic, hydraulically compression ratio. Oil also enters the lower chamber through
actuated assembly. It consists of tv/o main parts; the piston the orifice connecting the two chambers.
ring carrier and the piston pin carrier.
The piston remains in the high compression ratio mode until
power demand increases and the iorce of combustion pressure
The piston pin carrier, connected to the connecting rod;
causes the pre-set oil discharge valve to release oil from the
travels a definite path, whereas, the piston ring carrier is free
upper chamber. The VCR piston regulates combustion
to move within predetermined limits relative to the pin
pressure until the low compression ratio is reached.
carrier. This movement provides a variable height from the
center of the piston pin to the top of the piston crown. The
Inertia forces tend to force the ring carrier to move upwards
variation in compression ratio is achieved through a change in
during the end of the exhaust and the beginning of the intake
combustion chamber clearance volume. Movement of the
strokes.
piston ring carrier is restrained hydraulically by engine
lubricating oil in the upper and lower chambers.
Oil in the lower chamber, which has a fixed orifice to the
upper chamber, controls the amount of movement between
Oil from the lubricating system is fed through the the piston pin carrier and ring carrier during the exhaust and
connecting rod to the non-return piston oil supply valve by the intake strokes. As combustion pressures are reduced, the ring
piston oil collector. As the upper chamber fills with oil, the carrier returns to the higher ratio until equilibrium is
piston ring carrier moves to its extreme position or maximum achieved.

PERCENT LOAD

MA,M OIL SUPPLY

24

OPEL 2100D SPECIFICATIONS -

Designation Data

Operating Mode . 4-Stroke Swirl Chambei

Diesel Engine
Number of Cylinders 4
Arrangement In Line
Bore - mm 88 (3.465")
Stroke-mm 85(3.346")
Swept Volume, Effective - c n A . .2068 (126.2 Cu/Inch)
Power According to
DIN 70 020 - Metric HP/RPM 60/4400
GMC Test 20 - Metric HP/RPM 68/4400
Torque According to
DIN 70 020 - kgf.m/RPM 12.0/2500
GMC Test 20 - ft-lbs/RPM 92/2500
Compression Ratio 22:1
Prechamber-Main Chamber Volume Ratio 50:50
Average Piston Speed at 4500 RPM 12.5 m/sec.
Average Combustion Pressure 7.3 KGF/cm^
(103.83 PSI) at 2400 RPM
Combustion System Ricardo "Comet" Mark V
Valves . . . Overhead, Driven by Camshaft & Rockers
Camshaft Cylinder Head, Overhead,
With 5 Bear ngs
Crankshaft 5 Bearings
Timing Control. . . Through Timing Sprockets & Chain
Cylinders In Engine Block Without Sleeves
Cooling Water Circulation by
Maintenance Free Circulation Pump
 25

NOx, CO, HC & BSFC DATA

NOx AT 2000 RPM BSFC AT 2000 RPM

BASELINE
- • BASELINE I l y C . 7 t ( ! 9 ! S 5 I C R 5S° ATDC
T/C 71/29 195 t C B 0 5* ATDC EGO
~U T/C, 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 5.5° ATDC
T/C, 71/29 29.5:1 C.P. 0.5° ATDC EGR

I 37.5

So .550

10 15 20 25 30 35
BHP

CO AT 2000 RPM

BASELINE
T/C, 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 5.5° ATDC
T / C , 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 0.5° ATDC EGH

12 16 20
BHP

HC AT 2000 RPM

BASELINE
T/C, 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 5 . i ° ATDC
T / C , 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 0.5° ATDC EGR

10 15 20 25 30 35 12 16 20
BHP BHP
 HC—GRAMS/HR ro
NOX -GRAMS/HR BSFC-LB/HP-HR
S
Xk
o
at
o
oo
o
s a

\ His Ti inli!
II
V
HRg *
33* H
33 N
""" ob P Pw O

BSFC AT 1200 RPM

-" - Q
3= 1 5

f(
CD
X zz ° T3
•a
3
p 0 n

C.R. 0.5° ATDC EGR

C.R. 5.5° ATDC

PM
> >

;
BSFC—LB/HP-HR
HC—GRAMS/HR CO—GRAMS/HR
0 ro m
3 o o

t
D

D
0
1 /
It
r 11
Q T/C. 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 5.5° ATDC
0 T'C. 71/29 29.5:1 C.R. 0.5° ATDC EGR

• BASELINE
[
D

1li
>

HC A l 2800 RPM
n
2
O
A, I O

Hi ! J>
5
M M
/ <o to r

! 1

29.5:
29.5:
y - ~S CD A 1
V V
o nmJi (fl
.j '-si Tl
O O S
- -9 0
3D X

A/
/ BSSS >
K^ ^ O tn

> >

/
>> no
a0
 27

DEFINITIONS

NOx Oxides of Nitrogen

HC Total hydrocaroons as measured with a heated flame ionization

detector.

Point of Ignition Point at which main chamber pressure curve is deviated

upward from motoring curve.

Point of Injection Point at which needle lift curve deviates from horizontal.

Duration of Injection End of injections minus start of injection expressed in

degrees crank angle.

Peak Cylinder Press Main chamber peak pressure.

"Head Land" Piston Ring An "L" shaped top piston ring located very close

to the piston dome to minimize crevice volume.

TCM/GPD Tei< Jyne Continental Motors General Products Division.

ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration.

A/F Intake air mass divided by intake fuel mass.

EGR Exhaust Gas Reeirculation.

VCR Variable Compression Ratio.

CID Cubic Inch Displacement.

BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure.

RPM Revolutions Per Minute.

BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption.

AD-209 Advanced Diesel concept engine of 209 cubic inch displacement.

°Bor
ATDC Crank angle degrees before or after top dead center position of

piston.

PSI Pounds per Square Inch.

DF2 Number 2 Diesel fuel.

BHP Brake Horsepower.

GHP Gross Horsepower.

MPG Miles Per Gallon.

28

REFERENCES

1. D.R. Nightingale, "Development of the Turbocharged Ope!

2100D for Passenger Cai- Application". Ricardo Consulting

Engineers' Report DP-20185 on Turbocharging of the Opel

2100D. March 1976.

2. H. Weitzel, "Development of a High Speed Four-Cylinder

Diesel Engine under Consideration of the Existing

Machinetools Equipment for the Production of the Gasoline

Engines." SAE Paper #750336; February 1975.

3. M. Amano et.al., "Approaches to Low Emission Leveis for

Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles." SAE Paper #760211,

February 1976.

4. J.N. Bowden, A.A. Johnston, J.A. Russel, "Octarie-Cetane

Relationship", Final Report AFLRL Number 33, March

1974.

,">. CFR Engine Data from ATAC Report Number 5022, TI.S.

Army Tank-Automotive Command, vVanv-.i, Michigan.

6. Naeim A. Henin, "The Diesel as ai. Alternative Automobile

Engine." SAE Paper #750931, October 1975.

7. Opel Service Manual.

 DIESEL ENGINE AND CONSERVATION

Roy Kamo

Cummins Engine Company, Inc.

Abstract

The diesel engine is rapidly gaining recognition and acceptance in the automotive fieid primarily because of its
excellent fuel economy and good emission characteristics. For many years, the diesel engine was used solely in the
heavy duty trucking industry, but it is currently attracting renewed interest in the medium and light duty truck and
even in the passenger car. How long the diessl engine will continue to serve in the world's automotive conservation
efforts will be determined largely by the success of the advanced diesel programs now underway. Some of the
important programs discussed are the high specific output, compounding, adiabatb, minimum friction, and
pombusrion improvement concepts. The advanced diesels resulting from those works are presented in terms of their
potential capabilities and limitations regarding performance, sociability and their influence on conservation.

Introduction

The contemporary diese! engine has played a major role in providing one of the most efficient heat engines
known to the world with moderately low emission characteristics. Progress is being made by industry and other
/Organizations and institutious to further improve on the performance and sociability of the diesel engine.
Dieselization of the medium and light duty trucks is just beginning and dieselization of passenger cars is seriously
(being considered by major automotive manufacturers all over the world.
i

I The high speed passenger can and light truck diesel engines are invariably of the prechamber type, while
medium duty and larger trucks use direct injection diesel engines. The heavy duty truck diesels are normally
turbocharged for emission and efficiency reasons. The medium duty, the light duty and even the passenger can
diesel engines are considering turbocharging for added performance.

Although the paper considers all types of diesel engines for transportation, the emphasis is on the larger
heavier duty truck engines. The diesel engine performance and sociability characteristics are presented for
continued consideration as vehicular powerplants of the future.

Prechamber Diesel Engine

There are many types of prechamber diesel engines. Today, these prechamber engines are used primarily in the
smaller high speed engine class. Figure 1 shows a cross section of one of the well-known prechamber diesel engines
which is used all over the world.

Several advantages of the prechamber diesel engine over the direct injection version are:

• Higher speed operation

• Excellent emissior characteristics
• Lower noise levels
• Lower cylinder pressures
• Less stringent injection requirements
 In spite of these advantages, the prechamber diesal has decided drawbacks when compared to the direct
injection engine; namely:

• 5-10% fuel consumption penalty

• Poorer cold start capability
• Higher piston thermal loading

The above considerations Indicate why the prechamber engine is preferred in passenger can application. The
emission characteristics are quite similar to those of a stratified charge engine and are shown In Figure 2. The fust
consumption and performance ars shown in Figure 3.

Direct Injection Dieisl Engine

There are two major types of direct Injection engines; namely: high swirl and quiescent chamber. The high
swirl versions are commonly used in Europe and employ a jerk pump injection system. Th9 quiescent chambers,
like those used by Cummins, employ a high pressure Injection system. The high swirl version requires air motion for
mixing the fuel spray being issued from a relatively large hole injection nozzle. The number of injection holes is
generally four and is less than the quiescent chambered counterpart. The high swirl cannot be obtained without
increasing pumping losses through the intake port.

The emission characteristics of the two systems are rather similar and the fuel consumption and emissions
trade-off may slightly favor the quiescent chamber. The differences between the high swirl and quiescent
chambered systems are compared in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

High Output Dieiel

Since the air-fuel ratio in a diesel engine is somewhat leaner than the Otto gasoline engine counterpart, for
equal displacement the diesel engine develops less power. To incraese the power output, more air must be pushed
into the combustion chamber so that more fuel can be injected.

The diesel engine can be easily turbocharged to increase its power output and reduce its specific weight.
Unlike tha Otto gasoline engine, only air is boosted Into the combustion chamber, and the injected fuel is tailored
to the desired load. Danger from preignitlon or knock is non-existent. The air-fuel ratio in a turbocharged engine if
generally leaner, i.e. 24:1 as compared to 19:1, for the naturally aspirated diesel. Thus, less smoke and cleenei
exhaust emission can be expected from the turbocharged diesel.

Figure 6 illustrates the three classifications for increasing the BMEP in a diesel engine. Each advancing stage in
increasing BMEP introduces a new problem which has to be coped with separately. For example, as boost is
increased, the peak pressure in the combustion chamber may endanger the mechanical integrity of the engine.
Thus, the compression ratio must be reduced or the injection timing retarded. In either case, ether problems could
again develop if the compression ratio is reduced or the injection timing is retarded.

Nonetheless, in the U.S.A., the majority of diesel engines ars turbocharged for reasons of performance and
sociability, which includes noise levels. Thus far, the turbocharged diesel has been able to provide the improved
performance and still meet the sociability legislations.

Otto Competitive Diesel

In spite of its outstanding fuel economy, the diesel engine has not been used in this country in the passenger
car or the light duty vehicle class because of the following major reasons:

s Cost
Weight
o Leek of performance
• Notes
• Odor and imoke
 The above problems can be attributed to the fact that the diesel engine must operate at higher air-fuel ratios
and lower speed than the Otto engine. Thus, supercharging is immediately suggested. However, In order to keep the
peak cylinder pressure low so that heavy engine construction need not be resorted to, a low compression ratio
diesel is the next suggestion. This, from Figure 6, Is the class III approach In the class I BMEP range. A combustion
aid will be necessary for cold starting. Aftercoolers are not needed in this category, as Indicated in Figure 6. Thus,
an Otto competitive diesel suggested here for the light duty vehicle embodies the following principles:

• Low compression ratio

• Combustion aid ior starting and light lead operation
• Supercharge with pressure exchanger such as the

Crown Boverf Comprex, because of;

- excellent iow load/speed fuel economy

- excellent transient response
- built-in exhaust gas recireulatlon (EGR) for NOx reduction
- excellent smoke characteristics

Indeed, the initial design concept of such a powerplant has been made and surprisingly versatile performance
seems to be possible. The expected performance and sociability parameters are tabulated and compared with the
existing dlesels as well as the Otto gasoline engine counterpart In Figure 7. The essential components of the
proposed engine are shown in Figure 8. A similar concept has been built and tested under ERDA support
(Reference 1) to Continental Motors on a VCR (variable compression ratio} piston engine using a conventional
turbocharger. The VCR piston diesel engine concept Is shown in Figure 9. Excellent performance and sociability
results are reported.

Compounding

In May 1975 ERDA1 (Reference 2) presented their targets for each and every classification of engine and
vehicle manufacturer to reduce fuel consumption ir. order to meet the objectives of America's project
independence. This calls for a 20-23% fuel reduction for trucks and buses. Figure 10 shows the ramifications of
such a goal. It Is quite obvious the contemporary turboelrarged aftercooled diesel engine will have a difficult time
meeting ERDA targets. Therefore, some form of compounding becomes necessary, The turbocharged engine may
be called a compound engine in a true sense, but compounding herein is limited to mean engines utilizing a drive
system back to the crankshaft.

When one looks into the energy balance of a conventional dfesel engine, the energy split Is roughly equal for
brakehcrsepower, exhaust and cooling system as shown in Figure 11. Although optimizing of injectors, modifying
swirl, etc. may Improve the brakehorsepower a few percent, the largest available energy Is in the exhaust and the
cooling system. The cooling system energy also includes the frictional heat dissipated through the oil cooler via the
engine cooling system. The above facts suggest the following modifications to the diesel engine so that it may
continue to serve the needs of the world as the mou efficient heat engine:

• Exhaust energy
- turbocompounding
- bottoming cycles

• Cooling water
- turbocompounding with adiabatic combustion chambers
- minimum friction angina design

A low pressure power turbine turbocompound engine is depicted in Figure 12. Although the overall power of
the engine Is Increased 18%, only a 9% reduction in fuel economy Is reallzeable because of the additional pumping
work IhcurmtJ by the reclprocator. Several Immediate advantages are recognized in the turbocompound diesel
engine:

• Retarded timing for goad NOx control sines •xhsuit energy can be recovered
1
Energy Research Devftopmertt Administration
 • Ease of EGR, if necessary, since exhaust manifold pressures are generally greater than the intake
manifofd pressure

. It provides an exhaust energy recovery system for the adiabatic engine concept

Adiabatic Turbocompound Engine

The adiabatic turbocompound engine simply insulates the engine combustion and exhaust system as shown in
Figure 13. The engine is allowed to run " h o t " without:

• Any water cooling

• Any air cooling
• Minimum oil cooiing only

Metal surface temperatures in the combustion chamber could approach 2000°F and thus advanced ceramic
materials could be used to advantage.

The in-cylinder work of the adiabatic engine improves somewhat, but the greater contribution to the overall
cycle is achieved through exhaust energy recovery via the turbocompound engine system. Thus, extremely low fuel
consumption can be expected. Since the engine requires no cooling system, considerable reductions in overall
installed weight, cost, and size can be realized (Reference 3).

In addition to those obvious advantages indicated above, the adiabatic engine can be expected to provide the
following spin-offs:

• Mtilti fuel capability

• Combustion efficiency improvement
• Combustion and mechanical noise
• Reduction in maintenance
• White smoke clear up
• Lower compression ratio operation

Some of the problem areas associated with the adiabatic turbocompound diesel engine will be:

• Lubrication
• Wear
Reliability/durability

The adiabatic turbocompound engine opens up a new dimension in mechanical engine design, combustion,
and engine tribology. However, early indications are that significant gains can be made in the BSFC-BSNOx1
tradeoff.

Bottoming Cycle

The adiabatic turbocompound engine, in spite of exhaust energy extraction via the turbocompound device,
still posseojes considerable exhaust energy upon expansion. This is so because the initial turbine inlet temperatures
are considerably higher than for today's turbocharger engines (1485°F as compared to 1150°F). Consequently,
temptation presents itself to harness the sensible exhaust heat via a bottoming cycle.

Although several forms of the bottoming cycle have been considered in the past, the best known one is the
Rankine bottoming cycle (Reference 4). Upon successful harnessing of the Rankine bottoming cycle, an additional
13 to 17% improvement in fuel consumption can be expected. This should reduce the BSFC down to around 0.24
Ib/hp-hr, whiqh is approaching the thermodynamic air standard cycle efficiency.

1
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption-Brake Specific Oxides of Nitrogen
 Diesel Engine and Emissions

The above presentation illustrated what can still be done to the diesel engine to preserve its leadership role in
tie world's conservation effort. Although superior to the Otto gasoline engine in terms of exhaust emission, the
diesel engine has difficulty meeting achievable emission levels of the closed cycle external combustion Stirling cycle
and the continuous combustion Brayton cycle.

The competitive position of the diesel based engines in terms of emissions (BSNOx) versus brake specific fuel
consumption is shown in Figure 14. There are several ways still available for reducing diessl engine emissions. They
are:

• Combustion improvement
Engine mechanical efficienty improvement
• Retarded timing
• Cooled inlet air
• Exhaust gas recirculation

How the above parameters affect the BSFC-BSIMOx tradeoff 's shown in Figure 15.

In this paper, only NOx was considered. The reason being the carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon
emissions are not considered a problem in the diesel engine. This can be attributed to its excess a'v heterogeneous
combustion characteristics.

Conclusions

The diesel engine has been shown to possess moderately good emission characteristics at excellent fuel
consumption. The fuel consumption and emissions can be further reduced by the adiabatic turbocompounding of
the diesel based powerplant. The Rankine bottoming cycle offers further improvements, but its practicality needs
to be demonstrated. It is expected that the application and usage of the diesel engine will continue to expand and
continue to contribute to the world's conservation effort.

References

1. Lightweight Automotive Diesel Engine for Passenger Cars; Teledyne Continental Motors, ERDA-Division of
Transportation Energy Conversion; October 18-20, 1976, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

2. Energy Research and Development Administration Advanced Automotive Power System Division 8th
Contractors Coordination Meeting, Ann Arbor, Michigan, May 6-7, 1975.

3. Ceramics for Diesel Engines, Cummins Engine Company, Workshop on Ceramics for Advanced Heat Engines,
Orlando, Florida, January 24, 1977.
i

J4. Organic Rankine Bottoming Cycle for Long Haul Diesel Trucks — Report No. 4208-14-77, Contract (Mo. E
(11-1—2832.
FIGURE 1. TYCICAL SWIPL PRECHAMBER ENGINE
FIGURE 2.

TYPICAL EMISSIONS FOR 2 LITER PASSENGER

CAR DIESEL OPERATED ON CVS CYCLE.

HC O.f G/MILE
CO 1,5 G/MILE

NOX 1.5 G/filLE

 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION R/KWH
-"

§ .... . . .

1
26?

• \
\

V J
J

/co
• \

**• UJ UJ
© m
O O o

ho og jr- ui cn vg co to
 C.A.R.B. EMISSIONS OF HC
FIGURE 4. FUEL CONSUMPTION LOSS FOR HIGH
SKIRL AND LOW SWIRL D.I. ENGINES

C.A.R.B. EMISSIONS

FIGURE 5 . POWSR LOSS FOR HIGH SWIfcL AND LOW

CWTOT. h *T PTOrJTMRK
 COLD START LI.VIT
v. 12
i 11
I
TC KITH :-">T'JR30CKAKG:NC I - ' ' " CCKFPEESZDN F^TIC
VAK. TIK. ETC. | COMFRZX i BY-PASS SYST™

ENGINE BKZP

FIGURE 6. THREE CLASSITICAIIONS OF HIGH

OCTPt.1 CIESEL ENGINE
 ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION TARGETS
OF PROPOSED EflGir.'E

CURRENT PROPOSED CURRENT

JHESEL GASOLINE
SPEC F I CAT I OIL-
DISPLACEMENT, CU, IN, 134 134 134
VEHICLE WEIGHT, LB 3000 3000 2900
SPECIFIC VEHICLE WEIGHT
(LB/HP) 46 30 25
PERFORMANCE:
FUEL ECONOMY, M&G # 20-25 20-25 13
HORSEPOWER a RPM 65 a 4200 100 a 4200 116 a 50C:
ACCELERATION, 0-60 RPH (SEC) 2F 15 13.7
MAX. SPEED, MPH 84 100 104
EMISSION:
HYDROCARBON, G/M 0.35 0.4 2.7
CARBON MONOXIDE, G/M 1,79 ?.O 32.3
NOx AS N02, G/M 1.55 r\7 3.6

•OVER FEDERAL DRIVING CYCLE

 HP EXH GAS
HP AIR
LP E

SUPFRCHARG.TNG VIA
PRFSSIJRF FXCHANGER

LP AIR

COMBUSTION AID
v
BURNER
HEAD
DISTRIBUTION TUBE INTO
INTAKE
IGNITOR "AN1FOLD

FIG, 8. BASIC LOW COMPRESSION RATIO (LuO

ENGINE CONCEPT
PISTON RING CARRICR

UPPER
CHAMBER

PRESSURE
RELIEF
VALVE
LOWER CHAMBER

PISTON PIN CARRIER

FIGURE 9. CONTINENTAL MOTORS VARIABLE COMPRESSION

RATIO PISTON
0.4G- DIESEL ENGINES H GAS TURBINES

a
1985 ERDA TARGET-,
o
t
•a:

o
5
0.30
s o

i
o
CO
i
a.

0.20
I
FI6.11. TYPICAL ENERGY BALANCE OF
DIESEL ENGINE
 FIGURE 12
TUEOCOXPOQD ENGINE
WITH
LOU PRESSURE POWER TuREKIE
rIGURE 13 TOTAL EHERGY RECOVERY VIA CUMMINS
ADIABATIC TURBOCOHPOmn ENGINE
a

INSULATED PISTON
CYLINDER.
CYLINDER HEAD
AND EXHAUST
PORTS

CRANKSHAFT
SEAR
12.0

10.0
TODAY'S
N. TURBOCHARGED
> AFTERCOOLED'
B.O DIESELS

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0. <1

BSFC, LR/'nilP-HI!

FIGURE 14. HO. RKISSION RANGE OP DIP.SP-L BASED ENGINES

 ENGINE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS
(COMSCSTrOS, r'SICTION, ETC)

FUEL CONSUMPTION

FIGURE 15, A??HOACK TO LOW EMISSION DIESEZ. c.VGIME